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Scriptietgjorna Pages ! Masterscriptie Wijsbegeerte Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen September 2014 ! ! Oikeiôsis en Apatheia De spanning tussen sociale verbondenheid en individuele autonomie bij de Stoa. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! T.G. Jorna Studentnummer: 5689929 ! ! Begeleider: dhr. prof. dr. R.A. te Velde Tweede lezer: dhr. dr. J. Bos ! ! ! ! ! Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding 4 Ter introductie: hoe ver reikt onze empathie? 4 Een negatieve verklaring (Hobbes) 5 De positieve drang tot gemeenschap 5 Kosmopolitische ideeën 7 Vraagstelling, opbouw en oplossing 8 Hoofdstuk 2: De Stoïcijnse filosofie 11 De Stoïcijnen 11 Fysica en kosmologie 12 Pneuma 14 Hêgemonikon 15 Pathos 17 Instemmen met een mentale impressie 18 Verantwoordelijkheid voor onkwetsbaarheid 19 Eph’hemin 20 Fysica, verbondenheid en het uitbannen van emoties 21 Hoofdstuk 3: Oikeiôsis 23 Algemene omschrijving van oikeiôsis 24 Oorsprong van oikeiôsis bij de Stoïcijnen 25 Natuurlijke impuls naar zelfbehoud 26 Oikeiôsis en logos, zelfbehoud 28 Oikeiôsis en de ander 31 Hierocles 33 Afsluiting 36 Conclusie 36 Epiloog: Obama en Hierocles 40 Bijlage: Kosmopolitisme van Zeno 44 Zeno de cynicus? 44 Een stad met alleen maar sophos? 46 Zeno maakt de eerste stap 47 Bibliografie 50 !2 ! ! ! ‘Homo res sacra homini’ - De mens is iets heiligs voor de mens. - Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Epistulae morales ad Lucilium, 65 n. Chr) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !3 Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding Ter introductie: hoe ver reikt onze empathie? ! Barack Obama formuleerde in 2006, in een toespraak voor de afgestudeerde studenten van de ‘Nordwestern University’, een probleem dat hij the empathy deficit noemde; een nijpende kwestie in de ogen van de toenmalige senator. Je hebt als mens de mogelijkheid om je leven en identiteit vorm te geven en te spiegelen aan de hand van een kleine gemeenschap, maar je kunt ook een denkbeeldige cirkel vergroten naar een ruimere identiteit, of een grotere groep waaraan je verwant bent. “As you go on in life, cultivating this quality of empathy will become harder, not easier. There's no community service requirement in the real world; no one forcing you to care. You'll be free to live in neighbourhoods with people who are exactly like yourself, and send your kids to the same schools, and narrow your concerns to what's going in your own little circle.”1 ! Verbondenheid ervaren met een grotere groep, dat is volgens Obama de kwestie waar het om gaat. Een serieuze vraag naar empathie, en daarbij de vraag naar een leven waarin persoonlijke drijfveren en standpunten niet alleen rekening houden met je directe omgeving. Een vraag naar een empathisch vermogen dat zich uitstrekt naar een grotere, misschien wel wereldwijde, gemeenschap. Door technologische ontwikkelingen en de komst van het internet komen we makkelijker in contact met andere mensen, uit andere culturen en met andere ideeën. Dit maakt dus ook dat het persoonlijk leed van andere mensen over de hele wereld zichtbaar voor ons is. De pijn van de ander is moeilijk te negeren. Culturele verschillen maken soms plaats voor het gevoel dat we allemaal mens zijn. Maar volgens Obama is de uitbreiding van empathie naar verder weg liggende groepen van mensen een moeilijk proces, iets dat gecultiveerd en nagestreefd moet worden. ! Toen de orkaan Haiyan in November 2013 de Filipijnen trof waren er binnen enkele uren al duizenden Twitter en Facebook berichten wereldwijd, na nog geen dag waren wereldwijd miljoenen mensen bereid om hulp te bieden. Het verdriet beperkte zich niet alleen tot de mensen op de Filipijnen. De hele wereld was aangedaan en leefde mee. Alle eventuele 1 B. Obama, speech Nordwestern University, Juni 2006 http://www.northwestern.edu/ newscenter/stories/2006/06/barack.html November 2013 !4 culturele verschillen tussen de hulp biedende landen en de Filipijnen worden als niet relevant ervaren. Ook de geografische afstanden tussen de landen is niet van belang. ! Een negatieve verklaring (Hobbes) ! Tijdens heftige momenten ervaart de mens een spontaan gevoel van verbondenheid. Het lijden van mensen, die buiten de directe omgeving van de eigen kring staan, wordt gevoeld. Je vormde, tijdens zo een heftige ramp, even een gemeenschap waarbinnen leed gedeeld wordt en ervaren wordt dat iedereen, net als jij, mens is. Wat maakt het mogelijk om met vreemden aan de andere kant van de wereld een gemeenschap te ervaren? Hoe komt het daarentegen dat we soms vergeten dat we allemaal tot één wereld behoren? Een gangbare verklaring voor de sociale drang van de mens tot gemeenschapsvorming kunnen we vinden bij bepaalde filosofen uit de Verlichting. Dankzij georganiseerde gemeenschappen leven wij niet meer in de natuurtoestand, een toestand waarin er door een gebrek aan een staatsvorm of organisatie een zekere chaos ontstaat. Zonder sociale structuur en een politieke orde zal het individu voor zichzelf kiezen, en zijn eigen belang nastreven, zo wordt gesteld. Als iedereen zijn eigen belang nastreeft ontstaan er moeilijk te beheersen conflicten tussen mensen. Een gemeenschap, met een de daarbij behorende leider is een uitweg uit deze chaos. “Homo homini lupus est” - De mens is voor andere mensen een wolf zou Thomas Hobbes stellen.2 Het sociale vermogen van empathie, het zich kunnen verplaatsen in een ander, is in deze visie geen oorspronkelijk kenmerk van de mens.3 ! De positieve drang tot gemeenschap ! Volgens een andere opvatting is de mens wel gekenmerkt door een positieve drang naar gemeenschapsvorming. Deze positie gaat uit van de empathische mens. Het is voor de mens natuurlijk en goed om samen te leven en rekening te houden met wat de ander overkomt. Honderden jaren geleden was dit besef er al. Mensen zijn door de eeuwen heen steeds grotere gemeenschappen gaan vormen. Dit heeft er echter niet per se voor gezorgd dat de contrasten 2 Hobbes, De Cive (1651) 3 In de laatste tientallen jaren zijn er interessante ontwikkelingen geweest in evolutionaire biologie, neurowetenschappen en ook in de filosofie, die het niet empathisch mensbeeld in twijfel trekken. Deze ontwikkelingen kunnen van grote invloed zijn op de manier waarop wij menselijk handelen uitleggen. Een voorbeeld van een interessant onderzoek is de ontdekking van spiegelneuronen. Tevens het onderzoek van Frans de Waal naar empathie bij apen is interessant. !5 tussen de verschillende gemeenschappen kleiner zijn geworden. Ik gebruik het woord gemeenschap nu in de brede betekenis van het woord. Zoals dat gebruikt wordt in termen als: een geloofsgemeenschap of Europese gemeenschap. De grootst mogelijke gemeenschap is een universele gemeenschap, een wereldwijde gemeenschap van alle mensen ongeacht alle verschillen die tussen mensen bestaan. Het kosmopolitisme is op dit ideaal gebaseerd, een wereldwijde gemeenschap waarin een ieder zich lid voelt van deze gemeenschap. Hiermee wordt bedoeld dat iedere feitelijke gemeenschap (in politieke zin) gezien moet worden in het licht van een ideële en omvattende gemeenschap van alle mensen. Ik wil in het vervolg gemeenschapsvorming koppelen aan een bepaald vermogen, een bepaald streven. De geschiedenis leert ons dat mensen in gemeenschappen leven, en dat in de loop van de tijd deze gemeenschappen steeds omvattender worden. Er is sprake van een groeiende erkenning van gemeenschappelijkheid en verbondenheid tussen mensen. De (laat) prehistorische mens, gekenmerkt door de zeer kleine gemeenschappen van jagers en verzamelaars, had slechts contact binnen die zelfde kleine gemeenschap. De inwoners van het dorpje aan de andere kant van de rivier waren vreemdelingen. De gemeenschap bestond in deze situatie waarschijnlijk alleen op basis van directe of indirecte familie verbanden. Immers, men wist nauwelijks dat er andere, op hun gelijkende, mensen waren. Vanaf dit moment start er een ontwikkeling, gemeenschappen worden groter. Vooral dankzij de ontdekking van het schrift werden mensen meer tot elkaar gebracht. Associatie bestaat nu niet alleen meer in bloedverwanten maar tijdens de stroomculturen (rond 3500 v.Chr) bestaat associatie reeds met elkaar op religieuze basis. Dit ontwikkelde zich verder, in en na de klassieke oudheid zien bijvoorbeeld Christenen andere Christenen als verlengde familie en vormen in die zin een gemeenschap. Een gemeenschap is gefundeerd op een overtuiging of gemeenschappelijk kenmerk dat de mensen verbindt. De Christelijke gemeenschap voelt verbondenheid om ze allemaal God als vader in de hemel ervaren. Maar er zijn meerdere manieren om verbondenheid te voelen. Dankzij de industriële revolutie kunnen we onze markten vergroten en ontstaat er een sterker idee van de natiestaat. Alle Nederlanders zien andere Nederlanders als medemens. Terwijl natiestaten eigenlijk redelijk abstracte entiteiten zijn, die eerst slechts ficties waren, maar die echter door de jaren heen steeds meer als werkelijke verbondenheid tussen mensen zijn gaan gelden. Er is een gevoel van sociale verbondenheid mogelijk op basis van allerlei verschillende ‘gemeenschappelijke’ overeenkomsten. De bondigheid van het voorgaande doet geen recht aan de complexiteit van dergelijke historische ontwikkelingen, maar het is voldoende om bloot te leggen dat verbondenheid tot een groep of persoon niet iets is dat statisch is. We identificeren ons met telkens grotere groepen. Maar op basis van wat voor associatie met de ander is een gemeenschap an sich te verklaren? Deze vraag is lastig te beantwoorden en leidt tot meer !6 vragen. Het zijn juist dit soort vragen die de probleemstelling van mijn betoog zijn. Waarom zou ik mij verbonden moeten voelen met een groep mensen, ook als deze mensen zowel
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