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A Comparative Ethnographic Case Study of Water Governance and Security in the Highlands of Kalinga, Philippines

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A Comparative Ethnographic Case Study of Water Governance and Security in the Highlands of Kalinga, Philippines Thirsting for Recognition: A Comparative Ethnographic Case Study of Water Governance and Security in the Highlands of Kalinga, Philippines Mémoire Karen Bouchard Maîtrise en Anthropologie Maître ès arts (M.A.) Québec, Canada © Karen Bouchard, 2017 Thirsting for Recognition: A Comparative Ethnographic Case Study of Water Governance and Security in the Highlands of Kalinga, Philippines Mémoire Karen Bouchard Sous la direction de : Jean Michaud, directeur de recherche ii Résumé Basé sur une recherche ethnographique de neuf mois, ce mémoire présente une étude comparative des incertitudes, risques et vulnérabilités vécues à l’ère d’instabilités environnementales et climatiques aux Philippines, ainsi qu’aux enjeux contemporains liés à la sécurité ainsi qu’à la gouvernance de l’eau dans les hautes terres de Kalinga, une province située dans la région administrative de la Cordillère au nord de l’île de Luçon. Divulguant, pour ce faire, les fondements et les opérations du gouvernement coutumier de l’eau d’irrigation, cette étude souligne les fondements intrinsèquement politiques de la disponibilité et de l’accessibilité de l’eau comme ressource, ainsi que pour la protection des droits autochtones et le développement des ressources naturelles. Mots-clés : gouvernance et sécurité de l’eau, modalités et processus de gestion coutumière de l’eau d’irrigation, droits et savoirs autochtones, Kalinga, Philippines. iii Abstract Based on a nine-month ethnographic research conducted in 2015 and 2016 amongst three indigenous communities of the Kalinga highlands, a province and ancestral domain located in the Cordillera Administrative Region of Northern Luzon (Philippines), this comparative academic study examines the local experiences and responses to contemporary threats to safe and sufficient supplies of irrigation water. It further provides a detailed account of the constitution and functions of prevailing customary water governance systems and practices. This study, thus, defends the need to correlate water security to governance, whilst insisting upon the importance of articulating preventive and responsive policies and interventions with local contexts and conditions. Keywords : water governance, water security, customary water governance systems and practices, indigenous knowledge, Kalinga, Philippines. iv Table of Contents Résumé ............................................................................................................................................ iii Abstract............................................................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... ix Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... xii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... xiv Thirsting for Recognition: A Comparative Ethnographic Case Study of Water Governance and Security in the Highlands of Kalinga, Philippines .................................. 1 1. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................ 5 1.1 The Anthropology of Water .............................................................................................. 5 1.2 Water Governance ............................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Water Security ................................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) ................................................ 14 1.5 Indigenous Water Governance ...................................................................................... 17 1.6 Local Sustainable Livelihoods ........................................................................................ 22 2. Methodological Framework.................................................................................................. 25 2.1 Doubts and Definitions: The Making of a Research ................................................. 25 2.1.1 The Craft and Complexities of Qualitative Research........................................... 25 2.1.2 Epistemological Posture and Research Orientations .......................................... 26 2.1.3 “What Brings You to Kalinga?”: Ethnographic Beginnings ............................... 27 2.2 Questions and Objectives ................................................................................................ 29 2.3 Ethical Requirements and Certifications .................................................................... 32 2.3.1 Free Prior Informed Consent (FPIC) .................................................................. 32 2.3.2 The Certificate of Precondition ............................................................................ 34 2.3.3 Theory and Practice: Reflecting on the FPIC Process and Outcomes ................ 35 2.3.4 Terminologies and Representations ..................................................................... 37 2.4 Data Collection and Research Techniques .................................................................. 40 2.4.1 The Sampling Process .......................................................................................... 40 2.4.2 A Comparative Ethnographic Case Study of Water Governance and Security in Kalinga .......................................................................................................................... 44 2.4.3 Focus Group Discussions and Interviews ............................................................ 46 2.4.4 Official Reports and Informal Conversations ...................................................... 49 3. Historical Setting ..................................................................................................................... 51 3.1 Colonial Invasions and Foreign Occupations ............................................................. 52 3.1.1 The Spanish Colonialism (1565 - 1898) ............................................................... 52 3.1.2 The American Dominion (1898 - 1946) ............................................................... 54 3.1.3 The Japanese Occupation (1942 - 1945) ............................................................. 57 3.2 The Independent Philippine Republic ......................................................................... 58 v 3.3 The Chico River Hydroelectric Development Project .............................................. 59 3.4 The New Democratic Regime ......................................................................................... 61 4. Contextual Framework .......................................................................................................... 63 4.1 The Republic of the Philippines ..................................................................................... 63 4.1.1 Indigenous Rights in the Philippines ...................................................................... 2 4.1.2 Philippine Water Laws ........................................................................................... 6 4.2 The Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) .............................................................. 9 4.3 The Indigenous Peoples and Province of Kalinga ..................................................... 13 4.3.1 The Kalinga Province .......................................................................................... 13 4.3.2 The Kalinga Tribe and Ancestral Domain ........................................................... 17 5. A Tale of Precautionary and Responsive Governance: Irrigation Water Rights and Responsibilities in Kalinga ........................................................................................................ 24 5.1 The Ethnographic Field Sites ......................................................................................... 24 5.1.1 Ancestral Domains and Ilis .................................................................................. 26 5.2 Indigenous References of Climatic and Environmental Changes or Variations 28 5.2.1 Vernacular Definitions of Seasonal Periods and Regularities ............................ 29 5.2.2 Inapplicable Knowledge in Unpredictable Times ................................................ 37 5.3 The Irrigation Water Governance Systems and Practices of Sumacher, Turkaw and Guinaang (Kalinga)......................................................................................................... 40 5.3.1 The Protection of Watershed Areas ..................................................................... 40 5.3.2 The Access, Use and Distribution of Irrigation Water......................................... 47 5.3.2 Water Rights as Individual and Collective Responsibilities ................................ 58 5.3.4 Water Scarcity: Coping Mechanisms, Strategies and Techniques ....................... 63 5.4 Ownership and Belonging: the
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