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Chairman's Note

I have listened carefully to the many different points of fact, fantasy, predilection and prediction which were made during the sittings of our Study Group on South . We were all agreed on the uniqueness of the South African imbroglio. It differs from other post-war liberation struggles at most levels, but chiefly because in most other colonial territories there were few white settlers established over generations. Moreover, most settlers retained links with their countries of origin - which the have not done. Although analogies can be drawn, they are without exception limited. We were also agreed, by the time of our last meeting, that the auguries for a 'negotiated settlement'-which we understood to mean a substantive reallocation of political power in favour of the representative leaders of the black majority - are poor. This assessment stands in sharp contrast to the cautious optimism expressed by a number of people of varying backgrounds and political persuasions at the time of the visit of the Commonwealth Eminent Persons' Group to in 1986. From our discussions, it became clear that the debate within the state power bloc, i.e. those elements discussed in Chapters 6, 7 and 8, is now about the optimum levels of repressive activity. Those voices once urging the necessity of 'reform'- however ill-defined- have been quietened. This situation, predictably, serves to harden prevailing attitudes within the resistance and polarises the political situation yet further. Beneath the apparently deadlocked surface in South Africa in 1988 there lies a variety of fluid or potentially fluid factors, but the chances of these breaking through the surface and creating opportunities for change are, at present, very slight. The South African government gives no indication of seriously considering any initiative which would loosen its own stranglehold on power- an essential component of any negotiations worth the name. In direct relation to this, the resistance movements become increasingly unwilling to entertain notions of tac-tical compromise. For those who abhor the discriminatory and vicious political system in South Africa, this scenario prompts a simple answer to the question

375 376 Chairman's Note

'What is to be done?'. It is to encourage pressure, by whatever means, which will force the rulers of that country to recognise the need for real :tegotiation if South Africa is not to tear itself apart in the coming years. John F. Kennedy's much-quoted maxim has seldom been more apposite: 'Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable.' It is in the nature of politics that deals can be struck in spite of protagonists' vows never to compromise; the simple truth of South Africa today is that the longer the impasse is allowed to continue, the more remote the possibility of a solution becomes. The nature of that solution is something which cannot yet be guessed, but the best hope of encouraging it is by sustained and unflinching pressure to make South Africa's minority see that their self-interest lies in allowing the rest of the population to share fully in the benefits of living in what should be one of the most favoured and prosperous countries on the African continent. Until they accept that, they should recognise that they will never be able to live at peace again. To drive this point home is the first step towards ending the continuing cycle of temporary gains and losses which have so debilitating an effect on both state and resistance in South Africa.

ALAN BuLLOCK Chairman Index

Abbreviations: SA refers to South Africa; see also List of Abbreviations on p.xviii. Bold type denotes major references.

Action Youth () 112, 152n153 ANC (African National Congress) Adam, Heribert 212,240,255,267,277, 57-72, 270, 356; origins 5-6, 97; 361 alliance with unions 66, 106, 155---{i, African Education Movement 144n18 162; banned 12,55, 98,270; African National Congress see ANC campaigns 11, 57, 97, 98; External 17-18 Mission 56, 63--4, 267, 351n6; African Students' Organisation 38, 42, 55, 106, (SASO) 74, 99 139, 165, 173, 190, 201; guerillas 60, : instruction in schools 22-3, 106, 113, 336, 345; international 102 recognition 52, 72-3, 313, 320, 328; Afrikaans Protestant Church 221 links with internal political and Afrikaanse Studente Federasie 228 economic groups 26, 63-7, 81, 83, Afrikaner 221, 269 181, 302, 329, 351n9; militancy 55, 206, 210--Il, 56, 61-2, 79, 248; revitalised support 216-18, 224, 233; Working Paper (1980s) 41-3, 106-7, 121; 218,234 Sechaba 185; tactics 57, 59---{iO, Afrikaner Nasionale Studentebond 227 78-80; underground movement 55, Afrikaner National Party see National 57-63, 85, 182; Women's Party Charter 197; Youth League 211 (ANCYL) 6, 97, 98, 178 Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging Anglo American 26, 167, 168, 329; (AWB) 31,211,212,273,278,279 dominates SA economy 19, 288, Afrikaners 83, 206-39, 277; calls for 290, 294; miners' strike 18, 171 reform of 29, 223, 225---{i; 318,320,321,342, 347; guerrilla entrepreneur class 7-8, 27, 222--4; bases 60, 62; independence 316, farmers 4, 7, 13, 31; nationalism 6, 335; SA intervention 21, 241, 336, 206-7; working class 7, 8, 222, 237, 339, 341 277 anti-apartheid groups 67-8, 305---{i agriculture 3, 13; labour 18, 21, 164 anti-Republic Day protests (1981) 107, Alexander, Dr Neville 145n46, 203n4 173 Alexandra 148n85, 250, 262; apartheid 7, 98-9, 219-21, 231; protests in 94, 98, 147n68, 165; churches' attitude 200; economic vigilantes 129, 166; Youth cost 178, 299; reform 1-2, 213-14 Congress 121, 129, 132, 146n52 Area Defence Units 259 Allied Electronics Corporation arms embargoes 309, 314, 315, 323, 324 (Altron) 288 Arnold Bergstraesser Institute 359 alternative government in Asians 10--11, 246, 266, 304; 183-6; 'Committee of Ten' communities 4, 126, 273, 297, 369, () 103, 367; 'liberated 370; elections 60, 114--15, 199, 208; zones' 122-3, 148n85; street resistance 107-8, 175, 199-200; committees 61, 118, 119, 164, South African Indian Congress 11, 185---{i, 274 203n2; Transvaal Indian 'Ama Africa Pogo' 273 Congress 173 'Amabutho' vigilantes 47n20, 195 'A-team' 197, 273

377 378 Index

Athlone township 126 Black Peoples' Convention 34, 99 Atlantis township 276 organisation 200 township 114. 146n52 Blankewerkers Beskermingbond 222 automobile industry 286, 289-90 Bloom. Tony 223 A wake Black Student Ill BMW (motor company) 290 A WB see Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging Boesak, Revd Dr Allan 36. 143, 173, AZACTU (Azanian Confederation of 269 Trade Unions) 90n64, 9ln67, 14, 191, 192,261 159-60 BOSS () 260-1 Azanian Peoples' Manifesto 111, 173--4 Botha, General Louis 209 AZANYU (Azanian National Youth Botha. President P.W. 217.218. 231; Unity) 112 elections (May 1987) 78. 232, AZAPO (Azanian Peoples' 235-6,247. 330; foreign affairs 241, Organisation) 72, 90n64, 161-2, 243-8, 345; law and order 81, 130, 187, 188, 201; launch (1978) 37, 233--4. 241-2, 243, 252. 277-8; meets 105-6, 173; excludes whites 38, 176; Geoffrey Howe 326-7; reforms see also AZASO (student wing) 26-7, 3{}-1, 208,226,242, 341; 'total AZASM (Azanian Students' strategy' 243, 339, 340; view of Movement) 111, 126, 129-30, 133 ANC 35n9, 64, 88n38 AZASO (Azanian Students' Botha. Pik 63. 247. 254 Organisation) 106, 108, 110. 190; Botha. Robbie 161 becomes SANSCO 14{}-1 285. 336, 343; ANC in 60, AZAYO (Azanian Youth 71, 319 Organisation) 141 township 98 Britain see United Kingdom Banda, President Hastings 348 British Consulate, 175 Bank of Tokyo 292 British Industry Committee on South Bankorp 293 Africa 308 Bantu Affairs Administration Brits 165, 191 Boards 23; see also local Broederbond see Afrikaner Broederbond administration BTR Sarmcol 160, 166, 199 Bantu Education Act (1953) 9, 97-8, Bundy, Colin 95, 96, 97-8 103 Bureau of State Security 260-1 4, 8-9, 13, 14-17,45, 190; see Burger, Die 217,225,230,231,232 also KwaNdebele; KwaZulu; Business Day () 169, 171 ; Qwaqwa business interests in SA 26, 27; leaders Barayi, Elijah 158, 160 meet ANC 26, 63, 302, 329, 351n9; Barclays Bank 287, 288, 308 lobby government 182, 30{}-1 Barlow Rand 19 Buthelezi, Chief Mangosuthu Gatsha Beeld 225, 228 14-15,261,353,359, 365,367; beer-halls 23--4 implicated in violence 25, 48n20, Beira 'corridor' 317, 345, 346 150n105, 194, 365-71; launches Benguela railway 348 UWUSA 160; leader of Inkatha Benoni township 98 15, 68, 149n104, 357, 367-71; Bhengu, John 363 political conservatism 329, 358-9; , Steve 18, 99, 100, 104, 315 support 68-9, 90n53, 359-60 Black Consciousness movement 17, 21, 29, 34-5; ideology 99-100, 11{}-11, Camay, Piroshaw 158, 159 176-8; organisations 38, 65, 86n 1, Cape Action League 72 99-100, 104-6, 141; trade 121, 186, 199; Coloured unionism 19 communities 4, 9, 126; Crossroads Black Consciousness Movement of 122, 129, 273; youth organisations Azania (BCMA) 65, 86nl 111, 112, 137, 146n52; see also Black Local Authorities see local Eastern Cape; administration 23, 116, 157, 276 Index 379

Cape Town Municipal Workers' 60. 172. 199.208: see also 'WHAM' Association 162 strategy Cape Youth Congress 143n6. 146n52. Comaroff. Jean 35 199 Commercial. Catering and Allied Carletonville 18. 161 Workers Union see CCA WUSA Carolus. Cheryl 204n22 Committee ofTen' Soweto 24. 103. Carter. President Jimmy 316.324-5: see 355.367 also United States Commonwealth ll, 83. 351n11: Catholic Students Association 201 Eminent Persons Group ( EPG) CCA WUSA (Commercial. Catering and (1986) 63. 70--l. 254.315-16.319. Allied Workers Union) 158. 161-2. 326. 375: Gleneagles Agreement 163. 182 324: press UK on sanctions 312. Cellie. Piet 231 326 Chalker. Lynda 69. 188 Communist Party of South Africa Chamber of Mines 5. 39. 166. 167. 209. (CPSA) l44n15: see also South 285 Party Chase Manhattan 308-9 Community Agency for Social Chemical Workers' Industrial Union Enquiry 360 (CWJU) 155. 163 Community Councils see local Chesterville township 197 administration chiefly authorities 4-5. 9 Congress of Democrats 11. 203n 1 children see schoolchildren Congress of South African Students see China 68. 314 COS AS Christian Council of South Africa (now Congress of South African Trade Unions SA Council of Churches) 36. 220 see COSATU Christian Institute 36 Congress of South African Writers 198--9 Christian National Education Congress of Traditional Leaders 192 schools 224 Conservative Party 211. 212. 221: Christianity: influence of 4. 5. 6. 9: see formed (1982) 31. 207: elections also churches (1987) 161.213.214: growing Chrysler 290 support 236-7. 277-8. 330 churches: extra-parliamentary constitution. reform of 30. 58. 174. 246. opposition 36-7. 200: 341 missionary 4. 9. 35: Dutch consumer boycotts 43. 118. 147n68. 158. Reformed 36.218-21.224.234: 173. 177. 186 Zionist 35--{) Cooper. Saths 133. 147n71, 187-8 14. 39, 157. 192. 261, 275 Coronation Brick and Tile Citibank 287 Company 154 City Press (Johannesburg) 130 COSAS (Congress of South African Claremont township 195 Students) 106. 108-9. 116-18. 136. coal: threat to SA's exports 284. 309. 175: campaigns 106. 107. 113-18. 326. 327. 344: see also mining 158 industry COSATU (Congress of South African codes of practice for businesses in SA Trade Unions) 66. 158-9, 161--6, 315. 324 169-70, 198: launch (1985) 40--l. Coetsee. Kobie 88n38 158-9. 177: aims 159. 164-5.201: Coetzee. General P.J. (Johan) 28-9 campaigns 135. 166, 180. 197: Coloured Labour Preference Policy 10 industrial action 159-60. 162: Coloured Peoples' Organisation 11. leaders detained 90n64, 160: 203n2 sabotaged 41. 154. 168-9. 171: 9-10, 266, 273, 297: election vigilantes attack members 195--{). boycott (1984) 43, 174-5. 199: 273, 369 resistance 107-8. 126. 176. 199- Cottesloe declaration 36 200: Theron Commission (1973) Council of Unions of South Africa see 29-30: 30, CUSA 380 Index counter-sanctions, SA threat 310, 338, East London 156-7, 203ni 343-4 39, 160, 128-9 Crocker, Dr Chester 69. 180, 333n26 Eastern Cape 39, 111, 137: schools Crossroads squatter complex 122, 129, boycotts 114, 116, 125. 126: 273 township disturbances 43, 118-19. CUSA (Council of Unions of Suuth 158, 264 Africa) 40, 90n64, 91n67, 156, 158. Ebrahim, Gora 77 159-60 Economic Institute, SA 223 CWJU (Chemical Workers' Industrial education. African: Bantu Education Act Union) 155, 163 (1953) 9, 97-8: de Lange Report 29: effects 18. 96: expansion 33, 100, 114: Dabula, Dr Zola 191 expenditure 298, 299; language Daily News (Durban) 357 policy 22-3, 102: protests 22-3, de Beers 19 97-8. 103, 179-80 Defence Ministry, SA 241, 252: see also education, white 224-5, 300 South Africa: foreign policy EEC (European Economic Commission): de Klerk, F.W. 235 code of practice 297, 324: economic de Klerk, Dr Willem 232 sanctions 315-16, 326, 327, 329: de Lange, Prof. Piet 217 imports 310 de Lange Report 29 Eglin, Colin 49n48 Department of Bantu Ekangala township 192 Administration 23 elections: since Union (1910) 209-13, Department of Education and Training 304: (6 May 1987) 78, 89n52, 166, (DET) 127. 129. 141 188-9, 208: tricameral parliament Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) (1984) 43, 60, 114-15, 174-5, 199 241,242,245,247,254,275,330: electronics industry 288 see also South Africa: foreign policy Emergency, States of: detentions 1, 41, Department of Manpower 170 131, 146n60, 268: effects on de Stadtler, Leon 225 resistance 131-40: security forces Detainees' Parents Support powers 131,268,270-1,275-6: sse Committee 91n64, 120 recommends 275: (1960) 98, 183: detentions 186-7, 270: effects on 'first' (July 1985-March 1986) 32, youth 117-18, 123,202: 44-5, 115-27, 175-7, (deaths and Emergency 1, 41, 131, 146n60, 268: woundings) 271-2, (extended) in homelands 191: police 146n56, 175-{i, 190, (lifted) 127, 179: brutality 120: UDF leaders 91n64, 'second' (June 1986-June 1987) 71, 131, 175, 179, 186-7: union 130, 186, 236, 248, (court members 90n64. 163, 165 challenges) 163, 181. (effects on Development Bank of Southern NECC) 150n124, (protests) 163, Africa 291 186: 'third' (June 1987) 182 de Witt, General Hennie 249 Eminent Persons Group (EPG) mission diamonds 284 63,70-1,254,315-16,326,375: Diederichs, Dr Nico 225 ended 71, 254, 319 Diepkloof prison 133 End Conscription Campaign 200 disinvestment, international 288-90, engineering industry 284, 286 296-9,308-9 English-speakers: business Dlamini, Chris 159 interests 294-{i, 329, 359; national township 262 service 277: representation in Dominion Party 212 parliament 209, 211. 212, 213, Durban 127, 181: disturbances 368, 215,234 369, 370: strikes 18, 154 ESCOM (electricity supply Durban Medical School 18 commission) 292 Dutch Reformed (DR) churches 36, European Council 326 218-21, 224, 234 European Economic Community see EEC Index 381

Fair Lady 232 Gesuiwerde Nasionale Party 210, 230 farm workers 18, 21. 164 Geyer. Dr A.L. 231 farmers, Afrikaner 4, 7. 13, 31 Godsell, Bobby 171 Fattis and Monis Company gold 3, 8, 40, 166, 284; mines 40, 167, disputes 157, 173 168 FCWU (Food and Canning Workers Goldfields mine 167 Union) 157, 158, 163 Golding, Marcel 31 Federasie van Afrikaanse Gorbachev, General Secretary Kultuurvereenigings (FAK) 224, Mikhail 333n28 225 Gqweta, Thozamile 156, 157 Federated Chamber of Industries 290 Graaff Rei net 116 Federation of South African Trade 207; centenary 210, 211, Unions see FOSATU 224 Federation of South African 9-10, 30 Women 196--7 Grundy, Kenneth, 245, 246, 267, 274 Finnegan, William 108 guerrillas 53-4, 269-70; see also ANC; FLS (Front Line States) see neighbouring MNR;ZANU countries Guguletu township 121 Foltz, William 307 Gumede, Archie 188 Food and Allied Workers Union 160 GWU (General Workers' Union) 157, Food, Beverage Workers Union 156 158, 170 Food and Canning Workers Union see FCWU Ford (motor company) 290 Hani, Chris 62, 78 foreign investment 15, 19, 25-6; see also Hanlon, Joseph 244 disinvestment, international Havenga, N.C. 211 FOSATU (Federation of South African Haysom, N. 371 Trade Unions) 40, 58; launch Heidelburg township 129 (1979) 39; politicisation 155--{i, Helderberg 231 157-8, 160, 161-2 Hellman, Ellen 37 Foster, Joe 162 Herenigde Nasionale Party 210 Fourie, Jopie 207 Herstigte Nasionale Party see HNP France 309 Hertzog. Albert 17, 225 Frankel, P. 266--7 Hertzog, General J.B.M. 9, 209. Franzen Commission 287, 295 210-11.216,221.231 Fraser, Malcolm 90n59 Heunis, Chris 232 Free Mandela Campaign 106, 173, 181, Heyns, Dr Johan 218, 219. 220-1. 225, 188 234 Freedom Charter see ANC Hlatshwayo, Mi 198 freedom songs 121 Hlobane 160 Frelimo see HNP (Herstigte Nasionale Party): Front Line States (FLS) see neighbouring formation (1969) 17, 20, 207; countries elections (1987) 213; right-wing funeral processions 121. 175, 268, 269 politics 212-13, 221, 269, 277 homelands, 'independent' 189-92, 197, Ga-rankuwa 191 261. 315; see also Bophuthatswana; Geldenhuys, General Jannie 247 Ciskei; ; Gencor gold mine 40, 167 homelands, non-independent see General and Allied Workers' Union 156 bantustans General Electric 298 Honeywell 288-9 General Motors 288, 290 Hoofstad 231 General Workers' Union (GWU) 157, housing, African 33-4, 298, 299, 300 158, 170 Howe, Sir Geoffrey 69, 326--7 Gereformeerde Kerk 219 Huhudi Civic Association 191 township 98 Huntington, Prof. Samuel 28--9, 246 382 Index

IBM company 288-9 Johannesburg 85, 147n68,276; Stock Immorality Act 9-10, 29-30, 221 Exchange 293, 294, 295 Inanda 369 Johnson,John 69 income levels see wage levels Johnson, Lulu 114 India 10-11, 304, 317-18 Joint Commuters Committee Indians see Asians () 178 Industrial and Commercial Workers' Joint Management Committees Union 144n15 (JMCs) 28, 80, 233, 250, 275-6 Industrial Conciliation Act 18 Joint Rent Action Committee industry 2-3, 13-14,20,39,45,284, 286; (Natal) 178 automobile 286, 289-90; electronics 288; engineering 284, Kane-Berman, John 357, 358, 362 286; iron and steel 284, 292-3; township 194 manufacturing 5, 21, 25, 286; see Kaunda, President Kenneth 70, 351n6 also mining industry Kennedy, Senator Edward 177 inflation 19, 286, 287 273 influx control regulations 8, 16, 21 Khumalo, Jabu 117 Information Management Services 288 Kinross mine disaster 40, 168 Inkatha movement 15, 160, 269, 329, Kissinger, Henry 316, 324 353--74; launch (1975) 354; kitskonsrabe/s (instant constables) impis 193, 194; membership 15, 186, 196, 263-4, 267; vigilante 89n53, 357-9; trade union movement activity 273, 274 (UWUSA) 41, 180; vigilantes Kitson, David 89n49 195-6, 273, 365-71; waning Koeberg nuclear power station 57 support 68, 359-61; Women's Koornhof Bills 174 Brigade 356, 368; Youth Kruger, Paul 2 Brigade 127, 149nl04, 227, 356, Kutumela, Lucky 187 357,367-70 KwaMashu township 193,357,358,367, Institute for Black Research 360 368; Youth League 195 Institute for Christian National KwaNatal Indaba 15 Education 224 KwaNdebele 15-16, 191-2 Institute for a Democratic Alternative for KwaZulu 14-15, 160, 367, 369; South Africa (IDASA) 181, 200 Indaba 353-4,363, 371; Inkathain Institute for the Study of Marxism 356, 357; police 261, 273, 371 (University of Stellenbosch) 256n7 Internal Security Act 186, 268, 271 labour: bureaux 8, 13; changing demand International Defence and Aid Fund for 19, 20, 45, 287, 297; legislation (London) 186, 274 5, 155, 223; migrant labour International Institute for Strategic system 3, 5, 8, 13, 16, 168, 299; Studies (London) 92n105 wage structure 3, 12-13, 20-1, 286 international pressures on SA 11, 63, Labour Party 209-10, 211, 212 67-71,304-34,337-8,343-4;351n11; La Guma, Alex 198 sports boycott 212, 324 Lamontville 369 International University Exchange Land Acts 8 Fund 268 Langa township 118, 158 iron and steel industry 284, 292-3 Lategan, Dr Esther 214 Isaacs, Henry 74 Leach, G. 277 ITI company 288 Leandra township 129, 187 Leballo, Potlako 73-4 Jabula Foods 160 Lebowa 187, 191 Jack, Mkhuseli 177 le Grange, Louis 88n38, 249, 252 Japan 284, 309, 310 Lekoa 262 (Youth for South Africa) Lekota, Patrick 'Terror' 179 149n104, 228, 229 Lelyveld, Joseph 28 job reservation 8, 20, 29, 223 Lembede, Anton 97, 105 Index 383

Lenasia township 126 Marivate, Fumane 368-9 : ANC expelled 60: dependence Marxist Workers Tendency 86n5 on SA 336, 343: economic Mashinini, Alex 185 growth 285, 291: SA intervention Mashinini, Tsietsi 41-2, 103, 105 318,336,338 Massing. M. 371 Liberal Party 11, 12 MA WU (Metal and Allied Workers' 'liberated zones' see alternative Union) 155, 160, 163, 165 government in townships May Day protests (1986) 162, 180; liberation movements see resistance (1987) 78 movements Mayekiso, Moses 165, 166 Libya 77 Mayisa, Chief Ampie 187 Lindelani squatter settlement 129, Mbambo, Reverend 368 195 Mbatha, Alex 367 Lipton, M. 20--1 Mbeki, Govan 84, 198 'living wage' campaign 166, 197 Mbeki, Thabo 60, 78, 181 local administration: Bantu Affairs 'Mbokotho' (vigilante group) 192 Administration Boards 23: media see press bantustans 14-17: Black Local Mercabank 293 Authorities 31-2, 43; Community Metal and Allied Workers' Union 155, Councils 24, 115, 118-19, 183: 160, 163, 165 homelands 190; Koornhof Meyer, Dr Piet (P.J.) 217,225 Bills 203n7; Regional Service migrant labour system see labour Councils (RSCs) 28, 32, 250, 301; military, South African 27-8,29,34, 85, traditional authorities 4-5, 9; 233-4, 240-57; Directorate of Urban Bantu Councils 24, 31, 103: Military Intelligence 28, 83; see also see also alternative government SADF (South African Defence Lodge, Tom 42 Force) Lombard, Professor 302 'Million Signature Campaign' 174 Laubscher, Kobus 254 Milner, Lord 3, 224 Luthuli, Albert John 105 Mine Workers' Union (MWU) (white) 161, 222 Mabopane 191 mining industry 2-3, 8, 10, 284; gold 3, McCaul. C. 356 8, 40, 284; strategic minerals 284, McClurg, J. 231 308, 309-10, 343-4; strikes 18, 153, Machel, President 321. 342. 346 167-8, 171, 189, 209; wages 3, 18, MacShane, Denis 40--1 21; unionisation 39-40, 153-4, 160, Mafole, Ike 77 16~8 Maharaj, Mac 89n41. 181 Ministry of Defence 241, 252; see also Make, Cassius 85 South Africa: foreign policy Make, Vus 74, 75, 76, 77 mission churches 4, 9, 35 Malan, Dr D.F. 210,211. 212, 216,230--1 mixed marriage legislation 9-10, 29-30, Malan, General Magnus 242, 247, 340 221, 341 Malan, Wynand 214, 215 Mkwanazi, Joe 75, 76, 77 285, 339, 342; MNR bases Mlambo, Johnson 75, 76 in 345-6, 348 MNR (Mozambique National township 184, 262; Youth Resistance): attacks on Beira Congress 185 railway 317; backed by SA 254, Mandela, Nelson 42, 63-4, 86n2, 88n38, 318,336, 340,341,345;operate 97, 183; campaigns for release 106, from Malawi 346, 348 147n75, 173, 181, 188; leadership Mnyaka, Xolisile 145n41 89n53, 105,174,359-60 Modimoeng, David 166 Manuel, Trevor 174 Modimoeng, Joyce 166 manufacturing industry 5, 21, 25, 286 Modise, Joe 62, 78 Mapumulo, Chief, 369 Modise, Thandi 197 Maputo railway 317 Mokaba, Peter 139 384 Index

Moller, V. 358 NACTU Montsisi, Daniel 100-4, 110, 143n6 National Council of Trustees 222 Moodley, Kogila 255, 361 National Democratic Movement 215 Morgenthau, Hans 244 National Education Crisis Committee see Morobe, Murphy 179, 183, 197 NECC programme 294 National Education Union of South Motlana, Dr Nthato 125, 356, 367 Africa 148n90 Motlatsi, James 168 National Forum (NF) 38, 72, 125, 131, Motor Industry Combined Workers' 173, 187, 188; launch ( 1983) 37, 58, Union 161 109, 174; ideology 177, 201; Moutse 191 ineffectiveness 176, 189; NECC Mozambique 317, 342, 345-6, 348; conference 149n 103, 179-80; independence 99,316, 335; youth 111-12, 141 Frelimo 60, 99, 320, 321, 346; National Intelligence Service (NIS) 245, NkomatiAccord(1984) 42,60, 113, 260-1,274 248,318,321,341,345,351n6;see National Party (founded 1914): early also MNR years 206, 208-10; 1948 victory and Mozambique National Resistance see policies 6, 7-8, 9-10, 11-12, 13-14, MNR 211-14, 304; differences within 17, MPLA (Movimento Popular de 45-6, 226; reforms 207-8, 235; Libertacao de Angola) 320, 321 support 36, 216, 218, 230, 277; Mpophemeni township 195 'total strategy' 27-8; victory in 1987 Mpumelelo township 129 elections 68, 237; 'WHAM' Muendane, Michael 77 strategy 247, 249, 251, 276 Mugabe, Robert 70, 92n96, 321, National Security Management 333n24, 352n13 System 28, 250-1 scandal 242 National Statutory Council 81, 172 Muller, Dr Hilgard 241 National Students' Co-ordinating multinational corporations Committee 141 (MNCs) 296-9; see also National Union of Metalworkers of South disinvestment, international Africa see NUMSA Municipal Law Enforcement National Union of Mineworkers see NUM Officers 262-3, 267, 273 National Union of South African Students Murray, Colin 17 see NUSAS Murray, Martin 194 National Union of Textile Workers 155, Mutual bank 294 161, 163 Muzorewa, Bishop Abel 315 National United Action Campaign Myeza, Muntu 188 (1986) 135 Native Representatives ( 1948 NACTU (National Council of Trade election) 211 Unions) 90n64, 91n67, 159-60, 164, Naude, Dr Beyers 36 201 Nchabeleng, Peter 187 Naidoo, Jay 158-9 Ndebele people 15-16; 241, 247, 314, 328, 336, 340, KwaNdebele 191-2 341; 304 Ndondo, Batandwa 190 Nassau Commonwealth Summit 70 NECC (National Education Crisis Natal 4-5, 137, 163, 175,200, 291; Asian Committee) 44, 66, 126-8, 135, communities 9, 199, 304; Inkatha 141, 179-80 movement in 68, 194-5, 360; trade 'necklace' killings 118-19, 184 union movement in 15, 39, 41, 160 Nedbank 293 199 Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk Natal Organisation of Women 197 (NGK) 218, 219, 220-1, 234 National Automobile and Allied Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk 219 Workers Union 155 neighbouring countries 53, 60, 83, National Council of Trade Unions see 314-15, 316-19, 335-52; Front Line Index 385

States (FLS) defined 350n1; see also Sentinels) 211 SADCC; individual countries Oukasie 165 Net, Louis 64 Net, Dr Philip 256n7 PAC (Pan Africanist Congress) 52, 72- Nendzandza, Andrew 170 8, 160; formation (1959) 12, 86n5; New Republic Party 213, 214 banned 12, 98; ideology 65, 69 NF see National Forum Pahad, Aziz 89n41 Ngema, Khohlwangife 'Twist' 195 Pakendorf, Harald 232 NGK see Nederduits Gereformeerde Paper, Wood and Allied Workers' Kerk Union 155 Nicholls, George Heaton 5 2, 8, 29, 101, 341; protests 11 Nigeria 318 Paulsen, Father Casimir 191 NIS see National Intelligence Service Paulus, Arrie 161 Nissan 290 'people's committees' 183-6; see also Nixon, President 324 alternative government : signing 60, 113, 318, 'people's courts' 119, 184-5 321, 351n6; breakdown 42,248,345 'people's parks' 122-3, 184 Nkomo, Joshua 321 PFP (Progressive Federal Party) 27, 49n Nkondo, Curtis 148n90 47, 63,236,329, 359; elections (1987) Nomodolo, Vus 77 89n52,213,214-16 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 313, 'Phakathis' 273 317-18, 351n11 platinum 284 Non-European Unity Movement 162 Poqo (PAC) 12 NSMS (National Security Management Pokela, John 74, 75 System) 28, 250-1 police 258--82; black 32, 265-6; Nuffield Foundation 303 homelands 192, 195, 261, 273, 371; NUM (National Union of kitskonstabels 186, 196, 263-4, 267, Mineworkers) 39-40, 156, 157, 273, 274; Reserve 259, 266; see also 166-8; joins COSATU 40, 158; SAP strikes 153, 160, 163 population, African 96, 191 NUMSA (National Union of Population Registration Act 9 Metalworkers of South Africa) 40, Port Alfred township 186 157, 161, 163, 165, 166 23, 170, 177; Black Civic NUSAS (National Union of South Organisation 355; Crisis in African Students) 18, 99, 110, 200, Education Committee 125; Youth 227,268 Congress 146n52 Ntantala, Templeton 73, 74 Portugal 327, 334n36 Ntloedibe, Elias 74 Pose(, D. 28 NUTW (National Union of Textile postal workers dispute 153, 170 Workers) 155, 161, 166 Potchefstroom University 224, 226 Nzo, Alfred 89n50 press 163, 230-2, 276; Media Council 269 oil 310; SASOL plant 57, 106, 173,299 prisons: Diepkloof 133; homelands 'OK Bazaars' dispute 153 191; Prisons Service 274; Robben Old Mutual bank 293 Island 104, 107, 139, 177, 181 Operation Palmiet ( Progressive Federal Party see PFP township) 115, 158,248 Public Service Commission 31 Orange 111, 126, 137 Organization of African Unity Qoboza, Peter 130 (OAU) 52, 73, 74, 314-15 Qwaqwa 13 Orkin, M. 360 Orlando West Junior Secondary Rachidi, Hlaku 34-5 School 22 (ANC) 59, 60, 87n23 (Ox-Wagon Ramaphosa, Cyril 40, 156, 166, 167, 168 386 Index

Ramashamola, Theresa 197 alleged ANC bases 71, 254, 319; in Ramphal, Shridath 70 townships 115, 116, 176,248-50, Rand Afrikaans University 229 259, 275--6 Rapport (newspaper) 232, 278 Samancor 295 Rapportryers 217 Sanlam group 19, 294 Reagan, President 312, 316, 325-6; see sanctions, economic: effects 284, 285, also United States 290, 307; neighbouring countries recession, world: effects of 20-1, 34, attitudes to 337-9, 343-7; trade 178,286 union support 40, 164; Western Reddingsdaadbond 222 powers 67, 80, 305-6, 325 reforms 172, 287-8, 299; of apartheid SANSCO (South African National 234-8; of constitution 30, 58, 174, Students Congress) 140-1, 190; see 246, 341; of local government 31-2 also AZASO Regional Service Councils (RSCs) see SAP () 258-82; co• local administration operate with homelands police 192, Release Mandela Campaigns 106, 195; misconduct 120, 126, 154, 157, 147n75, 173, 181, 188 252, 259, 264, 271-2; non-whites Reily, Gavin 26, 329 32, 265--6, 273; numbers 258-9, rent increases 287; protests 43, 103, 281; part-time forces 259; 139, 175, 188, 191 powers 131, 269-72; relations with Republic of South Africa: SADF 252-3; right-wing declaration 11; Anti-Republic Day sympathies 234, 249, 252, 264-7, protests (1981) 107, 173; see also 277-9; use of vigilantes 194 South Africa Sarmcol Workers' Co-operative 199 see Reserve Police Force 259, 266 also BTR Sarmcol 'reserves', African 3, 4, 8-9; see also SASM (South African Students' bantustans McJVement) 18, 100-2, 103, 104 resistance movements: ideological SASO (South African Students' differences 120, 176--7; Organisation) 18, 74, 99, 101, 104 internal 172-205; outlawed 52-93; SA TS (South African Transport reaction to Western policies 330 Services) 153, 169, 170, 189, 295 Retief, John 221 -Atteridgeville Youth Revolutionary Communist Group 68 Organisation) 146n52 see Savimbi, Jonas 321, 348 Riekert Commission 29, 31-2 SA YCO (South African Youth : detainees 104, 139, 181; Congress) 136--40, 144n9, 180, 188 political education 107, 177 Schelling, Thomas 253 Roman Catholic Church 36 Schlemmer, L. 357, 358, 359 Rotberg, Robert 28 schoolchildren: arrested and Royal Commonwealth Society 69, 365 detained 116, 120, 131, 146n60, rural areas 13, 187, 189-92; militia 259 271, 277; politicisation of 18, 96, 100, 113, 142; in Soweto SAAWU (South African Allied Workers uprising 100-4, 105 Union) 156--7, 173, 203n1, 269 schools, protests in 43; Transvaal SM::P see South African Communist (1944) 97; Witwatersrand (1953- Party 5) 98; Cape Town (1976) 23; SACTU (South African Congress of Trade Soweto (1976) 22-3; Western Cape Unions) 11, 12, 66, 155-6 (1980) 107-8; KwaMashu (1980) SADCC (Southern African Development 368; Transvaal (1984) 114; Western Co-ordination Conference) 253, Cape ( 1985) 115-16; attempts to 316-18,342,352n19 end (1985) 124-8; (1986) 129; SADF (South African Defence Bophuthatswana (1986) 191 Force) 240-2,252-3,270,274; Sebokeng township 115, 158, 248 Operation Palmiet (Sebokeng Sechaba (ANC's newsletter) 185 township) 115, 158, 248; strike securityforces 79,84,169,170-1,233-4; Index 387

see also Municipal Law Enforcement recession 20--1, 34, 178, 286; EPG Officers: SAP (South African mission 70, 71; dependence of Police); SADF (South African FLS 241, 254,318-19,336,338; Defence Force) failure to reform 68, 80--1; failure of Seegers, Annette 246 security bills ( 1986) 130; foreign Seekings, Jeremy 32 policy 20, (military influence) segregation 1-2, 5, 207 245, 247, 254-5, (strategy of Seiler, John 247 destabilising FLS) 25, 253-5, Sekano-Ntoane high school 101 318-20, 336, 345-50; see also Sekhukhuneland 187 international pressures on SA; Selborne, Lord 9 Nkomati Accord Selfe, James 251 South Africa Act ( 1909) 208-9 Seloane, Mike 185 South Africa Foundation 297 Seoposengwe Party 191 South Africa Party (Botha-Smuts) 209, September, Reg 89n41 210 Serfontein, J.H.P. 216,217 South African Allied Workers' Union Serote, Mongane Wally 198 (SAAWU) 156--7, 173, 203nl, 269 service charge boycott 276 South African Black Alliance 357, 370 SFAW (Sweet, Food and Allied Workers' South African Broadcasting Union) 155, 158 Corporation 226 Shabalala, Thomas 194-5 South African Bureau for Racial Shafer, Michael 310 Affairs 225 massacre ( 1960): reaction South African Catholic Bishops to 11,313,305 Conference 36 shebeens 23-4 South African Chemical Workers Shell company 26 Union 156 Shultz, George 69, 82, 352n 17 South African Coloured Peoples' Sibeko, David 74 Organisation 11, 203n2 Sidzamba, Naphtalie 74 South African Communist Party Simba Chips boycott 158 (SACP) 55, 194, 320; see also Simonstown naval base agreement 313 Communist Party of South Africa Sisulu, Zwelakhe 183-4 South African Confederation of Slabber!, Dr Frederick van Zyl 180--1, Labour 41, 161 215, 230 South African Congress of Trade Unions Sloet, Hendrik 225 (SACTU) 11, 12, 66, 155-6 Slovo, Joe 62, 89n41 South African Council of Churches Smit, Nico 122 (formerly Christian Council of South Smith, Sir Harry 236 Africa) 36, 220 Smith, Ian 315, 316 South African Defence Force see SADF Smuts, Dene 232 South African Indian Congress 11, Smuts, Jan 10, 209, 210, 304 203n2 Sobukwe, Robert 73, 86n5, 105 South African Directorate of Military Solomon, King (of Zulu) 354 Intelligence 28, 83 Sondlo, Benny 74 South African Institute of Race Sonto, Roseberry 143n6 Relations 225, 272 SOSCO see Soweto Students' Congress South African Musicians' Union 198 South Africa: colonial legacy 3, 11, South African National Students 208-9; Union (1910) 2, 3-4; leaves Congress 140--1, 190; see also Commonwealth 11, 313; attempts AZASO to destroy ANC 80--1, 84-5, 319; South African Native National Congress attitude to unions 169-71, 328; bans (forerunner of AN C) 97 Black Consciousness groups 173; South African Police see SAP bans foreign funding of UDF 177, South African Railways and 187; economy 12-13, 19, 199-200, Harbours 19; union 283-303, -344; effects of world (SARHWU) 170 388 Index

South African Reserve Bank 292, 293, 243, 244-6, 274-5 294 stayaways: Johannesburg (1976) 24-5; South African Students' Movement Transvaal (1984) 115, 158, 175; (SASM) 18, 100--2, 103, 104 Eastern Cape (1985) 158; May Day South African Students' Organisation and Soweto Day (1986) 162; East (SASO) 18, 74, 99, 101, 104 Rand (spring 1986) 128-9; (16June South African Transport Services 1986) 131; mining industry (Oct. (SATS) 153, 169, 170, 189,295 1986) 39-40; May Day (1987) 78; South African War 6, 207 election day ( 1987) 78, 166, 189: South African Youth Congress ( 14 July 1987) 163; see also strikes (SA YCO) 136-40, 144n9, 180, 188 Stellenbosch Student Council 229 South West Africa see Namibia Statile, Revd Arnold 181, 192 South West African Peoples Organisation street committees 61, 118, 119, 164, see SWAPO 185-{i, 274 Southall, R. 357, 358, 360, 362-3 Strijdom, Hans 212 Southern African Development Co• strikes: to demand release of union ordination Conference see SADCC leaders (1987) 163, 181-2; Durban Southern Transvaal Youth (1973) 154; Durban docks Congress 137 (1971) 18; miners' 18, 153, 167-8, 82,305,310--11, 320--2; aid 171, 189, 209: Port Elizabeth docks to liberation movements 247, 248, (1982) 170: SATS (1987) 153, 314, 321; relations with FLS 316, 169, 170, 189 319,321, 333n24, 348; SA govt's view Stuart, James 89n41 of 243-4, 247, 248; supplier of Students' Christian Movement 101 strategic minerals 309-10; supports Students of Young Azania 112 ANC 68, 70, 320, 322 Sullivan Code 297, 324 Sowetan (newspaper) 121-2 Sumitomo Bank 292 Soweto 21, 126, 129-30, 262, 263, 367; Sunday Star (Johannesburg) 126--7 alternative government in 37, 185; Suppression of Communism Act 'Committee of Ten' 24, 103, 355, (1950) 11-12, 200 367: rent boycotts 24, 103, 139, 188; Suttner, Raymond 204n22 school protests 22-3, 100, 116, 126; Suzman, Dr Helen 251, 269, 277 uprising (June 1976) 100-4, 305, SW APO (South West African Peoples 315 Organisation) 73, 241, 247, 248, Soweto Civic Association 124 340 Soweto Parents' Crisis Committee Swaziland 60, 84, 336, 342, 343, 351n6 (SPCC) 124, 125-6 Sweet, Food and Allied Workers' Soweto Students' Congress Union 155, 158 (SOSCO) 109, 129-30, 133 Soweto Students' League 145n25 Tambo, Oliver 78, 83, 89n50, 97, 356; Soweto Students' Representative Council talks with Western leaders 69, 82, (SSRC) 23-4, 42, 103 352n17 Soweto Youth Congress (SOYCO) 109, 74-5,77,314,342 110, 115, 146n52 Teague, Peta-Ann 368 Sparg, Marion 197 Tembisa township 263 Sparks, Allister 88n34 Terre'Blanche, Eugene 278 SPCC (Soweto Parents' Crisis Terreblanche, Professor Sampie 226--7, Committee) 124, 125-6 237 Spro-Cas Church Commission 220 Textile and Allied Workers Union 163 squatter settlements 16, 21, 34, 122, 129, Thabong township 126 194-5, 273 Thatcher, Margaret 69, 70; see also SSRC (Soweto Students' Representative United Kingdom Council) 23-4, 42, 103 Theron Commission 29-30 Star (Johannesburg) 269, 363 Third World countries 305 (SSC) 28, 80, township 129, 194 Index 389

Tomlinson, Professor F.R. 8-9 ideology 176-7. 188. leaders Tongogara, Josiah 92n96 detained 90n64, 131. 175, 179, 181. Toronto Dominion Bank 292 187: support for ANC 42, 66, 'total strategy' 243-8, 339-42 181. 186, 248; support from townships: growth 100, 221: income unions 155, 156, 162. 180: treason levels 21: housing 33-4: rebellion trials 180: Women's Congre:s (1984) 43-5,59-60, 112-24: 188, 197-8: youth in 109-11, 139, breakdown of administration 32, 140-1 43-4, 115, 176 (see also alternative 43 government): youth congresses (Spear of the in 109 Nation) 12, 56, 62, 195 Toyota company 290 Umtata 191 Trade Union Council of South Africa see unemployment 19, 21. 33, 190, 200, 286 TUCSA Unionist Party 209, 212 trade unions 58, 66, 125, 131. 153-71, UNIT A (Uniao Nacional para a 181, 201; in homelands 39, 192-3; Independencia Total de restrictions 2, 5, 8, 12, 30, 39, 223: Angola) 254, 321. 348-9 politicisation 177, 189, 201-2: United Democratic Front see UDF spread of 19. 38-41. 155, 223: United Kingdom: colonial legacy 3, 11. white 40, 41. 154-5, 222: Wiehahn 208-9, 304-5, 312; aid to SADCC Commission 29, 30, 155, 221: see 352n19; investment in SA 308, 324; also COSATU: FOSATU: NACTU; policy on sanctions 83, 307-8, 323, strikes: individual trade unions 326-7: relations with FLS 53, 316, Transkei 14, 39,190-1,261,275 317, 318; view of ANC 42, 69, 188 Transkei Council of Churches 191 United Kingdom-South Africa Trade Transport and Allied Workers' Association 308 Union 156, 163 United Nations (UN) 10-11,304,305, Transport and General Workers' 309, 313-14, 315 Union 155, 163 United Party 10, 211 Transvaal: farming lobby 4; Ndebele United States 42, 68, 82, 318, 346; people in 15-16; protests 11, 43, business interests in SA 41, 297, 98, 114, 115, 157-8, 165, 175, 187: 308-9, 324; sanctions 284-5, 308, youth movement 111. 137 309-10, 315-16, 323, 329; policy on Transvaal Indian Congress 173 SA 180, 311-12: relations with Transvaal Students' Congress 126 FLS 316,318.324-5,341 Transvaler, Die 231 United Stellenbosch Front 229-30 treason trials 180, 202 United Workers' Union of South Treurnicht, Dr Andries 22, 31,216,217, Africa 41, 160 231 Unity movement of South Africa 65, tricameral parliament 30, 43, 60, 86n1 114-15, 172, 174-5, 199, 208, 246 universities 98-9, 104, 227-30, 244, 268; Tsele, Revd Molefe 148n88, 150n105 protests at 120, 147n75, 368; Cape TUCSA (Trade Union Council of South Town 147n75, 216, 226; Durban Africa) 41. 154-5, 160-1 Medical School 18; Durban• Tumahole township 142, 273 Westville 368, 370; Fort Hare 18, Tutu, Archbishop Desmond 36, 89-90n 97; the North, Turfloop 147n75; 53, 122. 360 Potchefstroom 225, 226; Rand Afrikaans 230; South Africa 226; UDF (United Democratic Front) 58, Stellenbosch 226, 227, 228, 256n7; 125, 174-203, 263; launch (1983) Transkei (UNITRA) 190; the 24,37-8,58,109, 174; banned in Western Cape 29, 147n75; many homelands 190; Witwatersrand 216; campaigns 135, 166, 174, 180-1. Zimbabwe 92n105; Zululand 368 186, 195-6, 215; conflict with Urban Bantu Councils see local Inkatha 15, 358, 359, 369; administration 390 Index

urbanisation 5, 13, 16, 21,33-4, 100,221 strategy 247, 249, 251. 276 Uys. Caspar 277 whites: elections (1987) 89n52, 166, 208; extra-parliamentary opposition 37, Vaal Triangle 115, 157-8, 175,276 38, 58, 65, 200, 361; students Vader/and, Die 231, 232 unions 18; trade unions 40, 41, Valli, Mohammed 179, 204n22 154-5, 222; see also Afrikaners; Vance, Cyrus 311 English-speakers van den Bergh, General Hendrik 260 Wiechers, Prof. Marius 227, 233 van der Merwe, Major-General Johann Wiehahn Commission 29, 30, 155, 221 249 Wilson, John R. 26 van der Merwe, Piet 170 Wilson-Rowntree dispute 173 van der Merwe, Stoffel 235---{i Winterveld 191 van der Westhuizen, General P.W. 246 Witbank collieries 168 van Niekerk, Phillip 40 Witwatersrand 98, 209, 360 van Schalkwyk, Marthinus 228 women's resistance organisations 178, van Zyl Slabbert, Dr F. 180-1,215,229 196-7, 200; Inkatha 355, 356, 357, Venda 14, 261 368 Verster, Phillip 229, 230 World Alliance of Reformed Verwoerd, Dr Hendrik 7, 209.212,225, Churches 36, 173-4 231, 231 World Council of Churches 36 vigilantes 45, 129, 187, 193--6, 273, 369; Worrall, Denis 214, 232, 237, 248 govt use of 25, 80, 163-4, 186; police use of 45, 272-4 Young Communist League 144n15 Viva Frelimo rallies 99 youth: Afrikaner 227-30; resistance Vlok, Adriaan 169-70, 195,249, 252 movements 6, 43-4, 94-152; Vorster, Balthazar Johannes •John' lnkatha Youth Brigade 127, 149n 20,21,22,212,217,231,241, 260 104,227,356,357,367-70 128-9 Zaire 348, 351n6 wage levels, African 3, 12-13, 18, 20-1, 84, 314, 348; ANC in 60, 71, 286 319; trade 319, 342 Walker, Patrick Gordon 323 ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Wandrag, Major General 263 Union) 78, 90n54; guerrillas Wankie Campaign 55 53, 78, 315, 316, 317; see also Wassenaar, Dr A.D. 223 Zimbabwe Welsh, Prof. David 226 ZAPU (Zimbabwe African People's Weekly Mail (Johannesburg) 128, 132, Union) 55, 90n54, 91n83, 321 261, 262 Zimbabwe 92nl05, 241, 321-2, 336, West Germany 309, 327, 352n19 342, 348; independence 53, 70, 81, West Rand Administration Board 23,24 90n54,315,316,324,340; Western Cape 39, 111, 137, 176, 187, dependence on SA 317, 340, 343; 188, 199; schools boycotts 107-8, relations with ANC 55, 71, 75, 78, 116, 150nl08 319; relations with PAC 75-6, 92n89 Western Deep Levels Mine 18 Zion Christian Church 35 Western powers; aid to SADCC 318, Zionist churches 35-6 352n19; attitudes to ANC 67-70; Zulu, Enoch 76 economic and strategic interests 4, 14-15, 47n20, 357, 360, 54, 307-12; policies on SA 53,81-2, 368; attacks on students 193,272-3, 322-7; reaction to SA's 367; see also Inkatha destabilisation policy 340-1 Zwane, Abraham 194 'WHAM' (winning hearts and minds)