Xin Qiu China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’S Development Path

Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path

Xin Qiu China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path

Project Director Xie Shouguang, President, Social Sciences Academic Press

Series Editors Li Yang, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China Li Peilin, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China

Academic Advisors Cai Fang, Gao Peiyong, Li Lin, Li Qiang, Ma Huaide, Pan Jiahua, Pei Changhong, Qi Ye, Wang Lei, Wang Ming, Zhang Yuyan, Zheng Yongnian, Zhou Hong Drawing on a large body of empirical studies done over the last two decades, this Series provides its readers with in-depth analyses of the past and present and forecasts for the future course of China’s development. It contains the latest research results made by members of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. This series is an invaluable companion to every researcher who is trying to gain a deeper understanding of the development model, path and experience unique to China. Thanks to the adoption of Socialism with Chinese characteristics, and the implementation of comprehensive reform and opening-up, China has made tremendous achievements in areas such as political reform, economic development, and social construction, and is making great strides towards the realization of the Chinese dream of national rejuvenation. In addition to presenting a detailed account of many of these achievements, the authors also discuss what lessons other countries can learn from China’s experience.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13571 Xin Qiu

China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction

123 Xin Qiu College of Engineering Zhejiang Normal University Jinhua, Zhejiang, China

ISSN 2363-6866 ISSN 2363-6874 (electronic) Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path ISBN 978-981-13-9557-4 ISBN 978-981-13-9558-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1

Jointly published with Social Sciences Academic Press The print edition is not for sale in China. Customers from China please order the print book from: Social Sciences Academic Press.

First published in China by Zhejiang People’s Publishing House in 2018 © Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Series Preface

Since China’s reform and opening began in 1978, the country has come a long way on the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. Over 30 years of reform efforts and sustained spectacular economic growth have turned China into the world’s second largest economy and wrought many profound changes in the Chinese society. These historically significant developments have been garnering increasing attention from scholars, governments and the general public alike around the world since the 1990s, when the newest wave of China studies began to gather steam. Some of the hottest topics have included the so-called “China miracle”, “Chinese phenomenon”, “Chinese experience”, “Chinese path” and the “Chinese model”. Homegrown researchers have soon followed suit. Already hugely productive, this vibrant field is putting out a large number of books each year, with Social Sciences Academic Press alone having published hundreds of titles on a wide range of subjects. Because most of these books have been written and published in Chinese, however, readership has been limited outside China—even among many who study China—for whom English is still the lingua franca. This language barrier has been an impediment to efforts by academia, business communities and policy-makers in other countries to form a thorough understanding of contemporary China, of what is distinct about China’s past and present may mean not only for her future but also for the future of the world. The need to remove such an impediment is both real and urgent, and the Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path is my answer to the call. This series features some of the most notable achievements from the last 20 years by scholars in China in a variety of research topics related to reform and opening. They include both theoretical explorations and empirical studies and cover economy, society, politics, law, culture and ecology, the six areas in which reform and opening policies have had the deepest impact and farthest-reaching conse- quences for the country. Authors for the series have also tried to articulate their visions of the “Chinese Dream” and how the country can realize it in these fields and beyond.

v vi Series Preface

All of the editors and authors for the Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path are both longtime students of reform and opening and recognized authorities in their respective academic fields. Their credentials and expertise lend credibility to these books, each of which having been subject to a rigorous peer review process for inclusion in the series. As part of the Reform and Development Program under the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television of the People’s Republic of China, the series is published by Springer, a Germany-based academic publisher of international repute and distributed overseas. I am confident that it will help fill a lacuna in studies of China in the era of reform and opening.

Xie Shouguang Summary

Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China has experienced high-speed and prosperous development in the fields of politics, economy, culture, etc. As a result, China’s infrastructure construction as the basic condition of social survival and development has also been continuously pushed forward with the tide of high-speed development. Looking back on the past 30 years, China’s infrastructure construction has made gratifying achievements but also experienced many frustrations. Basing on our experience, it becomes the responsibility of the management departments at all levels in our country and research institutes to make it smoothly to carry out national infrastructure construction in Africa by setting up examples and providing opinions and suggestions for African people. On the basis of systematical studies, this book specifies infrastructure construction achievements and present development situation in China in the 30 years after the reform and opening up in the fields of architecture, energy, transportation, environmental protection, water conservancy, telecommunications and urban arts and sports. This book also summarizes the experiences and lessons in the course of the construction and puts forward the development requirements and prospects in the hope of providing reference and enlightenment for African people in their infrastructure construction and offering certain help for their smooth construction work in order to avoid disadvantages and achieve better economic and social benefits. This book involves ten chapters. Chapters 1–3 are completed by Xin Qiu; Chaps. 4 and 5 are completed by Yang Qing; Chaps. 6–9 are completed by Luo Xiaohua and Xiao Shanglin; Chap. 10 is completed by Zuo Xiaoxiao and Wei Shuang. Xin Qiu is responsible for the proofreading. In the writing process, the group members carried out surveys of the yearbooks and reports about China’s infrastructure construction and also widely referred to and cited a large number of domestic scholars’ research results as well as the monographic study reports. So here, we give sincere thanks to all the researchers’ hard work. We also expect valuable comments from experts and readers in order to further improve this book in future.

vii Contents

1 Preface ...... 1 1 Contents and Principles in Infrastructure Construction ...... 1 1.1 Contents of Infrastructure Construction ...... 1 1.2 Principles in Infrastructure Construction ...... 2 2 Stages in China’s Infrastructure Construction ...... 3 2.1 Primary Stage ...... 3 2.2 Rapid Development Stage ...... 5 2.3 Stable Development Stage ...... 6 Reference ...... 11 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction ...... 13 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building ...... 13 1.1 Following Old Residence Forms in Modern Times ...... 14 1.2 Improvement in Welfare Housing at Early Stage of Reform and Opening-up ...... 20 1.3 Commodity House Type of Residence ...... 23 1.4 Advanced Smart Dwelling House ...... 29 1.5 30 Years Development of Chinese Rural Residential Buildings ...... 30 1.6 Primary Residence ...... 31 1.7 Upgraded Rural Housing in the Countryside ...... 32 1.8 Farmhouse Resort ...... 34 References ...... 35

ix x Contents

3 Development in Chinese Commercial Office Building Construction ...... 37 1 Old City Renovation and New Urban Districts Commercial Construction ...... 37 1.1 The Value of the Old City and Reasons of Innovation ...... 37 1.2 Strategies and Goals in Old City District Innovation ...... 38 1.3 The Emergence and Location of New Commercial Space .... 40 1.4 Guidance and Requirement for New City Zone Construction ...... 41 2 The Commercial Office Construction in Central Administrative District ...... 42 2.1 Overview of the Commercial Office Construction ...... 42 2.2 The Portfolio Model of Commercial Office Construction .... 43 2.3 Traffic Organization Around the Central Administrative District ...... 44 2.4 The Harmony of the Commercial Office Buildings ...... 45 3 Commercial Office Construction in Central Business District ..... 46 3.1 Overview of Central Business District ...... 46 3.2 Formation Conditions and Characteristics of CBD Commercial Building ...... 47 3.3 The Necessity of the Development of the CBD in China .... 48 3.4 Benefits of Modern CBD to the Urban Development ...... 49 4 High-Tech Industrial Zone Commercial Office Construction ...... 49 4.1 Current Situation of High-tech Industrial Zone...... 49 4.2 The Development Trend of Contemporary High-Tech Industrial Park ...... 51 4.3 The Characteristics of Location Selection of High-Tech Industrial Park ...... 52 4.4 Necessities for the Construction of High-Tech Industrial Park ...... 53 References ...... 54 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy Projects Construction ...... 55 1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction ...... 55 1.1 The Petroleum Utilization and Development in China ...... 55 1.2 Coal Utilization and Development ...... 58 1.3 Natural Gas Development and Utilization in China ...... 60 1.4 Electric Power Exploitation and Development in China ..... 63 2 New Clean Energy Projects Construction ...... 66 2.1 Wind Energy Utilization and Development in China ...... 66 2.2 Tidal Energy Utilization and Development in China ...... 68 Contents xi

2.3 Development and Application of Solar Energy in China ..... 70 2.4 Nuclear Energy Utilization and Development in China ...... 72 3 Challenges and Prospect of Energy in China ...... 74 3.1 Challenges in Future Energy Development in China ...... 74 3.2 China’s Energy Development Prospect ...... 75 References ...... 76 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction ...... 79 1 The Development of China’s Road Transportation ...... 79 1.1 Current Situation of Highway Transportation Development ...... 79 1.2 Development of Highway Network ...... 81 1.3 The Development of Highway Transportation ...... 81 1.4 Rapid Development of Highway ...... 82 2 The Development of China’s Railway Transportation ...... 83 2.1 Achievements of Railway Transportation Development ..... 83 2.2 China Railway Network Construction ...... 85 2.3 Rapid Development of High-Speed Railway ...... 86 3 The Development of China’s Water Transport ...... 87 3.1 Water Transportation Network in China ...... 88 3.2 Present Situation of Water Transportation Development ..... 89 3.3 Characteristics of Water Transportation Development in China ...... 89 3.4 Port Infrastructure Construction ...... 91 4 Typical Achievements ...... 92 5 Development in China Pipeline Transportation ...... 92 5.1 Current Development Condition in China Pipeline Transportation ...... 92 5.2 Long-Distance Oil and Gas Pipeline Technology ...... 93 5.3 West to East Gas Transmission Project ...... 93 6 The Development of China’s Air Transportation ...... 94 6.1 Present Situation in Air Transportation Development ...... 94 6.2 Development Process in Aviation Transportation Industry ... 95 6.3 The Development of Air Transportation Network...... 95 6.4 National Policy Support ...... 96 References ...... 97 6 Development in Chinese Environmental Water Conservancy Construction ...... 99 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction ...... 99 1.1 Sewage Treatment and Reclaimed Water Reuse Project ..... 100 1.2 Industrial Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Project ...... 104 1.3 Rainwater Collection and Treatment Reuse Project ...... 105 xii Contents

1.4 Harmless Treatment on Production Waste Gas and Slag ..... 108 1.5 Ecological Restoration Project ...... 114 2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction ...... 119 2.1 Renovation and Restoration of Hydropower Stations and Reservoirs ...... 119 2.2 River Dredging and Embankment Reinforcement ...... 124 2.3 Water Supply Pipe Network Management and Water Transfer Project ...... 127 References ...... 130 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction ...... 133 1 Post and Telecommunication Projects Construction ...... 133 1.1 Overview of Post and Telecommunication Projects Investment Scale ...... 133 1.2 Present Situation of Overall Capacity in Post and Telecommunication ...... 133 1.3 Telecom and Communication Project Investment Development Trends ...... 137 2 Construction of Basic Information Network Project ...... 141 2.1 Overview of Information Network Project Construction ..... 141 2.2 Evolution of Information Network ...... 141 2.3 Principle of Basic Information Network Construction ...... 142 2.4 Construction of Basic Information Network Project Changes Daily Life ...... 143 2.5 Basic Development Direction of Information Network ...... 145 References ...... 146 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction ...... 147 1 Public Cultural Infrastructure Construction ...... 147 1.1 Public Cultural Products and Services ...... 148 1.2 Integration of Urban and Rural Cultural Development ...... 150 1.3 Extensive Mass Cultural Activities ...... 153 2 Public Sports Infrastructure Construction ...... 155 2.1 Public Sports Installations and Facilities ...... 155 2.2 The Full Implementation of the National Fitness Program ... 159 2.3 Goals of Public Sports Development ...... 161 References ...... 162 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction ...... 163 1 Achievements of Chinese Infrastructure Construction ...... 163 1.1 Farmland Water Conservancy Construction ...... 163 1.2 The Energy Industry ...... 164 Contents xiii

1.3 The Transportation Industry ...... 165 1.4 Information Communications and Post Service ...... 166 1.5 Urban Public Facilities ...... 167 1.6 Education, Culture, Health and Sports Causes ...... 168 2 Chinese Infrastructure Construction and Development Requirements ...... 170 References ...... 174 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure in the New Era ...... 175 1 Construction of Residential Projects in China ...... 176 1.1 The Fourth-Generation Housing ...... 176 1.2 Shantytown Transformation Project ...... 177 1.3 Deep Pit Hotel ...... 178 2 Construction of Ofﬁce and Commercial Projects in China ...... 179 2.1 Shanghai Tower ...... 179 2.2 CITIC Tower ...... 180 3 The Construction of New Energy Projects in China ...... 181 3.1 The Overview of the Utilization and Development of Energy in China ...... 182 3.2 The Use and Development of Nuclear Energy in China ..... 183 3.3 The Development and Utilization of UHV Power Grid in China ...... 185 3.4 The Hydrogen Fuel Cell in China ...... 186 4 Construction of Transportation Projects in China ...... 187 4.1 Chinese Bridge ...... 187 4.2 Chinese Road ...... 188 4.3 Chinese Port ...... 192 5 The Construction of Water Conservancy and Environmental Protection Projects ...... 193 6 Construction of Post and Telecommunications Projects in China ...... 195 6.1 The 4G, 5G Network ...... 195 6.2 Express Delivery Industry...... 196 7 Constructions of Cultural and Sports Projects in China ...... 197 7.1 Guangzhou Opera House ...... 198 7.2 World Exposition Museum ...... 199 7.3 The Sharing Bicycle ...... 199 References ...... 200 Index ...... 201 About the Author

Xin Qiu, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department Header, who is Master Supervisor in the College of Engineering of Zhejiang Normal University, got his Ph.D. from Tongji University of China and had the postdoctoral experience from Institute for Multimodal Transportation (IMTrans), Jackson State University of the USA. As well, he is Advanced Researcher in Road and Trafﬁc Laboratory of Hong Kong. He has wide academic experiences in the ﬁeld of road engineering, airport engineering and geotechnical engineering. In the past few years, he has accomplished more than 20 projects, received many grants from the related technology department and published more than 30 professional papers in the press. He is a peer reviewer for the famous international journals including International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Road Materials and Pavement Design, and Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering.

xv Chapter 1 Preface

Infrastructure, the fundamental condition for the operation of any society, refers to the basic facilities and structures needed for the maintenance and prosperity of a society which are indispensable for economic development and improvement of people’s living conditions and is the symbol of a nation’s comprehensive strength and an important indicator of the modernization degree. Infrastructure is the general word for the physical infrastructure and social infrastructure essential to enable and enhance social development including all the facilities necessary for economic and other social activities. It is one of the important preconditions to production units to achieve economic, environmental and social beneﬁts.

1 Contents and Principles in Infrastructure Construction

1.1 Contents of Infrastructure Construction

Physical infrastructure generally refers to energy systems, water supply and drainage systems, transportation systems, communication systems, environmental systems, disaster prevention systems and other engineering facilities. Social infrastructure refers to the administration, culture, education, health care, business services, ﬁnance, insurance and social welfare, etc. Infrastructure, according to the nature of services, generally can be divided into three categories: (1) Production infrastructure: includes water supply, electricity, roads and transport facilities, storage equipment, telecommunications facilities, sewerage, greening and other environmental protection and disaster prevention facilities which are in service in the production sector. (2) Social infrastructure: refers to the establishments and facilities serving necessities of the residents, such as commercial and catering, services, ﬁnancial and insurance institutions, residential and public utilities, public transportation, © Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_1 2 1 Preface

transport and communications agencies, educational and health care institutions, cultural and sports facilities, and so forth. (3) System security institutions: such as the public security organs, the politics and law institutions and urban construction planning and management departments. With the development of economy and technology, the quality of infrastructure is also improved with more types and better services.

1.2 Principles in Infrastructure Construction

1. Integrate resources and highlight key point Aiming at accelerating national social system perfection, infrastructure construction ought to make full use of the existing conditions, integrate resources and boost investment benefits. In this process, the requirements for infrastructure from both national economy and social development should be considered coordinately in order to raise industrial competitiveness, accelerate cultivation of the high-tech industries which have breakthrough effect on economy development and structural adjustment and at the same time to guarantee national security and achieve sustainable development. Infrastructure construction should also focus on the needs for innovative technology in fundamental national projects, strengthen key areas and weak links, promote rational distribution and target on the reform and construction of critical infrastructure [1]. 2. Coordinate short-term and long-term plan at a speed moderately ahead of time With the characteristics of basic, strategic, continual and public qualities, infrastructure construction need farsighted plan, a certain period and the necessary resources reservation and in this way national infrastructure construction should be moderately ahead of economic development. So the construction plan should integrate the short term social and economic development into a longer term blueprint, highlighting the needs on immediate technological breakthroughs in national economy and social development and the realistic requirements on infrastructure construction in the process of technology development and industrial upgrading. More importantly, long-term national development should also be taken into consideration, with strategic and forward-looking perspective to raise the level and quality of the construction projects, to laid solid material foundations for technological breakthroughs in certain fields and future technological innovation and leaping development. 3. Broaden the channels, diversify inputs Infrastructure construction should be planned at the height of national strategic planning and overall arrangement by making full use of resources both at home and abroad adhering to the principle of self-reliance while not neglecting opening up to the outside world to introduce new technology, facilities, talents, management experience, and integrate all these into our national infrastructure services to achieve rapid development. Government is responsible for the general guidance of the investment direction and input intensity, mobilizing the enthusiasm of all social sections, local 1 Contents and Principles in Infrastructure Construction 3 governments, enterprises, scientific research units and all aspects of the society to jointly improve infrastructure construction. Government investment should be given priority in the basic, public welfare infrastructure construction while other social aspects are encouraged to participate together under proper guidance. For infrastructure with industrial innovation capability, give market the dominant position in allocating resources, public fiscal expenditure should be invested in the strategic areas mainly related with the interests of state and industry as a whole. Enterprise infrastructure relies mainly on its own investment, but government instead should provide proper support to the potential infrastructure project with industrial and regional meaning to explore a new way of financing mechanism gradually. 4. Mechanism innovation and resources sharing Infrastructure should symbolize the characteristics of publicity, sharing, openness, with technological innovation, system innovation and mechanism innovation sharing the equal importance. The blockade and division between departments and institutions should be demolished to strengthen the government guidance and the cooperation among the production, education and research sections to avoid duplicated construction and resource waste. The role of the department in charge of science and technology and the relevant departments should be fully used to make a clear division of labor, strengthen cooperation, take a new look of cooperatively responsible situation. Driven by the reform, infrastructure construction in the new era should actively explore and constantly improve the effective management system and operational mechanism. The new scientific concept of development also requires further opening and joint efforts in different types of infrastructure to fully function in producing basic and high-tech research results.

2 Stages in China’s Infrastructure Construction

Since 1978, China’s been experiencing a rapid growth of investment in basic industries and infrastructure construction. From 1979 to 2012, the national basic industries and infrastructure investment totaled 80.1552 trillion yuan, accounting for 38.4% of the contemporary social investment, with the average annual growth of 21.5, 4.2% higher than annual national economic growth over the same period. Since the reform and opening up, the construction of basic industries and infrastructure can be divided into the following three stages:

2.1 Primary Stage

In 1978, facing the major task of restoring the nation socially and economically, the priority was given to the investment in the construction of basic industry and infrastructure, while the investment still remained on a small scale resulting in a weak 4 1 Preface infrastructure. To change this situation, during the 11 years, from 1979 to 1989, the nation increased investment in key industries, though with a tight budget. And the total investment in the basic industries and infrastructure construction reached 547.9 billion yuan, with a 10.7% average annual growth. In order to fill the infrastructure gap, the nation focused on building a batch of energy, transportation and other national key projects which played key roles for the overall development. From 1982 to 1989, the country has arranged 319 key construction projects, with the total investment of 248.6 billion yuan, accounting for 29% of the national construction capital at the same period. Of all these projects, 261 projects were in energy, basic raw material industry and transportation field with a planned investment of 292.7 billion yuan, accounting for 94.2% of the total key construction projects. During this period, investment in infrastructure in the primary industry took up a big proportion. In 1978–1989, the investment in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery reached the total investment of 50.9 billion yuan, accounting for 8.9% of all basic industries and infrastructure investment. At the same time, investment in education, culture, health care and sports came into a rapid developing stage. From 1979 to 1989, the total infrastructure construction investments in these fields was 83.9 billion yuan, with a 25.8% average annual growth rate, 15.1% higher than that in other basic industries and infrastructure investment over the same period. Many significant projects were completed during this period such as the first phase of the “three north” shelterbelt project, a great number of commodity grain production base and some large water conservancy projects. In the corresponding period, a number of 153 key energy projects including Gezhouba hydropower station and Pingshuo opencast coal mine had been completed. 88 key raw materials projects such as Jidong cement plant project and the first phase of Daqin electrified railway, the third phase of Qinhuangdao coal terminal, Beijing–Wuhan–Guangzhou coaxial cable carrier project, etc., 125 key transportation and post and telecommunications projects had also been put into use. In 1988, China’s first highway, 18.5 km long, between Shanghai and Jiading opened. The first phase of Shanghai Baoshan iron and steel plant went into production in 1985. The first phase of 1984 Jilin Baishan hydropower station were completed and put into operation with power generating capacity increased by 900,000 kW. Hebei Jidong cement plant was put into operation in 1984 and the production capacity increased by 1.55 million tons per year. Xiang YuXian from Xiangfan to Chongqing, was open in 1981 the which added the mileage of 895 km. The completion of these projects reduced the short supply in fields of energy, raw materials, traffic and communication industry, improved the investment structure, with more emphasis put into heavy industry and less in light industry in the early years of opening-up and reform and laid a good foundation for the next step of the national economy development (Figs. 1 and 2). 2 Stages in China’s Infrastructure Construction 5

Fig. 1 Daqin electriﬁed railway

Fig. 2 Gezhouba hydropower station

2.2 Rapid Development Stage

Since the 1990s, in order to realize the strategic target in the second step of the modernization construction, The Outline of People’s Republic of China Ten-year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Eighth Five-year Plan assigned clear jobs for the development in agriculture, water conservancy, energy, transportation, post and telecommunication and many other industries. As a result, the investment infrastructure construction leaped up rapidly. From 1990 to 2002, the total investment of basic industries and infrastructure construction reached 8.0249 6 1 Preface trillion yuan, with the average annual growth rate at 26, 15.3% higher than that from 1979 to 1989, and 4.5% higher than that of the average annual investment growth of the whole society investment over the same period. During this period, the treasury bonds fund played a key role in infrastructure investment. Since 1998, facing the unfavorable international and domestic environment, in order to start domestic demand, our nation implemented a proactive fiscal policy. From 1998 to 2002, a total of 660 billion yuan special treasury bonds for basic industries and infrastructure investment were issued within five years. These funds are mainly used for agriculture, water conservancy, transportation, communications, urban infrastructure, renovation of urban and rural power grid, China grain reserves and other infrastructure projects. In addition, some discount funds for technical innovation were used in transformation project of some basic industries. These funds investment encouraged the involvement of a large number of social capital which helped to boost the rapid growth of investment in basic industries and infrastructure, so as to further promote the steady growth of investment in the whole society and the economy as a whole. From 1998 to 2002, during the five year period, investment in basic industries and infrastructure was 7.338 trillion yuan, with the average annual growth rate at 13.1, 2.2% higher than that of the average annual investment growth of the whole society, effectively propelling the growth of investment on the whole nation scale, and permitting the national economy a smooth transition from the difficult times. The years from 1990 to 2002 was the time that great achievements in China’s basic industries and infrastructure construction were made, that a number of important basic industry and infrastructure construction projects were completed and put into operation and began to produce economic profit. The project of returning farmland to forest and grass, wildlife protection and nature reserve building project, Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia 10 billion-Jin commodity grain base projects, etc. brought the infrastructure in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery on to a higher stage. Shenfu Dongsheng mine area, Xinjiang Tarim oil field, the first stage of Daya Bay and Ling’ao nuclear power station, the Yellow River Xiaolangdi water control project, Er’tan hydropower station project alleviated the insufficiency in the energy supply. Beijing-Kowloon railway, Beijing west railway station, Shanghai Pudong and Guangzhou Baiyun airport, Shanghai metro line 2 projects were put into use. With Shenyang–Dalian highway‘s opening, national highway construction was operated in full swing and modern transportation network began to take shape. In the water conservancy aspect, levees were built in lakes and mainstreams of rivers such as The Yangtze River and Yellow River and the Three Gorges Project also started (Fig. 3).

2.3 Stable Development Stage

Since 2002, the state on the one hand has been taking active measures to increase government investment in basic industries and infrastructure construction, on the other hand, foreign investment and private capital were also encouraged to invest in 2 Stages in China’s Infrastructure Construction 7

Fig. 3 Beam-balanced bumping machines working in Xinjiang Tarim oil field basic industries and infrastructure projects which made the national basic industries and infrastructure level enhanced greatly, dramatically improving people’s living environment and urban rural landscape. The investment in this period shows the following characteristics: 1. Rapid growth of investment in energy and basic materials During the decade from 2003 to 2012, the investment in energy industry grew by an average annual growth rate of 19.7%, with average annual growth rate in coal producing and selection and oil processing and coking industry at 32.2% and 28.5% respectively. The growth rate in basic raw material industry reached 25.2% annually. The details are as shown in Table 1. 2. National support for the Midwest was strengthened in terms of policies and funds, boosting the rapid growth of investment in basic industries and infrastructure in the area. National fiscal support eased tight budget problem in the Midwest infrastructure construction, triggering other source of funds to flowing to the regions for basic industries and infrastructure construction. Thus, many basic industries and infrastructure projects had been built in the Midwest, such as the Three Gorges Project, Qinghai-Tibet railway, YuHuaiXian railway, Gansu Baotian highway, Shaanxi Huangyan highway, Guizhou QianXi power plant, Shanxi Baoji returning farmland to forest project, natural forest protection project, Inner Mongolia Ximeng agriculture and animal husbandry infrastructure construction project, etc. The completion and operation of these projects greatly improved the backwardness of the Midwest infrastructure, and played a positive role in improving people’s living standard, narrowing the gap between the eastern area and the Midwest region. 8 1 Preface (continued) increasing rate (%) 29.9 36.5 14.0 28.5 11.0 Annual 16.4 25.2 32.2 19.7 19.2 6199 29,726 22,062 15,162 323 Total 86,472 131,398 25,071 154,969 159,165 1605 8772 3077 3077 2012 69 12,948 26,151 5370 26,076 26,932 1244 6819 3022 2268 2011 11,603 21,157 58 4907 23,046 25,705 964 3926 2928 2035 11,915 2010 16,277 34 216,276 3785 25,705 651 3356 2791 1840 11,139 25,548 2009 35 19,478 3057 21823.2 2250 2675 1828 9024 420 11,748 2008 16,346 19 2399 14,807 Petroleum and natural gas exploration Petroleum processing and coking Electricity, heat production and supply Gas production and supply Coal mining 2008–2012 investment in basic industries and infrastructure unit: 100,000,000 yuan Year Farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery industry Energy industry Include Basic industrial raw materials industry Transportation industry Postal industry Table 1 2 Stages in China’s Infrastructure Construction 9 increasing rate (%) 5.9 22.2 16.9 25.7 28.5 Annual 28.5 25.0 13.5 21.5 18,633 18,543 7986 3342 Total 12,788 9896 112,096 27,409 686,270 2691 4386 1080 839 2012 2195 24,152 3183 4608 131,135 1680 3413 1602 463 2011 19,506 2498 1909 3890 111,747 2007 2774 1524 2010 18,036 1685 502 1863 3718 99,677 1197 2279 2218 14,464 2009 1543 1448 419 3242 97,051 1931 1420 729 10,130 2008 63,957 1014 936 271 2355 (continued) Year Telecommunication and other information service industry Water conservancy management Environmental management Public facilities management Education Culture Health Sports Total Table 1 10 1 Preface

3. Diversification of investors and capital sources in basic industries and infrastructure At the early stage of reform and opening up, the majority capital of investment for infrastructure and basic industries came from the nation. While along with the deepening of the reform and opening up, foreign and private capital in the basic industries and infrastructure construction displayed more important role, helping to ease the tension in state funds. In 1978 capital invested in basic industries and infrastructure are basically national financial fund while, when it came to 2012, according to the types of investors, state-holding investment accounted for 61.1%, private-holding investment accounted for 32.4% and collective-holding investment accounted for 4.9%. Although the state investment in infrastructure and basic industries took the absolute holding position, the investors and funding sources have been gradually diversified. 4. A group of projects related with the national economy and the people’s livelihood have been completed. Of all these projects, more than ten billion yuan construction projects covered the fields of oil, iron and steel, electric power, railway, subway, ports, airports with the following projects included: the west-east gas pipeline infrastructure projects, west to east power transmission project, Daqing oilfield productivity development project, CNOOC’s offshore oil and gas field exploration and development investment projects, Zhejiang Zhenhai 8 million tons per year oil refining expansion project, Shanghai Secco 900,000 tons per year ethylene project, electric power projects in Guangdong Jiangmen, Zhejiang Wushashan and Beilun, Jiangsu Taicang, Fujian Houshi, Shanxi Yangcheng, etc., railway projects such as Qinghai-Tibet railway, Ning-Xi Railway, Yu-Huai Railway, Zhu-Liu multiple track, Zhe-Gan Rail- way, Shuo-Huang Railway, Nei-Kun railway, Fujian Sanfu expressway project, Guangzhou metro line 2 project, Tianjin port expansion project, the first phase of Yangshan deep-water port container project, Guangzhou Baiyun international airport relocation project, etc. In July 2012, three gorges project went into full operation (Figs. 4 and 5). Through 30 years of large-scale investment and construction, there have been a leaping growth in China’s basic industries and infrastructure construction investment, with a large number of projects completed and put into operation, basic industry developing rapidly, infrastructure being improved continuously, which ensuring the high-speed pace in national economy development. In the new historical era, sustainable development the in economic society will pose higher demand and challenging tasks on energy, raw materials, urban infrastructure construction. National basic industries and infrastructure construction should be guided by the scientific development outlook, adhere to the principle of sound and rapid development and provide a more solid foundation for the development of national economy and the improvement of people’s living standards. Reference 11

Fig. 4 Night view at Tianjin port

Fig. 5 Tibet railway

Reference

1. National Development and Reform Commission. 2005. Infrastructure Construction of National Innovation Capacity Planning Approach in “The Eleventh Five Year Plan” (in Chinese). Chapter 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

In the initial stage of opening up and reform, the national residential condition is commonly poor, such as the packed and cluttered warrens in the north and the garret in the south. In the rural places, adobe houses and cave dwellings are typical in inland north China, while in the south, people live in thatched houses which are old in disrepair and jeopardy. In the planned economy, staffs mainly rely on welfare distribution principle to rent public houses, without buying their own. Although people have places to live, the space is limited in poor condition with no property ownership which suppressed people’s housing demand. Since 1998, housing system has been reformed and the nation called a halt on housing distribution system by replacing it with the housing monetization distribution formula which made housing an important part of the family property. Housing system reform made housing construction new economic growth point and new hotspot in consumption. In 2008 the total area of commercial housing sold reached 411.85 million m2 in cities at prefecture level and above not including the city-administered counties and the sales totaled 1.90706 trillion yuan, which accounted for 66.3% and 79.2% respectively, on the national scale. In 2008 China’s urban residents per capita living ﬂoor space have increased from 4.3 m2 in 1949 to 23.0 m2.

1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building

In the 30 years after the reform and opening up, great changes have taken place in the urban residents living conditions. Along with the proper utilization of the old residential forms, historic and architectural changes also took places in the previous unﬁtting types of habitation. In the 70s, bungalow and tube-shaped housing were the most common types of residents with no independent bathroom, kitchen, sewer, heating system and the narrow corridor were often ﬁlled with soot and oil fume from coal-burning stove for heating and cooking. Now, apartments with complete

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 13 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_2 14 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction sets of living-service facilities such as independent bathroom, kitchen, shower room, heating system, gas supply, water supply facilities along with the not uncommon high-rise residential community, skip-ﬂoor apartment, uniquely designed detached villa, greatly improved residents’ living conditions.

1.1 Following Old Residence Forms in Modern Times

In the process of human history, the various styles of dwelling houses evolving from the simple and practical to aesthetically elegant style, from focusing on structural strength to practical comfort involved human intelligence and reﬂected their desire for better homes. Since 1978, China’s residential building kept a continuous development trend by incorporating many of the old architectural residential buildings’ styles into present projects to gradually form the contemporary architectural complex with characteristics of times. 1. The courtyard house-Siheyuan Despite the complex and diverse Chinese dwelling housing styles, the courtyard houses is the most important and widespread one which is in long-term used by the Han, Hui, Man, Bai, and other nationalities. A courtyard house is a type of residence with many houses located around the center courtyard to form a closed courtyard as the basic form. According to its building structures, geographical locations and other related factors, courtyard can be classiﬁed into four types, namely, the northern type, the south type, the south patio type and integrating type. (1) Northern detached courtyard Beijing courtyard house, traditional northern Chinese folk residence with its distinguishing characteristics, stands itself out in northern types of courtyard. The typical layout of courtyard house is a courtyard enclosed by houses of principal rooms, wing rooms, reversely-set rooms, kitchen, storehouse and toilet room, utility room, etc. Generally, the courtyard house is built on a north–south axis. There are courtyard houses in various scales and large courtyard is composed of main gate, the outer court, second gate, the inner court, backyard and some side yards. A brick screen is built just opposite the main gate and a side access is leading to the outer court. The outer court is a transition between the gate and the second courtyard on the south of which a row of rooms is called reversely-set rooms and on the north, the inner court walls. The second gate, Chuihua Gate with hallway, is the entry into the inner court. The principal rooms, wing rooms symmetrically on both sides of the principal rooms, ChaoShou porch corridor and patio compromise the inner court. The backyard, also called “small backyard”, has similar pattern to the inner court. A simple courtyard house has only one courtyard surrounded by the principal rooms, wing rooms the reversely-set rooms without the outer court and the backyard [1]. Beijing courtyard house, the atrium house is gradually accepted by modern people. 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 15

Fig. 1 Beijing courtyard house

By integrating modern infrastructure into interior reconstruction, courtyard house become a new housing style welcomed by contemporary people (Fig. 1). (2) The southern house in courtyard style in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River The southern house in courtyard style is approximately the same as that of the north, but in the architectural style and structural design, there are still some differences. The northern housing design emphasizes the characteristics of brightness and broadness with large courtyard displaying a spacious, open, simple but solid touch. While, the southern architecture stresses a delicate, smart style with narrow courtyard and densely packed housing clusters depicting a feeling of exquisite ﬂexible. In addition, for a better ventilating, house in courtyard style in the south as a whole are built facing southeast or just south in the shape of a rectangular with the east–west span much longer than the north–south span while in the north the opposite is true with the main rooms facing south and the north–south span generally much longer than the east–west span in shape of a square or rectangular. Southern house in courtyard style boasts the traits of high ridge, thin wall, deep eaves which can fully protect the house from rain and heat. For all these advantages, this type of dwelling houses is popular and accepted widely by many residents in the south (Fig. 2). 2. Log house As the name suggests, the log house structure looks like the shape of the Chinese word “well” by placing logs vertically to make the wall and then place the frame of the roof on it. It is a unique traditional dwelling type by using local materials, and is built just on the site. This kind of houses have broad distribution almost throughout the mountains and forest from the northeast provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang to the southwest provinces like Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou and from Xinjiang Altay to Jiangxi Yudu forest region. In timber-rich mountains and forests, log houses can fully 16 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 2 Southern houses in courtyard style with patio in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River display its superiority by employing local materials to build house. Comparing with other building materials, the downside of this house is that it is not ﬁre-proof, strong and durable. Besides, the structure of log house is rough and timber-consuming only suitable for construction in areas rich in timber. For all its defects and the reality that the coverage of original forest in China is shrinking, log house has no promise and promotion value. So, log house is only a product in the process of historical development which is now gradually phased out [2] (Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3 Mosuo log house 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 17

Fig. 4 Changbaishan mountain log house

3. The cave house Cave house, also known as “the loess cave house”, is a form of folk dwelling with a long history in China, mainly distributed in Henan, Shanxi, Shanxi and Gansu province with thick layer of loess. This kind of residential building can be traced back to the caves in ancient times which were the product of working people through their long-term productive activities and life practice by learning about nature and transforming nature. Covered by the thick loess with deep ditches and steep cliffs, the region of the loess plateau enjoys loose soil easy to dig and hard loess cliff uneasy to collapse. For quite some time, people living in the west China by using these characteristics of loess, dig many shapes of caves as their residential dwelling. The construction techniques and tools required in cave house building are quite simple with no expensive building materials involved. In addition, cave house will not violate the ecological balance and take up fertile farmland, while instead it is effective as being wind shelter, warm in winter and cool in summer. Cave house the scientific and reasonable dwelling form welcomed by the people in the western China, is still one of the major residential types in rural places in western regions [3] (Fig. 5). 4. The overhead house As its name suggests the overhead house is the residential building which is supported by wood pillars in the first floor without wall and the second floor is the place, connected with the ground by ladder, to live in. This type of building usually with two floors can protect from moisture, water and invading beasts without confined to the steady earth surface (rough terrain) and dry ground due to the use of pillars. In southwestern China, this type of building are popular in Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan and other regions where the local Benglong and Dai minority groups living in the house for several generations. 18 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 5 Folk dwelling in Shanbei-cave house

That wide spread overhead building enjoys a dry and comfortable interior. So in many construction sites, this building type will be properly used in suitable environment because it is a kind of the ancient architectural style in China (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Zhuang overhead building 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 19

5. The earth building Earth building is a castle-like dwelling built by Hakka people with plan view patterns of a square, circular, pentagon or eight diagrams among which the shape of square and circular are the most spectacular. The round earth building known as the “round village” is rare, looking like a ring from plan view in different sizes with different number of rooms ranging from 12 to 80 at the most. From the horizontal view, the rooms are arranged in different rings from ring one to ring five; from the vertical view, the building can have five floors to the top and the rooms as a whole form a circular courtyard which can accommodate dozens of households up to hundreds of people. The layout of earth building is divided according to the layer. With all the rooms independent from and inter-linked to each other by public corridors, the ground floor is used for kitchen, the second floor is the place to store food and the bedroom is in the third floor. By taking advantage of the hilly topography, some earth buildings were constructed around the top of the hill with the outer ring lower than the inner ring but for a defensive purpose, most earth buildings are built into a large size with the inner rings lower than the outer rings. After 1960s, construction of the traditional earth building has come to a halt leaving thousands of them in various shapes in south and west regions of Fujian province. Now coexisting with other residential dwellings, the vast majority of the high-rise earth building which are maintained in good condition and still have residents living in is particularly captivating. In 2008, due to its peculiar appearance and precious historical value, “Fujian Hakka earth buildings”, the Chinese local-style dwelling houses was included in the UNESCO world heritage list which became the 36th Chinese world heritage (Figs. 7 and 8).

Fig. 7 Fujian earth buildings complex 20 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 8 Fujian earth building

1.2 Improvement in Welfare Housing at Early Stage of Reform and Opening-up

In 1978 the Chinese government put forward an “internal reform and opening to the outside world” strategy and thus opened up a new era of reform and opening- up. Since then, China has entered a period of rapid economic development and the domestic people’s living standard has been greatly improved. At the same time, citizen’s residential forms which are closely related to people’s life have also changed dramatically. 1. Transitional housing Beginning in the late 1960s, many enterprises, due to the large number of workers and difficulty in housing construction and allocation, began to focus on the construction of transitional type collective dormitory housing which is often named tube-shape building. This is a characteristic housing style in the contemporary Chinese architectural history, a product of the intense scarcity in housing distribution in China’s urban enterprises and institutions in 70s and 80s last century. In the tube-shaped building, a long corridor goes through the middle with a row of rooms on both sides like the rooms in a dormitory with one door sitting opposite to the other. Generally, the room in this kind of building is narrow, lacking in privacy with toilet and kitchen shared by several households. The tube-shaped apartment became a transitional residence for new employees when queuing for the apartment allocation during a fairly long waiting time where although very narrow, inconvenient to live and lack of privacy, many workers still even got married and had children born there. In the Cultural Revolution, due to rapid population growth and the lag of economic construction, the contradiction between supply and demand of housing was gradually heated up. City real estate management had been severely damaged. As a 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 21 result, many public housings were even destroyed or grabbed and many private real estates were illegally taken over or even confiscated. The fact that limited welfare housing distribution was more and more difficult to meet the needs and aspiration of ordinary residents made the four generations living under the same roof situation not uncommon. Due to the limitation of living environment, the transitional housing in the form of tube-shaped housing had gradually been replaced in modern times (Fig. 9). 2. Apartment-style residential dwelling Apartment-style residential dwelling is an architectural form different from the western-style single family house. The high-rise apartments are usually built in big cities, in high standards with a number of single-family suites in each floor which is equipped with bedroom, sitting room, living room, bathroom, toilet, kitchen, and balcony and so on. Before the founding of the nation, in big cities some European and American style apartment buildings have been constructed such as Shanghai Broadway mansion and Shanghai waterfront apartment which, albeit in their early stage, had shown the embryonic forms of modern urban unit housing.

Fig. 9 Tube-shaped housing 22 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

In those days, this kind of residence were characterized by numerous rooms, 3–4 in each unit, large size, with 14–18 m2 in each room, high headroom up to 3–3.4 m and ample functions in the kitchen. But this kind of housing, due to its dwelling size not matching with the contemporary living standard of the nation, evolved into the type of several families living together sharing one kitchen. At present, such kind of big room apartment, has been gradually knocked out in term of architectural design, but because of the complete municipal and public supporting facilities and the superior location (most of them are in downtown area), these early built residential buildings are still favored in real estate market. 3. Qiansanmen Street Housing Renaissance project After the baptism of the Cultural Revolution with national residential construction in ten years’ stagnant situation Hong Renaissance project was carried out in Beijing Qianshanmen Street which was dominated by groups of designers and workers in the construction site. The high-rise residence building technology was first used in mass production. In all the 26 buildings, the industrialized construction mode such as the large formwork cast-in situ, large-panel structure and structural system with interior cast-in situ concrete wall and exterior side fascia were adopted which showed the driving force of the city and residence construction technology after Cultural Revolution. This project led to further exploration in national industrialization, standardization and modularization, pushing industrialized housing gradually into a new high. For the planning and design, in the late 70s the, along with the rapidly- increased need in the expansion of residence dwellings scale the “unified planning, unified design, unified construction, unified management” mode of construction was implemented to further expand the construction of residential area (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10 Residence in Qiansanmen Street 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 23

Fig. 11 Pilot residential buildings

4. Pilot residential area construction In the mid-80s, the national pilot residential area construction project pioneered by three pilot residential areas in Tianjin, Jinan, Wuxi was launched and had got the unprecedented achievements and promoted the development of China’s residential construction technology in planning and design theory, construction technology and quality and four-new technology application. Residential area planning at this stage generally focused on the following several aspects: One is the rational allocation of public buildings in order to meet the residents’ daily needs according to the size and location of the residential area; second, attention had been given to the diversiﬁcation of the building cluster’s combination form; third, construction of the living environment had been given certain care with the greenbelt area and concentrated green land widely welcomed (Fig. 11).

1.3 Commodity House Type of Residence

Since 1998 China has entered a commodity residential house era. Residential housing construction and the commodity housing development were racing at an uncontrol- lable breathtaking pace. Open plan and design patterns introduced some foreign elements in and many breakthroughs in the form and development mode had been achieved permitting the shackled and closed condition being broken and a rapid development in Chinese residential building being accomplished. Firstly, building scale and residence design had been gradually perfected with more attention given to the ecosystem. In the diversified residences such as high-rise building, multilayer building, townhouse and villa comfortableness ranked as the key consideration and there had been a great improvement in residential conditions. Secondly, residential 24 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction commodity market was getting more and more mature. The supporting facilities established in the community enrich residents’ life and the expansion area in residence products marked the upgrading of China’s residential conditions. 1. Small high-rise and high-rise residential building Small high-rise residence refers to the buildings in seven to nine floors, while high- rise residence in ten or more. High-rise residence is the product of modern economic development and the progress of science and technology and the inevitable result of modern industrialization, commercialization and urbanization. The emergence and development of modern high-rise building rooted in the concentrated population, shortage in urban land and fierce business competition. For a long time in the several thousand years ‘human civilization, the physical means in residential construction were confined to the original materials and bricklaying method and as a result, low-rise buildings which basically were expanded horizontally on the ground surface. Over the last century, due to the development of economy and technology, buildings gradually extended vertically into the air. The high-rise emerged not long ago but evolved in an amazing pace, especially in the late 20 years’ time, high-rise in various designs mushroomed all over the world which, represented by Beijing, Shanghai and some other cities characterized by their breathtaking large scale, huge number, advanced technology and chic pattern. The basic drive for development of science and technology derived from the social demand. So it was the social needs that provided the energy for strong vitality of high-rise building in its fast development (Fig. 12). 2. Youth apartment Urban youth apartment which is a residential model goes between youth residence and youth hostel usually comprises several dwelling units for more than one youth

Fig. 12 Shanghai Shimao Riverside Garden 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 25

Fig. 13 A youth apartment in Shanghai families. The owner can either be an institution or a person who provides non- permanent rental service to individuals or families. The dwelling size of youth apartment is generally small with relatively compact plane layout. In the youth apartment, there are not only living facilities but supporting facilities for youth activities. Urban youth apartment is specially designed dwelling type aiming at well-educated working-class youth living in the city with stable income. Different from other type of dwellings, in order to cater for the target residents’ needs urban youth apartment design, shall have high serviceability with unique features. Now, in some large and medium-size cities in our country this kind of apartment, with its economic and applicable characteristics is very popular in the housing market (Fig. 13). Apartment for elderly people is usually named as senior apartment, or home for the aged. According to the features of the Chinese senior apartment as well as the differences from its foreign counterpart, the apartment type of residence for elderly people in China (senior apartment) refers to the centralized apartments constructed mainly for the healthy aged people from empty nest family or single person family with the general self-care ability which is equipped with professional life service system proving emergency contact diet, nursing care, and other necessary services. The apartment type of residence for aged people is the product of the combination of the common live-at-home type of residence with the social supporting. In recent years, by learning the foreign construction experience, the domestic senior apartment development has gradually been attached importance. With the housing allocation in kind coming to an end, the senior apartment will be more and more welcomed by retirees (Fig. 14). 3. Villa Villa is a landscape residential dwelling built in the suburbs or scenic areas for recreation. The deﬁnition given by the Ministry of Land and Resources is: villa 26 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 14 Senior apartment refers to the single-family house in two to three stories covering a considerable area of land in low plot ratio. According to the architectural forms the villa is divided into the following ﬁve kinds: detached villa, joint-row villa, Semi-detached villa, townhouse and penthouse. (1) Detached villa Detached villa is the vertically independent single-family house with private garden. This type of villa usually surrounded by different sizes of green space and yard boasts about high level of privacy for its three-dimensional independence. This type of highly-private villa with the longest history compared with other types has very high market price and is the ultimate form of villa architecture (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15 Detached villa 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 27

(2) Semi-detached villa It is the type goes between the joint-row villa and detached villa which is a single building composed of two units built side by side as units sharing a party wall. The popular 2-PAC in the United States is a kind of semi-detached villa. By reducing the community density and increasing the daylighting dimensions, semi-detached villa gains more spacious outdoor space. Semi-detached villa is basically three- dimensional daylighting with the rooms on the outer side enjoying more than two sides of daylighting, many windows, good ventilation and, most importantly, wonderful daylighting and picturesque scenery (Fig. 16). (3) Townhouse The townhouse, usually two to four storeys, is vertically independent type of residence with its own yard and garage which is composed of three or more units in a row with the adjacent units sharing a party wall and uniﬁed graphic design but independent access. Townhouse villa is one of commonly used modes for economic villa (Fig. 17). (4) Overlapped villa It is the evolved form of overlapped townhouse which goes between detached villas and apartments and is made of overlapped multilayer villa-like compound residences. Generally it is four to seven storeys comprising vertically overlapped two to three storeys’ villa-like houses in each unit. Comparing with townhouse, overlapped villa shows more plentiful designs on its independent surfaces and at the same time, to some extent, overcomes its defect, namely narrow depth (Fig. 18).

Fig. 16 Semi-detached villa 28 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 17 Town house

Fig. 18 Overlapped villa

(5) Penthouse Originated in the United States, the penthouse, meaning the building in the sky, refers to the mansions located on top of high-rise building in the central area of a city. It is generally deﬁned as large villa-like compound or skip-ﬂoor residence built at the top of the apartment or high-rise building. There are several basic panoramic criteria for penthouse such as good geographic location, pantoscopic view, transparency, etc. (Fig. 19). 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 29

Fig. 19 Penthouse

1.4 Advanced Smart Dwelling House

Smart dwelling house is the advanced form of a well-off residence in the 21st century, in principle a kind of intelligent architectural and operation mode which integrates and optimizes the elements including architecture, equipment, operation service and management for a multi-function, high benefit and comfortableness effect. Different from intelligent office buildings, business center, smart dwelling house is a residential mode which by integrating the high-tech achievements and advanced equipments and ideology, management mode and residential building integrated design, present a convenient, easy and friendly living mode. People’s requirements for intelligent residence and the evolution of intelligent building construction techniques formation has experienced several stage s, namely electrification, automation, intelligentization with all these processes coexisting and alternatively developing in quite a long period of time [4]. Taking White Swan Mansion in Tianjin as an example, it belongs to the advanced intelligent service apartment. The lobby in the first floor is the hotel management center providing 24 h comprehensive humanized management and service for residents. The Chinese restaurant on the second floor provides residents with the abundance of Chinese food and holiday feast reservation service which make it possible for residents to enjoy good meal service without leaving home. On the third floor, there are beauty salon, supermarket, medical service center, chess and card room, table tennis room, billiards room, gymnasium and other facilities which are good places for after work leisure and entertainment and health care. White swan mansion is also equipped with advanced and sophisticated three- dimensional intelligent security system which guarantees the 24 h strict protection for residents when enjoying the comfortable mansion life with the beauty of Haihe scenery (Fig. 20). 30 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 20 Tianjin White Swan mansion

1.5 30 Years Development of Chinese Rural Residential Buildings

China is a populous country and among the population rural residents account for a large proportion. After the 30 years’ reform and opening up, great changes have taken place in Chinese cities, while the rural areas far away from the prosperous cities also experienced a lot reforms of which the change of the dwelling places is the biggest. The agricultural producers’ rural housing are different from the urban residence which apart from the housings for general living needs there are housings for agricultural production, such as housing for agricultural machinery deposition, housings for livestock and poultry raising, and housing for other sideline production facilities, etc. However, the changes of the era bestow a new deﬁnition for rural housing that is the brand new architectural form with multi-functions for living, production and entertainment. When traveling from one city to another, what appear in people’s vision are not only the once familiar scenes of wilderness, farmland and tile-roofed mud house. Instead, some bizarre looks buildings will occupy their eyes ﬁrst. Most of these housings are in shape of a matchbox similar to the buildings in cities with its massive body and colorful decorations set in the rural background which makes them very outstanding and eye-catching. These are just the contemporary Chinese farmers’ residences [5] (Fig. 21). 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 31

Fig. 21 Per capita housing area in countryside from 1978 to 2012

1.6 Primary Residence

1. Adobe building

In China, adobe is the major construction material in rural residence. Adobe housing refers to the building using clay for both the exterior and interior walls. Generally there are two ways to make clay wall: one is to lay wooden mould on the foundation (usually made of stone) by compacting the clay in the mould segment by segment and layer after layer to complete the wall; the second way is to build the house by using hand-made adobe(usually refer to the unbaked adobe). Usually clay will be chosen as wall material and reinforcing material such as fiber of fir, green bristle grass and straw which are locally available materials to improve bending and shear resistance capacity. Accompanying Chinese farmers for thousands of years, since 1978, adobe housing has been replaced gradually by reinforced concrete bungalows and high buildings after several rounds of house-building upsurge. 2. Building Since 1978, the stable and rapid economic growth also brought farmers a chance to make fortune. As a result, the village also experienced a building mutation by saying good bye to the adobe housing and in most of the rural areas, residents moved into the building with two or more than two floors. These new buildings has gradually become the mainstream of the rural residents’ housing type and a handful of adobe houses were used as side room, lining room playing the supporting role for it (Figs. 22 and 23). 32 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 22 Adobe housing in Xinjiang

Fig. 23 Double ﬂoor building in rural area

1.7 Upgraded Rural Housing in the Countryside

1. Rural villa Since the campaign to build a new socialist countryside targeting at “production development, wealthy life, polite phenomenon, clean and tidy appearance and democratic management” was carried out nationwide, a lot has been achieved, especially in rural residents’ housing condition. In recent years, the popular mainstream trends 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 33 in residential architecture design such as the British style, the French style, the Span- ish style, the Tuscany style which were common in luxurious communities and villas design were also found in rural residences. With the construction and development of the rural areas and rural residents’ living standard being upgraded, the newly built housings have the tendency to take the shape of villas. Different from the urban villas, rural villas, usually primary residence built on residents’ won homestead, are designed according to living and production needs as well as personal interest without subjecting to any limitations. Rural villa generally refers to the detached building for a single-family with either a yard surrounded by a wall or railing or open courtyard separated by green spaces, bushes or lanes. At present, the rural villa in the south economic developed areas is relatively common and become a beautiful scene in the socialism new rural reconstruction (Fig. 24). 2. Family farmstead In recent years, in rural area there appeared a kind of new building construction form, namely family farmstead, which develops in astonishing speed and shows strong vitality and becomes a focal point in the nation’s rural economic development. Family farmstead, also called “private farmstead”, “the large farmer-households”. Because of its small size, without the main characteristics of the private farm, private farmstead is intermediate form between rural residents’ voluntary organization and legal farm entity. Not limited to ﬁeld crops, farmstead gives priority to planting and breeding and ecological tourism supplemented by agricultural and sideline products processing and marketing in the intensive management mode with land, technology, capital and other production elements with the independent decision, the diversiﬁ- cation of business entity and various business modes as its characteristics [6]. At

Fig. 24 Villa in south China 34 2 Development in Chinese Residential Building Project Construction

Fig. 25 Family farmsteads present, the family farmsteads are widely distributed in all parts of the nation. In Shanghai Songjiang, Hubei Wuhan, Jilin Yanbian, Ningbo, Zhejiang, Anhui Langxi, farmsteads have been actively fostered with satisfying effects. It is believed that in the near future, family farmsteads will become a new form of rural residence, a brand new form of agricultural economic development (Fig. 25).

1.8 Farmhouse Resort

Recently, with the improvement of living standards, more and more city residents cast their attention to the countryside after their intense work looking for a quiet, relaxing and healthy living style different from that in the cities in order to get close to nature, relax themselves and recover one’s original simplicity. At the same time, when dealing with the contradiction of increasing population and the shrinking farmland and difficulty in surplus labor transference, a large number of rural mass start trying to explore new channels to become rich by relying on agricultural rural landscape and the natural ecological environment. Just in such a macroscopic background, by relying on folk strength, rural leisure tourism with “farmhouse resort”, “mountainous resort” as the main form gradually developed from scratch and have become a new form of rural residence (Fig. 26). Currently, the main operational forms of China’s rural leisure tourism include: farmhouse (fishery) resort, leisure and sightseeing agriculture (fishery) park, leisure farmhouse, etc. According to the functions farmhouse resort can be classified mainly into three types: accommodation and catering type, farming experiencing type and comprehensive leisure type. Due to China’s current customary holidays (the Tomb- Sweeping Day, Dragon-Boat Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival) system, rural leisure tourism is prevalent way among the masses of urban residents’ leisure 1 30 Years in the Development of Chinese Urban Residential Building 35

Fig. 26 Farmhouse resort entertainment choices. Therefore, the development of rural leisure tourism which has met the needs of the social structure adjustment is an effective way to realize urban and rural integration and has been promoted gradually in China.

References

1. Beijing Eastern Collector Association. 1996. Dictionary of Chinese Collection. Beijing: Yanshan Press (in Chinese). 2. Zhang Yuhuan. 1998. Illustrated Taxonomy of Chinese Ancient Architecture. Henan Science and Technology Press (in Chinese). 3. Zhang Dainian. 1998. Chinese Literature and History Encyclopedia. Zhejiang People’s Publish- ing House (in Chinese). 4. Jian, M., and Wang Jinxiu. 2000. Intelligent Residence Technology and Development. Archi- tecture Journal 3: 34–36 (in Chinese). 5. Zhongmian, Huang. 2012. 30 Years, the Other Side of the City, Housing of 80,000,000 Chinese Rural Residence, Cities and Towns Construction in Guang Xi. 11: 2–14 (in Chinese). 6. Weiliang, T., and Nie Kanxiong. 2006. Development Tendency of Family Farmstead in China. Problems and Choices 6 of Development Routes. Journal of Anhui Agriculture Sciences 8: 1703–1705 (in Chinese). Chapter 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Ofﬁce Building Construction

1 Old City Renovation and New Urban Districts Commercial Construction

1.1 The Value of the Old City and Reasons of Innovation

Old city innovation means by utilizing public and private capital and diversified methods to renew the old city, especially in terms of physical entities, including the construction of new buildings, restoring or converting the old buildings, neighbor- hood conservation, historic protection and improvement of infrastructure, etc. On December 26, 1989, Urban Planning Law the first national legally—binding law in urban planning was approved by National People’s Congress. Ever since then, Chinese urban construction has experienced a great reform. Taking the difficulties that would be met in urban development construction fully into consideration, the nation made a strategic development plan by giving priority to six newly-developed cities, namely six special economic zones including Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, Xiamen and Hainan and Shanghai Pudong development zone followed by other domestic cities and thus to fulfill the national goal of urban modernization. In the construction of modern city, old city district innovation became a tough problem. The social and economic value of the old city district, especially the old business district, was of great importance to both the urban residents and the nation. On the one hand, the old city district witnessed the growth of the city and braced its history, culture and economy. On the other hand, the land price, commercial potential and social benefit in this area represented the total image of the city [1]. Along with the extraordinary social economy development and national GDP increase year by year, the facilities in old city districts were unable to meet the residents’ basic living requirements. Old city renovation should integrate with modern technology, fully consider the value of the old city district and coordinate contradictions reasonably to make the infrastructure construction meet the needs of the residence in the adjacent areas, such as the safety, convenience, comfortableness and appreciation.

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 37 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_3 38 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Ofﬁce Building Construction

1.2 Strategies and Goals in Old City District Innovation

With the help of the old infrastructure rebuilding, old city district, the particular environment, could boost its strength. Combining with the sensory experience, in order to fulfill the goal of information exchange and opinion communication and meet the residents’ basic living requirements, effective old districts management and administration could be achieved. By observing the 30 years’ state policies and guidelines, the old city districts innovation strategies could be roughly divided into the following items: 1. By following the inherent law of urban development, it took the path of the organic upgrading and sustainable development. In the process of old city reconstruction, the appropriate scale should be adopted, and according to the specific requirements in old city reconstruction planning, the current and future internal relationship should be coordinated. 2. Government macro-control was strengthened and blind and speculative development possibility was reduced. In the old city reconstruction, government’s macro-control was strengthened by establishing related basic standards and management norms to provide guidance for the innovation and reduce the possibility of blindness and speculation. In the old city reconstruction, investment should be extensively put into infrastructure and public facilities of the old districts to improve the comprehensive function of the city. 3. To respect history, protection was started ahead of development. China, one of the four great ancient civilizations, already had have cities early in slave society, with large scale ancient building complex particularly in Beijing, Nan- jing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and other places, etc. In the process of urban renewal and development, on the premise of respecting history and preserving historical relics, reform and opening up was carried out only after the confirmation of the history protection objects and their range to guarantee the coordinated development of historical preservation and urban construction (Fig. 1). In the process of urban development in China, every city had its own unique traditional culture. To protect traditional culture on the one hand manifested the national spirit, refining the essence of nation, on the other hand represented the city’s historical and social value (Fig. 2). 4. Public participation mechanism was introduced in democratized old city reconstruction process. In old city reconstruction, public participation mechanisms was introduced to fully respect the people’s dominating status and promote the democratic process of urban renewal. In doing so, before the old city reconstruction planning, public opinion was fully considered and the interests of all parties were actively coordinated to achieve the overall planning of urban renewal. 1 Old City Renovation and New Urban Districts Commercial Construction 39

Fig. 1 Leisure exercise in large recreation area in a community

Fig. 2 Photos of the new and old bund of Shanghai

5. The ability of the old road equipments was improved and the old traffic condition was bettered. The fundamental reason for the old district road congestion and the frequent traffic accidents was due to the incapability of the existing road traffic which was far from meeting the contemporary demand. The old road reconstruction had enhanced the road pass rate and reduced the number of traffic accidents in the old city. At present, the national road reconstruction methods can be divided into three categories: intersection reconstruction, linear reconstruction and plane reconstruction. Intersection reconstruction: The traffic signal timing has been optimized; the traffic flow restriction policy on type, time, and direction has been introduced. Linear reconstruction: The linear arrangement of fences and street lamps permits a gliding visual sense and leads the vision at the same time and also forms a dynamic road landscape. Plane reconstruction: The traffic green wave band has been set and traffic information has been transmitted by electronic instruments. 40 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Office Building Construction

6. Management and implementation of the planning had been strengthened. In the old city reconstruction, the basic principle of “30% of planning, 70% of management” should be followed so it is important to strengthen the management and implantation of the old city planning. In the implementation, the solemnity and mandatory quality of law should be safeguarded. After the old city reconstruction planning is approved, it shall be legally binding and strictly enforced by relevant departments and personnel. Once there were the cases of violating the planning, the administrative department should resolutely investigate and deal with it without any tolerance. The renewal and development of the old city is the inevitable requirement of social progress needing special attention to provide surrounding residents with the sense of identity and belonging. Reasonable transformation can leave people nostalgic scope, pass down the city’s cultural tradition, and conform to the trend of social development. It can also boost co-development of material and spiritual civilization and help to realize the sustainable urban development [2]. The goals of urban renewal can be summarized as: with the corresponding capital budget and ﬁnancial support, by listening to public opinion, to inherit the city’s history, improve urban environment, better the radial roads, in the end, to reach the ﬁnal goal of reasonable old city reconstruction.

1.3 The Emergence and Location of New Commercial Space

Urbanization refers to the conversion of agricultural population to non-agricultural population and the gradually approaching process of human being towards the urbanized life style. Since the 1990s, with the rapid process of urbanization, urban suburbanization and a spate of new commercial forms’ popping up, the new commercial office space as a new phenomenon had sprung up in the cites and had made certain impact on the structure of the traditional commercial space and overall urban functional space. New urban districts commercial office space are mainly located in the downtown area, the fringe of the old city area, place near express way by suburban area and suburban new towns, mainly including convenient and daily consumption space, selective purchase consumption space and multi-functional top grade consumption space. The new urban commercial space has increasingly become the most powerful, and dynamic city element as well as urban residents’ first choice of leisure consumption (Fig. 3). 1 Old City Renovation and New Urban Districts Commercial Construction 41

Fig. 3 Shopping malls in new urban districts

1.4 Guidance and Requirement for New City Zone Construction

New city zone is the focus in implementing the urbanization strategy in our country. In this process, the principle of “plan on a high starting point, construction with high-standard, management in high level, administration in high efﬁciency” were observed. At the same time, the concept of trying one’s utmost while acting within one’s competence, giving priority to infrastructure and ecological environment construction, planning ahead and implementing step by step were followed. Additionally the renewal process was carried out on the route of adhering to the government’s leading role, moderately raising the loan, raising money through various channels by ways of market operation. Yinzhou new urban districts in Ningbo Zhejiang province, being constructed in 1995, put forward the development concepts of “industry leading ahead followed and supported by tertiary industry and administration respectively”. By the time of April 2002, the functions of the new district were adjusted to the center of politics, business, residence, science and technology and education. Since then, the new district construction was in full swing and the specialized planning compilations of new area construction were started comprehensively. During nearly 10 years of construction, the new district, starting as a blank sheet of paper, had experienced tremendous changes. The new district construction mainly embodied the following 5 characteristics: (1) To develop the city according to the objective rules (2) To plan the city along with internationalized requirements 42 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Ofﬁce Building Construction

Fig. 4 Landscape of Yinzhou new district in Ningbo Zhejiang province

(3) To build the city according to modernized standards (4) To manage the city by the market-oriented needs (5) To administrate the city according to the standardized requirements (Fig. 4).

2 The Commercial Ofﬁce Construction in Central Administrative District

2.1 Overview of the Commercial Ofﬁce Construction

Commercial office building in central administrative district refers to the site where an organization’s workplace is located and it shall be able to effectively reflect the “administrative, environmental and regional characteristics”. Specifically, administrative nature requires consistent serious style in administrative buildings, overall splendid style, high efficient and reasonable space organization and adaptation to the needs of modern administrative office. Distinctive, fine and elastic characteristics in the building environment are the advantages in the long run. The environmental landscape design was based on modern style with a traditional touch by learning from the traditional poems and songs, couplets and tablets to inject cultural value into the building. It is managed to synthesize regional features and styles with the planning and architectural design to create new modern administrative center [3]. With the deepening of the comprehensive reform, the scope of extensive cooperation and communication had been extended which strengthening the polarization and radiation effect of the administrative center. In this situation, some old city administrative center could no longer meet the needs of the development of the city. Besides, with the upgrading of culture concepts and the deepening of institutional reform, 2 The Commercial Office Construction in Central Administrative District 43 the acceleration of urbanization process, the administrative division adjustment and the changes in local city landscape, etc. the urban administrative center construction had entered a period of great development, with opportunities and challenges coexisting [4].

2.2 The Portfolio Model of Commercial Ofﬁce Construction

Through investigation and summarization, it was found out that the modern administrative center was no longer a single building, but was the joint of different multiple functional constructions which was called “administrative center architectural groups”. Through comparison and analysis, it could be seen that the administrative center architectural groups mass combination mode embodied the concept of diversity (see Fig. 5). 1. Symmetric combination mode with the main building located on the central axis, creating a contrast with the subordinate building in a clear spatial relation, is easy to create a solemn atmosphere (as shown in Fig. 5a). Also it is clear to see that symmetric combination is too inflexible in form which is inclined to contradict with the functional requirements and is weak with terrain adaptability. So, in the administrative center architectural mass design, the pros and cons of the axis symmetric mode should be weighed up before utilization. 2. The identical combination mode refers to one or more of the same or similar architectural masses combined in ways of butt or scuffing joint (as shown in Fig. 5b). The butt joint characterizes the relative independence of individual buildings which are connected through joint galleries and in this way to enhance the overall quality of order and rhythm. While, scuffing joint enjoys the features of great integrity and rich images with the monomer having great adaptability in shape, size and location. 3. In the freestyle combination, each individual building is flexible to pick up the suitable position and geometric form in accordance with the functional and mod- eling requirements to fully play the subjective initiative of architecture, namely the harmony between building and society, between building and environment and between building and people(as shown in Fig. 5c) [5].

Symmetrical style Identical style Free style

Fig. 5 Mass combination modes in administrative architectural center group 44 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Ofﬁce Building Construction

2.3 Trafﬁc Organization Around the Central Administrative District

Administrative center, an important public institution as the traffic hub in the city, shall be convenient for the public to approach in the planning and design. When choosing location of the administrative center, the development plan of the city should be involved in consideration which shall promote the prosperity of the surrounding area so as to boost the structure upgrading of the entire city. A convenient traffic environment is a guarantee to efficient operation of the city. It is the network between administrative center and cities that plays a vital role. The traffic network in central administrative district need to be considered systematically from three aspects: dynamic traffic system, the static traffic system and the pedestrian system. Traffic system is a very important part in the administrative center design which should not only be considered within the administrative center scale but should be connected closely with the entire urban traffic. The problem created by intersecting flows of pedestrians and vehicles shall be solved through suitable traffic system corresponding to the actual situation, such as establishing three-dimensional multiple traffic system. With the rising living standard and the tremendous increase in the number of car ownership, the parking issue has become the major concern of the static traffic challenge in administrative center s. Depending on the location of parking lot in the administrative center (Fig. 5), it can be divided into underground parking lot and the ground parking lot (Fig. 6); while depending on the type of vehicles it can be divided into motor vehicle parking lot and non-motor vehicles parking lot. Walking is the major way used in the administrative center, so it is of great importance to well organize the walking system to ensure both the entrance and exit are as close as possible to the destination. City square, the core space of the walking system in administrative center, often uses the axis arrangement. A commonly assumed method in designing waking system is to combine the features, such as architecture opuscule, green space, flooring, etc. of the square to form a diversified walking system space with clear routes and joint points. Walking system can also learn from the three-dimensional pedestrian road system to create excellent walking space by combining the sunken square and elevated pedestrian system.

Fig. 6 Effect diagram of underground parking lot and the ground parking lot 2 The Commercial Ofﬁce Construction in Central Administrative District 45

2.4 The Harmony of the Commercial Ofﬁce Buildings

The word “harmony”, a hot spot of society, has become a trend of the era and widely used in various ﬁelds. Following this trend with consideration of their own design requirements, the administrative center s should be in harmony with the natural environment and social culture to create central areas with time treats in good images. 1. Harmony between building and natural environment Firstly, natural elements such as sunshine, green plants and water can be introduced into the public square or sharing space to simulate the natural landscape and blend architecture with environment naturally; secondly modern equipments, technologies and materials can be used to reduce the energy consumption in the building life cycle and display the ecological effect and ecological strategy. 2. The combination of administrative center architecture environment and social culture The building environment in administrative center contains social and cultural mean- ings to some extent which mirrors social culture and promotes its development. Building environment can convey to people the social culture of the city by comprehensively using layout, form, color elements, etc. (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Top view of an administrative center 46 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Ofﬁce Building Construction

3 Commercial Ofﬁce Construction in Central Business District

3.1 Overview of Central Business District

CBD (central business district, also abbreviated as CBD) refers to the region in a country or a city where main business activities are carried out. The concept was first appeared in the United States in 1923 which was defined as “business convergence place”. Then, the connotation of CBD continued to broaden and CBD has become the economy heart of a city, a region and even a country. The central business district (CBD), a city’s functional center with concentrated economy, science and technology and culture and symbol of a city’s modernization is usually located in the golden district of the city, where there assembles a lot of facilities in finance, trade, culture, services and also a great number of business offices, hotels and apartments. The CBD has the most perfect traffic, communication and other modern infrastructure facilities and good environment where a large number of companies, financial institutions and corporations carry out a variety of business activities. The planning and construction of CBD in China began in the 1990s. Since then, especially after the 15th National Congress, economic development and urban construction had stepped on a new stage with great development. Moreover, CBD construction had been raised to the agenda by many big cities which had a certain influence in their respective domestic economic area. So far, Beijing, Tianjin, Shang- hai, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Qingdao, Shenyang and other key cities had clearly proposed their own CBD construction plan. In the CBD construction, two methods are generally adopted domestically: one is modification and expansion of the city’s original commercial blocks, such as Shenhe district in Shenyang; another is to build a brand new one on a chosen place, such as Lujiazui in Shanghai and Jiangbei city in Chongqing, etc. Both of these two ways have their highlights, so it depends on input–output ratio in the construction process. CBD is the outcome in the process of urban development under the market economy, an indispensable mark for an international metropolis. In addition, large scale construction of CBD in many cities also reflects that under the correct government leadership the modernization and internationalization in Chinese cities is speeding up, the urban economic strength has been improved in quality and there is full potential for urban construction and economic development (Fig. 8). 3 Commercial Office Construction in Central Business District 47

Fig. 8 Lujiazui in Shanghai

3.2 Formation Conditions and Characteristics of CBD Commercial Building

Commercial office building in CBD is beneficial to the urban economic growth and the strengthening of the comprehensive functions of the metropolitans. It may also help to boost the urban competitiveness and to effectively assemble and rationally allocate various production factors. Additionally, it plays a role in improving the city’s image, integrating urban functions and optimizing urban facilities. It helps to give full play to the regional advantages and promotes the regional development. Finally, it helps the cities to go in line with international practice so as to further the opening up to the outside world. However, not every city or area is able to successfully develop the central business district (CBD). From the development experience of other cities, the existence of CBD mainly needs two conditions: one is a certain economic development level with the GDP per capita reaching about $5000–$10,000; the second is the location of CBD which should be the undisputable central city in that region. Financial center is the most active part of the central business district (CBD), and the number of the headquarters of large multinational companies is a good indicator of the internationality for financial centers. This not only because the multinational companies usually occupy an important position in the international economic system, and their location often can reflect the strategic importance of the area in economies within a certain region [6]. Central business district is not only symbol of economic strength and the degree a city or region opening to the outside world; it is also an important symbol of modern city. Modern CBD generally has the following features: 48 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Office Building Construction

1. Highly centralized business organizations In modern CBD area, there assemble a large number of domestic and foreign financial, business and science and technology establishments. Take Beijing Chaoyang district as an example: in less than 4 km2 area, there are 48 headquarters and branches of the world top 500 enterprises and several hundreds of multinational companies and financial institutions. In Shanghai Lujiazui 83 domestic and foreign financial institutions are located there. 2. The comprehensive radial network communication Modern CBD as the center of regional economy or a city, its transportation, information, capital and materials, etc. are all in the hub or core position of a radial communication network which enjoys the quick and fast rhythm. 3. The real estate industry present prominent value The direct impact of modern CBD construction is the prominent value in real estate industry. Most modern CBD is located in the bustling area of a city, generally 3–5 m2, and because of its outstanding advantages of transportation and communication and the remarkable service function CBD becomes the business valley and the treasured place of the city. The huge demand results in high architecture capacity. Generally the building capacity shall be no less than a 10 million m2, with some more than 20 million m2, which makes the rocketing price in CBD land and housing. 4. Economic operation with modernized quality Modern CBD assembling a large number of finance, business, trade, information and intermediary service agencies, obviously is the place that senior management brains are concentrated and display their talents. Although the regional capital, information, commerce environment is complicated, the intelligent management means along with the digitalization and modernized offices guarantee the fast and convenient economy operation in CBD and the orderly management which manifests the characteristics of high quality. 5. Modernized environment layout In the CBD area there boasts not only the most advanced and complete infrastructure and large-scale, well-proportioned buildings, but an excellent living environment and the cultural landscape which is the symbol of modernization for a city in terms of spatially visual elevation image.

3.3 The Necessity of the Development of the CBD in China

From the general rule of world economic development and the central business district (CBD) formation, great economic powers have a number of different levels of economic central cities which are usually important international or regional ﬁnan- cial centers. That means central business district (CBD) is the inevitable result of functional upgrading of economic central cities. 3 Commercial Ofﬁce Construction in Central Business District 49

As the largest developing country, China is a large country with huge population and great potential for economic development. However, unbalanced development of China’s economy will inevitably bring capital distribution imbalance which needs organized integration and regulation on national, regional or economic central cities scale. This objectively creates opportunities of further development for CBD cities with complementary functions on different levels. Therefore, with finance becoming the core of modern economy, further enhancing the functions of economic central cities to boost the formation of central business district (CBD) cities on different levels with complementary functions is with positive significance to promote China’s modernization construction and stimulate the development of regional economy coordinated development. It also plays a vital role for fitting into global economic integration and participating in international competition [7].

3.4 Beneﬁts of Modern CBD to the Urban Development

Modern central business districts (CBD) have been gradually built in China. Through financing and capital operation, resources allocation on the regional, national and even international scale has been optimized; many jobs opportunities have been created and government fiscal revenue has been improved. The CBD has also promoted the nation’s more active involvement in economic and financial globalization and financial industry international division and improved the nation’s international competitiveness. The role that modern central business district (CBD) playing on the urban development can be summarized as follows: (1) To promote the economic development in city and the area within its radial scope (2) To broaden opening to the outside world in city and the area within its radial scope (3) To promote the comprehensive functions and status of city and the area within its radial scope (4) To integrate spatial layout in city and the area within its radial scope (5) To improve the living environment of a city and the area within its radial scope (6) To promote the cultural construction in city and the area within its radial scope.

4 High-tech Industrial Zone Commercial Ofﬁce Construction

4.1 Current Situation of High-tech Industrial Zone

High-tech industrial park, originating in the United States, is also known as high-tech development zone. It is an area basing on intellectual resources, with high-tech development and exploration of new industries as the goal, which promotes the integration 50 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Office Building Construction of scientific research, education and production and boost balanced development of science and technology and society. High-tech industrial park is intended to realize the conversion of commercialization, industrialization and internationalization of high-tech achievements mainly by creating locally optimized environment. The world’s high-tech industrial park construction and development takes various forms, generally including incubators, science park, science and technology industrial park, high-tech products export processing zone, the high technology industry belt, the city of science, the city of technology, etc. [8]. In 1988, the first state-level hi-tech industrial zone, Beijing hi-tech industrial experiment zone, was officially approved. By February 2014, there had been 114 high-tech industrial zones in the nation. In the year 2012, the industrial added value of the high-tech zones accounted for 14.5% that of the nation; the expense on research and development, the ratio of technologic contract turnover in the nation and new products sales in the total income in the industrial zone all went beyond 1/3; the authorized patents accounted 50% that of the whole nation; energy consumption per unit of output value was 50% that of the nation’s average level. The hi-tech industrial zones had shown sustainable, developing and radiating driving force [9] (Fig. 9). In recent years, China’s high-tech industrial parks have shown distinctive spe- cialty characteristics with concentrated functions and the economic indicators maintained a sustained and rapid growth. The parks highlighted comparative advantages and through continuous system and mechanism innovation they provided effective incentive to keep high-tech industrial parks rich in characteristics. At present, China is strengthening the dominant position of enterprise technology innovation and industrialization and speeding up the technology innovation system by integrating production, learning and research together. Governments’ promoting and coordinative role in technology innovation is strengthened. Financial support for

Fig. 9 Shanghai Zhangjiang Hi-tech industrial zone 4 High-tech Industrial Zone Commercial Ofﬁce Construction 51 industry technology progress has been increased. Science and technology innovation in the key areas has been speeded up. Special attention has been paid to a group of competitive industries and projects.

4.2 The Development Trend of Contemporary High-Tech Industrial Park

At present, China’s science and technology innovation ability has been significantly increased; more scientific and technological achievements are beneficial to the livelihood of the people and agriculture; at the same time basic research and basic condition construction has been strengthened and paid more attention. International cooperation in the field of science and technology proceeds by steady steps and the international innovation policy dialogue has been continuously deepened. Science and technology system reform continues to deepen and scientific management level in the field of science and technology innovation has been enhanced unceasingly. Therefore, the high-tech industrial zones’ strategic exaltation shall be given special attention to accelerate the construction of high-tech industrial zone economic growth pole and other related works. The strategic layout in the zone shall be optimized and the pioneering trials of national independent innovation demonstration zone shall be supported. Classified guidance shall be strengthened to speed up the construction of top world-class high-tech parks and innovative and specialized science and technology park zones. At present, China’s high-tech industrial parks mainly present the changes in the following three aspects: (1) Change from the artificial environment to the artificial and natural symbiotic coexisting environment At the foundation of high-tech industrial parks, due to the cognition limitation and economic cost, the parks were usually located in the low-price fringe of the city and emphasis was placed on the production part which could directly generate economic benefits. Sometimes, a small amount of office or research facilities were equipped, and corresponding plan and design focus had been laid on industrial land and road network and meanwhile, economic benefit was placed in the first place by striving to make investment pay off in the shortest possible time. Contemporary science and technology industrial park construction has increasingly been influenced by the concept of sustainable development and the connotation of “park” has been explored deeply. The parks are not only concentration areas of high-tech industries or facilities but the sites of harmonious unification of artificial environment and natural environment which are in pursuit of a ecological operation system, such as exchange and reuse of the wastes in the area to minimize the consumption of resources and waste emissions to make the high-tech industrial park a potential tourist destination. 52 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Office Building Construction

Fig. 10 798 Innovative industrial park in Beijing

(2) Change from dispersed location in suburbs to intensive location in cities

Early high-tech parks were with obvious suburban-orientated characteristic, that was loosely and excessively expanding in low density buildings along the outside city trafﬁc line with cars and lorries as the major means for transportation. The second industry developed very fast there while the third industry lagged behind with a bleak prospect. While, the current high-tech industrial park, just like a miniature city, is in a vigorous, sufﬁcient intensive development urban mode. It has possessed all the qualities of new city center, namely, the energetic city environment, the city image with special treats, various multiple urban functions and convenient transportation, etc. (3) Change from the park with science and technology enterprises as the leading role to the innovative enterprise as main feature High-tech industrial park is the product of knowledge economy, with the high intelligence industries’ highly concentration as basic characteristic. The technology content is regarded as initial high-tech park access threshold and the projects had obvious science and engineering tendency. Nevertheless, innovation value contained in knowledge economy is not only created by the technology industry, it should also include the cultural industry involving software, design, publishing, comics and animation, movies, media, etc. [10] (Fig. 10).

4.3 The Characteristics of Location Selection of High-Tech Industrial Park

The goals of “the two centenaries” and the “Chinese dream” aiming at strengthening national high-tech industrial park development strategy research, has played an important role in improving the level of national high-tech zone development 4 High-tech Industrial Zone Commercial Ofﬁce Construction 53 strategy and the global view and at the same time has brought new historical mission and requirements for high-tech industrial park. With reference to high-tech industrial parks in other countries, the high-tech industrial park location selection principle can be roughly divided into the following characteristics according to its historical evolving process [11]. (1) Close location to the universities and research institutions (2) Preferential local policy (3) Low start-up costs (4) New district under development (5) Good infrastructure condition (6) Convenient living and service facilities attractive to professional talents (7) The presence of the risk investment institutions (8) The entrepreneurship and innovation urban atmosphere (9) The satisfying overall environment quality.

4.4 Necessities for the Construction of High-Tech Industrial Park

China’s high-tech industrial park shall further play hard working and pioneering spirit, emancipate the mind unceasingly and innovate thinking and ideas as well as operation mode. Combination between economy globalization, research internationalization and enterprises incubation shall be further promoted. Advanced thoughts and advanced culture should be utilized to promote strategic research. The market drive and the market competition should be used as the driving force of innovative development. The intensity in attracting, unifying and cultivating science and technology innovative talents should be reinforced. An innovation culture with innu- merable talented people and incentive mechanism should be built. Solid foundation for the innovative, high-speed and sustainable development in national high-tech industry parks should be built. The innovation-driven and characteristic development concept should be always kept and the system mechanism in the high-tech industrial park development should be continuously explored. Optimization of the development environment should be given top priority to form the innovation-driven culture and concept. High-tech industrial park development strategy research institute should become the think-tank for top-level design of innovation-driven strategy improvement in high-tech industrial park and should become an opportunity to tackle the difﬁculties faced by the current high-tech zone. Working mechanism should be actively perfected, and truly become the important driving force for high-tech industrial park development. 54 3 Development in Chinese Commercial Ofﬁce Building Construction

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After 30 years’ reform and opening up, great achievement has been made in China’s energy development. Energy production infrastructure and equipment has been improved tremendously and level of science and technology has been enhanced significantly. A comprehensive development energy supplying pattern with the coal as the main body, electricity as the core, along with oil, gas and renewable energy began to take shape and a relatively perfect energy production and supply system has been established. The variety and yield of the principal energy products has greatly increased and the capacity of energy production and supply support has been greatly enhanced. In this condition, the supply condition has been greatly improved and the contradiction between supply and demand has been dramatically eased. Energy consumption structure became more rational and energy utilization efficiency has significantly been increased with remarkable energy saving effect.

1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction

1.1 The Petroleum Utilization and Development in China

Petroleum, the blood of world’s industry, is the pillar energy for world’s rapid economic development. With the sustained and rapid growth of global economy, petroleum as a strategic material related with lifeline of economy and national economy security, plays an increasingly vital role. The sustainable development of China’s petroleum production closely connects with national energy security and sound operation of the whole society and plays a key role for the sustainable development of social economy. 1. Overview of petroleum resource China’s oil resources distribution are relatively scattered with land resource accounting for about 76% and ocean resource accounting for roughly 24%. The ocean

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 55 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_4 56 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy … petroleum resources are mainly concentrated in the Bohai Sea, the South China Sea and East China Sea. However the petroleum resources discovery rate in the ocean is about 18.5%. Of the land petroleum resources, the eastern region accounted for about 51% and the western region about 49%. Of the land resource, the remaining recoverable reserves in eastern area of Songliao Basin and Bohai Bay Basin is 14 × 108 t, accounting for about 51% of the country’s remaining recoverable reserves. In Junggar, Tuha, Ordos and Qaidam Basin, etc. the major petroliferous basins in the west region, the remaining recoverable reserves is about 8.6 × 108 t, accouting for about 29%. The accumulative remaining recoverable reserves in Bohai Bay and other basins is about 5.8 × 108 t, about 20% of the total amount [1]. 2. China petroleum development process During the 30 years’ of reform and opening-up, China’s oil industry development has experienced two stages: In the first stage (1980s), a steady development stage, the main task of the oil industry was to guarantee a stable 100 million tons annual output of crude oil. In the decade the proved oil reserves and oil production capacity in China was equivalent to the sum of the previous 30 years and the oil–gas yield was about 1.6 times that of the previous 30 years. To stabilize the oil production, in 1981, the state oil industry adopted a production responsibility policy for the planned 100 million tons of crude oil target which greatly aroused the enthusiasm of petroleum enterprises and the output increased steadily. In 1998, the strategic reconstruction of petroleum and petrochemical industries was carried out by central government. By administrative assets transfer and exchange, China National Petroleum Corporation, China Petrochemical Corporation and China National Offshore Oil Corporation were set up which effectively integrated the resources, expanded the industrial scale, optimized the industrial structure and improved the competitiveness of China’s oil industry. The second stage was the strategic shift phase (1990s–now). Early in the 1990s the nation established the international strategic policy that is to stabilize the eastern production, to develop western and sea resource and to explore on the world scale to develop western and sea resource and to explore on the world scale. Under this policy, eastern oil field managed to achieve stable high yield. The west and offshore oilfields as well as overseas oil project had become China’s strategic replacement area of oil and gas resources which corresponded with China’s actual situation. In 1999, Petro China, CNOOC, Sinopec carried out the internal reconstruction to set up joint-stock company respectively and successfully listed overseas. 3. Achievements in petroleum industry development In 2012, China’s primary energy production capacity reached 3.318 billion tons standard coal, 4.3 times that of 1978; the crude oil output was 297 million tons which was 1.99 times that of 1978; the natural gas output was 147 million tons, 8.06 times that of 1978. In the 30 years after opening up and reform, crude oil output had been increased steadily at the annual rate of 2.3% which was 2.5 times that of the world average speed in the same period; crude oil processing capacity increased 1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction 57

10 million tons annually and in 2012 the crude oil processed reached 467 million tons which ranked the second place in the world only second to United States [2]. China National Petroleum Corporation is China’s largest oil and gas exploitation enterprise, the world’s forth (2012) largest oil company. In 2012, it totally produced 127 million tons of crude oil and 58.24 billion m3 natural gas and processed 111 million tons of crude oil. CSINOPEC is China and Asia’s largest petroleum and petrochemical company and also the world’s second (2012) largest oil refining company. In 2012, the amount of crude oil processed reached 223 million tons, of which gas production reached 41.09 million tons, kerosene and diesel production was 15.01 tons and 77.81 tons respectively [3]. 4. Overview of Daqing oil field A batch of the world-leading extra large-sized energy bases had been successively completed and put into operation. The first 100-million-ton safe and effective green coal mining base, Shendong coal mining area, with the raw coal production reaching 100 million tons in 2005, set a new historical record in the development of China’s coal industry. China’s biggest oilfield, Daqing oilfield, had kept a steady high yield for 27 years (1976–2002) since 1976 with an annual output of 50 million tons of crude oil, and the 10 consecutive years’ (2003–2012) output beyond 40 million tons made a miracle in the same type of oilfield development history worldwide. The successive establishment of Shengli, Liaohe, Tarim and other large oil production bases had laid a solid foundation for the development of China’s oil and natural gas industry (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Daqing oil ﬁeld 58 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

1.2 Coal Utilization and Development

Coal is the main body and pillar of China’s energy supply and the energy supply pattern with coal as the major energy will not change in a long time in the future. In the predictable future, coal will still be China’s major irreplaceable energy and important raw material. Although there was a declining trend in the proportion of coal in the energy structure, the fundamental status of coal industry in the national economy will be long-lasting and stable which is decided by China’s national conditions and natural occurrence conditions. 1. Outline of carbon resource China is rich in coal reserves with wide distribution and complete varieties on the whole. Coal reserves are mainly distributed in north China, northwest, the area north to the Kunlun Mountains–Qinling–Dabieshan Mountains with Shanxi, Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia provinces with most abundant reserves. About 60% of China’s coal resources are concentrated in Shanxi, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia provinces and there are nearly 9% concentrated in Sichuan, Yannan and Guizhou and Chongqing. According to the Chinese third coalfield prediction information, in the existing proven reserves, bituminous coal makes up approximately 74%, anthracite coal about 12% and lignite about 14%. Among them, the raw material coal accounts for about 27%, steam coal accounts for about 73%. Steam coal reserves are mainly distributed in the north and northwest, coking coal is mainly concentrated in north China and anthracite mainly concentrated in Shanxi Province and Guizhou provinces. 2. Process of coal industry development In the early 1980s, with the implementation of the reform and opening up policy, the development of various industries tended to be active and there was a surge in demand for coal, a basic energy resource, by social economy, resulting in a coal supply shortage. Targeting at this situation, the nation moderated the management of the coal industry policy, speeded up the development of state-owned key coal mines and at the same time encouraged the development of small village and township coal mines. Because of the guidance of an extensive management policy, though there was a tremendous development in the nation’s coal industry in the first half of the 80 and 90s, the overall level of the industry and running quality was still low. In 1998, with the central government institutional reform and the revocation of Ministry of Coal Industry, the major coal mines were delegated to local government, and a number of policies aiming at the problem of the coal industry had been issued. The coal industry had entered a rectification phase. Since 2000, China coal industry implemented a “gross control, structure adjustment, layout optimization” policy to control the total coal products, nurturing large- scale coal enterprise groups and integrating small and medium-sized coal mines. After 2002, the nation took further steps to reform the coal investment system. Mine project examination and approval system was replaced by approval system. 1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction 59

Table 1 Summary of coal Time Development condition industry development 1980–1997 Rapid development of small coal mines 1997–2007 Overhaul in coal mining industry 2007–present Marketization of coal price, resource integration

The state—owned assets supervision system was established and improved. The com- pensated use system and the “coal and electricity price linkage” system were implemented. By actively reforming the management system and management method, expanding coal construction investment, coal production infrastructure construction has kept to be strengthened and production equipment conditions had been greatly improved. The scientific and technological level had been greatly improved and coal production had increased significantly. The development status is shown in Table 1. 3. The coal development achievements Since 1996, China has ranked the world’s largest coal production superpower in many consecutive years. Coal production was 3.66 billion tons, 6.2 times that of the beginning of reform and opening up, ranking the first place in the world. Completed in 1988, China’s first electrified heavy load railway from Datong in Shanxi in the west to Qinhuangdao port in the east, is an important coal supply line. In 2006 the yearly coal transportation volume totaled 250 million tons; in 2007, the number reached 300 million tons and in 2010 it reached 400 million tons, setting 3 world records in railway operation density, transportation efficiency and the main- line transportation volume. Qinhuangdao port, the main terminal on China’s “coal transportation from north area to south area” major path is by far the world’s largest coal output port and bulk cargo port and is also the world’s largest modern ecological coal terminal group with the annual throughput more than 200 million tons. In addition, the technologies in exploration and mining and the equipments in the coal industry had been improved significantly, being qualified for the design, construction, equipment and management of thousand ton open-pit coal mines and large and medium-sized mining areas. Because of the wide usage of modern set of equipments such as comprehensive mechanized coal mining equipments, the state- owned key coal mining mechanization degree had surpassed 80%. 4. Overview of Shanxi coal industry Shanxi is China’s largest coal production and coal transportation province and the base of power source and heavy chemical industry boasting about the natural coal resources with the qualities of large reserves, wide distribution, complete variety, high quality and easy exploitation. Since the founding of the PRC, especially from 1978, great changes have taken place in Shanxi coal industry. The coal industrial system has formed with coordinated development in the fields of the exploration and design, the mine construction, processing, the shearer manufacturing, education and scientific research and the multi-business tertiary industries. For 30 years, the 60 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

Fig. 2 Fieldwork in coal field in Shanxi changes in the coal industry were not only limited to the “quantity”, but the “quality” changes were more profound with coal industry becoming the veritable first pillar industry in Shanxi. Since 2009, a series programs have been implemented in Shanxi coal industry such as safety innovation, restructuring integration, transformation adjustment, operation control, quality improvement and “six big battles” to solve the “four mines” problems which ensured the steady and healthy economic operation in the provincial coal industry and the steady improvement of the provincial safety production in coal industry. In 2012, it was calculated that the raw coal produced in Shanxi was 910 million tons and sales income reached 1.187 trillion yuan of which 582 million yuan went beyond the provincial boundary. The added value in coal industry was 371.1 billion yuan which accounted for 31% of the GDP in Shan Xi. The economics contribute rate of coal industry to Shan Xi’s economic development was 56.6 which made tremendous contribution to Shan Xi’s economic and social development [4]. Figure 2 is the fieldwork in coal field [5]. The sales revenue in coal industry in Shanxi Province was 376.6 billion yuan in 2009, accounting for more than half of the GDP in Shanxi Province the same year.

1.3 Natural Gas Development and Utilization in China

Natural gas as a resource of clean energy has an important position in the global primary energy consumption. It is not exceptional for China, because the road leading to the environment-friendly use of energy depends to a large degree on the development and utilization of clean energy. Natural gas is a typical primary energy resource, and 1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction 61 the development and utilization of natural gas is of great significance in terms of environmental protection. Natural gas as a high quality, highly effective, clean fossil fuel, has been widely applied to every field in domestic life and production. 1. The natural gas resources distribution By the end of 2009, China’s natural gas resource prospect was 55.89 × 1012 m3, and the cumulative number of discovered and proven all kinds of gas fields was 415 of which there was 43 large and medium gas fields with proven geological reserves more than 300 × 108 m3. Overall, the natural gas exploration was in the early stage s, with huge exploration potential. Conventional natural gas resources in China is 38 × 1012 m3, of which the land resource accounts for 29.9 × 1012 m3 and there are also natural gas resources in Bohai Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea. In addition to conventional gas resources, there are abundant unconventional gas resources in China, such as coal-bed methane, shale gas and gas hydrate. It is estimated that by 2020 the proportion of natural gas production will rise to 6.1% in the structure of primary energy production in China and the proportion of its consumption will rise to 8.7% in primary energy consumption structure which will gradually improve China’s energy structure. China’s natural gas resources are mainly distributed in Sichuan, Ordos, Tarim and Songliao region among which Sichuan and Ordos have the highest proved rate and the East China Sea areas has comparatively low proved rate (see Table 2). 2. Natural gas utilization China’s natural gas is mainly used in chemical, oil and gas field exploration and electric power industries which takes up more than 87% in the natural gas consumption of which 38.3% goes to the fertilizer production while residents gas in natural gas consumption accounts for less than 11% (Table 3)[6]. The demand for natural gas in the nation’s steady economic construction in the future will continue to increase and the consumption of natural gas is mainly in the following four aspects:

Table 2 Majors natural gas Region (basin) Resource Recoverable resource basins’ reserve volume in China 2009 1012 m3 Tarim 11.34 5.86 Sichuan 7.19 3.42 Ordos 10.7 2.9 The East China Sea 5.1 2.48 Qaidam 2.63 0.68 Songliao 1.8 0.76 Yinggehai 2.28 0.81 Qiongdongnan 1.89 0.72 Bohai Bay 2.16 0.62 62 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

Table 3 Natural gas development goal and proportion in China Items Development goal/108 m3 Proportion/% 2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020 Power generation 48 250 650 16 30 41 Domestic fuel 110 310 500 38 38 32 Chemical material 110 170 290 38 21 18 Hydrogen produced from kerosene 15 50 70 5 6 4 Vehicle fuel 10 40 80 3 5 5 Total 293 820 1590 100 100 100

(1) Natural gas for electricity. Natural gas has the advantage of reducing the proportion of coal-fired power generation and decreasing environmental pollution. And natural gas power generating units installed capacity needs less investment, short construction period and lower generation price so it has strong competitiveness. (2) Natural gas for chemical industry. Natural gas is the quality raw materials to manufacture nitrogen fertilizer and methanol and has the advantages of low investment, low cost, less pollution, etc. The world natural gas averaged 80% of the total raw materials for nitrogen fertilizer production. (3) Natural gas for the city gas industry. With the improvement of people’s living standard and enhancement of the environmental protection consciousness, natural gas as the quality fuel for residents is in significantly increased demand in most of the cities. At the same time, as a fuel for civilian use the economic benefit of natural gas is greater than that of the industrial fuels and the annual consumption growth rate in recent years has been around 20%. (4) Natural gas for compressed natural gas vehicles. The advantages of natural gas over oil as the car energy include low price, less pollution, safety, etc. Natural gas heat energy utilization rate is high. A few years ago, gas thermal efficiency was less than 40%, while with the progress of related technologies it has reached beyond 60% today. In some power and heating supply gas power plants, the heat energy utilization rate of natural gas has even reached 90%. The calorific value of gas is about 3000 kcal, while natural gas calorific value is up to 8500 kcal.

3. The achievements of natural gas development

During 30 years of reform and opening up, China’s natural gas production annual growth rate averaged 5.6% steadily which was 2.1 times the world’s average growth rate in the same period. Pipeline construction developed by leaps and bounds, pipeline (gas) mileage increased from 8,300 km in the early stage of opening up and reform to 106,000 km in 2013, increasing by 11.8 times, weaving a gas pipeline network running vertically and horizontally throughout the whole country and connecting with the overseas pipelines. 1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction 63

4. Overview of the west-east gas pipeline project The west-east gas pipeline project is the symbol of the Chinese western development project, and remarkable work after the Three Gorges Project, the completion of which greatly boosted the development of the western region of China and even the entire national economy. West-east gas pipeline project is an important part of China’s natural gas strategic development and the symbol of the west development project. It took Xinjiang Tarim gas ﬁeld as the main gas source, the Yangtze River delta as the target market, the main pipelines, important branch lines and the gas storage as the main body connecting the users along the lines to establish the natural gas supply system from west to east. The construction of the pipeline has speeded up the economic development of the Xinjiang region as well as the central and western regions and has improved China’s energy structure and ecological environment [7]. The west-east gas project starting from Xinjiang in the west to Shanghai in the east, about 4000 kms in full length, is the longest pipeline with the largest size, the highest pressure and the largest capacity which has the richest technology content of gas transmission pipeline project with annual capacity of 12 billion m3.The completion of west-east gas line project has greatly eased the contradiction between economic development and energy demand in the east. The west-east gas project line 2 was started to be built in 2008 and put to use in 2010. Line 3 was under construction in 2012 and planned to be completed in 2015.

1.4 Electric Power Exploitation and Development in China

Electricity, an indispensable energy for the survival and development of human society, is widely used and depended on and almost all human activities have a close relationship with electricity. The discovery and utilization of electricity brought human beings into a new era of rapid development. Electric power industry is the most important basic energy industry in national economic development and is the first basic industry of national economy which is closely related with national economy and people’s livelihood so it gains priority in the world economic development strategy. 1. History of the electric power industry rapid development Over the past 30 years, there was an accelerated development tendency in electric power industry. Before 1979, the primary problem in the nation’s electric power industry was the long-term, national power shortage. Owing to the reform and opening-up, the production relationship has been adjusted, productivity has been promoted and the electric power installed capacity has been expanded rapidly, changing the long-term power shortage situation. Over 30 years of reform and opening up, by implementing scientific time limit for a project and the project cost control and startup under certain standard the investment efficiency and the engineering quality of electric power constructions in China have been promoted, enabling the rapid development in electric power industry. Ever since 1988, China’s power industry has 64 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy … experienced a rapid development with the new generating sets all beyond 10 million kW, creating a historical brilliance. The installed capacity and the change of power output from 1978 to 2011 are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. During the 34 years from 1978 to 2011, the electric installed capacity had increased by 17.6 times with an average annual growth rate of 9.12%. The power output had increased by 17.4 times with the average annual growth rate of 9.17%. Taking 1992 as the boundary, in the first half the installed capacity increased by 7.96% annually and the output grew by an average of 8.01% a year, while there was a accelerated development in the second half with a 10.22% average annual growth of installed capacity and 10.26% average annual growth of power output. After the power system

Fig. 3 1978–2011 changes of installed capacity

Fig. 4 1978–2010 changes in power output 1 The Traditional Energy Power Project Construction 65 reform in 2002, power-generating growth rate accelerated significantly, keeping a double-digit growth rate ever since 2004 which played an important role in easing the country’s electricity supply and need tension since the second half of 2002. 2. China’s electric power development achievements For 30 years, China’s power industry development quality has been improved gradually, the power structure being optimized, electric power industry equipments and technologies being on a par with the world powers. The wide application of large units makes China’s thermal power generation efficiency greatly increased. By the end of 2011, China’s power supply coal consumption in thermal power plant had decreased from 471 g/kWh in 1978 to 329 g/kWh. Calculated according to the current annual output, the total amount of the energy coal saved each year reached about 670 million tons because of the coal consumption reduction. At the same time, along with industry upgrading, discharge reduction had also made remarkable achievements. At present, the capacity of thermal power flue gas desulphurization units put into operation has accounted for about half of the country’s coal power electricity installed capacity. A batch of power plants have been built into resource-conserving and environment-friendly enterprises, making outstanding contributions for the national goal of energy conservation and emissions reduction. In addition, China’s power grid technology had also experienced a constant upgrading with a 500 kV (330 kV in northwest) power gird main net frame structure built in most regions of the country. Except for Tibet, Xinjiang, Hainan and Tai- wan, national interconnected power grid has been initially formed and cross-regional transmission had been steadily growing. The 750 kV transmission line being put into operation, ±800 kV UHVDC power transmission project and the 1000 kV superhigh-voltage test and pilot project being under construction mark China has entered the higher power transmission development stage. 3. West-east electric power transmission and nation-wide interconnection Power grid construction steps into a large scale trans-provincial and trans-regional and nation-wide interconnection transmission stage. With a total investment of 526.5 billion yuan, the west-east electric power transmission project is the largest one on the scale of investment in power source and power grid in the nation’s electric construction history. Due to the west-east electric power transmission project, the north-middle-south transmission line layout has been formed across the nation. Northern line is responsible for the transmission from Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi and other provinces to the north China power grid; the middle line from Sichuan province to the central and east China power grid; the south line from Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and other provinces to the south China power grid. The completion of the project has greatly improved the ability of China’s electric power transmission and distribution capacity. In June 2009, the completion of Sea-crossing Interconnection Project [8]marked that the power grid trans-regional optimal resources allocation in the nation had been realized. Power exchange between regional power grids became more frequent showing a diversified prospect with many transaction types such as the mid-long term, 66 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy … short-term, super short-term, interruptible transaction and other modes. Because of the active trans-provincial electricity transaction, some grids had kept long-term high power transmission. The west-east electric power transmission and nation-wide interconnection project played an important role in redistribution of the surplus power to the insufficient regions, in relieving the strain on the power supply and promoting the optimal allocation of resources. In 2012, the primary energy production totaled 3.318 billion tons standard coal, ranking the first place in the world of which the indigenous coal accounted for 76.5%, primary oil accounted for 8.9%, natural gas accounted for 4.3%, the hydropower, nuclear power and wind power accounted for 10.3%. The electric installed capacity was 1.06 billion kW,with the annual generating capacity of 4.7 trillion kWh. The comprehensive energy transportation system experienced rapid development. Petroleum pipeline reached 70,000 kms and natural gas trunk line reached 40,000 kms. Nation grid had gernerally realized interconnection nationwide with electricity line beyond 330 kV being 179,000 kms. The first phase of national petroleum reservation project had been completed which increased the emergency support capability of the nation [9].

2 New Clean Energy Projects Construction

The high-speed world economic development catalyzed the fast-paced consumption of the traditional oil, coal and other resources. According to speculation of some economists and scientists, by the middle of this century, namely around 2050, oil resources will be exhausted which will spark the world-wide energy crisis if the new energy system could not yet been established. At the same time, facing the serious pollution to the earth’s environment caused by the use of oil and coal and the dual challenges of energy and the environment, some developed countries have already started to research on the exploration and utilization of clean and renewable new energies. Today, the exploration and development of new energies and renewable energies have been attached great importance by many countries and have become the focus of governments and energy circles in the ﬁelds of research and investment in a fast developing speed.

2.1 Wind Energy Utilization and Development in China

Wind, a renewable energy, won’t diminish under its transformation and the utilization by human, while instead it is a new kind of inexhaustible, clean and pollution-free renewable energy. Like hydroelectric power, wind power will not produce any pollutants discharge, so many countries take wind power as one of the main alternatives to conventional energy generation in the electric power development planning. 2 New Clean Energy Projects Construction 67

1. An overview of wind resources China, a large country with long coastline, has abundant wind energy resources. According to the related research results, China’s wind power resources second only to Russia and the United States, ranking at the third place in the world. According to the data taken from the height 10 m above the ground from more than 900 weather stations in the nation, the national average wind power density is 100 W/m2 and the total reserves of wind power is about 3.226 billion kW with 253 million kW exploitable wind energy reserves on land, 750 million kW exploitable offshore wind energy reserves, totaling about 1 billion kW. The wind energy resources in China are mainly distributed in southeast coast and the adjacent islands as well as in the “three north” (northeast, north China, northwest). In addition, there are particular inland wind power-rich sites. Some are with 4000 h time annually in which wind speed is more than 6 m/s and others are with the annual average wind speed at more than 7 m/s, possessing great value for exploration and utilization. If the onshore wind power annual grid power generation is equivalent to 2000 h capacity under full load condition, it can provide 500 billion kWh electricity a year; if the offshore wind power annual grid power generation is equivalent to 2500 h capacity under full load condition, it can provide 1.8 trillion kWh electricity every year, amounting to 2.3 trillion kWh electricity altogether which is equivalent to 81% of the nation’s power generation in 2006, namely 2.83 trillion kW. The wind power has an enormous utilization prospect. 2. The history of wind power The nation’s wind power development began in the 1980s, relatively delayed but on a high starting point, and mainly experienced three important stages. First stage: from 1985 to 1995 early demonstration phrase By using Government loans from Denmark, Germany and Spain, some small demonstration projects were established. Great European powers by offering loans and grants tested wind power fans in the Chinese market and accumulated a wealth of experience. The tough research projects of domestic-made wind turbine in the “seventh five-year plan” and the “eighth five-year plan” also achieved preliminary success. The second stage: from 1995 to 2003 industrialization exploration phrase Based on the outcomes of the first stage, the Chinese governments at all levels had introduced various favorable incentives. Ministry of science and technology through science and technology key problems tackling and the national 863 high-tech project had promoted the development of wind power technology. The former economic and trade commission and planning commission had implemented ShuangJia project to “enlarge the investment scale and speed up the reform pace”, and National Debt project and Ride Wind Program had promoted the sustainable development of wind power. The third stage: 2003–2007 industrialization development phase The national development and reform commission implemented preferential policies such as devolution of examination and approval right for wind power project 68 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy … below 50,000 kW by wind power concessionary management demanding that the domestic wind power project localization ratio shall not be less than 70% in order to support and encourage the development of the domestic wind power industry, facilitating the development of the domestic wind power market into a high-speed development stage. The fourth stage: 2008–present large-scale development stage On the basis of franchise bidding, the land wind power benchmark grid price policy had been introduced; on the basis of preliminary detailed survey of wind energy resources, the construction of eight 10 million kW wind power bases plan had been put forward; the construction of offshore wind power demonstration project had been initiated. According to the scale development need, Renewable Energy Law had been revised and it was required to make and implement the system of guaranteeing the purchasing of electricity generated by using regenerable energy resources in full amount to meet the challenges from market acceptance of the large-scale wind power in grid [10]. In recent years, with the development of wind power technology and the national industrial policy support, China’s wind power has experienced rapid development and the wind power installed capacity scale has been in continuous doubled growth. By the end of 2013, China’s wind power installed capacity had totaled 91.42 million kW, ranking the first place in the world [11]. Domestic wind turbine manufacturing industry also got rapid development at the same time, basically mastering the large wind turbine generators manufacturing technology and qualified for the batch production of wind turbine generators with the unit capacity of 1.5 MW. At present, although China’s wind power ratio is very low, the installed capacity has kept a rapid growth and has initially realized the large-scale development.

2.2 Tidal Energy Utilization and Development in China

Tidal power has the features of cleanness, extensive source and large reserve amount so its development and utilization has been paid more and more attention. Now governments are universally applying incentive policies to develop renewable energy. In China, there are several in-operation tidal power stations, such as Jiangsha tidal power station, Shashankou tidal power station, etc. 1. Overview of tidal power resources According to the survey on the 424 harbors dam sites with potential installed capacity more than 200 kW, China’s tidal energy reserves is 110 million kW, among which the total exploitable installed capacity is 21.79 million kW, the annual energy output is 62.4 billion kWh. There are 191 power stations with more than 500 kW capacity with exploitable installed capacity totaling at 2.58 million kW. Tidal power resources are mainly concentrated in coastal regions in Fujian, Zhejiang and Shanghai accounting for 92% that of the country. The exploitable tidal power resource installed capacity in Zhejiang province is 8.798 million kW, accounting for 40.8% that of the country; the 2 New Clean Energy Projects Construction 69

Table 4 China’s major tidal Name Tidal range Capacity Operation power stations (m) (MW) time Jiangsha 5.1 3.2 1980 Beishakou 2.1 0.64 1978 Xingfuyang 4.5 1.28 1989 Yuepu 3.6 0.15 1971 Haishan 4.9 0.15 1975 Shashan 5.1 0.04 1961 Liuhe 2.1 0.15 1976 Guozishan 2.5 0.14 1977 power output amounts to 26.4 billion kWh accounting for 42.7% that of the country. The annual power generating capacity of the tidal power resources in Zhejiang, Fujian and the North Branch of the Yangtze River estuary can reach 57.37 billion watts which if fully explored equals more than 20 million tons of standard coal each year provided to this region. 2. The present situation of tidal power China has the largest number of tidal power stations in the world, with several dozens of tidal power stations being built successively. While due to various reasons, now only a few of the power stations are in normal operation with the total installed capacity of about 6000 kW.The scale of tidal power stations in China is comparatively small. Jiangsha tidal test station the largest tidal power station ever built in China has 6 bidirectional tubular units with a total installed capacity of 3200 kW producing 6 million kWh annually. It is the third largest tidal power station in the world and just second only to the French Rance tidal power station and Canadian Annapolis tidal power station in Bay of Fundy. China’s major tidal power stations are listed in Table 4. 3. The typical tidal power station Jiangsha tidal test station, located at the end of Yueqing bay, (see Fig. 5) is China’s largest tidal power station today. The average tidal range is about 5.08 m in many years and the maximum tidal range can reach 8.39 m. There are ﬁve installed generating units with the total capacity of 3200 kW, but the yearly output has been kept at about 600 kWh. Jiangsha port is 9 km in depth and the mouth width of the dam site is 686 m. The port area is 5.3 km2, while the tidal power station reservoir area accounts for only 30% of the harbor area. The storage capacity below normal reservoir storage level is 5.14 million m3, of which the effective storage of power generation is 3.36 million m3. Power station hub consists of seawall, sluices, power generation workshop and the booster station, operated in a two-network automatic control system. The ﬁrst level is the full-length working condition automatic control system; the secondary level is the vibration control system. Years of operation practice shows that the units’ performance reached the expected standard with stable 70 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

Fig. 5 Jiangsha tidal test power station performance. The situations such as serious corrosion of metal components and sea creatures’ growth have not occurred in the operation in the seawater environment. In addition to power generation, the tidal power stations can make other comprehensive utilization proﬁts by ways of reclamation, farming and transportation.

2.3 Development and Application of Solar Energy in China

The 21st century should be the solar energy century. As long as 0.01% of the solar energy received could be utilized, it can satisfy the demand for energy all over the world. Therefore, the utilization of solar energy can solve the problem of energy shortage to a large extent. On use of solar energy, China has developed very fast. 1. Overview of solar energy resources China is rich in solar energy resources, ranking the second place in the world. Regions with total solar radiation more than 140 kcal/m2 (more than 2000 h of sunshine throughout the year) account for about two-thirds of the nation’s territory. Especially in north China, northwest and the Tibetan plateau where there is dry and in the lack of rain, there are the more than 2500 h of sunshine throughout the year. The total annual solar radiation is higher than 5000 MJ/m2 and the sunshine time is more than 2000 h annually. The vast majority of areas have daily average radiation above 4 kWh/m2 and the theoretical solar energy reserves equal 1.7 trillion tons of standard coal each year. 2. The present situation of solar energy industry The application of solar energy in solar photovoltaic products manufacturing, solar photovoltaic generation and solar thermal utilization, etc. has made considerable development. In 2012, China’s total polysilicon material production exceeded 2 New Clean Energy Projects Construction 71

Table 5 2001–2012 annual production and installed area of solar energy utilization [13] Year Total output Increase Installed area Increase Standard 10,000 m2 MW rate 10,000 m2 MW rate coal compared compared equivalent with with (10,000 t) previous previous year (%) year (%) 2001 820 5740 28 3200 22,400 23 480 2002 1000 7000 22 4000 28,000 25 600 2003 1200 8400 20 5000 35,000 25 750 2004 1350 9450 12.5 6200 43,400 24 930 2005 1500 10,500 11.1 7500 52,500 21 1125 2006 1800 12,600 20 9000 63,000 20 1352 2007 2300 16,100 30 10,800 75,600 19.5 1620 2008 3100 21,700 32.5 13,600 95,200 25.9 2040 2009 4200 29,400 35.5 16,000 101,500 17.6 2400 2010 4900 34,300 16.7 18,500 129,500 15.6 2775 2011 5760 40,320 17.6 21,740 152,100 17.2 3261 2012 6390 44,730 11 25,770 180,400 11.9 3865

71,000 tons. China photovoltaic battery capacity was 23 GW in 2012 and the installed capacity was 45 GW, including solar power (grid-connected) 3.28 million kW with 3.5 billion kWh solar power generation [12]. According to the Twelfth Five-Year Plan of Solar Power Development, by the end of 2015, the solar power installed capacity would reach more than 21 million kW with the annual output of 25 billion kWh and installed capacity up to 35 GW. China’s solar energy heat utilization industry has boomed since 2000. At present, China has become the world’s largest producer and market of solar water heater, and it has been still increasing at an annual rate of 20–35%. As shown in Table 5,in 2012 China’s solar water heater production was 57.6 million m2 and the installation area was 217.4 million m2, accounting for about 80 and 60% those of the whole world respectively. It is estimated that solar water heater production in 2015 and 2020 would be up to 135 million m2 and 273 million m2 with the annual output up to 189 billion yuan and 382 billion yuan respectively. 3. The passive solar house Passive solar house is a kind of new energy saving building by comprehensive utilization of solar energy and heat preservation and heat insulation technology. The promotion of passive solar houses has an important signiﬁcance for conventional energy saving and environmental protection. Passive solar houses are mainly built in north China where there need heating in winter. China’s development and utilization of the solar house started in the early 80s, by the end of 2011, 22.16 million m2 of the solar house had been built in the country, distributed mainly in the rural areas 72 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

Fig. 6 Passive solar house in Shandong, Hebei, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Qinghai and Tibet. Among them, a total area of 5,104,000 m2 solar house was built in rural areas in Liaoning province accounting for about 1/4 that of the whole country [14]. China’s passive solar houses can save 20–40 kg of standard coal with per square meter’s construction area annually. After 30 years’ development, China’s solar house technology and materials and equipments have been perfected gradually which can be well combined with buildings or simply become part of the building (Fig. 6).

2.4 Nuclear Energy Utilization and Development in China

In the energy family, along with fossil fuels—coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel is the most important energy used by human with huge development prospects. Extensive use of atomic nuclear power will greatly enhance human being’s dominating ability over nature. In the early 1980s, with the nation’s new policy of reform and opening up, the nuclear industry strutted onto a new development path and the exploration of nuclear power and unclear technology application became an important direction of nuclear industry for civil use. Over the last 30 years, basing on independent research- ing and furthering the opening to the outside world, the nation’s researches on nuclear science and technology have made constant progress. Remarkable achievements have been made in nuclear power exploration and construction and nuclear technology application industry have begun to take shape, making a positive contribution to the economic and social development and the improvement of people’s life. 1. Process of the nuclear power development China’s nuclear industry took off in 1955. On October 16, 1964 the ﬁrst atomic bomb successfully exploded followed successively by the development of hydrogen bomb and nuclear submarines. From 1955 to 1978, China’s nuclear industry was given priority to military applications. While after 1978, the focus was shifted to the peaceful use of nuclear energy. By the end of 2013, the nation’s commercial nuclear 2 New Clean Energy Projects Construction 73

Table 6 Nuclear power units in China mainland (till the end of 2013) [16] Name of nuclear plant Installed capacity (10,000 kW) No. 1 Plant of China Nuclear Operation Management 310 Company Dayawan nuclear plant No. 1 nuclear reactor 984 No. 2 nuclear reactor 984 No. 2 Plant of China Nuclear No. 1 nuclear reactor 650 Operation Management Company No. 2 nuclear reactor 650 No. 3 nuclear reactor 650 No. 4 nuclear reactor 660 Aoling nuclear plant No. 1 nuclear reactor 990 No. 2 nuclear reactor 990 No. 3 nuclear reactor 1086 No. 4 nuclear reactor 1086 No. 3 Plant of China Nuclear No. 1 nuclear reactor 728 Operation Management Company No. 2 nuclear reactor 728 Tianwan nuclear plant No. 1 nuclear reactor 1060 No. 2 nuclear reactor 1060 Hongheyan nuclear plant No. 1 nuclear reactor 1119 Ningde nuclear plant No. 1 nuclear reactor 1089 power unit under operation had reached the number of 17, with a total installed capacity of 14,833.79 MWe, accounting for about 1.19% that of the whole nation. The total annual power generating capacity was 5.24511 trillion KWh, of which nuclear power generating capacity was 110.71 billion kWh accounting for 2.11% of the nation’s total generating capacity [15]. Now an independent and complete nuclear science and technology industry system has been established which makes China one of the few countries in the world possessing a complete nuclear science and technology industry system. Nuclear power units in China mainland are shown in Table 6. 2. The achievements of nuclear power development China is one of the few countries with complete nuclear industry system in the world. To promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, in the 1970s, the state council made the decision to develop nuclear power. After more than 30 years of hard work, China’s nuclear power experienced great development from scratch. Nuclear technology has been widely used in industry, agriculture, medicine, resources, environment, public safety, scientific research and many other fields. Having a complete system of nuclear technology by combining with the traditional industries and mutual osmosis with other high-tech fields, the nation’s nuclear technology application has increasingly become a high-tech industry having a broad market and will produce great economic benefits and social benefits. 74 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

Fig. 7 Qinshan nuclear power station

3. The Qinshan nuclear power plant Qinshan nuclear power plant (Fig. 7), located in Qinshan town, Haiyan county, Zhe- jiang province, is China’s first independently designed and built nuclear power plant. Located in Qinshan, it is close to Hangzhou bay, 130 km away from Shanghai. Facing the sea and surrounded by mountains on three sides, the plant is strengthened by an 8 m high and 1700 m long artificial protective dam. After several expansions, Qin- shan nuclear power plant has now developed into a large nuclear power base. Now, Qinshan nuclear power plant has a total of seven generator sets, with 4.1 million kW installed capacity. Using the mature technology of pressurized water reactor in the world, the nuclear reactor is protected by three layers of barrier, namely the nuclear fuel cladding, pressure vessel and containment, which can withstand the internal pressure and high temperature caused by utmost accident and all kinds of natural disasters. Beginning in 1984, the first phase of the project was completed and put into operation in 1991 with an annual generating capacity of 1.7 billion kWh. The second phase, commencing in 1996, extended the project by installing two 600,000 kW generating sets on the original site. The third phase of the project was carried out under government cooperation between China and Canada by using the heavy water reactor technology provided by Canada to build two 700,000 kW generators which was completed in 2003.

3 Challenges and Prospect of Energy in China

3.1 Challenges in Future Energy Development in China

Inﬂuenced by energy resources, climate, technology and equipment and international environment, future energy development in China will meet many challenges: 3 Challenges and Prospect of Energy in China 75

The energy resource situation of being abundant in coal, while lacking in oil and natural gas, determines that Chinese energy consumption will continue to give priority to coal for a long time. The overuse of coal inevitably leads to the deterioration of the environment pollution, intensifying the contradiction between economic development and energy consumption and environmental protection and climate change and at the same tine facing growing international pressure to reduce carbon emissions. The shortage of oil and natural gas resources increases the uncertainty of oil supply capacity which becomes an unstable factor in supply security. Second, the energy utilization efﬁciency remains to be further improved. Being at the stage of speeding up the industrialization process, Chinese industrial structure has an extreme inclination toward heavy industrialization. Compared with the international advanced level, there is a certain distance in industry overall technical level and energy utilization efﬁciency is generally low. To speed up the process of industrial structure adjustment, further equipment upgrading is a long-term and arduous task. Thirdly, the energy management system and mechanism is still not perfect. In order to adapt to the needs of the socialist market economy, the energy economy system continues to explore the reform path. The real market price regulating energy supply and demand mechanism in market economy condition has not yet been formed, Laws and regulations construction remains to be further perfected. Energy reserves and emergency mechanism is not sound.

3.2 China’s Energy Development Prospect

During the thirty years’ energy development in China, the energy development pattern has always been based on China’s energy source reality, with coal as the major energy consumption source. Meanwhile, oil and natural gas consumption has been rising and electricity has become the mainstream in the optimization of energy consumption structure. Over the past 30 years, great achievements have been made in China’s energy development and in the predictable future, China’s energy development will achieve more brilliant merits. (1) Construction of thirteen large 10,000 million tons scale coal bases According to the 2006 Large Scale Coal Base Construction Plan, the nation focused on thirteen 10,000 million tons scale coal base construction which included Shen- dong, Jinbei, Jindong, Mengdong (northeast), Yungui, Henan, Luxi, Jinzhong, Lianghuai, Huanglong (Huating), Jizhong, Ningdong and Shanbei. In 2010 the coal output reached 1.7 billion tons. Large coal base construction brings great historical opportunities for the development of China’s coal industry and will have signiﬁcant impact on the improvement of China’s energy supply and energy development which plays a signiﬁcant role in meeting the demand of China’s economic and social development, integrating coal resources and fostering bigger and stronger Chinese coal industry. 76 4 Development in Chinese Traditional Energy …

(2) The electricity industry development According to China’s nuclear power industry development planning, from the coastal provinces such as Guangdong, Zhejiang, Fujian, to inland provinces like Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi dozens of nuclear power plants will be built. According to the medium- and long-term development plan, by 2020, nuclear power installed capacity in China mainland will reach 58 million kW, with nuclear power under construction being 30 million kW and in the future the newly-started nuclear power units will remain at 4–6 each year. Nuclear industry will enter a systemized, large scale development stage [17]. (3) Construction of UHV power grid From 2010 to 2015, the UHVAC test demonstration and UHVDC demonstration project will be completed by the state grid corporation of China, the initial formation of north-central-east China UHV synchronized power grid will be ﬁnished; the northwest 750 kV major grid structure will be basically accomplished; all regions under the company’s management will be interconnected; major breakthroughs will be made in multinational power cooperation. By 2010, the company’s 220 kV and above AC/DC lines will be up to 389,000 km with 1.64 billion KVApower transformation capacity; interregional and international transmission capacity will reach 85 million kW with power transformation capacity of 380 billion kWh. From 2010–2015 to 2015–2020, comprehensive development of ultra-high-voltage power grid will be carried out to form a strong grid structure connecting the regional power grid, large coal power base, large hydropower bases and major load center centering on north China, central China and east China. By 2020, 53 UHVAC substations will be built with transformation capacity of 336 million KVA and the line length of 44,500 km. In addition, 38 HVDC projects will be completed with transmission capacity of 191 million kW and the line length of 52,300 km. At the same time the UHV and interregional and international grid transmission capacity will reach 373 million kW. By that time, it is possible for the long-distance and large capacity power transmission from the neighboring countries to the nation [18].

References

1. Maling. 2013. Analysis of Present Condition and Measures in China’s Petroleum Exploitation. China Petroleum and Chemical Standard and Quality (in Chinese). 2. Wenbo, Wang, Shouyang, Zhong.2013. Industry and Energy-The Total Output of Energy Pro- duction and Its Composition. China Statistical Abstract. 3. Oil Reﬁning Division: Play a Leading Role in Striding to the World-Class. 2013, 7. http://www. sinopecnews.com.cn. 4. Ministry of Land and Resources of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. The Coal Sales Income in Shanxi Province Reached One Trillion Yuan, 2 (in Chinese). 5. Zhichen, Song. 2010. Report on Coal Industry Investment Analysis and Prosperity Prognosis in Shanxi Province. CI Consulting Research Center (in Chinese). 6. Mingzhi, Song. 2012. Research on Natural Gas Development Strategy in China. Resources and Industries 4: 2–18 (in Chinese). References 77

7. Yongjie, Chu. 2001. Overview on West-East Gas Project Pipeline. Petroleum Engineering Construction 4: 1–3 (in Chinese). 8. The First Cable Went Ashore in Sea-crossing Interconnection Project on March. 2009, 17. http://www.gov.cn. 9. China’s Energy Policy White Paper 2012. 2012. 10. http://www.gov.cn. 10. Retrospection on Development of Wind Power Industry in China. 2013. http://www.cnii.com. cn. 11. Statistics on the Global Wind Power 2013. 2014. http://www.offshorewind.cn. 12. A Series Annual Report on Chinese Industries -Solar Photovoltaic Industry 24 (in Chinese). 2013. http://www.cei.gov.cn. 13. Luo, Zhentao. 2013. Report on Chinese Solar Energy Exploitation Industry Development-20 Year’s advancement (2011–2012). Solar Energy 1(8) (in Chinese). 14. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. Research on Renewable Resource Utilization in Rural Areas of Different Regions. China Rural Statistical Yearbook,62 (in Chinese). 15. Publication of the Nuclear Power Safety Operation Situation in 2013. 2014, 2 (in Chinese). http://www.bjx.com.cn. 16. China Electricity Council. 17 Nuclear Power Units with the Total Commercial-use Capacity of 14.75 Million Kilowatts Last Year in China. 2014, 2 (in Chinese). 17. China Ranks Top in Nuclear Power Unit under Construction in the World. 2013, 8. http://www. cec.org.cn. 18. 60 Years in China: Constant Structure Optimization and Great Increase in Energy Production Capacity. 2009. http://www.stats.gov.cn. Chapter 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

Since 1978, great changes have taken place in a leap-forward speed in China’s transportation industry with brilliant achievements. Now, China’s comprehensive transportation system has been basically formed; the transport capacity has been further enhanced; transport production continues to grow in a fast pace; management mechanism reform is implemented steadily; transportation technology and management level has been enhanced constantly. Transportation industry has laid a solid foundation for the fast development of entire national economy and social harmony and stability.

1 The Development of China’s Road Transportation

With the speeding up of economic globalization and the increasingly intense competition in the market, an efﬁcient, convenient and safe road freight and logistics distribution system, not only becomes an important part of regional and national investment environment, but an important criteria for the regional and national manufacturing industry competitiveness. Rapid recovering and developing after the founding of new China, especially after the reform and opening-up policy, China’s highway transportation cause has entered a rapid and healthy development track, along with the establishment and perfection of socialist market economy system of which highway being an important infrastructure of national economy and social development.

1.1 Current Situation of Highway Transportation Development

Since 1978, China’s highway transportation industry showed a rapid developing trend. Judging from the trafﬁc volume and turnover, road passenger transportation has become the major passenger transportation means. Besides, highway transportation

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 79 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_5 80 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction volume has been far more than that of the other modes of transportation and the turnover has been also growing rapidly. All these fully show that highway transportation plays a increasingly important role in the national economy and social development process. A comprehensive national transportation network has been initially established under the rapid development of transportation infrastructure construction. Composed of superhighway, national and the provincial trunk highway, the “five vertical and seven horizontal” road transportation channel framework has basically formed. The “five vertical” highways refer to highways of Tongjiang to Sanya, Beijing to Fuzhou, Beijing to Zhuhai and Erenhot to Hekou and Chongqing to Zhanjiang, the “seven horizontal” highways means highways of Suifenhe to Manchuria, Dandong to Lhasa, Qingdao to Yinchuan, Lianyungang to Huoerguosi, Shanghai to Chengdu, Shanghai to Ruili and Hengyang to Kunming. The five vertical and seven horizontal trunk highway diagrams are shown in Fig. 1. These 12 trunk highways’ total mileage is about 35,000 km (superhighway 25,500 km, first class highway 1145 km, secondary highway 8983 km), running through China’s municipality cities and most of the provincial capital cities, connecting all megacities (population more than 1 million) and 90% of the big cities (population more than 500,000). The number of cities involved is beyond 200 covering a population of about 600 million which accounts for about 50% of the total population.

Fig. 1 The ﬁrst superhighway in China mainland-Hujia superhighway 1 The Development of China’s Road Transportation 81

1.2 Development of Highway Network

After 30 years of roads network development, a comparatively comprehensive road transportation system had been established in our country. Super highway has covered more than 90% of the country’s medium-sized city; common trunk highways has basically covered and connected to administrative areas at and above the county level and rural roads had approached to almost all villages and towns and administrative villages. Chinese road network total mileage increased from 890,000 km at the early years of the reform and opening up (1978) to 4,240,000 km at the end of 2012, and the road network density was 44.14 km per hundred km2. From scratch, the super highway trafﬁc mileage had reached 96,000 km and the number of highway bridge had been 713,000 in about 36.63 million meters; there had been more than 10,000 highway tunnels in about 8.05 million meters; The number of national highway operating vehicles had been 13.4 million. In 2012, the highway passenger carrying quantity had been 35.57 billion and passenger turnover had been 1.8468 trillion passenger- kilometer, which was 23.8 times and 35.4 times those of 1978 respectively. The completed highway freight volume was 31.89 billion tons and freight turnover was 5.9535 trillion ton-kilometer, which was 21 times and 170 times those of 1978 respectively; the number of passenger in urban passenger transport system had been 122.8 billion and the number of civil car ownership had been more than 100,000,000 [1].

1.3 The Development of Highway Transportation

According to quantitative analysis of several important indexes of highway transportation modernization in transitional period, the transitional period can be divided into four stages: First stage: The initial developing period (1978–1985) In this stage due to the rapid bounce back of national economy, transportation demand witnessed a rapid growth which resulted in various traffic tension problems being highlighted and problems under the unreasonable structure of transportation system being gradually exposed. In addition to contradiction between the insufficient highway mileage and the demand of the growth of the national economy, the prominent problem of low grade and low efficiency of highway is increasingly exposed. All of these led to the retarded development of highway transportation industry in the initial transitional period. The second stage: The growing period (1986–1998) Due to the improvement of the national economy and the people’s living standards, structure adjustment and competition in the transportation industry has become fierce, which accelerated the development of highway transportation consequently. It was clearly stated that transportation industry was the bottleneck in the development of national economy the awareness of which helped to realized breakthrough from zero mileage of superhighway in China mainland. 82 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

The third stage: Mature period of transformation (1999–2010) From 1996 to the middle of 2000, China’s highway transportation industry had entered a mature period of transformation. With China’s economic structure transformation, the demand for convenient and quick transportation had also increased. The possibility of door to door service of highway transportation increased its like- lihood of being chosen by people. On the other hand, as a complement to railway transportation, with the development of railway transportation, there will also have requirements for the faster development of highway transportation. The fourth Stage: Perfective period of transformation (2011–2020) In 2011, Chinese highway transportation industry entered a perfective period in which the highway passenger turnover reached 1.449 trillion passengers km and the highway freight turnover reached 1.0687 trillion ton km. By 2021, the annual highway passenger turnover will be 2.8313 trillion passenger kilometers and highway freight turnover will reach 1.5946 trillion ton km. At this period, passenger transportation market will be further saturated and the growth speed will slow down.

1.4 Rapid Development of Highway

Highway network extending to all directions brings convenience for people and provides the fast lane for the free movement and sufﬁcient competition of goods and all kinds of elements. Since 1988, the state has been actively promoting the construction of superhigh- ways which leads to the superhighway’s extraordinarily rapid development. In 1988, the 147 km Hujia highway was completed and put to operation (Fig. 2) which realized China’s superhighway zero breakthrough. Ever since that, highway construction has

Fig. 2 Qinghai-Tibet railway 1 The Development of China’s Road Transportation 83 surged to new records: By 1999 superhighway mileage broke through 10,000 km; by 2002 it broke through 20,000 km; by the end of 2012, the national superhighway mileage reached 96,200 km realizing the superhighway connection of inter- provincial cities and most of the central cities. China in just ten years covered the distance that the developed countries strived to achieve in three to four decades. Now China’s total highway mileage and the superhighway mileage are in the ﬁrst place worldwide. It is estimated that every 100 million yuan investment in superhighway construction in the nation can directly bring about the total social output of nearly 300 million yuan.

2 The Development of China’s Railway Transportation

China is a typical continental country. As a result, span of economic ties and exchanges is wide which needs a strong transportation mode to link the whole country and national economy and at the same time, guide and promote the development of other modes of transportation. The most distinguishing features of railway transportation is large transport quantity, low running cost, and little energy consumption which show absolute advantage for both passenger and cargo transportation in middle and long distance large quantity transportation. While in the big ﬂow, high density inter-city, short distance passenger transportation railway has solid competitive advantages which is the most suitable regional backbone transportation mode for China’s economic geographical features and people’s income level.

2.1 Achievements of Railway Transportation Development

From April 1, 1997 to 2008, China railway in 11 years, had experienced six times’ speed acceleration over large area and the technical level in the major transportation line was enhanced unceasingly. Currently China has a comprehensive grasp of the speed-acceleration technology such as design, construction, maintenance and repair for the 200 km per hour and above already existing railway which helped the formation of technical standard system of the Chinese railway existing railway speed-accelerating to 200–250 km. The mileage of the railway line of 200 km or above per hour covered the length of more than 6200 km. By speed acceleration, travel time between major cities has been compressed to half of the time it used to be and the operation speed has entered the world advanced level. The breakthrough in railway heavy load freight technology has reached the advanced world level. Daqin railway heavy load transportation has made signiﬁ- cant achievements realizing the miraculous trafﬁc volume of 401 million tons in 2010. The 5000–6500 tons of world advanced level freight trains have been in operation in major railway trunk lines which has fundamentally reversed the situation of Chinese railway train running at low speed and unable to meet to the market demand. 84 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

Fig. 3 An operation line in Shanghai maglev railway

Railway equipment industry has achieved the leaping development in key areas in a relatively short period of time. In the construction of the Qinghai-Tibet railway (Fig. 3), researches were carried out targeting at alpine hypoxia, permafrost and environmental protection problems and major breakthrough had been achieved. The successful construction of the high standard and high quality Qinghai-Tibet railway project had reached the world ﬁrst- class level. The success in the operation of Shanghai maglev demonstration line (Fig. 4) shows that China’s transportation is rapidly striving for modern transportation mode characterized by integration of high technologies. Passenger dedicated line, inter-city

Fig. 4 Beijing-Tianjin inter-city high-speed railway 2 The Development of China’s Railway Transportation 85 railway and high-speed railway construction have been comprehensively promoted. The high-speed train from Beijing to Tianjin with completely independent intellectual property rights and a world ﬁrst class level was put in operation before the Olympic Games at the maximum speed of 350 km/h. The operation of Beijing-Tianjin inter-city railway opened up a new era of China’s high-speed railway transportation. Passenger cars, vans and locomotive manufacturing level have been improved greatly and the design and manufacturing capability of EMU (Electric Multiple Units) and high-power locomotive has reached the international advanced level.

2.2 China Railway Network Construction

From 2010 to 2015, the key construction project of the high standard, high quality, large capacity “eight vertical and eight horizontal” railways (Fig. 5) plays a key role in the nation’s transportation development. The “eight vertical” railways include Jing-Ha railway, the eastern coastal railways, the Jing-Hu railway, the Jing-Jiu railway, the Jing-Guang railway, the Dazhan railway, the Bao-Liu railway and the Lan-Kun railway; the “eight horizontal” railways are the Jing-Lan railway, the north coal transport railway, the south coal transportation

Fig. 5 China water shipping transportation scheme 86 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction railway, Taiyuan to Qingdao railway, the second Asia-Europe continental bridge railway, the Ningxi railway, the along-the-river railways, the Hu-Kun-Cheng railway and the southwest passage to the sea. Between 2015 and 2010 large-scale railway construction with passenger dedicated line, interregional trunk line, coal transportation channel, the western railways as the key work were carried out in full swing. Beijing to Shenzhen, Harbin to Dalian, Ningbo to Shenzhen, Zhengzhou to Xi’an, Shijiazhuang to Taiyuan passenger dedicated line and Beijing to Shanghai high speed railway have now been under construction with 5000 km newly-built passenger dedicated line at present. Now the development of inter-city rail transit has been accelerated focusing on the key construction project in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the Yangtze River delta and Pearl River delta region with 1000 km’s established mileage of inter-city rail transit. In addition, in order to further expand the scale of the rail network and improve the ability of the existing lines, the north coal shipping channel 3, Lanzhou (Xining) to Chongqing (Chengdu) railway, Taiyuan to Zhongwei (Yinchuan) railway and the Qinghai-Tibet railway extension line have been in construction. In 2012 railway mileage reached 97.600 km, ranking the ﬁrst place in Asia of which the double track railway was of 30,100 km and electriﬁed railway 35,500 km. At present, the railway has already formed the “four vertical and two horizontal” high speed network with speed at 160 km/h and above extension mileage reaching 16,000 km, covering most regions and major cities of the country.

2.3 Rapid Development of High-Speed Railway

Compared with developed countries such as Japan, European and American, the high- speed railway construction started late in China but after years of development, high speed and quasi-high speed trains have been introduced into the nation or developed independently. Built in 1994, entirely independently constructed Guang-Shen quasi-high speed railway started to operate, running at the speed of 160 km/h. In 1995, 170 km/h speed-accelerating test was carried out in Shanghai-Nanjing line. On April 1, 1996, Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Shanghai “start at dawn and arrive at dusk” express train had been in operation. On August 16, 1999, Qing-Shen passenger dedicated line construction went into full operation. Being completed on July 1, 2003 with the total length of 404.65 km and the fastest test speed of 321 km/h, at the very beginning of the operation the train could already reach the speed of 160 km/h with the designed speed of 200 km/h. On August 1, 2008, the Beijing-Tianjin inter-city high-speed railway, the international first-class level of high-speed inter-city railway and the nation’s first high-speed inter-city railway with independent intellectual property rights, was open to traffic with the highest speed at 350 km/h (Fig. 6) which marked that China had formally entered the high-speed railway era. On June 24, 2008, in the inter-city running test from Beijing-Tianjin, the nation-made “harmony” CRH3 EMU had set a speed of 2 The Development of China’s Railway Transportation 87

Fig. 6 China air transportation’s leading role in transportation market

394.3 km equaling with the top speed in world’s railway operation. On December 9, 2009, the nation-made “harmony” CRH3 EMU in the Wuhan-Guangzhou high-speed railway operation test set a record speed of 394.2 km/h, making the highest speed under the multi-locomotive condition in high-speed railway operation worldwide. On February 6, 2010, Zheng-Xi high-speed railway went into operation with the highest running speed of 352 km/h. After years’ of hard work and accumulation China’s high-speed railway development ﬁnally presented tremendous accomplishments [2]. By the end of 2013, with the opening of Hangning, Hangyong, Panying high-speed railway, the high-speed railway mileage under operation had reached 10,463 km [3], ranking the ﬁrst place in the world. The high-speed railway under construction is more than 10,000 km of which the newly-built railway with speed at 250–350 km/h has 3676 operating mileage; the existing railway under speed-accelerating renovation with speed at 200–250 km/h has 2876 operating mileage. It is learned that there are 773 high-speed trains under operation nationwide everyday, the average occupancy rate is 101.7% and the Jing-Jin, Wu-Guang, Zheng-Xi high-speed railway have been put into operation. So far, the China high-speed railway has applied for 946 patents, with completely independent intellectual property rights, without intellectual property dispute with any foreign company.

3 The Development of China’s Water Transport

Compared with other modes of transportation, water transportation, an important mode, has incomparable advantages such as low freight cost, large capacity and little pollution to the environment. In the 30 years’ reform and opening up, in order to adapt to the needs of social and economic rapid development, China’s water transportation industry has deepened reform, furthered the opening-up to the outside world. 88 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

A long-term program of waterway transportation development has been formulated and implemented; a series of regulations and policies to encourage and support the development of water transportation have been promulgated; remarkable achievements have been made. Now, the water transportation plays a very important role in logistics transportation in our country.

3.1 Water Transportation Network in China

China is a large country with more than 18,000 km continental coastline, more than 14,000 km island coastline, more than 5000 natural rivers with valleys more than 100 m2 and more than 900 different-sized lakes. Due to China’s vast territory, long coastline and numerous inland rivers, the nation’s water transport ation is also divided into two large sections correspondingly: one is the ocean transportation; the other is inland waterway transportation. 1. The ocean transportation The regions with strong economic strength in China are basically concentrated in coastal areas, so, as a derived demand of economic development, the ocean transportation occupies a very important position in the national economic development. With speeding up process of China’s participation in international division of labor, the coastal ports in the future will maintain rapid growth. So for a period of time in the future it is deﬁnitely necessary to speed up the port structure adjustment to adapt to the needs of container transportation development and foreign trade cargo transportation and to build and expand the ports so as to adapt to China’s import and export projects on oil, natural gas and iron ore. 2. The inland water transport The total length of river in China is 430,000 km among which 15 rivers are more than 1000 km. In addition, of all the numerous lakes, there are 12 covering the area more than 1000 km2 and the total area of lakes are more than 80,000 km2. With the inland ports in the hinterland of the nation, a large number of goods transportation has been done through inland rivers, but the container transportation development in inland port was later than that in the coastal ports and the infrastructure construction for the container transportation was relatively weak, such as the imperfection of port and related facilities. At present, in China inland container transport is mainly in the inland rivers in Pearl River delta and the Yangtze River delta. It is not hard to predict the future inland river transportation development will approach to the mode of the coastal ports. 3 The Development of China’s Water Transport 89

3.2 Present Situation of Water Transportation Development

Water transportation infrastructure construction has achieved extraordinary benefits. A port system with reasonable layout, clear structure, complete function, complementary advantages has been formed. In the coastal ports, five transportation systems: coal, ore, oil, container, food have been basically established and the national high- grade waterway network of “two horizontal, a longitudinal and two nets” has also taken basic shape in inland waterways, improving the water transport ation capacity to a great extent. By the end of 2012, the country has 31,862 productive berths among which the number of port production berth has been 5623 and the number of inland port production berth has been 26,239 and inland waterway navigation mileage has been 125,000 km [4]. There have been 178,600 water transport ships nationwide of which inland water transport ships being 165,200, coastal ship being 10,900 and ocean transportation ships being 2486. Water transportation production is growing rapidly. The port throughput and container throughput in China mainland for seven consecutive years took the first place in the world. In 2012, the waterway freight volume was 4.587 billion tons and ports cargo throughput was 10.776 billion tons which were 10.60 times and 39 times those of 1978 respectively. In recent 10 years, the port container throughput annual growth has been at an average of 30% and in 2011 for the first time the nation’s water transport vessel total deadweight tonnage reached 200 million, of which the ocean shipping fleet took 115 million deadweight tons, ranking the fourth place in the world. Water transportation service capacity has been visibly improved. China has become a leading power in shipping and port development and has risen in status in the international shipping. In 2013, there were 8 ports in mainland China ranking themselves in the world top ten ports in term of throughput with Zhoushan port in Ningbo becoming the number one port in the world. Large backbone shipping enterprises’ scalization, specialization and intensification level has been enhanced unceasingly. COSCO fleet shipping capacity scale is in the world’s top two places and in addition, COSCO and China Shipping together rank into the top ten liner companies worldwide.

3.3 Characteristics of Water Transportation Development in China

Water transportation development since reform and opening up shows distinctive features as in the follows: 1. Focus on building the fair competition in shipping market system Early in the reform and opening up period, the state introduced policies to encourage private enterprises and individuals engaging in shipping transportation. According to the requirements of market economy and the operation rules, diversification of 90 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction investment and management entities was actively promoted; a fair access and competition order was established; price control in domestic waterway transport and domestic trade cargo handling operation was relaxed; regional and sectional blockade was shattered; in the field of international shipping agency and tally services competition mechanism was introduced; reform in management system was deepened to detach government administration from enterprise management; reform of state-owned enterprises was promoted to establish modern enterprise system and implement standardized corporate governance. Private shipping enterprises (including self-employed) grew rapidly, with the enterprises number up to 100,000. A unified, open, competitive and orderly water transport ation market system has been basically establishment. 2. Stick to opening to the outside world policy with a positive attitude Along with earnestly fulfilling its WTO commitments, the domain and the degree of opening to the outside world was also expanded; the cargo reservation policy was canceled; foreign capital was encouraged to invest into the construction and operation of port industry; openness of waterway transportation industry has reached a quite high level. It was encouraged to actively participate in the multilateral activities of WTO and the international maritime organizations, to sign an agreement on shipping with major shipping countries and regions, to be elected to the international maritime organization class A council members in 10 consecutive terms, to organize the implementation of ship and port facility security work and set a good image in the world. 3. Insisting on the service first development concept After 30 years of rapid development, the water transport ation services efficiency has been significantly increased. The port supporting facilities have been improved and the level of modernization has been enhanced significantly. The loading and unloading efficiency in the major container ports has reached new highs with some of them reaching the world advanced level. With the rapid development in the world shipping and some of the world port’s capacity being in tense situation, the major ports in China have always been providing efficient, convenient and smooth services. 4. Pay more attention to resource conservation and environmental protection in water transportation development Adhering to the scientific concept of development, Chinese government attaches great importance to water transport ation, especially the development of inland waterway transportation. According to the distinctive traits of inland waterway transportation, namely, covering less area, having small pollution, being environmental friendly and having huge social benefits, a series of principles and policies has been made to promote the inland water transportation development. The scale of inland waterway transportation construction fund has been continually expanded to accelerate construction of inland water transport with the Yangtze River golden waterway as the focus. The inland river ship type standardization has been actively promoted and the ship upgradation in Beijing-Hangzhou Canal has been accelerated which makes this 3 The Development of China’s Water Transport 91 ancient inland waterway transportation mode glow the new vitality. Marine science and technology innovation strength has remarkably increased and some major breakthroughs have been achieved in key technological projects. The informatization level in the industry has been constantly promoted and in addition energy conservation and emissions reduction work in water transportation has begun to produce results.

3.4 Port Infrastructure Construction

After 30 years’ construction and development following reform and opening up, China’s port infrastructure scale has been signiﬁcantly increased. From 1978 to 2012, the number of production berth in the major ports increased from 735 to 31,862 among which the number of deepwater berth with the capacity of 10,000 tons increased from 133 to 1886 which was 14.2 times that of 1978 with the average annual growth of 7.9%. Since the 90s, along with fast-paced port construction, focus has been shifted to modern deepwater, large-scale and specialized port construction. A batch of large crude oil, iron ore, coal, container and other specialized docks and deepwater channel projects had been completed successively of which more than 50% were specialized berths (Table 1).

Table 1 Berths in major Chinese ports Time Berths in the ports Berths in the coastal ports Berths in inland river ports Total Berth more Total Berth more Total Berth more number of than ten number of than ten number of than ten berth thousand berth thousand birth thousand tons tons tons 1978 735 133 311 133 424 0 1980 792 142 330 139 462 3 1985 844 189 373 173 471 16 1990 4657 312 967 284 3690 28 1995 6187 438 1263 394 4924 44 2000 7639 581 1455 526 6184 55 2005 9943 935 3110 769 6833 186 2006 10,171 1108 3291 883 6880 225 2007 11,404 1217 3453 967 7951 250 2008 14,205 1335 4914 1076 9291 259 2009 20,091 1507 5372 1214 14,719 293 2010 20,333 1611 5529 1293 14,804 318 2011 20,524 1706 5612 1366 14,912 340 2012 20,450 1822 5715 1453 14,735 369 92 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

Now a three-level port system including major ports, regional important ports and other general ports has basically taken into shape and in the Yangtze River delta, the Pearl River delta, Bohai Sea, southeast coast, the southwest coast a large scale relatively concentrated groups of ports have been formed. Inland river major ports’ conditions have also been greatly improved. In the regions of Yangtze River and Xijiang main line, the Yangtze River delta and the Pearl River delta, a group of specialized berths for container, large bulk cargo and automobile ro/ro have been built. In the past 30 years, the nation’s port developed gradually with the development of domestic and international economy, trade, science and technology, stepping onto a new stage from quantity growth to quality and efﬁciency stage of development.

4 Typical Achievements

A large number of specialized berths have been built in coastal ports and port container, large bulk cargo and automobile ro/ro and other large-scale specialized terminals, port mechanization and specialization level have been constantly improved and at the same time the work efficiency has been enhanced significantly. On May 9, 2007 Shanghai Shengdong international container terminal Co., Ltd., broke two world records of the ship efficiency and single efficiency two container loading and unloading operation which marked China’s port container terminal software and hardware facilities entering a world-class level. Now China’s major port container handling efficiency has reached the world advanced level. In water transportation, the ship development showed a large-scale, specialization and standardization traits and net deadweight kept rising. At the end of this year, China will have 2486 commercial ocean transportation ships and shipping fleet capacity scale will rank the fourth place in the world. COSCO fleet shipping capacity has ranked the top places in the world and at the same time, COSCO and China Shipping have both come into the world top ten liner companies. In addition, the significant breakthroughs have been achieved in building deepwater port and waterway regulation technologies. YangtzeRiver estuary deepwater channel anti-softening project has played a leading role in the world. Besides, the first and second phases of Yangtze River and Pearl River waterway regulation have been completed improving significantly the carrying capacity and the large vessel adaptability.

5 Development in China Pipeline Transportation

5.1 Current Development Condition in China Pipeline Transportation

China pipeline transportation began in 1958 with the pipeline transportation mileage being only 200 km. With the development of oil reﬁning industry, oil (gas) pipeline evolved from small to large scale. After several decades’ construction, by the end of 5 Development in China Pipeline Transportation 93

2012, the national oil (gas) pipeline mileage had been 90,100 km with oil pipeline 41,300 km and gas pipeline 48,800 km [5]. At present, China has already formed the orderly transporting and allocating oil and natural gas pipeline network covering northeast, north China, central China, east China and northwest areas. 100% of natural gas and more than 90% of the country’s oil has been transmitted through the long-distance pipelines to oil refineries, chemical plants and ports continuously. From 1991 to1995, there had been new breakthrough in long-distance pipeline construction. The oil and gas transmission pipeline construction increased at about 400 km annually and the pipeline network in the northeast, north China, east China had been further improved. Long-distance pipeline construction was not confined to land, but also extended to sea and desert. By 2012, a large number of pipeline project had either been successfully completed or had been actively promoted: line C of the central Asian gas pipeline and line 3 of west–east gas transportation pipeline had started to be built smoothly; the line 2 of west–east gas transportation pipeline which was the first strategic channel project of natural gas resources introduction and contemporarily the longest natural gas line with the largest engineering quantity in the world had been put into production completely [5].

5.2 Long-Distance Oil and Gas Pipeline Technology

In terms of pipeline transmission, aerial remote sensing and satellite positioning technology have been used in pipeline survey and line selection. Computer aided design technology has been used in pipeline design. The furrowing, cloth tube, weld- ing, trench backfill in pipeline construction have been done under the automated streamline work process. China has been qualified for the design and construction of long-distance pipeline and its supporting facilities in the international market and annual pipeline construction capacity increased from about 400 km in 70s last century to present 2500 km. In 1989 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with an average altitude of 3000 m, the world’s highest pipeline Huatugou-Golmud pipeline was completed; in 1990 Asia’s longest Yilang-Harbin 246 km gas pipeline was completed; through scientific research, in Taklimakan desert, the “sea of death”, the world’s first oil and gas pipeline in the drifting desert was completed in 1996. The first phase of west- –east gas pipeline in total length of 4000 km had been put into commercial operation and the second phase had been completed before 2010. The pipeline transportation technology in China has been among the international advanced level.

5.3 West to East Gas Transmission Project

The construction of west to east gas transmission project (Fig. 8) started on July 4, 2002, from Lunnan area in Xinjiang in the west, going through the Gobi desert, the Loess Plateau, the Taihang mountains, crossing the Yellow River, Huaihe river, the 94 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

Yangtze river, passing through nine provinces, autonomous region and municipalities directly under the central government, and ﬁnally arriving in Shanghai, in full length of about 4000 km and on December 30, 2004 the pipelines was in full service of gas supply. The project is China’s top standard pipeline project in terms of largest diameter, thickest pipe wall, highest pressure grade and toughest engineering technology which created the highest speed in the world pipeline construction history. The completion and operation of it has opened an energy artery through west and east and marked the overall improvement in the level of China’s natural gas pipeline construction and it also played an important role in promoting the development of the western region and speeding up the process of the central and western regions’ development.

6 The Development of China’s Air Transportation

Air transportation is also called the plane transportation which is a means of cargo transportation by using plane with the airline and the airport as preconditions. In the transportation industry in our country, the freight volume of air transportation accounts for relatively small proportion and at present it is mainly responsible for the long-distance passenger transportation. Along with the rapid development of logistics industry, air transportation will play an important role in terms of the freight transportation.

6.1 Present Situation in Air Transportation Development

With the 30 years ‘rapid development after the reform and opening up, a modern air trafﬁc management system in China’s civil aviation industry has been built and a system of technology introduction, digestion, exploration and innovation has also be built to adapt to the needs of the sustainable development of civil aviation. At the same time, a multi-level and comprehensive, systematic human resource development system and complete legal system has been built and aviation safety comprehensive support ability has been gradually strengthened making aviation safety level close to the civil aviation developed countries. In China currently, there are more than 1000 various types of aircrafts used for civil aviation and the main transportation aircraft are up to the world’s advanced technology and good economic performance. Now an air transportation network has been formed which extends to all directions domestically and trunk lines are integrated with branch lines linking the world’s major countries and regions. With the quantity increase in airport construction, CAAC (Civil Aviation Admin- istration of China) has not forgotten the airport technical upgrading construction, especially the technological innovation in the ﬁelds of air control, communications, navigation, and meteorological support system. At present, in the major routes the air 6 The Development of China’s Air Transportation 95 control radar coverage and advanced communication and navigation facilities interconnection have been realized. Besides, in the routes of Jing-Hui, Jing-Hu, Hu-hui the secondary radar coverage at height of 7000 m and above has been realized. Civil aviation capital airport, Shanghai airport and Guangzhou airport, the three major hub airports, have preliminary reached the international advanced level.

6.2 Development Process in Aviation Transportation Industry

China’s civil aviation transportation industry has experienced four stages: The ﬁrst stage: establishing period (1949–1957). At the founding of new China, cooperating with the former Soviet union, China’s civil aviation industry began to develop under certain plan. Signiﬁcant effects had been achieved in new routes development, infrastructure construction, management improvement and technology innovation which laid a solid foundation for aviation industry subsequent development. The second stage: adjusting period (1958–1976). China’s civil aviation industry had made some improvements such as the construction of some airports, the development of some domestic routes and international routes. The third stage: developing period (1977–present). The economic reform and opening to the outside world policy implemented in 1978 brought unprecedented opportunities for Chinese civil aviation industry development due to the strong market demand.

6.3 The Development of Air Transportation Network

By the end of 2012, there had been 183 certified transport airports, and before 2015 there will be 82 more newly-built airports and 101 expanded airports which will make China’s civil airport number into 264 [6]. Since 1978, civil aviation routes have been greatly increased among the provincial capitals, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government and according to the changes of market focus, the routes to tourist destination cities have been opened up constantly. In order to better serve the economic construction, the expansion of civil aviation route network between the coastal open cities has also been accelerated and meanwhile the air transportation in underdevelopment areas has been improved with a regional aviation transportation network in Xinjiang, Yunnan and other provinces and regions being formed. At present air aviation transportation network connecting all regions over the country in combination of main lines and branch lines has been formed. In 2012, there were 381 international navigation routes open to 104 cities in 46 countries. Now the air transportation network linking the world’s major countries and regions 96 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction with Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and other cities as starting point has been formed. There are 38 cities in mainland having flights to Hong Kong and 10 cities having flight to Macau which provides convenient transportation routes between the mainland, Hong Kong and Macao. In order to meet the capacity demand in air transportation market, CAAC made use of foreign financing lease and business lease and in the past dozen years the infrastructure construction such as airport, aviation control have been strengthened. 80 large and medium-sized airports in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, etc. were under reconstruction, expansion, relocation and newly-construction along with construction of a batch of regional airports with airport facilities’ level being more and more close to that of developed countries. In 2012, there were 183 airports open to traffic with markedly enhanced capability and accessibility.

6.4 National Policy Support

1. The implementation of civil aviation institutionalization and airport localization reform On March 3, 2002, the nation made the important decision on the civil aviation management system reform and set up the Civil Aviation System Reform Plan which was a third time civil aviation system reform after the first reform in 1988 which detached the civil aviation from the army administration and led it to the path on enterprise basis. In 1988 a second reform separated airlines and airports to establish state-owned backbone airlines which was the most thorough and profound reform since the foundation of China’s civil aviation industry. This reform was mainly concerned with airlines reorganization, localization of airports, the civil aviation price system, air traffic management system, the civil aviation administration system and expansion of opening up to the outside world, etc. which marked the long-term highly-regulated civil aviation under government situation had been loosen to a certain extent and the industry reform had entered the deepening implementation stage and marked the new type of civil aviation management system in accordance with the rule of civil aviation industry development and in line with international standards had been preliminarily established. 2. The national policy support to the airport industry development According to the “the Twelfth Five-year Development Plan on Chinese Civil Avi- ation” issued on national civil aviation airport work conference on April 7, 2010, the construction of regional airports got unprecedented attention which was listed into the 2010–2015 major goals in the development of civil aviation with alleviating of capacity saturation in large airports and the positive development of regional airports as the focuses. The Planning claimed, by 2015, the number of transportation airport would reach beyond 230 with at least 55 newly-built airports, covering 83% of the nation’s population; the fleet size should be up to more than 4500 airplanes; the annual volume of passenger traffic and goods traffic should reached 450 million 6 The Development of China’s Air Transportation 97

(with the average annual growth of 11%) and 9 million tons(with the average annual growth of 10%), including building 56 new airports, relocating 16 airports, restoring and expanding 91 airports; the investment in the industry infrastructure construction would reach 425 billion yuan. It is estimated by CAAC (Civil aviation administration of China) that in the next five years the investment in civil aviation industry would be more than 1.5 trillion yuan. Basing on this estimation, the airport construction alone would account for one-third of the total investment. It can be safely said that China’s airport industry has entered a new stage of rapid development. 3. Change in the airport charges reform Since March 1, 2008, Charge Reform Plan of Civil Airport and its Application Scheme were implemented. Airport charges changed from unified type into classified type, all the charges items were divided into the aviation operational charges, major non-aviation operational charges and other non-aviation operational charges. Government guidance price was given priority in the first two charges under floating management; market regulation is given priority to the latter. Generally speaking, the new airport charges reform planning had reshaped the interest distribution pattern between airline and airport as well as within the airport industry and it also narrowed the charge gap between the domestic and foreign airlines. In international, Hong Kong and Macao routes, the aviation operational charge of domestic airlines is 60% that of the foreign airlines, while in five years’ time, the charges standards of domestic airlines’ international, Hong Kong and Macao flights should be integrated with the charges standards of foreign, Hong Kong and Macao airlines’ flights. 4. Changes in the airport industry subsidies policy In May 2008, the industry subsidy policies such as The Small and Medium-sized Civil Aviation Airport Subsidy Administration Measures, The Regional Aviation Subsidy Administration Measures and The Management Measures of Finance Discount Funds of Civil Aviation Infrastructure Construction Loan, were issued which showed obvious effect in supporting the small and medium-sized airports. The Small and Medium- sized Civil Aviation Airport Subsidy Administration Measures was a continuation of the previous airport loss subsidy policy, but the subsidy method was different from the former direct subsidizing the gross losses, while instead the new method catego- rized the airports by region and scale to determine different subsidies standards and coefficient respectively which was used to determine the subsidies amount [7].

References

1. Highway Total Mileage in Our Country Reaches 4.24 Million Kilometers with Highway Mileage of 96,000 Kilometers. 2013, 9. http://www.xinhuanet.com. 2. Lin, Li. 2012. Research on Current Situation of Different types of Transportation Means and Their Prospects. Hei Longjiang Transportation Technology 7: 152–153 (in Chinese). 98 5 Development in Chinese Transportation Construction

3. The High-speed railway in Our Country Exceeded 10,000 kilometers on September 26 with Xiangpu Railway Open to Trafﬁc. 2013, 9 http://www.xinhuanet.com. 4. Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. Statistical Bulletin of Highway and Waterway Transportation Industry Development in 2012,4. 5. Wang, Wenbo, and Zhong Shouyang. 2013. Overview of Transportation Industry. China Statis- tics Abstract 143 (in Chinese). 6. Lanlan. 2013. Prospect of National Civil Airport Construction in 2013. Transportation World 9: 48–61 (in Chinese). 7. 60 Years in China: Multi-type Comprehensive Transportation Network has Been Formed. 2009. http://www.stats.gov.cn. Chapter 6 Development in Chinese Environmental Water Conservancy Construction

Water is the source of life, the necessity in production, the basis for ecological system while huge population with insufﬁcient water reserve and uneven space-time distribution of water resources is China’s basic national and hydrologic conditions. Facing with the increasingly prominent problems such as the serious water shortage, water pollution and water ecological environment degrading, the current water resources situation in China’s is very challenging which has become the bottleneck restricting sustainable development of economy and society. To implement requirements by the central water conservancy work conference and “Decision of the CPC Central Com- mittee and State Council on Accelerating the Development of Water Conservancy Reform,” China has already implemented strict water management system. Under the strict management, water conservancy cause has made great progress, realizing the fundamental changes from planned economy to market economy, from engineering water conservancy to resources water conservancy, from traditional water conservancy to modern and sustainable water conservancy. Water conservancy’s basic position in national economy and social development has been constantly lifted to higher level and it provides a strong support and guarantee to achieve sound and rapid economic and social development and social harmony and stability [1, 2].

1 Environment Protection Projects Construction

Environmental protection means by taking the administrative, legal, economic, scientific and technological measures to rationally use natural resources to prevent environmental pollution and destruction in order to maintain and improve the ecological balance and to expand reproduction of the useful natural resources to ensure the development of human society. In modern society, human being’s needs on materials and natural resources has kept increasing leading to the increasing development and utilization of natural resources, and at the same time more wastes are thrown back to the environment. As a result, action and reaction between human development and natural © Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 99 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_6 100 6 Development in Chinese Environmental … environment are accelerated, namely the mutual influence between environment and population growth, economic development and resource utilization has been increasingly strengthened. In this way, the focus of environmental protection has shifted from the traditional work to protect the natural environment to the protection of human development and the ecological balance. The contents of the environmental protection differ in every country around the world which generally include two aspects: one is to protect and improve environmental quality, to protect human health and prevent human body from mutation and degradation under the influence of environment; the second is to rationally utilize natural resources, to reduce or eliminate harmful substances come into the environment, and to protect the recovery and expanded reproduction of the natural resources (including biological resources) to facilitate human life activities. The protection of the human environment is a very complicated problem. Overall there are many practical and theoretical problems. For example, in solving some specific environment problems, it is often conflicting with the overall environment; there is a lack of scientific cognition on the contradiction between environment protection and resources utilization; it is also difficult to make a reliable prediction on the reaction of natural environment on the human society under human influence, etc. To solve these problems, people should not only study the nature rules but also the social rules to coordinate the development of man and nature. In recent years, with the constant increasing investment from the nation and governments at all levels, China’s environmental protection industry has kept a fast growth rate. In 2009, China’s environmental protection industry output value achieved an 18.9% year-on-year growth reaching 950 billion yuan. From 2010 to 2015, China’s environmental protection industry output value growth rate would remain between 15 and 20%. The output value in environmental protection industry went beyond 1 trillion yuan in 2010.

1.1 Sewage Treatment and Reclaimed Water Reuse Project

Sewage refers to the waste water produced in daily life by the city authorities, schools, and residents, including household water drainage from the bath, laundry, kitchen and toilet and drainage from business regions, hospitals and casinos, etc. And sewage treatment refers to the removal of organic and inorganic impurities from sewage by using the physical, chemical and biological methods to make water quality reach discharge or reuse standard which is also an important process of environmental protection for the residences. On the other hand, “reclaimed water reuse technology” refers to the centralized processing of residents’ living waste water or sewage (bath, toilet, laundry, kitchen, toilet) after which the water would reach a certain standard for residential greening irrigation, car and road cleaning, family toilet ﬂushing, etc. so as to achieve the environment-protective water conservation purpose (Fig. 1). 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 101

Fig. 1 Chunliuhe sewage processing factory in Dalian

1. Sewage treatment Sewage refers to the waste water discharged from the family life. The volume of sewage equals the per capita sewage volume per day multiplied by the permanent residents’ number. There are certain norms for sewage volume as well as the comprehensive sewage volume in small and medium-sized cities. According to the different sources, sewage can be roughly divided into two types: namely, urban sewage and rural sewage. There are distinctive treats of the two types of sewage, so the corresponding treatments also differ a lot. The brief introduction of the important rural sewage treatment methods are as follows (Fig. 2): 2. The rural sewage treatment Rural domestic sewage refers to the discharged wastewater in the process of daily life (bath, laundry, kitchen and toilet, etc.). According to the ﬁfth national population census, China’s rural population was about 888 million accounting for 70.1% of the nation’s overall population. With the rapid development of rural urbanization, the population has been increasingly concentrated and there are rapid improvement in the rural people’s living standard and living conditions has also been improved signiﬁcantly which resulted in the increase of rural sewage discharge. By 2010, the sewage discharges from villages and towns of our country had reached 27 billion tons. Different from rural urban sewage, rural sewage shows the characteristics of small volume, dispersion, and unstable water quality, etc. Comprehensive rural sewage treatment technology mainly refers to a single family in the countryside, joint households, natural villages, central village and small towns to deal with sewage by physical, chemical or biological measures and then reuse the treated water or discharge it through open trench or culvert directly to 102 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Fig. 2 Sewage treatment station in rural area in Jinzhou rivers. For the sparsely-resided rural and remote areas and rural towns, due to the restrictions of geographical conditions and economic factors, integrated wastewater treatment and safe recycle techniques should be chosen and developed to adapt to the local condition. According to the current development in rural sewage treatment technology at home and abroad, the technical processing mode can be divided into the following two kinds: (1) Scattered processing/decentralized The sewage from rural residents are collected according to certain regional partition which means generally large villages with high concentration or adjacent villages are unified together to process the sewage separately for each partition. This model applies to villages with loose layout and small population size in complicated terrain conditions where it is hard for sewage centralized collection under unprivileged economic conditions. In scattered processing mode, the low cost, low energy consumption, easy maintenance, high processing efficiency sewage treatment equipments or technology portfolios are usually chosen. (2) Centralized processing The centralized processing means to collect the sewage produced by all the farmers in the habitable region through certain way (such as municipal pipeline connection) and to build treatment facilities to deal with the residential sewage universally. Dif- ferent from the scattered sewage treatment process technology, centralized sewage treatment often strengthens the treatment effect through certain environmental engineering measures. For example, anaerobic-aerobic technology portfolio is often used in the process of treatment with natural treatment and conventional biological treatment as common technological forms. Because this processing technology typically 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 103 requires a large number of processing equipments, contrary to the industrial wastewater treatment, the processing pattern generally covers small area with strong impact resistant capability and at the same time high safety reliability and good water quality are also its advantages. This processing mode is suitable for single or joint sewage treatment central village in water source reserve which is densely located with large population in good economic conditions where the village and town enterprises, or tourism are highly developed [3]. 3. Reclaimed water reuse project The word “reclaimed water“ is relative to the water supply, and water drainage. Reclaimed water reuse technology refers to the centralized processing of residents’ living waste water or sewage (bath, toilet, laundry, kitchen, and toilet) after which the water would reach a certain standard for residential greening irrigation, car and road cleaning, family toilet flushing, etc. so as to achieve the water conservation purpose. There are three reclaimed water processing methods due to different purposes. (1) In the first method, reclaimed water is treated to the drinking water standard and return directly to daily life, namely the realization of the direct water recycling. This approach is suitable for the region with scarce water resources but the investment is high and technology involved is complex. (2) In the second method, the reclaimed water is treated to the non-drinking water standard, mainly used in the fields without direct contact with the human body, such as toilet flushing, ground or car cleaning, greening irrigation, fire extin- guishing, ordinary industrial water, etc. This is the usual reclaimed water treatment method. (3) In industry, reclaimed water technology can be used to treat the industrial wastewater that reach the discharge standards and thus to realize the industrial recycling to achieve the purposes of capital saving and environment protection (Fig. 3). Reclaimed water exploration and recycling technique has got a rapid development recently and has been widely used in the United States, Japan, India, Britain and other countries (especially in Japan). In China, governments at all levels and relevant departments have highly concerned about this technology and a lot of theoretical research and practical work has been done on reuse of reclaimed water from buildings. In many cities in China such as Shenzhen, Beijing, Qingdao, Tianjin, Taiyuan the reclaimed water project has been put into operation and achieved significant effect. At present, the reclaimed water reuse project has been built in the nation’s state-owned industrial enterprises and part of the private enterprises, such as highly polluting and huge water-consuming enterprises which makes contribution to national call for low carbon production and energy conservation and emissions reduction. 104 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Fig. 3 Reclaimed water reuse project in Qingdao

1.2 Industrial Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Project

Industrial waste water refers to the waste water produced and discharged in the process of production in all walks of life. It can be divided into production sewage (including living sewage) and production waste water. Production sewage refers to the waste water (including industrial waste water in high temperature which can cause thermal pollution) produced in process of production which is contaminated by the organic or inorganic production wastes. Production waste water is formed in the process of production, but is not directly involved in the production process which plays only a supplementary role and is not contaminated or only lightly polluted with slight rise in temperature (such as cooling water, etc.). The characteristics of industrial waste water are mainly represented by large emission volume, complex components and severe pollution. Wastewater quality is usually marked by two major pollution indicators, namely the suspended matter and chemical oxygen demand (cod). Different industrial waste water varies greatly in water quality. Taking the chemical oxygen demand (cod) for example, the lower amount is between 250 and 3,500 mg/L while the highest amount can often reach to tens of thousands of milligrams per liter, or even hundreds of thousands of milligrams per liter. According to the latest statistics, in 2012, the national wastewater emissions volume was 22.16 billion tons, urban sewage discharge reached 46.27 billion tons; the emission of chemical oxygen demand (cod) was 24.237 million tons of which chemical oxygen demand (cod) emissions from industrial sources took 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 105

3,385,000 tons; chemical oxygen demand (cod) emissions from agricultural sources took 11,538,000 tons; chemical oxygen demand (cod) emissions from urban life took 91.28 million tons. The ammonia nitrogen emission in the sewage was 2.536 million tons of which 264,000 tons coming from industrial emission, 806,000 tons coming from agricultural emission and 144,600 tons coming from urban life emission [4] (Table 1). Industrial wastewater treatment process means to purify industrial waste water by separating and decomposing the variety of pollutants from it. According to the principle involved, industrial waste water processing methods can be generally divided into physical treatment method, chemical treatment method, physical-chemical treatment method and biological treatment method. Physical treatment method is to use physical way to separate suspended solids or opacifying material in the wastewater. Grille, sieve, centrifugal, clarification, filtra- tion, oil separation, etc. are the commonly-used methods. Chemical treatment method is to use chemical reaction to remove dissolved substances or colloidal substances in water. Neutralization, precipitation, oxidation reduction, catalytic oxidation, photocatalytic oxidation, micro electrolysis, elec- trolytic flocculation and incineration, etc. are commonly used in chemical method. Physico-chemical treatment method uses physical-chemistry reaction to remove dissolved substance and colloid materials in waste water. Coagulation, flotation, adsorption, ion exchange, membrane separation, extraction, stripping, blow off, evap- oration, crystallization, burning, etc. are commonly used in this method. Biological treatment method means by using the microbial metabolism to con- verse the organic pollutants and inorganic nutrients in the wastewater into stable and harmless substance. Common methods include activated sludge method, biological membrane method, anaerobic digestion method, stabilization pond and wetland treatment, etc. Biological treatment method can also be classified into aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment. The former mainly includes activated sludge method and biofilm method while the latter includes all variety of anaerobic digestion methods (Fig. 4)[5].

1.3 Rainwater Collection and Treatment Reuse Project

Rainwater collection and treatment is serving for the goal of rainwater utilization which is the technology of reusing urban reclaimed water for road spraying, green space irrigation and toilet flushing, etc. It considers comprehensively the needs on rainwater runoff pollution control, urban flood control and the improvement of the ecological environment and sets up roofing rainwater collection and storage system, rainwater pollution interception and infiltration system, ecological communities’ rainwater utilization system. According to the different methods, it can be divided into direct use of rainwater, indirect use of rainwater and comprehensive use of rainwater. 106 6 Development in Chinese Environmental … 98.8 98.3 97.3 95.3 93.0 147.7 144.6 Living Industry 42.5 34.1 29.7 27.3 27.3 28.1 26.4 Ammonia nitrogen emission (10,000 ton) Total 141.3 132.3 127.0 122.6 120.3 260.4 253.6 Living 886.7 870.8 863.1 837.8 803.3 938.8 912.8 Industry 541.5 511.1 457.6 439.7 434.8 354.8 338.5 COD (10,000 ton) Total 1428.2 1381.8 1320.7 1277.5 1238.1 2499.9 2423.7 Living 296.6 310.2 330.1 354.8 379.8 427.9 462.7 Industry 240.2 246.6 241.9 234.4 237.5 230.9 221.6 Total Waste water discharge volume (100 million ton) 536.8 556.8 572.0 589.2 617.3 659.2 684.8 Yearly changes in national waste water and major pollutants discharge Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Table 1 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 107

Fig. 4 Wastewater treatment factory

1. Direct use of rainwater Direct use of rainwater means to use the rainwater directly after collection of which priority should be given to the communities’ reclaimed water usage, landscape watery and cooling circulation water, etc. Because of the uneven distribution of rainfall throughout the year in most regions, direct use often cannot meet the requirements as the only water source. As a result, it generally needs to work together with other water as spare. 2. Indirect use of rainwater Indirect use of rainwater means after simple treatment rainwater infiltrates or is recharged underground to supplement groundwater. In some regions with low rainfall and uneven rainfall distribution, if the economic efficiency is not high by direct use of rainfall, indirect use can be considered. 3. The comprehensive utilization of rainwater Comprehensive utilization of rainwater refers to the combination of the direct and indirect use of rainwater according to specific conditions to make the most use of the rain on the basis of technical and economic analysis (Fig. 5). The World Expo performance center, close to the Huangpu River and east to the expo axis, is located in the northern end of the world expo park in Pudong. With a total construction area of 126,000 m2, on architectural design, the Expo performance center adopts the photoelectric curtain wall system, water (river) cooling system, pneumatic garbage collection system, air conditioning condensate and roofing 108 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Fig. 5 Shanghai World Expo rainwater collection and treatment system rainwater collection system, program-controlled grassland water saving irrigation system and a number of other environmental protection and energy saving technologies which pay attention to the use of renewable materials to achieve its goal of becoming a “green ecological building”. Performing arts center adopts the perfectly- designed rainwater utilization system in which the air conditioning condensed water and roof rainwater is collected, processed and used in road cleaning and greening irrigation and at the same time program-controlled green sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation water-saving irrigation technology are used to improve the utilization efficiency of water resources. By using the theory of ecology, engineering, economics principles, combination of artificial and natural purification, rainwater collection and utilization, comprehensive design combining water permeability and gardening waterscape, rainwater comprehensive utilization system realizes harmonious unification of construction, gardens, landscape and water system, realizes the unification of the economic and environmental benefits and also realizes harmonious coexistence of man and nature. This system has a good sustainability and can maximize benefits with gorgeous effects, but the design and implementation is complex and requirement on management is high.

1.4 Harmless Treatment on Production Waste Gas and Slag

1. The waste gas Production waste gas refers to the poisonous and harmful gas discharged during the human production process. The emissions of waste gas from chemical plant, steel plant, pharmaceutical factory, and coking plant and oil reﬁnery smell great, 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 109 seriously pollute the environmental and have severe effect on human health. There are many kinds of pollutants in production waste gas with complex physical and chemical properties and different toxicity. The waste gas from fuel combustion discharge contains sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons, etc. Due to the different industrial production materials and technology, a variety of harmful gas emissions and solid waste contain different kinds of components such as heavy metal, salt, radioactive substances. Automobile exhaust contains lead, hydrocarbons such as benzene and phenol. According to the latest statistics, the main pollutants in waste gas in different regions are as follows: (1) Sulfur dioxide emission In 2011, there were eight provinces with more than 1 million tons of sulfur dioxide emissions, namely, Shandong, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan, Liaoning, Guizhou and Jiangsu, which accounted for 48.3% the nation’s sulfur dioxide emission. Of all the regions, Shandong has the largest industrial sulfur dioxide emissions; the largest life sulfur dioxide emission is in Guizhou; the largest sulfur dioxide emission from centralized pollution control facilities is in Zhejiang (Fig. 6). (2) The nitrogen oxides emission There are eight provinces with nitrogen oxides emission more than 1 million tons, namely, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Jiangsu, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong, Shanxi and Liaoning which accounts for 49.7% of total nitrogen oxide emissions in the nation. It is Shandong that has the largest industrial nitrogen oxide emissions. Heilongjiang province is the one with largest life nitrogen oxides emission. The largest motor vehicle nitrogen oxides emission and the largest centralized pollution control facilities’ nitrogen oxides emission are in Hebei province and Jiangsu province respectively (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6 Sulfur dioxide emission in different regions 110 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Fig. 7 Nitrogen oxides emission in different regions

(3) The smoke and dust emission There are nine provinces with smoke and dust emissions more than 500,000 tons, namely, Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Henan, Heilongjiang, Xinjiang and Jiangsu which accounts for 55.1% of the smoke and dust emissions in the nation. It is Hebei province that has the largest industrial smoke and dust emissions. Heilongjiang province has the largest life smoke and dust emissions. Hebei and An’hui province have the largest motor vehicle particulate emissions and centralized pollution control facilities’ smoke and dust emission respectively (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 Smoke and dust emission in different regions 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 111

One of the world’s most common and most serious environmental problems is air pollution caused by exhaust. China’s Environmental Protection Law has made clear rules about emission standards for various types of factories and mines (Fig. 9). 2. The production waste slag Production waste slag refers to the toxic, ﬂammable, corrosive, diseases carrying, chemical reactivity, and other harmful solid waste produced in industrial production. The long time stockpiling of solid waste of the production slag will not only take up a lot of land but cause serious pollution and harm to water system and air. The large number of mining waste rock piles can destroy large tracts of farmland and forest. After being piled for a long time through the snow and rain leaching, the water soluble component in harmful industrial slag will trickle down from the surface. After the

Fig. 9 Production exhaust and waste slag 112 6 Development in Chinese Environmental … transportation and transformation, the harmful substances accumulate and result in the soil acidification, basification, hardening and even heavy metal pollution near the pile site. For example, usually in the soil near the non-ferrous metal smelting factories, the lead contained in the soil is 10–40 times that in the normal soil; the copper contained in the soil is 5–200 times that in the normal soil; the zinc contained in the soil is 5–50 times that in the normal soil. These toxic substances, on the one hand, go into water through the soil, and on the other hand accumulate in soil and are absorbed by crops resulting in the poisoned crops. Under the action of the rain and snow, industrial waste slag and municipal waste flows into the rivers and lakes, causing serious water pollution and destruction. Dumped directly into rivers, lakes or coastal water, the industrial waste slag and garbage will cause more serious pollution. Pollution prevention and control is one of the focal points of environmental protection work in China. Since the founding of new China, the degree of environmental protection to which the state has attached great importance has been enhanced unceasingly. The treatment and comprehensive utilization of the “three wastes”, which was set as the key projects in 70s marked the starting of pollution prevention and control work. In 80s some principles and measures are put forward such as actively promoting the environment protection goal responsibility system to deepen environmental protection, comprehensive urban environment control quantitative evaluation system, the pollutants discharge permit system, centralized control of pollution and deadline governance system. In the 90s, with the introduction of sustainable development strategy, the industrial pollution prevention and control shift from the treatment at the end of the industrial process to the control during the whole production process; shift from decentralized treatment to the combination of concentration governing and decentralized treatment. Large-scale pollution control and ecological construction and protection projects have been carried out in key cities, watersheds, regions, maritime spaces. For environmental pollution prevention and treatment in recent years, the nation has paid more attention to environmental protection and vigorously promoted clean production and circular economy development. With the more efforts involved, industrial “three wastes” treatment has achieved success in which the main pollutant total emission amount has been under control step by step and urban environmental governance capability has been constantly enhanced. (1) Effects on the “three wastes” treatment Since the founding of new China, with the development of social economy, the dominant industry has been more and more developed, resulting in pollution problem caused by the industrial “three wastes” emission which has been attached great importance to. Fully considering the nation’s conditions, after years of hard work, notable effects have been achieved to reduce the pollution to the environment by taking the measure of resources utilization and energy comprehensive treatment in the old enterprises, especially large and medium-sized enterprises with serious pollution and by strengthening the construction of pollution control projects, rectifying and clamping down illegal enterprises. In 2010, national industrial wastewater discharge standard-reaching rate was 95.3, 6.1% higher than that of 2003; industrial sulfur dioxide emission standard-reaching 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 113 rate was 92.1% which increased by 23%; industrial smoke emission standard- reaching rate was 90.6%, increasing by 12.1%; industrial dust emission standard- reaching rate was 91.4%, increasing by 36.9%; industrial solid waste comprehensive utilization rate was 66.7%, increasing by 11.9%; comprehensive utilization of “three wastes” has also made high economic benefits with output value reaching 17.79 billion yuan, increasing by 3 folds [6] (Table 2). (2) The total discharge of major pollutants being under control The Eleventh Five-Year Plan Outline decided on the reduction on the total emission amount of the major pollutants, namely sulfur dioxide and chemical oxygen demand (cod) by 10% as binding indicator of economic and social development. To achieve the emission reduction targets, the nation actively promoted the engineering emission reduction by increasing installed capacity of coal desulphurization units. The structural emission reduction was vigorously promoted by rooting out enterprise in low productivity, shutting down small-scale power plant, eliminating small-scale ironmaking, steelmaking, cokemaking and papermaking factories, etc. To speed up the management emission reduction, the construction of emission reduction

Table 2 Effects on “three wastes” control and treatment unit: %, 100,000,000 yuan Indicators 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Wastewater 89.2 90.7 91.2 90.7 91.7 92.4 94.2 95.3 discharge standard-reaching rate Industrial sulfur 69.1 75.6 79.4 81.9 86.3 88.8 91.0 92.1 dioxide emission standard-reaching rate Industrial smoke 78.5 80.2 82.9 87.0 88.2 89.6 90.3 90.6 emission standard-reaching rate Industrial dust 54.5 71.1 75.1 82.9 88.1 89.3 89.9 91.4 emission standard-reaching rate Industrial solid 54.8 55.7 56.1 60.2 62.1 64.3 67.0 66.7 waste comprehensive utilization rate Industrial solid 17.5 22.1 23.2 27.4 23.4 25.4 23.3 23,8 waste treatment rate Output value of 441.0 573.3 755.5 1026.8 1351.3 1621.4 1608.2 1778.5 comprehensive utilization of “three wastes” 114 6 Development in Chinese Environmental … indicators, statistics and monitoring systems have been strengthened. In 2007, The Central Finance Main Pollutant Emission Reduction Special Funds Management Interim Measures was introduced to support the three systems’ construction. In 2008, the principles, such as the emission reduction planning auditing and ﬁling principle, the engineering veriﬁcation scheduling principle, data joint checkup assessment principle, were set up and improved and a series of regulations were issued to intensify the responsibility investigation system. The restricted approval was applied in the cities and regions where there were lacking in emission reduction progress to promote the smooth carrying out of the main pollutant emission reduction work. By calculation, in 2010, the national chemical oxygen demand (cod) emissions was 12.381 million tons, 13.3% lower than that in 2006; sulfur dioxide emissions was 21.851 million tons, 15.6% lower than that in 2006. The planning targets of the “Eleventh Five-Year Plan” had been realized completely. (3) Continuous improvement in city environment In recent years, the nation vigorously strengthened urban planning, construction and management to prompt the city’s infrastructure level, perfect its function unceasingly and gradually improve living environment. By the end of 2013, the national urban sewage treatment plant daily processing capacity had reached 14,700 m3, 173 times that of the early 1980s; urban wastewater treatment rate had reached 82.3, 67.4% higher than that of the early 90s; the central heating area had been5.18 billion m2, 443 times that of the early 80s, 19 times that of the early 90s; the greening rate in built-up areas had reached 33.3, 14.2% higher than that of the mid-90s. Of all the nation’s 519 cities monitored, 399 cities’ air quality had been better than the secondary (including the secondary) standard, accounting for 76.9% of the cities monitored; there were 113 cities in the third level, accounting for 21.8%; seven cities were in the third level minus, accounting for 1.3%. In the country’s 392 cities monitored, 7.9% enjoy good sound environment in the urban areas; 63.8% have fairly good sound environment; 27.0% have mild sound pollution; 1.3% have moderate sound pollution [7].

1.5 Ecological Restoration Project

Since the founding of new China 60 years ago, especially since 1978, the Chinese government has made a lot of effort in the ecological environment protection, adopted a series of major initiatives to protect and improve the ecological environment with equal emphasis being given to the pollution control and ecological protection as well as to ecological protection and ecological construction. The state council approved the National Ecological Environment Construction Plan and National Nature Reserves Development Program, approved and issued the National Ecological Environment Protection Program. The policy of “protection ﬁrst, prevention ﬁrst”, was fully implemented and according to the regional difference in the causes of ecological damage and its characteristics, the strategy of ecological environment protection was promoted. The state actively promoted the afforestation, water and soil 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 115 conservation, grassland construction and territorial control and other key ecological projects. The construction of forest, wetland and desert ecosystem and biodiversity protection was strengthened, and the six major forestry constructions of key projects were actively implemented. A group of nature reserves, ecology model districts, scenic spots and forest parks were built. The nation formulated the China’s 21 Century Agenda—China’s Population, Environment and Development White Paper in the 21st Century which determined on implementation of invigorating the country through science and education strategy and sustainable development strategy to further strengthen the ecological environment protection and construction (Fig. 10). 1. Steady development in forestry ecological construction According to the eighth national forest resources inventory data (2009–2013), China’s forest area was 208 million hectares, which was 6.3% more than that in the seventh national forest resources inventory; forest coverage rate was 21.63% which was 1.27% more than that in the seventh time; forest volume was 15.137 billion m3 which was 18.1% more than that in the seventh time. Since the 18th CPC National Congress, the nation put emphasis on the six major forestry projects and promoted the ecological construction and at the same time stepped up ecological environment protection and regulation effects. In 2013, planted forest area increased from the original 61.69 million hectares to 69.33 million hectares, increasing by 7.64 million hectares; planted forest reservation increased from the original 1.961 billion m3 to 2.483 billion m3, increasing by 522 million m3. With the increase of plantation area, the forest category structure had been adjusted further with the afforestation quality on the rise [8]. 2. The natural ecological protection construction was strengthened

Fig. 10 Landscape ecological project 116 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

The Chinese government strengthened the management and construction of nature reserve to protect the natural environment and nature, to save endangered species and to maintain the ecological balance. By the end of 2012, national nature reserve had totaled 2,669, 1,118 more than that in 2001 and the nature reserve covered an area of 148.94 million hectares, rising up by 14.7%. Nature reserve accounted for 15.1% of the jurisdiction it belonged to, increasing by 2.2%. Natural wetlands had been further protected. The first time (1995–2003) Chinese wetland resources survey results showed that the total wetlands area was 38.486 million hectares, taking up 4.0% of the nation’s total territory, among which the natural wetland area was 36.201 million hectares, accounting for 94.1% of the total area of the wetland. By the end of 2007, there were more than 470 national wetland nature reserves, 30 international important wetlands and 18 national wetland parks be established. About 47% of natural wetlands got effective protection, and a group of degraded wetlands with important ecological status had been gradually restored. With the economic and social development and the dramatic changes in the nation’s wetland ecological situation, China had carried on the second national wetland resources survey (2009–2013). The results showed that the total area of the nation’s wetland was 53.6026 million hectares with 30.057 million hectares paddy field not included and wetlands rate was 5.58%. Among them, the total wetland area within the scope of survey was 53.4206 million hectares and the collected wetland area in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan was 182,000 hectares. Natural wetland area was 46.6747 million hectares, accounting for 87.37%; artificial wetland area was 6.7459 million hectares, accounting for 12.63%. Of the natural wetlands, offshore and coastal wetland area was 5.7959 million hectares, accounting for 12.42%; river wetland area was 10.5521 million hectares, accounting for 22.61%; Lake Wetland area was 8.5938 million hectares, accounting for 18.41%; marsh wetland area was 21.7329 million hectares, accounting for 46.56%. By the end of 2013, there had been 577 established wetland nature reserves, 468 wetland parks, 46 international important wetlands. Ecosystem function had been given constant attention and there had been 18 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions which had introduced provincial wetland protection regulations. Some places even put wetland protection into the local party and government leader’s achievements appraisal [9]. 3. Progress in the desertification control and soil-water conservation The results from the third (2004) National Desertification Monitoring showed that by the late 1990s, the overall extending trend of desertification in China had got preliminary control and the extension of desertified land reduced from 3,436 km2 yearly in the end of 20th century to 1283 km2 each year. By 2004, the national desertification land area was 263.62, 37,924 km2 less than that in 1999. The proportion of extremely severe desertification area in the total desertification area dropped from 47.3% in 1999 to 38.7% in 2004. In the nation wide, the desertification area was 1,739,700, 6416 km2 less than that in 1999. The proportion of flow, semi-fixed desertification area in desertification land dropped from 36.1% in 1999 to 33.9% in 2004. 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 117

According to the fourth national desertification and sandy desertification test results (2009–2010), by the end of 2009, China’s desertification land area was 2,623,7000 km2, the sandy desertification land area was 1,731,100 km2. Compared with 2004, the net reduction of desertification land area was 12,454 km2 in 5 year’s time with an annual reduction of 2,491 km2. The sandy desertification land area net reduction was 8,587 km2 with an average annual reduction of 1,717 km2 [10]. The fifth desertification and sandy desertification survey was started in January 2014 and will be completed in June 2015. Progress had been made in management of soil and water erosion. By the end of 2012, the total area under comprehensive control of soil and water loss had been 102.95 km2 and comprehensive control area of small watershed was 41.13 km2.In 2012, the total area under the prevention and control of soil erosion was 69,720 km2 of which comprehensive control area was 43,720 km2 and nurtured and protected area was 26,000 km2. After decades of unremitting efforts, China’s environmental protection cause has made positive progress, but with the main pollutant emissions exceeding the environmental carrying capacity, ecological environment being damaged to different degrees, accidents of environmental pollution occurring from time to time, the environmental situation still faces many challenges. Through strict environmental administration and economic means of environmental protection, the highly effective environmental administrative system and extensive social participation, a resource-conserving and environment-friendly society should be built to maximally reduce the enormous environmental pressure brought about by rapid economic development, accelerating urbanization and quick consumption upgradation and to try all out to ensure national environmental security and the harmonious development of man and nature (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11 Overview of water and soil erosion in Loess Plateau 118 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

2. Water conservancy project constructions Water conservancy project, the important infrastructure in national economy and social development, provides the security and water resource guarantee for economic and social development in the aspects such as flood control, irrigation, water supply and has brought a huge of social and economic benefits. Since 1978, through practice, understanding, summarizing and adroitly guiding action according to cir- cumstance, the new way of water conservancy construction was actively explored. Water conservancy construction changed from serving agriculture development to service for rural and urban construction, from the development of irrigation and drainage to the integrated management and comprehensive development, from only concern on the project benefits to multi concerns on project, ecological and economic benefits together, from relying on the nation’s investment to multi-facet, multi-scale investment, from sheer manual-work construction to artificial and machinery combined construction. In this way, the water conservancy construction could adapt to economic and social development and develop on the existing basis toward higher standards and modernity [11]. Large comprehensive water conservancy hub project is the important scientific means of flood prevention and control as well as water resources scheduling and allocation which is a sign of a nation’s comprehensive strength and also represents a country’s water conservancy work level and capacity. It is worthy of pride that since 1978, a new era brought about a large number of classic water conservancy projects which played magnificent roles in the development of the time. The Three Gorges Project. The three gorges project is by far the world’s largest water conservancy project which can make flood control standard in the Jingjiang section of Yangtze reach once-in-100-year standard with the hydropower station‘s average annual capacity of 84.7 billion kWh. The navigation capacity has been improved of four or five times with half year’s direct voyage to Chongqing for ten- thousand-tonnage fleet. Xiaolangdi Water Control Project. The Xiaolangdi reservoir can greatly alleviates the pressure on the flood prevention in the area lower than Huayuankou, improving the flood control standard in lower reaches of the Yellow River from the original about once-in-60 years to at least a millennium. It basically lifts the threat of melting ice flood on the lower reaches of the Yellow River, and at the same time, effectively reduces the sediment deposition, giving play to the role of water supply, irrigation, and ecological restoration. The South-north Water Transmission Project. This project is a major strategic infrastructure for optimized allocation of water resources in our country which is closely related with the long-term prosperity of the nation. The completion of the project will effectively solve the problem of serious shortage of water resources in the north, realizing the water resources rational allocation in the four water bodies, namely, Yangtze River, Huaihe river, Yellow River, Haihe river. It will also plan the economic benefits, social benefits and ecological benefits as a whole in water diversion areas and water-receiving areas. As a result, the “four horizontal and three 1 Environment Protection Projects Construction 119 vertical, north-south water transmission, east-west mutual aid” water resources allocation pattern has taken into shape in China. Linhuaigang Flood Control Project. Linhuaigang project is one of the largest water control project hydro-junction in the middle reaches of the Huaihe River. The completion of the project ended the history of no flood control project in the middle reaches of the Huaihe River and realized the people’s long-cherished wish and the “dream of the century” by several generations who tried to harness the Huaihe River. It marked the overall Huaihe river basin’s flood control and safety had reached a new level. The Baise Water Control Project hydro-junction. Baise project is confirmed as the key reservoir-and-dam-integrated and flood control project in the YujiangRiver flood control system which is fixed in the Pearl River basin flood control planning. It is also one of the symbol water conservancy construction projects in western development. The Baise project is a multifunctional water conservancy project mainly focusing on flood control with power generation, irrigation, shipping as well as water supply. The project has played a huge role in promoting economic development in Guangxi, Yunnan and changed the poverty and backwardness condition in Youjiang, the old revolutionary base. Ni’erji Water Conservancy Project. Ni’erji, a large controlling project, is one of the landmark projects in the development of the western region, which mainly focuses on flood control and water supply. Besides the power production, it helps to improve the downstream shipping and water environment and created conditions for the Songliao river basin water resources optimal allocation. Shapotou Water Conservancy Project. Shapotou water conservancy project is one of the landmark projects in western development strategy which has important significance on the Yellow River water resources proper utilization, the optimized allocation of water resources in Ningxia, the water supply safety in the beneficial regions, the regional ecological and environment improvement and the promotion of local economic and social development [12].

2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction

2.1 Renovation and Restoration of Hydropower Stations and Reservoirs

China’s hydropower development history is relatively short with the first hydroelectric plant-Shilongba in Yunnan province, established 1912. During the Anti-Japanese War, some hydropower station on the mainland were constructed but in small scale. However, China’s hydropower development policy is simultaneous development in different sizes with large-sized plants as the backbone. As a result, in the late 1970s, in the national water resources census, it was decided that hydropower station with installed capacity more than 250,000 kW belonged to large-scale hydropower 120 6 Development in Chinese Environmental … station. According to the statistics, there were 203 large hydropower stations with single station capacity of 250,000 kW or more. The proportion of installed capacity and annual power generating capacity of the potential hydropower resources with single station capacity above 500 kW was 74.4% and 75.5% respectively. There are 33 super large or giant hydropower stations with single station capacity more than 2,000,000 kW which accounts for 37.8 and 47.4% potential hydropower resources capacity of the nation. The majority of these giant hydropower stations are located in southwest [13]. 1. The Dujiangyan Irrigation Project Dujiangyan, located in the northwest of Chengdu plain, is the only ecological water conservancy project left in the world characterized by diversion without dam which is the typical systematic project illustrating the harmony of man and nature. Built more than 2260 years ago, it is known as “the world living water conservancy museum”. In 276 BC, in order to take Ba State and Shu area under his control, Emperor Qin Zhaowang assigned Libing as prefect magistrate for Qin dynasty. Three years after his term of work, Libing started the construction of Dujiangyan. He led tens of thousands of migrant workers used 18 years and finally completed the unique water conservancy project in 256 BC [14]. Dujiangyan canal head is composed of three parts, including: The Fish’s Mouth water diversion dike, Precious Bottle Neck and Flying Sand weir. The three parts cooperate with each other with superb craftsmanship which makes the embankment, water division, flood discharge, sand drainage and sand control mutually dependent in an integrated system to ensure the comprehensive benefits in water flood control, irrigation, water transportation and social water consumption are fully played. The greatness of Dujiangyan lies in the fact that there is not a dam built for so large a water conservancy project. The builders did not intend to conquer the nature and change the nature deliberately but followed the principles of nature and learned from the nature. By using the natural lie of mountain, topography and water potential, Dajiangyan achieved the automatic diverging, automatic desilting and gravity irrigation and it also realized the harmony and unification of people, land and water (Fig. 12). Along with the social production and living needs, in order to speed up the Dujiangyan canal system hydropower development, a leading group was formed by Sichuan province Hydropower Department jointly with the provincial Electric Power Design Institute, province Water Conservancy, Hydropower Design Institute and Chengdu Hydropower Administration, Dujiangyan Administration and other units. In October 1983, the canal system hydropower development outline planning work on the plains of Dujiangyan was carried out and in December the same year the first stage work was completed together with a planning report. Through the planning, it was found out that the natural reserves of Dujiangyan plain canal system is 773,000 kW and the explorable capacity is around 329,800 kW with the total power capacity of 1.76 billion kWh. Of all the plants with suitable construction conditions 24 were listed into the roll to be developed in recent time with installed capacity of 2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction 121

Fig. 12 Dujiangyan water conservancy project

86,700 kW accounting for 36.5% of the planned power plant capacity with average annual power output of 520 million kWh. Dujiangyan is, as it were, a potentially huge hydropower station [15]. Since the founding of new China to 1978, during the 30 years’ of transformation, Dujiangyan water conservancy cause under the correct leadership of the government, also gradually had started off towards the long term development path. Scope of irrigation area extended from 14 counties, 2.82 million mu in the early days of the foundation of new China to 7 urban districts, 37 counties and cities and 10.35 million mu. The water conservancy infrastructure system changed from disrepair type to a comprehensively equipped type; water resources allocation system changed from traditional experience type to efficient optimization type; water management system changed from traditional planned type to democratic rule by law system; hydraulic operation mechanism changed from the plan economy type to market economy type; water conservancy staff changed from a single skill type to modern comprehensive type. 2. The Qinshan nuclear power plant The full name of Qinshan nuclear power plant is “Qinshan 300,000 kW PWR (pressurized water reactor) nuclear power plant which is located in Qinshan Shuang- longgang, Haiyan county, Zhejiang province, facing the Hangzhou bay, backed by Qinshan mountain. Designed in the 1970s and built in the 80s, it is the China’s first independently designed and built prototype reactor nuclear plant with the pressurized water reactor which has been safely operated for 20 years. In its 20 years’ operation, Qinshan nuclear power plant made positive contribution in meeting the electric power needs of east China and in promoting the local economic and social development and achieved good economic and social benefits without damage to the surrounding environment. 122 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Qinshan nuclear power plant adopts the mature technology of pressurized water reactor in the world and there are three safety shields in the nuclear island, namely the nuclear fuel cladding, pressure vessel and containment barrier which can withstand the extreme internal pressure, high temperature caused by accident and all kinds of natural disasters. The nuclear plant mainly includes seven parts: the core part, waste treatment, water supply and drainage, power supply, the maintenance, warehouse and front plant area, etc. There are about 28,000 PCS/sets of equipments in the plant which are provided by 585 domestic factories and factories from more than 10 countries (regions). The steam turbine, generator, the steam generator, the reactor internals, the important equipments such as nuclear fuel element are made by China itself and the imported equipments mainly include polar crane in reactor building, pressure vessel, the main pump, etc. The power devices in power plant are mainly composed of three parts: reactor and the first and secondary circuit systems. In terms of safety factors, to prevent the leakage of radioactive material, three layers of shields were built in Qinshan nuclear power station: the first layer is the fuel rods formed by the fuel core sealed by zirconium alloy tube; the second layer is high pressure vessel and a closed circuit system; the third layer is containment preventing leakage of radioactive materials. In addition, there are safety protection system, emergency reactor core cooling system, containment, spray system, containment isolation system, dehydrogenation, containment air purification system and cooling system, emergency diesel generator set, etc. which makes the reactor automatically shut down and cools the reactor core at the time of the accident (Fig. 13). The completion of Qinshan nuclear power plant ended China mainland’s history without nuclear power production. The units had been in good condition ever since they were put into operation and become a model of self-reliance and peaceful use of nuclear energy in China. The clean electricity it produced has been continuously transported to east China power grid helping to ease the long-term tight energy supply in Zhejiang province and the Yangtze River delta region. So Qinshan nuclear power station has kept an unshakable status in the field of Chinese nuclear power plant.

Fig. 13 Qinshan nuclear plant 2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction 123

3. The Three Gorges Project The Three Gorges Project, the world’s largest water conservancy project, is a key backbone treatment and development project in the Yangtze River. The reach of dam site is in gorge Xiling in Yangtze River which controls the basin area of 1 million km2. The annual average runoff is 451 billion m3. The valley in the dam site is open, the bedrock is hard and complete granite rock mass, with superior terrain, geological and construction conditions are suitable for the construction of a concrete dam. The Three Gorges Project is multi-objective development project with huge comprehensive benefits in fields of flood control, power generation and shipping. The project is composed of diversion dam, water discharge structure, hydropower station powerhouse, and other components of the navigation structures, adopting a “primary land development, one-stage completion, water storage by stages, continuous migration” practical scheme. The diversion dam is concrete gravity dam with water discharge dam in the middle sided by hydropower station powerhouse dam section and non-overflow dam section. Dam axis is 2,309.47 m in length; the crest elevation of the dam is 185 m; the maximum dam height is 181 m; the normal storage level elevation is 175 m; the total capacity is 39.3 billion m3; the flood control capacity is 22.15 billion m3 (Fig. 14)[16]. The main purpose of the three gorges project is flood control so the dam is designed on the thousand-year flood standard and is the water conservancy project with most significant flood control benefits in the world today. The running Yangtze River contains a huge energy and the three gorges hydropower station is one of the world’s largest hydroelectric power station which provides reliable, cheap, clean renewable energy for east China, south China, central China where it is economically developed but in shortage of energy. The completion of the three gorges project brought about the significant shipping benefits, making the rapids densely located and fast-flowing Jiangchuan waterway the real golden waterway.

Fig. 14 Three Gorges Project 124 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Though the Yangtze River Three Gorges Project is of great signiﬁcance, there are many heavy obstacles confronted in construction process, the most important of which is the issue of the Three Gorges immigration. The proper resettlement of millions of immigrants in the Three Gorges Project is the key to the success of the project. The CPC (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China central committee) and the state council, showed great foresight and put forward the developmental resettlement policy, regarding the fundamental interests of the Three Gorges reservoir immigrants as the basis, focusing on the stability of the Three Gorges reservoir area, successfully ﬁnding a large-size water conservancy projects immigration path with Chinese characteristics. Developmental resettlement policy is the major decision made by CPC. The Large and Medium-sized Hydropower Project Construction Land Requisition Compensa- tion and Resettlement Regulations issued by the state council in February 1991 stated explicitly that “the state encourages and supports” of developmental resettlement, and regard it as “the guiding ideology and principle” to follow for legislation. The Yangtze River Three Gorges Project Construction Migration Ordinance Promulgated by the state council on August 19, 1993 further expounds on the connotation of developmental resettlement policy. It states that the developmental resettlement policy is implemented by the nation in the Three Gorges Project construction and the resettlement work will be led by the government concerned; the immigration funding should be used as a whole and the resources should be developed rationally; basing on agriculture, the migrants should be resettled properly through multiple channels, many industries, various forms and methods to make their lives reach or exceed the original level and create possibility for the long-term economic development in Three Gorges reservoir area and improvement of living standards of the migrants. The developmental resettlement policy is put forward in summing up the experience of the reservoirs resettlement work since the founding of new China and is a major reform on reservoir migration in our country. Developmental resettlement policy was carried out step by step in the eight years’ reservoir immigration pilot practice in the Three Gorges reservoir area which is in accord with people’s will, has a broad mass base and is a new way of migration in water conservancy projects with Chinese characteristics. The formulation and implementation of developmental resettlement policy, fully embodies the nation’s wholehearted responsible spirit to the migrants which conforms to the actual migration and resettlement conditions in the Three Gorges Project construction and is advantageous to the Three Gorges smooth resettlement, its prosperity and development and its long-term stability.

2.2 River Dredging and Embankment Reinforcement

1. River channel management

River refers to the water channel in the land which often collects and drains the surface runoff and underground runoff. The natural river is the product of geological tectonic action, water erosion and the deposition. Water channel is composed of two 2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction 125 aspects: water and river bed. Water acts on the riverbed while riverbed binds the water flow and thus they become the two aspects of a contradiction with sediment as bond for their interdependence, mutual influence and fight with each other, pushing the development of the river, maintaining the energy of the channel [17]. Under the natural state, rivers can seldom meet people’s life and production needs, so in order to develop water conservancy, prevent and control water disasters, river channel project must be constructed within the scope of the river channel which mainly includes embankment project, river regulation project and other water conservancy projects. In addition, there are often non-water conservancy buildings and facilities built within the scope of the river such as bridges, oil and gas pipelines through the river and cables. River course management means the effective control and management on the all kinds of human productive and living activities affecting the channel water delivery, flood control and the stability of the river potential and by river course management and the river potential control, river potential stability, flood control safety and clear navigation, etc. will be guaranteed to give full play to the comprehensive benefits of river course. River course management overall goals are: to strengthen the standardization and legalization of river course management; to perfect the laws and regulations system and adhere to administration by law; to strengthen management measures and improve the management level; to raise the whole society’s river course protection awareness; to maintain healthy river, strengthen river regulation and river regime/potential control; to ensure the project, water supply and ecology safety; to promote sustainable utilization of river course (Figs. 15 and 16).

Fig. 15 Staffs on patrol of the river course 126 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Fig. 16 River course cleaning to guarantee the navigation

2. The embankment management Embankment is the water retaining structure built along the river, lake, and coast or on both sides of irrigation and drainage channels or at flood detention basin around the reservoir area. Its main functions are flood control, water impoundment, water conveyance, tide prevention, wave prevention, etc. According to its functions, embankment can be generally divided into three types: flood embankment, sea embankment and canal embankments. (1) The flood embankment. Flood embankment includes the river embankment, lake embankment, reservoir embankment and flood detention area embankment. River embankment is built on either side of the river; the lake embankment is built around the lake; reservoir embankment is built around the backwater reach to reduce the backwater submerged area; the flood detention embankment is built around flood detention areas. (2) The sea embankment. Sea embankment is built at the coastal area to defense the harm caused by tide which is also known as the seawall or tide-resistant embankment. (3) The canal embankment s. The canal embankment is built on both sides along the canal which can reduce the trench area and increase the carrying capacity (Fig. 17). Embankment project is the guarantee for flood control and the safety of the embankment is directly related to the millions of people’s life, property safety and economic construction in protection zones. Due to the broad extension in length and area, the 2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction 127

Fig. 17 Embankment projects embankment is vulnerable to the effects of natural and human activities and is easy to be damaged. So the management of the embankment should be on two scales, technical management and social management, with social management being relatively more difficult. As a result, Water Law of the People’s Republic of China, The Flood Control Law of the People’s Republic of China and River Administration Provisions of the People’s Republic of China and related laws and regulations have made corresponding provisions for the protection and management of embankment. The overall requirements of the embank management goal are: to strengthen the project management, to keep the project in constant completion and to monitor the running state; to constantly improve the capacity of flood control and to guarantee the safety of the flood control project. But with the development of embankment management cause, the focus in different periods differs. Therefore, the specific implementation of embankment management still needs to be analyzed and treated according to the actual situation at different time.

2.3 Water Supply Pipe Network Management and Water Transfer Project

1. The water supply network management

Water supply network is composed of a water delivery pipes and water distribution pipes, and its arrangement layout generally can be divided into two basic types: dendritic pipeline network and loop system. The water supply reliability of dendritic pipeline network is with low reliability, because if there is damage in the trunk pipeline, then the water supply rear of the broken part in the full pipe network will run down. At the same time the stagnation of water flow at the end of dendritic pipeline network results in the poor water quality, but because the line is short in 128 6 Development in Chinese Environmental … dendritic pipeline network, the investment is also low. When damaged, water can still be transmitted by other pipelines to the users, but loop ring line is longer and needs larger investment [18]. Tian Jiashan. Water Supply System Design-Township Water Supply Engineering Technology Training Text Book. Beijing: Water Resources and Electric Power Press, 1995. At present, the commonly used pipeline layout in rural area is dendritic pipeline network whose main trunk is arranged from thick to thin in accordance with the change of flow channel. In the future along with economic development, it is advisable to transit to the mixed mode of loop network combined with dendritic pipeline network which can help to improve the reliability of water supply. The merits and drawbacks in network operation, have a great influence on safety and normal water supply, so a good job in management must be achieved to ensure the civil water supply and enterprises water supply, and reduce the damage and leakage to save energy. When in the water supply network running process, patrol and leak detection must be strengthened and the technology management of the pipes and fittings must be improved. The personnel in charge should learn about the present and long-term operation situation, such as the location of the various pipes, buried depth, diameter, working pressure, groundwater level, type of soil around the pipeline, pipeline maintenance and service life, etc. The pipes, valves, fire hydrants, discharge valves, exhaust valve, inspection well along the water conveyance pipeline should be inspected to find out whether they are buried or damaged and pipes in the casing pipe should be checked to see whether they are in good condition and the users’ water meters are normal, etc. Water Supply Engineering Management. Beijing: Water Resources and Electric Power Press, 1995. 2. Water transfer projects Broadly speaking, water transfer project means to take water from any water resources (rivers, reservoirs, lakes and bays and estuaries) and transmit it along the river channel, ditch, tunnel or pipe to the users’ water conservancy project in order to fully use the water resources in a more effective way to compensate for lack of water (or to channel out the extra water). And water transfer between two or more of the water basins is known as “inter-basin water transfer”, and a series projects constructed for this purpose is called “inter-basin water transfer projects”. Our country is one of the earliest countries that carried out water transfer projects in the world with the Dujiangyan, Lingqu Canal and the Grand Canal, etc. as the famous ancient projects. According to the statistics already known, among the world large-scale water transfer projects being built or under construction, south-to-north water transfer project in China is the largest one, with total annual water transfer volume of 13 billion m3, the total transfer length of 1390 km and the composite indicator WL = 180,700 (hundred million m3/a) km. In addition, there are some well-known large-scale water transfer projects. The south-to-north water transfer project can be divided into the eastern route project, the middle route project and western route project. The eastern route project, by using the existing water diversion from Yangtze River project in Jiangsu province, gradually expands the scale of water diversion 2 Water Conservancy Projects Construction 129 project and extends its routes. Eastern route project takes water from downstream of Yangtze river near Yangzhou by using the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal and its parallel rivers to take water and transfer to the North sequentially, and it also connects the Hongze lake, Luoma lake, Nasi Lake, Dongping Lake which has the flood storage function. The water is divided into two conveyance routes after going out of Dongping Lake: The water in the north route goes through the tunnel across the Yellow River near Weishan and then by expanding excavation of existing river comes into the south canal and flows to Tianjin with the total transfer trunk line length of 1156 km (646 km south of the Yellow River, 17 km through the Yellow River, 493 km north of the Yellow River); the east route goes through the Jiaodong area water transfer trunk line passing Jinan to Yantai, Weihai with the total length of 701 km [19]. The middle route of South-to-north water transfer project with Danjiangkou reservoir in upstream of the Hanjiang River as the water source is responsible for life and production water supply for more than 20 cities in the provinces and cities in Henan, Hebei, Beijing and Tianjin. Middle route project takes water from headwater lock of Taocha water project on the bank of the Danjiangkou reservoir and goes through Fang Cheng pass, the watershed of Yangtze river and Huaihe River, and then along channel excavated along the Tangbaihe River basin and the western edge of the Huanghuaihai plain passes through the tunnel across the Yellow River near Zhengzhou in Henan province and then goes north along the route west to Beijing-Guangzhou railway and finally flows into Tuancheng Lake in the Summer Palace in Beijing. The water transfer trunk line in the middle route is 1277 km in length of which the section to Tianjin is 154 km long. The middle route project in south-to-north water transfer project mainly focuses on easing the tension in life and industrial water supply in northern China with agricultural water usage also taken into consideration. The western route of south-to-north water transfer project takes water from upstream Yangtze River to the Yellow River. It builds dams and reservoirs in the Tongtian River in upstream of Yangtze river and the upstream of Yalong River and Dadu river which are branches of Yangtze river with the elevation in the dam site 2900–4000 m above sea level, and then through the water diversion tunnel across Bayankala Mountain, the watershed of Yangtze river and Yellow River, it diverts water from main and branch waterways in the upstream of Yangtze river into the upstream of Yellow River which is a tremendous water transfer project and works as the complement for the Yellow River water resource shortage. As a major strategic project of the Yellow River harnessing and development, it solves the drought and lack of water situation in northwest China (Fig. 18). River control steps into a new era in the People’s Republic of China. According to statistics, since 1978, the country has invested trillions of yuan on water conservancy construction and as a result water conservancy project scale and number have leaped to the world’s top position and water conservancy project system has been preliminary formed with spectacular effects in river harnessing. Related data from Ministry of water resources shows that at present, the key flood control construction in the Yangtze river and the Yellow River has met the basic standards; the 19 basic Huai River harness backbone projects have been generally completed; Taihu lake flood 130 6 Development in Chinese Environmental …

Fig. 18 South-to-north Water Transfer project planning graph control project system has been basically formed and the flood control construction in other rivers’ trunk streams has been quickened significantly. So far, the country has built more than 86,000 various types of reservoirs with the embankment length of 286,900 km and the main sections of large rivers in China have had the resistance capacity of the biggest flood that had happened since the founding of the country. Small and medium-sized rivers have the resistance capacity to general flood and the key seawalls’ fortification standard has been up to once in every 50 years. Of all the 639 large, medium and small cities through out the country with flood control tasks, there are 299 reaching the flood control project construction standard. Water conservancy facility systems have been strengthened; major rivers and lakes flood control conditions have been greatly improved; water conservancy’s protective effect on people’s life and property security and its supporting capability to the economic and social development have been further enhanced.

References

1. Fengde, Li. 2009. Memorandum: 30 Years in Laoning Hydropower Reform and Development. Liaoning: Liaoning Science and Technology Publishing House (in Chinese). 2. Liutie. 2009. Environment Concept and Environmental Protection Knowledge. Beijing: China Environmental Science Press (in Chinese). 3. Wudi. 2009. Comprehensive Treatment and Safe Utilization Technology of Rurual Life Sewage. Tianjin: Tianjin Science and Technology Translation and Publishing Co., Ltd. (in Chinese). References 131

4. Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. Annual Statistic Report on Environment in China, p. 12 (in Chinese). 5. Xuehong, Zhang, and Wenyu, Zhao. 2009. Engineering Cases of Industrial Waste Water Treat- ment. Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press (in Chinese). 6. Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China. 2012. Standard Attain- ment Condition of Industrial Pollution Discharge in 2010, p. 1 (in Chinese). 7. The Number 17 of Series Report on 60 Years of China: Grand Achievements of Environment Protection. 2009. http://www.stats.gov.cn. 8. The State Forestry Administration Published the Eighth National Forest Resource Inventory Result. 2014, p. 2. http://www.gov.cn. 9. The Second National Wetland Survey Results Have Been Released. 2014, p. 1. http://www. ylstudy.com. 10. China Desertiﬁcation Situation Report. 2012, p. 9. http://cn.chinagate.cn. 11. Yukai, Dai. 1996. Discussion on Rural Hydra Power Construction and Development. Beijing: China Water Power Press (in Chinese). 12. The 60th Anniversary of the Foundation of the People’s Republic of China. 2009. Hydra Power Construction: to Strengthen the Basement of Development (in Chinese). http://env. people.com.cn. 13. Bangzhu, Yang, and Guo Zhenyu. 2009. Overview of Water Conservancy in China. Zhengzhou: Yellow River Water Conservancy Press (in Chinese). 14. Ziping, Gou, and Wang Guoping. 2007. Photographic Record of Dujiangyan in Two Centuries. Jinan: Shandong Pictoial Publishing House (in Chinese). 15. Sichuan Local Chronicles Compilation Committee. 1993. Dujiangyan Chronicles. Chengdu: Sichuan Publishing Group Co., Ltd. (in Chinese). 16. Lujin. 2009. Tour of Three Gorges Project. Wuhan: Changjiang Press (in Chinese). 17. Zhangxiao. 2006. River Course Embankment Management and Maintenance. Nanjing: Hohai University Press. 18. Xiaobing, Zhou, Zhang Lide, and Da Lengta. 2007. Management Practice of Long-distance Large-scale Water Transfer Projects. Beijing: Water Resources and Electric Power Press. 19. Guangcheng, Li, and Si Fuan. 2002. Essays of Geological Analysis and Study on South-to-North Water Transfer Project. Beijing: Water Resources and Electric Power Press. Chapter 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction

1 Post and Telecommunication Projects Construction

1.1 Overview of Post and Telecommunication Projects Investment Scale

In the early days after foundation, China’s communication equipment, mode and means were lagged far behind. In the previous 30 years since 1978, the investment on postal and telecommunication services had been increased signiﬁcantly, from 40.24 million yuan in 1950 to 140.9 billion yuan in 2008 with an average annual growth of 16.7% and nearly an average annual increase of 24.7% in the previous 30 years. Due to the large-scale investment on construction, China’s postal and telecommunication cause had achieved the rapid development. During the 60 years after foundation, China’s investment on construction of postal and telecommunication cause went through three stages: From 1949 to 1978, postal and telecommunication cause started and progressed in exploration. From 1979 to 1998, there was a large scale investment on postal and telecommunication construction. From 1999 to present, there was continuous investment on the construction of postal and telecommunication construction.

1.2 Present Situation of Overall Capacity in Post and Telecommunication

After the 30 years’ of massive investment on construction since reform and opening up, China’s comprehensive communication capacity has increased rapidly with leapfrog development in network scale capacity, technology level and service level.

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 133 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_7 134 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction

The postal service has become one of the world’s largest postal networks which connects the urban and rural areas and makes the modern postal service network covering all parts of the world. Telecommunication has become a public network covering the whole nation and connecting the world including fiber-optics, digital microwave, satellite, program-controlled exchange, mobile communication, data communication, etc. The postal infrastructure level has been improved. In the early days after foundation, there were only 26,328 post office departments in the country (except Tibet) of which 4868 were independent-running and the total length of post road were only 706,000 km. In addition most of these facilities were located in cities resulting in the shortage of postal resources in rural areas and the extreme difficulty for farmers to get access to the post service; after 60 years’ investment in construction, especially since 1978, the postal network has been in rapid development. By the end of 2012, there had been 96,000 business outlets which increased by 92.6% compared with 1978; the average service area of each business outlets reached 100.1 km2 with 14,000 people under service; in the postal outlets, the fully-functional service outlets totaled 39,000; rural postal service outlets in county level or below accounted for more than 70%; the outlet in middle west area accounted for more than 60%, covering more than 98% areas in county level. The number of post road totaled 24,000 with total length of 5,855,000 km of which 3,160,000 km being air post road, 320,000 km being the railway post road and 2,289,000 km being car post road [1]. Postal picking up and delivery capacity has been improved. In the early days after foundation, the post transportation depended mainly on postal compartments attached to the passenger’s transportation trains and freight cars. There were only 427 postal cars in all kinds and three postal compartments which restrained the picking up and delivery capacity and time limit could not be guaranteed, overstock and being overdue were the prominent problems. After 60 years’, especially in the last 30 years’ development, by the end of 2012, the nation had 17 postal transport aircrafts, 4 packet ships, 382 train compartments and 76,000 post-service vehicles in different kinds [2] and had implemented the comprehensive utilization of the air routes, railways, highways, waterways and other transportation means. Postal mechanization, automation, informatization level have been enhanced constantly. In the early days of the founding of China, most of the postal works were done by artificially, while after 60 years of investment and construction, the process gradually transformed from the manual way to the mechanization, automation and informatization. In the 1980s, by self-developing and purchasing the letter, package and printed material automatic sorting machine, the process of mechanization and automation was promoted. By the end of 2012, there had been 166 sets of sorting equipments including 85 sets of letter sorting machines, 14 sets of flat piece sorting machines and 67 units of package sorting machines [3]. In the 1990, with the national informatization project starting in full-scale, the comprehensive computer network, the “green card” network project, enterprises network in different regional level and electronic postal office and department construction began in post service system and the network system was implemented in postal operations, the postal service marketing and enterprise management. By the end of 2012, the specialized information application system 1 Post and Telecommunication Projects Construction 135 network of China post group company had covered almost all postal business, and there had been more than 50 nationally unified version of the online application systems in four categories, namely postal services, finance, e-commerce, business management. The integrated computer network had been built which supported the majority of postal services covering 236 center cities nationwide, connecting nearly more than 30,000 electronic branches outlets and being able to carry voice, images, and data business. 1. Communication capacity experienced leaping-forward improvement in post and telecommunication During the 30 years after reform and opening up, with the expanding investment scale year by year, post and telecommunication departments has adhered to a high starting point development principle and at the same time introduced foreign advanced technology and combined the introduction, digestion, absorption and innovation processes. All these deeds have helped to speed up the modernization pace of postal and telecommunication services in China and enhanced the nation’s integrated communication capacity realizing the leapfrog development in network scale, technology and service level (Fig. 1). Communication infrastructure construction has notable effects. In the early days after foundation, the national long-distance open wire was only 146,000 km and

Fig. 1 Communication satellite signals will cover the entire world 136 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction the long-distance cable was 1635 km in sheath length; in the first 30 years after foundation, due to the vigorous construction of cable and the microwave circuit, communication capability got improved greatly in telecom industry. In the late 1980s, the long-distance optical cable network began to be built and in October 1990, China’s first optical fiber trunk project—Ning-Han-Yuproject was completed which sparkled the large-scale long-distance trunk line construction. By the end of 1998, “eight vertical and eight horizontal” lattice type national major optical cable network had be completed. The land and submarine cables connecting China and Japan, China and South Korea, Asia and Europe had been built and put to operation which provided enough bandwidth for operators’ international business transmission. At the end of 2012, the total length of the national cable line was 14.81 million kilometers of which the length of long-distance optical cable was 868,000 km with the average annual growth of almost 45% in 20 years. Satellite communication earth stations were built in 1970s in telecommunications industry; by the end of 2011, there were 1237 earth communication satellite earth stations in our country. Fixed telephone communication capacity has been improved significantly. In the early days of foundation, there were only 1.2 circuits of long-distance call in average from the capital to the provincial cities and the local telephone exchange capacity was only 310,000 of which the manual telephone was more than 100,000 and most counties had no local call service. Before reform and opening up, in the early days after foundation, although telecom industry had introduced, self-developed and put into operation the automatic telephone exchange equipments, due to the inadequate investment, a third of the nation’s local and most of long-distance telephone calls depended on manual connecting and the original hand phone was still in use in the vast majority of rural areas, being two to three decades lagged behind the developed countries in technological equipments. After the reform and opening up, large-scale fixed communication network construction was carried out in postal and telecommunication industry. In 1982, the nation’s first set of 10,000 scale program-controlled switchboard was introduced in Fuzhou and ever since then there was a manual- automatic-program-controlled transformation and by 1995 the transition from manual network to automatic network in China’s telecom network had been completed. At the end of 1997, the local exchange’s total number exceeded 100 million and all cities at or above the county level had realized program-controled exchange. Fixed long-distance telephone exchange capacity reached 16.90 million terminals; terminal and local exchange capacity had reached 43.96 million; fixed telephone network scale rocketed to the world’s first place in a decade’s time. With the mass increase of fixed telephone capacity, fixed phone users also grew rapidly and by the end of 2012, the national fixed phone users had reached 191,217 million and urban telephone users had reached 92.881 million [4]. Mobile communication capacity developed rapidly. Since November 1987, China’s first TACS mode analog mobile phone system was established and put to commercial use in Guangdong province and mobile communications stepped into a period of rapid development. In the 10 years from 1988 to 1998, China had experienced the first peak in development of mobile communication, mobile communication capacity construction was in rapid development momentum and there was a surge in mobile switches from less than 30,000 to 47,067 million in 1 Post and Telecommunication Projects Construction 137

1998, increasing by 1568 times in ten years’ time with the average annual growth of 108.7%. In the meantime, mobile communication had changed from the analog network to digital network. During the 10 years from 1998 to 2008, the mobile communication continued the rapid development momentum, mobile switch capacity increased by 1.793171 billion and by the end of 2012 the number reached 1.840238 billion, increasing by 23.3 times in the ten years’ time. Now China takes the first place in the world in mobile communication network scale. Data and multimedia communication developed rapidly. In order to adapt to trend of informatization and promote China’s informatization process, in September 1993, China’s first public data communication network-public packet-switched network— was officially open to business; in September 1994, the public digital data network was open to business; at the beginning of 1995, China’s public computer interconnected network was built in succession in Beijing and Shanghai which interconnected with the Internet worldwide; Internet had great development in China in 2001 and there was explosive growth in the Internet capacity. By the end of 2012, Internet broadband access port developed significantly, and from 2003 to October 2012, it increased 17.8 times, reaching 321.084 million, with the average annual growth of 31.8%. Bandwidth of the nation’s Internet international export had been 1,899,792.0 Mbps [5]. By the end of 2011, there was 53.426 million 2M of data communications network long-distance circuits.

1.3 Telecom and Communication Project Investment Development Trends

At the beginning of the foundation, the China post and telecommunications business type is unitary. Since the founding of the nation, especially since 1978, in order to adapt to the needs of the rapid growth of national economy, postal and telecommunication services according to their own network advantages, continued to develop new business along with the consolidation and development of traditional business and provided multi-level and diversiﬁed services for the economic construction and people’s life. The new business kept emerging in the postal industry. 1. The express business boomed. The express service, a new business adapting to the high speed and fast pace of market economy, got fast-paced development and the size of its market kept expanding once it was launched. The express mail service (EMS) was put to operation by China post in 1980 and after 30 years of development, now it has established business contacts with more than 200 countries and regions in the world and in all domestic cities the express service business has been established; in the late 80s, the nation opened the express delivery market in postal service industry, and as a result, private and foreign express enterprises also gradually developed and grew up. In 2013, the express delivery service completed 9.2 billion pieces with the highest daily processing quantity exceeding 65 million pieces; the business income made 138 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction

143 billion yuan. The Chinese express industry had begun to take shape, ranking the second in the world. With the rapid development of express delivery business, express enterprises’s delivery capacity construction had been improved by leaps and bounds. The investment in hardware by major express delivery enterprises had gone beyond 1 billion yuan and there had been more than 150 newly-built and renovated distribution centers in total by 13 major express delivery enterprises. At the same time operating area had increased by more than 2 million m2; the newly-added vehicles to the trunk lines and delivery had been about 4000 and 10,000 respectively; the air flights extension had been more than 30% with more than 1 million personnel [6] (Fig. 2). 2. Mobile communications became a new spotlight. In 1987, the first Chinese TACS analog cellular mobile telephone system was built and put into use in Guangdong province which marked that China formally entered the mobile era. The emergence and development of the mobile communication had thoroughly changed people’s lives and the communication mode in the nation and since then, there was rapid expansion of mobile phone users and by the end of 2008, mobile phone subscribers increased from 3000 in 1988 to 641.245 million with the average annual growth of 84.7% in 20 years. At present, the number of Chinese mobile phone users has taken the world’s first place. At the end of 2012, mobile phone penetration rate had reached 82.6 per one hundred people, 61.9% higher than that of the fixed telephone. With the rapid development of the mobile phone, mobile business rocketed and the income accounted for 73.7% of all the telecom business income, becoming the main income source of telecommunication services and having great momentum of sustainable growth [4].

Fig. 2 Surging development in express service 1 Post and Telecommunication Projects Construction 139

3. Internet scale has kept growing and informatization process has been significantly speeding up. Internet has realized the leapfrog development. Along with the development of basic telecommunication business, in order to adapt to the needs of national informatization construction, telecom department speeded up the development of data communication, information services and other new business such as the email, electronic data exchange, tele-conference, telephone information services and the Internet etc. In 1994 China officially joined the Internet and the Chinese public Internet was completed in 1995 which marked the Chinese Internet had entered the phase of social application. After decades of rapid development, at the end of 2013, the scale of Chi- nese Internet users increased from 620,000 in 1997 to 618 million with the Internet penetration rate being 45.8%. Among them, there were 500 million mobile Internet users, which elevated its proportion to 81.0%. Of all the Internet users in China, the rural population had already been 177 million, accounting for 28.6% of the total netizen [7]. Internet basic resources construction developed rapidly. By the end of 2013, the international network exit bandwidth of China’s Internet increased from 25.4 Mbps in 1997 to 3,406,824 Mbps, growing 134,127 times in 16 years; the number of IPv4 address increased from 20 million at the end of 2001 to 330 million, rising from number 9 to number 2; the number of our country’s IPv6 address was 16,670/32, being the second in the world; domain names totaled 18.441 million; the national CN domain names increased to 10.829 million accounting for 58.7% of all the nation’s domain names; web site number increased from 265,000 in 2000 to 3.202 million with the average annual growth of 34.7%. Since 2002, web page scale had maintained high growth in China, reaching 150 billion in 2013 (160 million, 2002) [7]; the information resources for Internet users were getting richer. Internet application has been extended more and more widely. With the boom of information technology application represented by e-government, e-commerce, enterprise informatization booming, information technology and information network have been implemented in all walks of life and Internet has drastically integrated in the daily life, work and leisure of considerable group of people. In 2013, under the impetus of the mobile Internet, there had been further growth in web applications matching with the characteristics of mobile phone. Instant messaging as the first large Internet application, its overall users’ number had been up to 532 million and its utilization rate had been 86.2%. Instant communication was one of the most basic applications for Internet users whose value-added service could create great value; there would be predictable increase in the application rate of cell phone video and mobile game which had higher demand on the network traffic and user experience; along with continuous innovation of the electronic commerce in the payment method, operating mode, logistics distribution, channel construction, etc., the relevant laws and regulations had also been constantly improved. As a result, the development environment had been improved year by year and more and more enterprises and individuals had joined in electronic commerce activities. In addition, e-commerce application had continued to maintain rapid development tendency and the network shopping user scale had expanded largely. China’s online shoppers scale had been up to 302 million with the utilization rate of 48.9% [4] (Fig. 3). 140 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction

Fig. 3 Students are studying through online education

4. Value-added telecom business became a new growth point of telecom service. In recent years, value-added telecom business types have kept increasing in China and have shown a booming development scene, becoming a new growth point of telecom industry. In 2011, the value-added business income accounted for 20.1% of telecom enterprises income, being an important force to pull the telecommunication business revenue growth. From 2003 to 2012, mobile short message service business had developed rapidly which became the ﬁrst pillar of the mobile data value-added services with mobile short message service volume reaching 897.31 billion in 2011 at the average growth rate of 51.3% in ten years. China Mobile’s ring-back tone, CRBT (Color Ring Back Tone), mobile phone newspaper, WAP (Wireless Applica- tion Protocol), China Unicom “broadband in palm” and other value-added telecom business are also developing rapidly and have played great roles for the rapid growth of value-added service [4]. To sum up, the rapid development of postal and telecommunication service is miniature of the 30 years economic and social progress in China. Looking back on the 30 years development, postal and telecommunication services have never been so deeply penetrated into all walks of industries in the national economy and have never so profoundly affected the people’s material and cultural lives. But at the same time, it also should be seen that there are some problems in postal and telecommunication services, namely: compared with the rapidly improved service capability, service level and service quality is relatively lagged behind; the expansion of the scale, especially the rapid popularization of the Internet has brought the network and information security problems at the same time; facing the frequent natural disasters and the rising numbers of activities, emergency communication and important communication security is not in place; the monopoly and competition 1 Post and Telecommunication Projects Construction 141 coexist in the telecom industry and serious problems such as redundant construction still exist. Looking forward to the future, the postal and telecommunication industry has a bright prospect and with the deepening of the reform in postal and telecommunication services and the improvement in the level of technology the postal and telecommunication services capacity will be further improved and service level and service quality will step onto a higher stage.

2 Construction of Basic Information Network Project

2.1 Overview of Information Network Project Construction

The latest data show that there had been 618 million Chinese Internet users by the end of December 2013, including 53.58 million new Internet users. Internet popularity rate had reached 45.8% with four web users among every 10 people. Network had generally become an essential tool for most people’s daily life and China had stepped into the network society. In the ‘12th Five-year’ plan for national economic and social development, it was indicated that the emphasis should be put on information sharing and interconnection and intercommunication; the construction of national e-government network should be promoted to integrate and promote the public service and management capacity of government and to ensure the security of the basic information network and the important information system. At present, the total number of Chinese Internet users has stayed high and the growth in internet users and popularity rate of internet has come into the relatively stable period. And the popularity of smart phones and other terminal equipments and wireless network upgrading, etc. have further promoted the rapid development in mobile Internet users’ number. In the society connected by network, digital technology provides the online environment integrated with voice, images and text for human beings and through the digital platform between people and feeling objects, the original thinking activity in the consciousness has been turned into computer program, which turns the thinking into a process that can be repeated and operated. Production of knowledge and information has become the main sources of power for productivity “ﬁssion” and “fusion” (Fig. 4).

2.2 Evolution of Information Network

Being the product of the combination of computer and communication in the initial stage, the emergence and development of information network brought qualitative changes to computer application. On December 22, 1983, China’s ﬁrst computer 142 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction

Fig. 4 Interconnected network world with operation speed more than 100 million times per second, the “Milky Way”, was successfully developed in Changsha and kept constantly under updating. After the centralized operation with the mainframe computer as the core and the distributed processing with personal computer as the basic unit, computer processing pattern has now developed into a network computing whose application range has gone far beyond the scientiﬁc computing and become a ubiquitous tool. Today, from system construction to practical technology, information network has gradually moved to be systematic, scientiﬁc, and engineered. As a newly-developed subject, it is characterized by sound theoretical property, comprehensiveness and dependence, and its own unique research content. Constrained under a certain condition, it focuses on how to reasonably and effectively manage and schedule network resources (such as link, bandwidth, information, etc.), and it provides network services that meet the different application needs and develops new network service.

2.3 Principle of Basic Information Network Construction

Basic information network construction should conform to the requirements of the construction of the e-government network. On the one hand, it should meet the needs of internal ofﬁce system management, administration, coordination, supervision and decision-making and on the other hand it should meet the needs of every organization in social management and public service in relation with the social services. Each organization constructs two completely physically-isolated networks, namely the external and internal e-government networks. The internal e-government network should be interconnected with the internal e-government network of autonomous regions and the Party, and the external e-government network should 2 Construction of Basic Information Network Project 143

Fig. 5 “Milky Way”, the ﬁrst computer of China operating more than 100 million times per second be interconnected with the external e-government network of autonomous regions. At the same time, network construction should conform to the relevant provisions of the state computer information security and secrecy. The principles of information network construction are as follows: (1) Advancement and practicability (2) Security and reliability (3) Flexibility and expansibility (4) Openness and connectivity (5) Manageability (6) Economy (Fig. 5).

2.4 Construction of Basic Information Network Project Changes Daily Life

At present, all kinds of information subsystems try to interconnect with large information systems (such as the Internet), which make the information service have more characteristics of information network communication. Network information retrieval is no longer the master-slave relationship in the previous online retrieval between the host and users, but the equivalent relationship between the client and the server or between the browser and server. What’s more the E-mail, file transfer, remote login, electronic news and BBS, etc., have changed people’s work and way of life greatly. 1. The implementation of work and study at home Since 1978, the opportunities brought about by the rapid development of the Internet informatization, some industries and individuals began to try and explore the new 144 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction way of life and work. SOHO (Small Office Home Office) broke the clock-stiffness life style of being on duty at nine and off duty at five. It represented the free, open, flexible ways of working which was an approach to self-realization and had become a way of pursuing new working mode. According to the latest census data statistics, there was 6.3% of the population or 900,000 people working at home in 2001. Predictably, with the passage of time, more and more people will work at home through the basic information network in China (Fig. 6). 2. College campus may become history museum With the rapid growth of Internet school nowadays, universities’ network group made up of campus networks all over the world has been connecting to each other to constitute a huge virtual online university. On the Internet, all the students can choose the best schools, teachers and classes, without having to consider factors such as geography, distance, money and their disability. Futurist predicted that the university campus would become a history museum after 2017. 3. Enjoy online medical service The first international ambulance on basic network was opened in 1987. Since then, all kinds of Internet rescue, medical and health service had been put to operation in succession. The famous Jin Wei project created a demonstration of the remote consultation system. The Chinese medical association fund network constitutes the largest remote consultation network. Sometime in the future, the vast majority of people around the world will enjoy online medical service.

Fig. 6 Chinese astronauts Yaping Wang is teaching in outer space 2 Construction of Basic Information Network Project 145

4. The electronic commerce, the major medium of global trade e-commerce with the characteristics of fast, convenient, low cost, high degree of globalization, is the development trend of future trade. On the world scale, the development of electronic commerce generally has four stages, including online advertising, customer education, sales transaction and comprehensive, efﬁcient, customized products and services In 2005, Chinese e-commerce transactions reached 1.2992 trillion yuan, equivalent to 7.1% of the gross domestic product. With the continuous innovation of the electronic commerce in aspects of the payment method, operating mode, logistics distribution, channel construction and so on, the relevant laws and regulations are improved constantly and the development environment are improved year by year, and in addition more and more enterprises and individuals are engaged in electronic commerce activities. In 2013, the number of China’s online shopping users was up to 302 million and utilization rate was 48.9, 6.0% higher than that in 2012. The number of group-buying users reached 141 million, and group-buying utilization rate was 22.8, 8.0% more than that in 2012 with the annual user growth rate of 68.9% [7]. Predictably, in the near future, e-commerce will become the main method of global trade.

2.5 Basic Development Direction of Information Network

Under the background of the new industrial convergence, the operators’ services focusing on bandwidth rent (such as wholesale and private wire service, etc.) and voice services already cannot meet the needs of users and the needs of the market competition in the future. With the improvement of global informatization, operators need to start a new business urgently. Information network will develop orderly to the goal of openness, integration and high-performance and intelligence. 1. Openness refers to open architecture and open interface standard, which make it easy for all kinds of heterogeneous systems to interconnect and have a high degree of interoperability. The core of the openness is ultimately standardization. 2. Integration refers to the highly-concentrated combination of the various services for a variety of media applications. On the same network, a variety of message is allowed to be transmitted, not only providing a single point transmission, but also multiple points delivery; not only the information transmission without requirement for special service quality can be provided, but also the real-time information transmission with a requirement for a high quality service with a limited error rate and some certain time delay is provided. 3. High performance means that network should provide high-speed transmission, efﬁcient protocol processing and high quality network service. High-performance computer network as a communication network should be able to support a large number of and various types of user applications with the function of scalability, namely the capability of adapting to the increasing number of users without 146 7 Development in Chinese Post and Telecommunication Construction

reducing the performance of the network; it should send the users’ information with high-speed and low delay and allocate the resources according to the application needs; it should have flexible network organization and management which can support the new application according to the demand. 4. Intelligence means to provide users with more convenient and friendly interface on network transmission and processing, and have more initiative on the route selecting, congestion control and network management. The character of intelligence is fully embodied in active network research which can change the calculation within the network dynamically. This change can be “user-assigned” or “application-assigned”, and the user data can make use of these calculations. Interoperability at network level is based on the obtained program code and computing environment rather than the standard grouping format and fixed encoding provided by a typical IP service. This trial is not only to increase the flexibility of the network computing, but to promote the construction of a “mobile gateway” which was used in wireless networks [8].

References

1. Mingfa, Xing. 2013. Report on Post and Telecommunication Industry Development in 2012,1 (in Chinese). 2. China Post. 2013. Overview on China Post Development. Annual Report on China Post 2012 (in Chinese). 3. China Post. 2013. China Post Real Object Delivery Network. Annual Report on China Post 2012 (in Chinese). 4. Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. Statistical Bulletin of the National Telecommunications in 2012, 1 (in Chinese). 5. Wang, Wenbo, and Qian Shouyang. 2013. China Statistical Yearbook (in Chinese). 6. Sun Like. 2014. General Survey on Express Delivery in China from 2013 to 2014. China Com- munication News 1: 4 (in Chinese). 7. China Internet Network Information Center. 2014. Statistical Report on China Internet Network Development, 1 (in Chinese). 8. Weizhi, Qu. 2003. China’s Informationization Construction and the Information Network Security. Informationization Construction 7: 12–14 (in Chinese). Chapter 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction

Since 1978, Chinese culture construction has made remarkable achievements by meeting the needs of the socialist market economy and following the principles of spiritual civilization construction. Theoretical, ideological and moral construction has made solid progress. The capability of public opinion guide has been enhanced markedly. Literature and art has become more and more prosperous. Funding on public culture has been increased and the cultural facilities and service network have been perfected gradually. More attention has been given not only to the inheritance and the development of the excellent national traditional culture, but also the protection of national cultural heritage. Independent innovation capacity has been improved greatly, and the achievements of cultural innovation have been arising constantly. The pace of “going out” of Chinese culture is accelerated and the inﬂuence of Chinese culture in the world has been gradually increased. The reform of cultural system has been carried out actively and steadily, which has promoted the development of cultural undertakings and cultural industries coordinately. Now, the development of Chinese culture is in a new historical starting point.

1 Public Cultural Infrastructure Construction

Public cultural infrastructure construction includes cultural square, movie theatre, bookstore, museum and library which form the multi-level network of public cultural facilities. At the same time, it also includes carrying various cultural activities, organizing culture festivals, supporting cultural exports of key projects and traditional folk arts, etc. Since 1978, China’s cultural undertakings have achieved considerable development.

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 147 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_8 148 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction

1.1 Public Cultural Products and Services

With the development of Chinese economy, the national policy has paid more attention to cultural undertakings and hence cultural infrastructure construction has been also strengthened. The cultural infrastructure construction such as the second phase of the national library, namely, the national digital library and the national museum, etc. has been carried out smoothly. A nationwide public cultural services system especially in cities and towns has been formed preliminarily. At the end of 2012, there had been 3,076 public libraries across the country, 2.5 times that of 1978; and there had been 3,069 museums, 8.7 times that of 1978; there had been 197 broadcasting stations, 213 TV stations, 215.09 million users of cable network television and 143.03 million users of digital television; the comprehensive population coverage of broadcast had been 97.5% and the comprehensive population TV coverage had been 98.2%; there had been 745 ﬁlms produced annually in contrast to only 46 in 1978; there had been 48.2 billion newspapers published, 3.35 billion copies of all kinds of journals and 7.92 billion copies (pages) of books had been published which was 10.5 times, 4.4 times and 2.1 times that of 1978 respectively. At the end of the year, there had been 4,067 archives all over the country, and 79.574 million volumes (copies) of various types of records had been open to public, 1.1 times and 3.8 times that of 1991 respectively. National library refers to the library that is set up by the nation, responsible for the collection and preservation of its publications and functions as the general national stack. In addition to collecting the native publications, the national library also collects a large number of foreign publications (including the foreign language books and periodicals about native country), and is responsible for compiling national bibliography and union catalog. National library is the promoter of national book business, the central library of the nation, as well as the center of book reservation, interli- brary loan, international exchange of books and periodicals and the bibliography and library science research in the country (Fig. 1). As the focus of the national cultural construction projects during 2001–2005, the second phase of national library was ofﬁcially opened to public on September 9 after three years’ intensive work undertaken by China railway construction group.

Fig. 1 Number of China Public libraries from 1978 to 2012 1 Public Cultural Infrastructure Construction 149

At that time, the modern digital library will be the world’s largest collection base of Chinese literature. At the same time, it will also be the country’s most advanced base of information network service. After the opening of the second phase, there will be 2,900 newly-increased seats in the national library, daily reception capacity of readers will increase 8,000 person-time and area of library will reach 250,000 m2. It will become the world’s third largest library, second to US Library of Congress and Moscow Library (Fig. 2). The design of the second phase of National library embodies people-oriented and service-ﬁrst concept. At the same time, wireless Internet covers the library permitting the readers to use their own portable computer to get the latest network information at any time. Five hundred and sixty computers are distributed in the region of the electronic reading room and so on, which make it easier for readers to look up more than millions of copies (pieces) of electronic books on the internet and library’s LAN. There are two self-service return-book machines at the east gate of the old library and the gate of new library, which meets the need of the readers to return books 24 h a day. Radio frequency identiﬁcation technology (RFID) and the OPAC (online public directory query system) which gives the current position information of the book in the reading area to the readers, make the self-service possible for readers. It should be pointed out particularly that the visually-challenged persons can control computer through voice and get digital information resources as normal readers through “the blind digital library”. 1. The national museum National museum of China, abbreviated as “Guobo”, is a comprehensive museum that pays equal attention to history and art, and has the multiple functions of collection, exhibition, public education, research, archaeology and cultural exchanges. The National museum of China with total building area of nearly 200,000 m2 has more than 1,200,000 pieces of collections and 48 exhibition halls. It is not only the museum with the largest monomer -building area in the world, but also one of the

Fig. 2 The second phase of National library 150 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction

Fig. 3 National museum of China museums with the most abundant collection of Chinese cultural relics. It tops the list of world museum for its size and in 2012 it welcomed 537,000 audiences which made it one of the most popular museums in the world (Fig. 3). The national museum of China has boasted one hundred years of glorious history. During that period, the national museum of China has accumulated a profound historical culture and has developed into China’s ﬂagship museum. It records the ﬁve-thousand-year civilization of China and shows the historical culture and art of our great motherland and glorious achievements of the social developments and is the spiritual home for the Chinese people to inherit history and explore the future. At the same time, it is an important window for the dialogue between Chinese civilization and world civilization, and is a grand hall to show the entire human civilization.

1.2 Integration of Urban and Rural Cultural Development

In order to promote the integration of urban and rural cultural development, increase the amount of rural culture service, narrow the gap between urban and rural cultural development, since 1978, the nation has strengthened the construction of cultural center and library on the county level, the construction of multi-use cultural centers in towns and villages and the construction of cultural chamber in villages with emphasis on the rural and the Midwest areas. Key cultural projects beneﬁcial to peasants such as radio and television coverage in village, cultural information resources sharing, rural motion picture projection and rural library, etc. have been implemented in- depth to expand coverage, eliminate blind spots, raise standards, perfect service and improve management. 1 Public Cultural Infrastructure Construction 151

To intensify the construction of rural culture, the government has further increased efforts to support and help cultural service network construction in the old revolutionary base areas, ethnic minority areas, border areas and underdeveloped areas. The enterprises and communities are guided to engaged migrant workers in public welfare cultural activities to absorb them into the city public cultural service system as soon as possible so that the spiritual and cultural life of migrant workers could be enriched. The linkage mechanism of leading the country by the city should be set up to allocate cultural resources between urban and rural areas rationally. It is encouraged for the city to support and help the countryside culturally, and regard the support of the rural cultural construction as the basic indicators of creating a civilized city. It is encouraged for cultural units to provide mobile services and network services for village and to promote the media to well design and operate the rural program and rural frequency channel. Cultural enterprises are supported to strengthen the construction of basic and rural cultural sites in chain forms to promote the cinema and concerts extend to the cities and counties. In addition, art performing groups are encouraged to play in grass-roots units and villages (Figs. 4 and 5). It is the most effective method for China to “improve the scientiﬁc level of rural public cultural services in way of leading the country by the city”. In the process of development, the government should give full play to the city’s radiating and driving role, establish the mechanism of leading the country by the city and urban and rural linkage mechanism at the same time to promote the optimal distribution, scientiﬁc integration and comprehensive utilization of urban and rural cultural resources and ultimately to form the integrated public cultural service network and to constantly improve the level of public cultural service (Fig. 6). Level of public cultural service. It is encouraged for the city to support and help the countryside culturally, and the support of the rural cultural construction is regarded as the basic indicators of creating a civilized city and it is supposed to build a

Fig. 4 Rural cultural corridor 152 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction

Fig. 5 Rural library

Fig. 6 Rural gala on big stage responsibility system of urban rural culture support. Support of the rural cultural construction is supposed to be brought into the counterpart poverty alleviation plan to establish and perfect the east-to-west region, the developed areas to the underdeveloped areas and the city to the village cultural help mechanism. It is called up for Party and government organs, institutions and enterprises and the mass organizations to carry out the urban and rural cultural co-building activities by donating equipments and cultural products, carrying out business cooperation, personnel training, work 1 Public Cultural Infrastructure Construction 153 guidance and other forms to promote the rural cultural construction. Government should also actively innovate rural public cultural service methods, explore the suitable cultural services methods with rural characteristics to satisfy the needs of the rural masses in order to improve the quality of services continuously. It is encouraged for the public libraries, museums, cultural centers and other public welfare cultural units to provide network services, mobile services for rural areas and to establish a mobile service platform. The modern digital technology, network technology and information technology should be used to broaden the scope of the rural grassroots public cultural service, enhance the effects of service and improve its quality.

1.3 Extensive Mass Cultural Activities

By using the community culture, corporate culture, village culture and campus culture as carrier, the government actively constructs platform for public welfare cultural activities and by relying on the major festivals and national folk cultural resources, the government organizes the cultural activities which the masses would like to participate in and be convenient to participate in. Thorough development of the nationwide reading and the national ﬁtness activities are carried out. The “culture, science and technology and health going to villages activity” is promoted and the “science and education, culture and sports, law and health going into community” and “sending joy to grassroots” activities become routines. The masses are supported to establish cultural groups in accordance with the law. Cultural carriers and cultural styles which are rooted in the masses and serve the masses are developed with care. The literary and art workers, the students of art colleges and people who love public cultural welfare cause from all walks of life are encouraged to carry out the cultural voluntary service (Figs. 7 and 8). Cultural consumption should be expanded. The amount of cultural consumption should be increased and the level of cultural consumption should be enhanced. It is encouraged to innovate business model, develop mass cultural consumption market, develop characteristic cultural consumption, expand cultural service consumption, provide personalized and focused products and services and foster growth point of new cultural consumption. In addition, it is encouraged to improve grass-roots cultural consumption level, guide cultural enterprises to invest more suitable cultural consumption places in accordance with people’s need. Publishers are encourage to publish books that the people can afford and operators of Internet culture are encouraged to develop more low-cost business and to sell a certain number of lower price tickets in the commercial performances and the movie shows. Appropriate cultural consumption subsidies for the needy and migrant workers in places where condition permitted should also be provided. Cultural tourism should be developed actively, the combination between inheritance and protection of intangible cultural 154 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction

Fig. 7 College students at the village during summer vacation

Fig. 8 Art performances to community heritage and tourism should be promoted to enhance the connotation of tourist culture and give play to the role of tourism for the promotion of cultural consumption. Support is also given to the construction of key tourist areas such as Hainan province and so on. 2 Public Sports Infrastructure Construction 155

2 Public Sports Infrastructure Construction

Sports enterprise has obtained the unprecedented development and progress. Com- petitive sports have achieved a historic breakthrough and continuous improvement. In 1984, the new China participated in the summer Olympic games in Los Ange- les for the first time and realized “zero” breakthrough in the history of the Chinese Olympic gold medal; in the 2000 Sydney Olympics, China entered the top three in Olympic gold medal list for the first time and the total number of gold medal ranked the third place, which made a historic breakthrough; in the 2004 Athens Olympics, Chinese sports delegation achieved new breakthroughs, the total number of gold medals ranked second in the world; in 2008, Beijing successfully hosted the 29th summer Olympic Games, the Chinese delegation achieved 51 gold medals and 100 medals. It is the first time that China ranked the first place in the gold medal list in the Olympics, which had created the best results since the Chinese sports delegation took part in the Olympic Games. In 2012, Chinese athletes claimed 107 championships in the Olympic Games and other international sports events, with nine people and 3 teams breaking 14 world records. In the London Olympic Games, the Chinese delegation won 38 gold medals, 27 silver medals and 23 bronze medals with a total number of 88 [1]. According to statistics, from 1978 to 2012, Chinese athletes won 2,752 world champions, accounting for 99% of the total since the founding of the country; 1,076 world records were created, accounting for 85% of the total since the founding of the people’s republic of China. Since 1978, the construction and development of Chinese sports facilities had stepped into a comprehensive recovery and rapid development period. Since 1978, Chinese sports had stepped into a rapid development period, at the same time the construction of public sports facilities had also stepped into the period of comprehensive construction, recovery and development. The contemporary small sports venues across the country enjoyed high popularity with reasonable functions, economic applicability and many creative building designs embodied the unique architectural style and the high level of architectural art.

2.1 Public Sports Installations and Facilities

With the constant perfection of China’s competition system, a large number of international and domestic sports competitions are hosted. As a result, the construction of public sports facilities has been focused on large and medium-sized sports venues in this period. The fourth national sports sites survey data showed that both the number and size of Chinese new sports venues had been greatly improved and extended from 1981 to 1995. With the announcement of National Fitness Program Outline on June 20, 1995, vigorous development of the national fitness campaign had promoted the construction and development of public sports facilities. All kinds of public sports 156 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction facilities sprang up, especially in September, 1996, the first fitness path in our country was built in Guangzhou Tianhe sports center, which was a milestone and marked a new stage of development of the public sports facilities construction in China. Entering the 21st century, the successful bid for Olympics and holding of all kinds of events promoted the popularity of the sports facilities and the development of city construction. In this process, a large number of public sports facilities marked a new epoch of Chinese sports facilities construction in technology progress, facilities standard and equipment modernization. A batch of new and high technologies such as new materials, new crafts were applied in the field of sports facilities construction. It not only considered the multi-purpose use of the sports construction, but also paid attention to energy saving, environmental protection and humane design, and developed towards the direction of matching with urban development. On April 16, 2002, General Administration of Sport of China approved and set up a “Sports Facilities and Standard Office” which marked that public sports facilities construction had regulations to follow and laws to go by in China. On July 22, 2002, the 8th document issued by the Central Government about civilization pointed out clearly: “governments at all levels must attach importance to the sports facilities construction, strengthen the planning of urban and rural public sports facilities.” Newly built residential areas, economic development zones and schools must be equipped with a complete set of sports facilities. Public sports facilities should be open to the mass and the relationship between public welfare and profit-making should be balanced correctly. The second chapter of The Regulations on the Public Cultural and Sports Facilities that was taken effect on August 1, 2003, made explicit provisions for the planning and construction of public cultural and sports facilities. The issuing of these files had epoch-making significance on the nation’s public sports facilities construction. Judging from the functional structure, public sports facilities have been developing gradually toward the more and more complete function and reasonable structure and have realized the planning and design of a gymnasium with multiuse and multi- purpose. With the application of new materials and the improvement of engineering technology, energy-saving and environmental friendly public sports facilities will become the trend and development direction. What’s more the full consideration of the combination of natural environment and humane environment has been increasingly taken into the style of the building design to make sports facilities the landmark of a city. Judging from the supporting facilities, public sports installations and facilities developed from meeting the most simple and basic sport demand to facilities with relatively complete functions and with the consideration of the humanized designs. Today, not only internal facilities are in all readiness, the external supporting services are further perfected. In the future, the public sports facilities will be built into a large community integrating sports, culture, tourism, trade and leisure. From the view of management mode, the enterprise’s management pattern should be given full play. In meeting with the welfare quality of public sports facilities, the economic profits of the sports facilities should be utilized to reverse the government’s money-losing condition and to be responsible for its own profits or losses. 2 Public Sports Infrastructure Construction 157

Fig. 9 National stadium—Bird’s Nest

Typical Chinese public sports buildings: 1. The National Stadium—The Bird’s Nest National stadium, the main stadium of the 29th Olympic Games in 2008, is located in the south of Beijing Olympics Park’s central area. The project covers an area of 21 hectares and its building area is 258,000 m2. There are about 91,000 audience seats, of which about 11,000 are temporary seats. The opening and closing ceremonies of Olympic Games and Paralympic Games, the ﬁeld and track competitions and football ﬁnals were held in the stadium. After the Olympic Games, the stadium becomes a large-scale professional site for Beijing residents to widely participate in sports activities and enjoy sports entertainment, and becomes the new landmark of sports buildings and heritage of the Olympic Games (Fig. 9). 2. Beijing Workers’ Gymnasium Beijing Workers’ Gymnasium, located in north road of Sanlitun Workers Stadium, Chaoyang district, was built in February 1961 for the 26th World Cup Table Tennis Match; it is also the earliest gymnasium appeared on the stamps of New China. The gymnasium was completed on February 28, 1961 which could accommodate 15,000 spectators. The Workers’ Gymnasium is one important part of Worker’s Stadium building complex, namely, Beijing Workers’ Stadium, Beijing Workers’ Gymnasium and Natatorium (Fig. 10). 3. The National Swimming Center—The Water Cube The National Swimming Center, also known as “Water Cube”, located in the Beijing Olympic park, is the main swimming pool for the 2008 summer Olympic Games in Beijing and is also one of the 2008 Olympic Games landmark buildings in Beijing. Its design scheme, “water cube”, came from the global design competition. The work began On December 24, 2003, and was completed on January 28, 2008. The National Swimming Center and the National Stadium (also known as the Bird’s Nest) 158 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction

Fig. 10 Beijing Workers’ Gymnasium are located on the two sides of the northern end of the central axis of Beijing city forming a relatively full image of Beijing city with historical and cultural heritage. The planned construction area of National Swimming Center is 62,950 m2 and its total building area is 65,000–80,000 m2, of which the gross area of the underground part is not less than 15,000 m2 with the dimensions of 177 m × 177 m × 30 m (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11 National Swimming Center—Water Cube 2 Public Sports Infrastructure Construction 159

2.2 The Full Implementation of the National Fitness Program

Since 1978, Chinese sports cause has been in its prime time. In order to connect sports with people’s life, the government called for the “Full Implementation of the National Fitness Plan”, to lay the focus on the basic task of improving the people’s physical fitness, to strive to resolve the difficulties and problems that the mass sports work faced, to manage the basic organization, to built the basic sites and to organize activities, making the improvement of people’s physical fitness as the important criteria for sports work. The enthusiasm of trade unions, communist youth league, women’s federations, various industries and different sectors of the society were given full play to carry out the national fitness activities for worker in different walks of trade through the corresponding sports associations. Organizations of national fitness has been established and perfected to form the new pattern led by the government, relied on the society and participated by the people. The construction of social sports instructor teams has been strengthened to guarantee the steady transition to professional qualification system (Fig. 12). Chinese first “Sports Law” was passed in 1995. In the same year, the state council promulgated the “National Fitness Program Outline”; then a series of sports laws and regulations had been issued. According to a study published by the General Administration of Sport of China, currently Chinese people involved in sports activities account for 33.9% of the total countable 7–70 years old population; 60.7% of urban residents go to all kinds of sports clubs to participate in fitness activities. The “National Fitness Program” aiming to improve the national physique and health level, lays emphasis on the youth and children, advocating the people to participate in fitness activities for more than one time every day, to learn two or more fitness methods, and to take a physical measurement each year. According to the goal of the national fitness plan, by 2005, the number of the people who took part in physical exercise in the country should reach more than 37% of

Fig. 12 Implementation of the national fitness program 160 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction the total population; there are public sports fitness facilities built in 100% of the community in municipalities and developed provincial capitals, in 80% communities in other cities and 25% rural villages and towns; there are public sports fitness facilities built in 80% of the communities in the provincial capitals (capitals of autonomous region) in the west area and the area where the economy is relatively backward, 60% in the other cities and 15% in rural villages and towns; the number of social sports instructors in the country reaches 350,000; there are sports administrative center s or stations built in more than 70% of the subdistricts in the cities, more than 70% of counties and more than 50% of the villages and towns; the number of youth sports club funded by sports lottery welfare fund has reached around 3,000. By 2010, the number of the people who often take part in physical exercise in the country should reach about 40% of the total population and people’s physical fitness should been enhanced obviously; the number of exercise sites has increased considerably, in order to satisfy the demands of the people’s fitness need. The effects of implementation of national fitness plan: 1. Jinan National Fitness Center The main sports complex of Jinan National Fitness Center with area of 27,000 m2, has swimming pool, badminton stadium, indoor tennis stadium, table tennis hall, online sports gyms, billiards room, equipments gym, puzzle leisure area, taekwondo hall, aerobic gym, fencing hall, a total of 11 indoor fitness gymnasiums, a total of 22 sports fitness projects; there are 30 physique monitoring and physical therapy health care programs in physical testing area, including 11 items of physique, body composition analysis, sub-health detection, growth intervention; fitness plaza with area of about 26,000 m2 is equipped with many fitness projects, including basketball, tennis, croquet, roller-skating, table tennis, circular runway and fitness trails, etc. (Figure 13).

Fig. 13 Jinan National Fitness Center 2 Public Sports Infrastructure Construction 161

Fig. 14 The national ﬁtness square of Zhongshan city

2. The national fitness square of Zhongshan city The national fitness square of Zhongshan city is the important people’s livelihood project of Zhongshan government. The square was constructed in two phases, the first phase was completed and put into use in early 2003 with investment of 12 million yuan (including 2 million yuan appropriation from province and city sports lottery fund); the second phase with investment of 8 million yuan (including 1 million yuan appropriation from province and city sports lottery fund) was built and put into use in early 2004. The square with an area of about 100,000 m2 is equipped with sports facilities, including one multi-functional leisure fitness field, eight small football fields, twelve basketball courts, eight tennis courts, six volleyball courts, two croquet courts, 1 skating rink, four badminton courts, thirty two table tennis tables, one circular runway and one military runway and three fitness paths, etc. with all kinds of auxiliary facilities, including lighting, audio equipments, environmental toilet booth, direct drinking water, rest pavilion and parking lots. Currently, it is a large centralized open fitness square with comparatively comprehensive equipment and function in the province even all over the country (Fig. 14).

2.3 Goals of Public Sports Development

As an integral part of national spiritual civilization construction, public sports play an important role in the social development. Therefore, the goal of public sports development has profound signiﬁcance. Youth sports focus on the school. Adolescents are at the moment of growing up physically and intellectually and they are the future of our motherland. Educa- tion administrative departments at all levels and all kinds of schools at all levels 162 8 Urban Cultural and Sport Infrastructure Construction should seriously implement the education policy of all-round development of the moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetics and labor education to accelerate reform of the physical education and improve the quality of physical education. Upon completion of the physical education, schools should strive to create conditions to carry out various kinds of after-class training at the same time, in order to ensure that students have 1-h physical exercise every day, and make teenagers get into the habit of lifelong sports exercise. Encourage the society to establish various types of youth sports clubs. Rural sports focus on villages and towns. China is a country with agricultural population in majority and scatteredly distributed. Therefore, the emphasis of rural sports should be placed on the villages and towns. The network with radiation capacity with village and town as leader, committee of villagers as basis, sports association of farmer as a link should be built. In the process of developing rural sports, the rules of “adapting to the actual situation, being scientiﬁc and civilized” should be followed, and the sports should cater to the taste of most farmers. The government of villages and towns should bring the sports cause into their social development plan. City sports should put emphasis on the community. Community is a mutual cooperation groups based on geographical relationship which is suitable for sports activities. Community sports should follow the pattern of being amateur, voluntary, small scale and diverse. Great importance should be attached to the planning and construction of community sports facilities to actively provide residents with convenience and practical sites for physical exercise. Through certain forms of organization including establishing clubs, community should regularize and institutionalize community sports, and regard community sports management as a functional role [2].

References

1. Laiyun, Sheng, and Yan Jianhui. 2013. Report on the Development of Social Undertakings in 2012: 8 (in Chinese). 2. National Development and Reform Commission. 2006. Outline of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development (Draft) (in Chinese). Chapter 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction

1 Achievements of Chinese Infrastructure Construction

Since 1978, Chinese infrastructure has been improved remarkably which greatly pushed the economic and social development. The supply capacity of agriculture, energy and raw material has been improved to a high level. Transportation, post and telecommunication have formed a crisscrossed network system covering the whole country. The water conservancy condition, the environmental protection and the education, culture and sports facilities have been signiﬁcantly strengthened. A large number of major projects, including west–to–east natural gas transmission, south-to-north water diversion, returning farmland to forest and so on, have been successfully completed or been pushed forward [1].

1.1 Farmland Water Conservancy Construction

China has the largest population in the world and has to feed the people 1/5 of the world’s population with less than 7% of the world’s land. To ensure the steady production of food, the nation has constantly enhanced the investment in agricultural infrastructure and agricultural foundation status has been strengthened (Fig. 1). From 1979 to 2012, the total investment in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and ﬁshery reached 4.9577 trillion yuan with the annual average growth rate of 13.2%.

Fig. 1 Development of production and planting tools since 1978

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 163 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_9 164 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction

The investment had been mainly used for agricultural infrastructure, commodity grain production base and shelter forest project construction. Through 30 years of large-scale construction, the nation’s agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing and water conservation infrastructure conditions has been improved significantly which has helped to improve the flood control, water logging prevention and natural disasters defense capacity and has promoted the development of rural economy. By 2012, there had been 97,543 reservoirs with the total volume of 825.5 billion m3, increasing by 14,156 reservoirs and 359.5 billion m3 respectively compared with 1990. There had been 277,300 km completed river dykes at or above level five which took 570 million people and 43,000 ha of cultivated land under its protection. By the end of 2012, the national farmland irrigation area had been 62.491 million ha, accounting for 52.1% of the arable land. There had been 22,318 designed irrigation areas of 2000 mu and above in the nation with farmland irrigation area of 33.898 million ha [2]. At the end of 2012, the national grain output reached 589.58 million tons, increasing by 93.4% compared with 1978; cotton output was 6.836 million tons, 3.2 times that of 1978; oil production was 34.36 million tons, 6.6 times that of 1978. The eastern, middle and western routes of south-to-north water transfer-project construction are pushed forward steadily with total planned water diversion volume of 44.8 billion m3, after the completion of which, together with the Yangtze River, Yellow River, Huaihe River and Haihe River, the “four horizontal three vertical”, general mutual supporting south-north resource deployment layout will have been formed.

1.2 The Energy Industry

From 1979 to 2012, the total investment was 14.6144 trillion yuan [3] in the energy industry with the average annual growth of 17.6% of which the investment in power increased at an average growth rate of 19.3% each year. Due to the massive investment, Chinese energy supply capacity increased rapidly. At the end of 2013, generating capacity was 1247 million kW, 21.9 times that of 1978 of which the thermal power was 860 million kW, hydropower was 280 million kW, 21.7 times and 16.2 times those in 1978 respectively. Since the construction of the first nuclear power plant, Qinshan nuclear power plant, in 1985, Chinese nuclear power developed from scratch and by 2013, there had been 14.61 million kilowatts of power generation capacity. Wind power development experienced its prime time with the installed capacity of 75.48 million kilowatts in 2013 [4]. Meanwhile, energy technological progress had been accelerating and reached the world advance level in the oil exploration and development, hydropower construction and comprehensive mechanized coal mining fields. Progress had been achieved in energy conservation and environmental protection. During the period of “11th five- year plan”, the nation had closed 76.83 million kW small thermal power units, 26.83 million kW more than the closure plan issued by the nation. The power supply coal 1 Achievements of Chinese Infrastructure Construction 165 consumption had reached the world advanced level with the national power supply coal consumption dropping by 37 g of standard coal/kWh on average. By the end of 2012, the average power supply standard coal consumption of 6000 kW and above thermal power units had been 325 g kWh with 4 g kWh year-on-year decline. Mea- sures taken by power industry such as developing non-fossil fuel energies, reducing the power supply coal consumption and line loss rate, etc. had reduced the sulfur dioxide emissions effectively. Taking 2005 as a benchmark, from 2006 to 2012, the cumulative emission reduction had been 3.56 billion tons with carbon emissions reduction volume stepping up year by year [5]. In 2012, the total energy output in China was 3.32 billion tons of standard coal and energy consumption was 2.62 billion tons of standard coal. From 1979 to 2012, energy consumption grew by an average of 5.4% per year which supported the annual GDP growth rate of 9.8%.

1.3 The Transportation Industry

Since 1978, Chinese transportation construction has made brilliant achievements which provides strong support for the rapid the economic and social development. From 1979 to 2012, Chinese transportation industry had the total investment of 8.5739 trillion yuan with the average annual growth of 19.9% and there had been notable improvement in the level of transportation infrastructure. Railway mileage increased from 52,000 km in 1978 to 976,000 km in 2012, increasing by 46,000 km. Most of the extra mileage is the electrified railway by using the advanced technologies and equipments. In 1978 the nation’s electrified railway mileage was only 1000 km, while in 2007 the number reached 34,000 km. The Shanghai maglev, Guangzhou-Shenzhen high-speed railway and other projects had been completed. Before the opening of the Beijing Olympic Games, the Beijing- Tianjin high-speed passenger dedicated railway at 350 km/h was formally opened and the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway had been put to use officially. By the end of 2012, the highway mileage had increased from 890,000 km in 1978 to 4.2375 million km in 2012, increasing 3.8 times year-on-year of which the super highway increased from 100 km in 1988 to 96,200 km, increasing by 961 times. “Five vertical and seven horizontal” national trunk highways had been preliminary formed and the highway level and condition had been increased significantly, promoting the development of the automobile industry. By the end of 2012, private car ownership in China had reached 88.386 million, increasing nearly 310 times while in 1985, the number was only 284,900. Civil aviation has got rapid development. By the end of 2012, there had been 183 civil aviation airports in China, 101 more than that in 1985; scheduled flight routes had been 2457, 2283 more than that in 1979; the length of civil aviation transportation route had been 3.28 million km, 3.27 million km more than that in 1979 [6]. With the constant development of the airport and airline, the number of civilian aircraft has also kept increasing. By the end of 2012, there had been 3589 commercial aircrafts. 166 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction

The increase in the number of aircrafts and the optimization of plane models had promoted the rapid development and safety of civil aviation transportation. Water transportation and pipeline transportation have also got great achievements. In 2012, the major coastal port cargo throughput was 6.652 billion tons, 31.3 times that of 1979. Pipeline oil (gas) transportation mileage was 90,100 km, 10.9 times that of 1978. Zhoushan port in Ningbo had become the world’s largest port with the annual throughput of 800 million tons. In 2012, the pipeline total mileage reached 90,100 km, including oil pipeline 41,300 km and gas pipeline 48,800 km. A group of major pipeline projects had been completed successfully or promoted actively: central Asian natural gas pipeline line C and west–east gas transportation line 3 ran smoothly and the line 2 of west–east gas transportation was put into full operation [7].

1.4 Information Communications and Post Service

Since reform and opening up, especially after 2005, Chinese information and communication and the postal service have realized the leapfrog development, becoming the pillar and leading industry in the national economy. From 1979 to 2012, the total investment in Chinese postal and telecommunication was 3.5832 trillion yuan, with the average annual growth of 16%. A group of key informatization projects such as the “Golden Card”, “Golden Tax”, “Golden Customs”, “Golden Shield” and so on were constructed and at the same time, by using the competition mechanism to promote development and enhance enterprise’s core competitiveness constantly, the super-large communication group corporation with advanced management, first- class service, scale benefit and international competitiveness had been gradually formed. Now, the national information communication network covering the whole nation, connecting the world with advanced technology and comprehensive business has been formed which has the largest network size and users’ number and the highest developing speed in the world. The postal services are rich in variety and the branch outlets are widely distributed. The fixed telephone users’ number surged from 1.93 million in 1978 to 278.153 million in 2012, growing by 144.1 times; mobile phone developed from scratch and by the end of 2012 the number had reached 1.11 billion. From 1978 to 2012, the national telephone exchange capacity increased from 6000 to 438 million, increasing by 197.8 times; postal business volume increased from 3.4 billion yuan to 20.368 billion yuan, increasing by 59.9 times; the postal outlets increased from 49,623 to 95,889, increasing by 93.2% [8] (Fig. 2). 1 Achievements of Chinese Infrastructure Construction 167

Fig. 2 Four major ways of postal transportation

1.5 Urban Public Facilities

Involving all basic necessities of life, environmental management and public facility service are closely related to people’s daily life and are the important aspects in building a well-off society in an all-round way and socialistic harmonious society. The nation has always attached great importance to environmental management and the construction of public facility service system. From 1979 to 2012, Chinese environmental management and public facility service industry had ﬁnished the total investment of 13.01246 trillion yuan which was the industry with the fastest annual growth rate in basic industries and infrastructure ﬁeld. At the end of 2012, there had been 432,000 urban public transit vehicles namely, 12.1 public transportation vehicles per ten thousand people, 8.9 more than that in 1990; the length of city road reached 327,000 km, 10.9 times that of 1980; urban road area was 6.07 billion m2 with 14.4 m2 per capita; urban garden and green land area was 2.368 million ha, 27.7 times that in 1980 and the park and green space area was 12.3 m2 per capita. In the past 30 years, great changes have taken place greatly in the nation’s infrastructure such as water supply, sewage treatment, etc. and its security capability has been enhanced. In 2012, the urban water supply volume was 52.3 billion m3,5.9 168 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of Chinese west–east gas transmission project times that of 1980 and the water popular rate reached 97.2, 15.8% higher than that of 1980. The length of urban gas supply pipe was 389,000 km, 68.6 times that of 1980 and the gas popular rate reached 93.2%, while the number was only 16.8% in 1980. In 2012, the daily urban sewage processing capacity had reached 136.929 million m3, 10.2 times that of 1996 [9] (Fig. 3).

1.6 Education, Culture, Health and Sports Causes

Education, culture, health and sports are important public welfare undertakings with close relations with the people’s immediate interests and is important embodiment of social civilization progress. 30 years since the reform and opening up, the investment on education, culture, health and sports infrastructure has been constantly increased and from 1979 to 2012, the investment in education, culture, health and sports totaled 6.0553 trillion yuan with the annual average growth of 10% and the industry infrastructure level had been enhanced signiﬁcantly. In education and culture aspect: with the promotion of series of important projects such as “two exempts and one subsidy” and the “rural boarding school construction projects” and some policies, profound changes have taken place in Chinese education condition. By the end of 2012, there were all together 2790 regular higher education institutions in China, 2192 more than that in 1978; there were 1853 special education schools, 1561 more than that in 1978; there were 46,240 cultural centers and mass art galleries, 38,252 more than that in 1978; public libraries were 3076, 1858 more than that in 1978; there were 6124 museums, 5775 more than that in 1978 [10]. 1 Achievements of Chinese Infrastructure Construction 169

Health: by the end of 2012, there had been 913,000 health institutions in China, 743,000 more than that in 1978; there had been 5.7248 million beds in health agencies, 3.6828 million more than that in 1978; there had been 3585 disease control and prevention centers, 596 more than that in 1978; there had been 237 medical science research institutes, 18 more than that in 1978; there had been 3051 maternal and child health care hospitals, 480 more than that in 1978. Sports: in 2004, there were 850,080 all kinds of sports sites in China which means that every ten thousand people on average had 6.58 sports sites, increasing by 1.58 compared with that in 1995; per capita sports ground area was of 1.03 m2 with an increase of 0.38 m2 compared with 1995 [11] (Figs. 4 and 5). In the past 30 years, there was large-scale increase in the investment in the nation’s basic industries and infrastructure construction and a large number of projects have been completed and put into operation which promoted the rapid development of basic industry, greatly enhanced infrastructure capability, alleviated the “bottleneck” restriction in national economy and facilitated the sound and rapid economic development. But there was still contradiction in the construction of infrastructure between meeting the needs of the rapid economy development and the rapid improvement in people’s living standard and the sustainable development in the economic society has put forward the higher request on energy, basic materials, urban infrastructure construction, so as a result the task in basic industries and infrastructure investment construction is still tough. In the new historical development stage, Chinese basic industries and infrastructure construction should be guided by the scientiﬁc outlook on development, adhere to the principle of sound and rapid development, overcome constantly-appearing new problems and new contradictions and lay a solid foundation for the development of national economy and the improvement of people’s living standards.

Fig. 4 Gymnasium of Ocean University of China 170 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction

Fig. 5 Wukesong stadium

2 Chinese Infrastructure Construction and Development Requirements

For a long time, the infrastructure industry in China has been in the tight running state which has affected the smooth development of national economy. An effective way to solve the “bottleneck” problem is to reform the current government regulation system in Chinese infrastructure industry in order to improve the economic efficiency of infrastructure industry. The requirements on Chinese infrastructure industry development are roughly as follows: 1. To strengthen overall coordination According to the across-region, multi-field characteristics of infrastructure, the principle of overall coordination and balanced development should be followed in planning and implementation. Toplan as a whole in hierarchical structure. After long-time rapid development, the main frame supporting infrastructure system has had the foundation and development layout and the path have been clear. In a certain period in the future, along with the rapid construction of main frame, branch node of the hierarchical structure should be coordinately promoted and perfected as a whole to improve the overall infrastructure operation safety and efficiency. To plan as a whole in industrial sectors. Change the independent planning and construction in single domain pattern in the field of infrastructure construction and take certain area as object to carry out the overall road, pipeline network and site 2 Chinese Infrastructure Construction and Development Requirements 171 projects in order to realize synchronous construction to ensure the coordinated and balanced development in different domains and industries. To plan as a whole the spatial layout. To plan as a whole the old city and new town construction and to coordinate the safe running of the old city and new city development. Give full consideration to the contradiction between the integrity of the spatial layout of infrastructure and the administrative division and to coordinate the unified planning, unified construction, unified operation in upstream and downstream regions and adjacent counties to ensure integrity and continuity of the infrastructure. To plan as a whole the responsibility subject. To actively coordinate the examination and approval departments in the city level with all walks of life and all counties and regions by taking the planning target task as the main line to centralize the annual work focuses to form linkage mechanism and improve the work efficiency. 2. To improve the policy mechanism To grasp the infrastructure development rule, innovate and perfect the policy mechanism and improve the infrastructure project investment, construction and management level. To standardize the investment mechanism. According to the degree of marketization and the price level, the relationship between the government, enterprises and social investment should be further improved and at the same time clear boundaries should be made to further enlarge the government’s investment in public welfare projects. The reform of investment and financing should be strengthened to establish a reasonable return on investment mechanism and by actively adopting PPP, BT and TOT financing mode to attract social investment into the infrastructure construction field. To innovate the construction mechanism. It is encouraged to strengthen the humane and intelligent concept in urban construction; to construct more convenient and efficient infrastructure; to regulate the construction standard, actively promote underground pipe gallery construction and optimize humanized design in the over- pass; to realize the multi accesses in rail transportation; to strictly enforce the new residential district construction standard; to beak through boundary between industry departments and executors in order to realize unified road and municipal management project establishment and implementation to avoid the road “zipper” phenomenon; to actively create favorable conditions so as to introduce social forces to participate in the project planning and design. To reform the operation mechanism. It is encouraged to further break institutional barriers and development bottleneck; to deepen the management system reform; to research separation of the three right, namely, the infrastructure ownership, the right of operation and management in order to gradually achieve the diversified operation and management mechanism, namely, departments ownership of the assets, enterprises’ professional operation and industry supervision and management. It is also encouraged to promote state-owned infrastructure enterprise reform; to actively support the social capital flow into the infrastructure field; to introduce market competition mechanism mainly on operational management link; to strengthen supervision 172 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction and improve operation efficiency and service level; to establish and perfect the fiscal subsidy mechanism in accordance with the price mechanism in order to realize the policy integration linkage. 3. The application of high and new technology It is encouraged to apply high-tech to improve scientific and technical content in infrastructure; to strengthen the function of facilities and reduce the construction cost; to promote the independent innovation and the development of new and high technology industries so as to realize the mutual improvement of infrastructure and high-tech industry. To encourage high and new technology application. It is encouraged to perfect encouragement policy, system, mechanism of high and new technology application; to actively promote the new material, new technology application in the field of infrastructure construction and the field of government investment; to improve and adjust the technical standards, rules and regulations; to break the technical barriers to create the environment for independent technological innovation. To promote the development of hi-tech industry. It is encouraged to use the large investment scale, long industrial chain, quick rewards characteristics of infrastructure construction to accelerate the industrialization and marketization of new technology with independent intellectual property rights; to promote industry upgrading and core competitiveness of high-tech enterprises; to expand and raise regional competition ability; to promote the economic growth mode transformation. 4. The implementation of major projects The major projects have great influence on the overall and long-term development and are important support for planning goals. It is encouraged to take the hub type, functional, network major infrastructure construction projects as the key points; to concentrate forces, speed up the construction, decompose and carry out the annual plan and ensure the smooth implementation of the planning. Adhere to major projects as driving force mechanism. According to “concentrate resources to accomplish large undertakings and to solve major issues by stages” principle, focusing on the key tasks such as the city functions enhancement, resources and energy security and environmental quality improvement, it is encouraged to implement a batch of major projects in order to speed up solving the problem of traffic congestion and water resources shortage and improve the energy structure to ensure the safe operation of urban lifeline. To establish the project cycling reserves mechanism. It is encouraged to establish big projects reserves according to the planned tasks and to realize the virtuous circle mechanism of reserve, demonstrate and construct batch by batch; to plan ahead of time and start the pre-project work; to fulfill construction requisites of major projects. To specify major project examination and approval procedures. According to “hasten, simplify, delegate, cancel, coordinate” requirements, it is encouraged to optimize the project examination and approval procedures; to classify clearly and set up the project examination and approval pre-conditions to improve the examination and approval efficiency. According to the “planning decides project” principle, it is 2 Chinese Infrastructure Construction and Development Requirements 173 encouraged to demonstrate before project-establishment and then to carry out the preliminary task to reduce duplication of work and improve the preliminary task efficiency. 5. Guarantee the money supply According to the “government-led, social participation and market operation” policy, it is encouraged to establish a diversified multi-channel investment guarantee system in order to ensure the capital supply. To increase government investment. According to the actual urban development condition, it is encouraged to elaborate infrastructure investment and give full play to the guiding role of the financial capital in ensuring and improving people’s livelihood and promoting the development of social undertakings. It is also encouraged to establish the normal growth mechanism of city finance for infrastructure construction; to improve the county and regional government applicable major project funding mechanism to give full play to the government’s leading role in investment. To play a role of financing platform. It is encouraged to ensure the capital fund investment in present infrastructure financing platform; to improve the repayment of capital and interest mechanism; to actively use the government purchasing service way to strengthen the enterprise financing ability in the infrastructure construction; to meet the requirements of relevant national policies and enhance the financing ability to guarantee construction fund demand. To positively innovate financing model. It is encouraged to clarify the division of the risk sharing between the government and the investors and the risk compen- sation mechanism and to create a fair competition environment; to actively adopt BT financing model and to explore financing lease and insurance creditor’s rights to attract social capital to enter. 6. Strengthen the planning and management Toemphasize the key point and to strengthen the plan as a whole should be given equal importance in the implementation and management of planning. It is encouraged to pay attention to the seriousness of the planning and to examine and approve the projects strictly in accordance with the planning; to set up the dynamic assessment and adjustment mechanism of planning to ensure the scientific and practical effect. To mobilize the broad participation of society. The implementation of planning needs the participation and support of the whole society, so it is advisable to give full play to the positive role of the grass-roots organizations, civil organizations, industry organizations, social intermediary organizations and public welfare organizations to strengthen the propaganda of planning, raise public awareness toward planning and make more citizens involve in implementation and supervision of planning to realize the social management of planning. To strengthen the dynamic evaluation of planning. It is encouraged to establish the urban infrastructure plan, statistics and evaluation index system; to strengthen the monitoring on and analysis of planning implementation and to solve problems in implementation in time. In intermediate stage of planning implementation, it is encouraged to carry out mid-term assessment on the planning objectives, major 174 9 Achievements and Prospect of Chinese Infrastructure Construction tasks and the implementation of policies and measures; to pay attention to efficiency analysis and to gradually establish a scientific and sound planning and evaluation mechanism. To strictly regulate project examination and approval. Planning is important basis for the construction and development in infrastructure field and the annual plan should be made on the basis of the infrastructure construction planning. It is encouraged to exam and approve the subjects strictly in accordance with the planning; to abide by the principle of “planning regulates project, project implements planning”. After approved and issued, planning as the guiding document for infrastructure development in the planned period should be implemented by various related departments in charge of infrastructure. During the planning period, if there is need to be adjusted because of the economic, social policy or other important reasons, it should be applied and approved according to certain procedure.

References

1. National Development and Reform Commission. 2005. The Eleventh Five-Year National Innovative Infrastructure Construction Planning Concept (in Chinese). 2. The Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Republic of China. 2012. Statistical Bulletin of National Water Conservancy Development in 2012, 11 (in Chinese). 3. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. Fixed Asset Investment of Energy Industry. 2013 China Statistical Yearbook, 9 (in Chinese). 4. National Energy Administration. 2013. In 2013 the National Power-generating Installation had Steady and Rapid Growth, and Structure Maintained Continual Optimization,2. 5. National Energy Administration. 2013. New Achievement has been Obtained in Energy Conservation and Emissions Reduction in Power Industry, 12. 6. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. Indicators Statistics on Annual Regular Flight Routes. 2013 China Statistical Year Book. 7. Laiyun, Shen, and Yan Jianhui. 2012. Report on Transportation Industry Development 3013: 30–36. 8. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. General Situation in Post and Telecommunication Business. China Statistics Yearbook. 9. National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China. 2013. General Situation of Civil Public Utilities. 2013 China Statistical Yearbook. 10. Yang, Liu, and Fu Wei. Report on 2012 Education Cause Development, 124 (in Chinese). 11. General Administration of Sport of China. 2005. Bulletin of the Fifth National Sports Ground Survey Data, 2 (in Chinese). Chapter 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure in the New Era

Coming into the 21st century, China is experiencing a great transformation. Its comprehensive national strength is continuously improving. The economic and social construction is developing rapidly. With the rapid development of the country, the living standards of the people are constantly improving and it has promoted the improvement and upgrading of infrastructure. Since the 18th national congress of the Communist Party of China, President Xi Jinping has put forward the Chinese Dream as an important guiding ideology and important ruling philosophy. The core objective of the Chinese Dream can be summed up as the “Two Centenary Goals”, that is, to the 100th anniversary of the founding of the communist party of China in 2021 and the 100th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 2049, we gradually and ultimately achieve the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, and the concrete manifestation is national prosperity and rejuvenation, social harmony and people’s well-being; and the way to achieve this is to follow the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, adhere to the socialist theory system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, carry forward the national spirit and pool the strength of the whole country; and the measures are the five integrated constructions of politics, economics, culture, society and ecological civilization. President Xi Jinping has pointed out that we are closer to the goal of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese more than any time in history. China proposes One Belt And One Road to follow the trend of world multi-polarization, economic globalization, cultural diversity and social informatization. It adheres to the spirit of open regional cooperation and is committed to upholding the global free trade system and an open world economy aimed at promoting economic factors orderly flow freely, efficient resource allocation and market depth fusion, driving the countries along the Belt and Road to achieve economic policy coordination in order to carry out a wider range, higher level, deeper regional cooperation and jointly create open, inclusive and balanced, generic regional economic cooperation framework. This paper will introduce the current development in Chinese infrastructure construction on the basis of the following seven aspects.

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 175 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1_10 176 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

1 Construction of Residential Projects in China

In recent years, China has made many achievements in the construction and development of residential projects. Dramatic changes have taken place in people’s living environment. Enjoying and loving life have been the main melody of people’s life. Building forms are changing with each passing day and many unique buildings are standing in the corner of the city; the concept of architectural design is constantly updated and developed from traditional security, economy and applicability to today’s beauty, environmental protection and sustainability. Residential buildings of both urban residents and rural residents have developed in different degrees. We have made solid progress in security projects and more than 19 million housing difficulties were admitted to public rental housing in 2016. Money put keeps flowing in a steady stream and the subsidy funds of shantytowns transformation from the central government about 715.3 billion yuan have been put into practice; The construction creates a new high and in the per capital floor space in 2006, the national population is 40.8 m2 and the urban residents are 36.6 m2, which increases by 11.1% compared with 2012, and the rural residents are 45.8 m2, which increases by 22.3% compared with 2012. By 2016, the area of residential buildings in villages has been 323,200 million m2 and more than 60 million shantytowns have moved to new homes. And the proportion of rural residents living in reinforced concrete or brick and concrete structures is 64.4%, which increases by 8.8% compared with 2013 [1].

1.1 The Fourth-Generation Housing

The fourth-generation housing (Fig. 1), namely the courtyard house, which is also known as the Forest City Park, is very different from traditional architecture. In fourth-generation housing, each floor has a public yard and each household has a private courtyard where the owners can grow flowers, vegetables and walk a dog. The car can be driven to the front of the air and the outer walls of the building are covered with plants, which mean people and nature are in harmony with each other. The fourth-generation housing has many outstanding advantages. It can make up for the disadvantage of villa location, which is too barren and lacks the flavor of life. At the same time, it can satisfy people’s yearning for alley and courtyard housing. It integrates various functions in one body and the whole building occupies a moderate area. There are also fewer constraints on its site selection. In the current state of severe overabundance, low or even full saturation of traditional old buildings, it will become a new economic development kinetic energy of the real estate industry, which will lead to a new round of investment, construction and consumption enthusiasm and overall growth of GDP and employment. The fourth-generation housing will be a complete revolution in human history. In such a day when the country is taking every effort to build ecological city and develop green buildings, such housing undoubtedly provides a good future housing scheme for urbanites. 1 Construction of Residential Projects in China 177

Fig. 1 The fourth generation housing

1.2 Shantytown Transformation Project

Shantytown transformation (Fig. 2) is a popular project proposed by our government to renovate old and dangerous houses in urban areas and improve housing conditions for poor families. The overwhelming majority of people living in shantytowns are

Fig. 2 Shantytown transformation 178 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure … low-income and poor groups and it is difficult for them to improve their living conditions in a short time. However, shantytown transformation projects can solve this problem well. It is aimed at improving the living conditions of people and perfecting the urban function and environment. The guaranteed placement for shantytowns has been carried out and the standard of placement generally reached more than 45 m2, which can ensure that the living standard of the masses can be improved obviously after the transformation. The ministry of housing and urban-rural construction statistics show that China has carried out large-scale shantytown transformation in the past few years. About 50 million m2 of shantytowns have been transformed and the housing conditions of nearly 1 million poor families have been improved. The shantytown transformation has effectively solved the housing difficulties of low-income families, which reflects social fairness and justice; it promotes and perfects the urban function and improves the urban backwardness; It optimizes the allocation of land resources and promote rational use of land; It increases social employment and promotes the adjustment of industrial structure; It also promotes the social harmony.

1.3 Deep Pit Hotel

At present, hotels in our country are in a large quantity and there are many kinds of them. To make full use of the existing resources, Deep Pit Hotel (Fig. 3)beginsto appear. It is constructed from a deep pit which has a large upper and lower height difference and has been abandoned. It has underwater scene suites, hanging gardens blending with natural resources in the cliff’s walls, spectacular waterfall coming straight down from the same height, steel structure buildings which are resistant to

Fig. 3 Deep Pit Hotel 1 Construction of Residential Projects in China 179 class 9 earthquakes and built like building blocks and so on. Each building is famous for its unique architecture and wonder of the landscape. It includes three levels on the ground, fourteen levels underground and two levels underwater, which is the lowest hotel in the world at present. All rooms in the hotel will have a patio where you can see the 100-m waterfall directly opposite. Next to the waterfall is a viewing platform similar to the suspended transparent glass viewing gallery of the grand canyon national park in Colorado. The visitors can overlook the full view of the pit and experience the wonderful feeling of “walking in the middle of the landscape, like walking in the picture. As a global architecture problem, it is unprecedented whether the use of underground space, geological examination and research or the use management after construction and there is no experience to be followed especially the construction technical problems such as the ﬁre protection, waterproof, earthquake resistance and so on. Finally, these problems have been solved one by one and the Deep Pit Hotel is established successfully.

2 Construction of Ofﬁce and Commercial Projects in China

With the rapid development of modern economy, various commercial buildings serving the economic development have achieved a great degree of innovation and development in various aspects. Re-building old city projects have been implemented in all major regions and have achieved good effects. Each city presents a new look. The commercial construction in new urban district has made more progress on the basis of the previous construction. People’s demand for leisure, entertainment, business and shopping is fully satisﬁed. At the same time, the city is full of vitality and vigor. Great changes have taken place in the new administrative center, Center Business district and high-tech industrial zone such as the structure, function and construction. The structure is more original, which reﬂects the city’s features; the function is more complicated in which you can not only complete various business activities but also do some entertainment, shopping and exercise, which can gradually form a humanistic community with a strong cultural atmosphere.

2.1 Shanghai Tower

Shanghai Tower (Fig. 4), with a building body of 118 floors and a total height of 632 m, is the tallest building in China and the third tallest building in the world. Its design height exceeds the nearby Shanghai World Financial Center. Its main function is to handle official business as well as the function such as exhibition, hotel, recreation, business and so on. There are 21 air lobbies made up of double-skin facades and they have a panoramic view of the city providing people with comfortable offices and social leisure space and the supporting services for daily life. Its location is very convenient and it is connected to the World Financial Center, Jin Mao Tower and 180 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

Fig. 4 Shanghai Tower

International Financial Centre. The elevator is very fast and it adopts the design of pressured tank and a converter that can generate electricity, which can reduce the energy consumption by 30%. It is the fastest elevator in the world. Shanghai Tower achieved the engineer’s bold imagination of a vertical city.

2.2 CITIC Tower

The concept of CITIC Tower (Fig. 5) comes from the traditional Chinese sacrificial vessel-a wine goblet, which has the oriental culture of round outside but square inside as well as the Earth was square and the Heaven was round. The total height of the building is 528 m and the building floors are 108 levels on the ground and 8 floors underground (without the interlayer). The total construction area is 437,000 m2, which can accommodate 12,000 people. It is a ultra-high-rise building of life- cycle BIM management. There are no pillars inside it and the design and operation are by using the intelligent cloud and the internet of things technology. It is the tallest building in the world fortified by 8-degree earthquake intensity, the world’s first ultra-high-rise building that can be automatically adjusted and automatically wetted and the world’s first building with the “ultra white glass double hollow” glass curtain wall more than 500 m. It has broken many world records. For example, it is an ultra-high-rise building with the largest number of underground floors in the world and the largest elevator length and height and so on. 3 The Construction of New Energy Projects in China 181

Fig. 5 CITIC Tower

3 The Construction of New Energy Projects in China

Recalling five years hard working in China’s energy field, from the planning of cutting excessive coal capacity to the PV leader’s plan and from the construction of UHV transmission grid to the discovery of combustible ice, and then to the cooperation with the construction of “One Belt and One Road”, our country is keeping pace with the new era of cleanliness, low carbon, safety and efficiency. According to the statistics of China’s energy consumption in 2016, compared with 2012, coal consumption decreased by 6.5% while clean energy consumption increased by 5.2%. In addition, the number of power installed capacity of renewable energy increased by 6.2% and the energy consumption of GDP decreased by 17.9%. At the same time, China’s energy sector has tackled a series of world-wide technological challenges such as key technologies and cutting-edge technologies. The development of energy in China has exerted a significant influence on the world economic development. In the field of hydropower, it solves the worldwide problems of the construction of high dam and the large underground caverns and the installation of large hydropower units; in the field of thermal power, the clean and efficient coal-fired power generation technology has been implemented; In the field of power grids, UHV transmission 182 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure … networks and flexible AC and DC transmission technologies are leading the world; In the field of nuclear power, “Hualong-1” has come out globally and has complete Chinese proprietary rights; In the field of renewable energy, shale gas, combustible ice, hydrogen fuel cells and other cutting-edge technology have achieved a breakthrough. In the future, China will further build a new structure of cleanliness, low carbon, safety and efficiency and a new pattern of harmonious development between man and nature. By 2035, all of China’s incremental energy needs can be provided by clean energy. By 2050, China will fully complete its transformation into an energy supply source of clean energy [2].

3.1 The Overview of the Utilization and Development of Energy in China

1. An overview of the development of China’s wind energy

As an inexhaustible and low-cost green energy, wind energy can provide a stable power supply for economic growth while effectively alleviating air pollution, water pollution and global warming and other problems. With the global energy crisis and the increasingly serious environmental crisis, the development of wind power received widespread concern around the world. During the “12th Five-Year Plan” (2011–2015), the annual generation of wind power in China increased from 49.4 billion kWh to 185.1 billion kWh, with an annual growth rate of 30%. And the average utilization of wind power equipment was 1891 h per year. In 2016, the wind power generation capacity was 211.3 billion kWh and the wind power utilization hours was 1742 h, an increase of 19% over the same period of last year. In the ﬁrst half of 2017, China’s wind power generation capacity increased by 6.01 million kilowatts and continued to maintain steady growth. By the end of June, the cumulative grid-connected capacity reached 154 million kilowatts, an increase of 12% over the same period of previous year; The wind power generation capacity was 149 billion kWh, an increase of 21% over the same period of the last year; The average utilization hours of wind power equipment were 984 h, an increase of 67 h over the same period of the last year. At present, China has become the world’s largest wind power. It is estimated that by 2020, the wind power installed capacity in China will have reached 250 million kilowatts. And its annual power generation will be equivalent to 13 Three Gorges hydroelectric power stations, 200 large-scale thermal power plants, reaching 420 billion kWh [3]. 2. The Offshore Giant Wind Turbine in China The giant offshore wind turbine (the Wind Turbine SL5000) in China is the largest offshore wind turbine in the world (Fig. 6). It has been independently commissioned by China from the design of the drawings to the entire process of the assembly of components. And it has been put into operation and this technology ranks the ﬁrst in the world. Its huge chassis can even allow helicopters to take off and land and the 3 The Construction of New Energy Projects in China 183

Fig. 6 The giant offshore wind turbine height of the rotor is more than 40 ﬂoors. The length of the propeller blades is 128 m long. The shell is FRP material, which can reduce weight and hardness requirements of the bearings is 5 times of that of the stainless steel chopping knife. The detection head of the detection of hardness is ruby making the error range of the bearing within 0.8 microns, which is equivalent to one twentieth of that of a normal adult’s hair. Compared with land, it is more difﬁcult to install the fan on the sea and the wind is more stable, with a little change in the direction of the wind so that it can complete the task of continuous power generation. The Wind Turbine SL5000 will become the main type of offshore wind power in China even in the world in the future and become a milestone of mankind in wind energy development.

3.2 The Use and Development of Nuclear Energy in China

1. An overview of the development of nuclear energy in China

Nuclear energy is a clean, safe and efficient green energy that promotes the sustainable development of low carbon. China has entered a new era of large-scale nuclear power development and injected strong momentum into the world’s nuclear power development. At present, there are 36 nuclear power units in operation in mainland China, 20 units under construction, with a total installed capacity of 56.955 million kilowatts. It is estimated that by 2020, the nuclear power operation in China and the installed capacity under construction will reach 88 million kilowatts. In the new era, the development of nuclear power in China has attracted worldwide attention. The “Hualong-1” nuclear power technology experiment with completely independent intellectual property rights has been successfully tested. The nuclear power industry in China has been able to manufacture and research and develop the top-level design 184 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure … independently. During the “13th Five-Year Plan” 2016–2020), China will advance in strengthening basic capabilities, enhancing industrial efficiency, improving safety system and deepening exchanges and cooperation and other aspects [4]. 2. “Hualong-1” nuclear power plant “Hualong-1”(Fig. 7)is an advanced 1 million kilowatt-class PWR nuclear power technology researched and developed independently by China based on the experience feedback from Fukushima nuclear accident and the latest global safety requirements. Passing the “type test” and all the indicators met and surpassed the design requirements, marking that the independent research and development of China’s “Hualong- 1” nuclear power technology succeeded. Nuclear power technology requires that the bearing vibration shouldn’t be higher than 50 microns and the “type test” results showed that the minimum part of the first generation in “Hualong-1” nuclear power project was only 3.9 microns and all other parts of the vibration was far below the design requirements. Hualong-1, as the main brand of “Going Global” in the field of nuclear power in China, has implemented innovative design in many aspects such as calculation method, structural arrangement and structural materials. It adopts the self-developed monolithic stator structure of electromagnetic calculation program insulation system and other technologies to generate electricity and the efficiency of the machine reached 99%. The reactor core adopts 177 fuel assemblies of single stack arrangement, multiple redundant safety systems and double containment, which comprehensively implement the design concept of “defense in depth” and improves the prevention and control of serious accidents mitigation measures. The safety indicators and technical standards have reached the international advanced level of third-generation nuclear power technology, with completely independent intellectual property rights. “Hualong-1” has embraced the wisdom and efforts of China’s nuclear power builders for decades and realized the unification of the advancement and maturity, the combination of active and passive activity, the balance of safety and economy and the international competitiveness.

Fig. 7 “Hualong-1” 3 The Construction of New Energy Projects in China 185

3.3 The Development and Utilization of UHV Power Grid in China

Since 2012, China’s power grid industry has been steadfastly accelerating the construction of a smart grid with UHV backbone network (Fig. 8), which has greatly promoted social and economic development. In 2012, there were only three UHV projects operating in China and in 2017, there are 16 UHV projects with “eight cross roads and eight straight roads” putting into practice. Whether in terms of transmission distance or capacity, China Power Grid is constantly surpassing the world record. Among them, UHV projects with “four crosses and four straightness” have been included in the action plan for air pollution prevention and control in China and seven UHV projects have been put into operation except for the ± 800 kV UHVDC project in Shanghai Temple-Shandong, which is under construction. At present, Changji-Guquan ± 1100 kV HVDC transmission project under construction is the UHV transmission project with the world’s longest transmission distance, the largest transmission capacity, the highest voltage level and the most advanced technical level. By 2016, the cumulative transmission capacity of UHV transmission projects has exceeded 615 billion kWh and 66,000 small and medium-sized cities and towns have achieved full coverage of power grid upgrading, beneﬁting over 15.6 million people. 2554 smart substations have been built and renovated. The installed capacity of smart meters reached 430 million with a coverage rate of 97% [5]. The development of smart grids has reached the international advanced level. In order to ensure a safer, more economical and cleaner supply of sustainable power, China’s power grid industry has continuously increased its investment in the construction of China’s power grid and successively established the Sichuan-Tibet Power Grid

Fig. 8 UHV power grid 186 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

Networking Project, the third channel in Sichuan-Chongqing and the second path in Xinjiang and Northwest Networks Channel and a large number of other inter- provincial transmission projects. It has built the world’s leading level of smart grid project such as the multi-end ﬂexible DC and joint demonstration project of Zhang- bei scenery storage and transmission. Over the past ﬁve years, China’s power grid has been continuously supplying power in a safe and stable manner under the background of the continuous increase in electricity consumption, the scale of the power grid and the growing number of the equipment and the frequent occurrence of natural disasters. China has become the only one in the world that hasn’t suffered a large-scale power outage.

3.4 The Hydrogen Fuel Cell in China

Hydrogen is now the most common fuel in fuel cells and the most important application is hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which has the advantages of long mileage, high hydrogenation speed and the features of electric vehicles, making hydrogen fuel cells have a great advantage in competition in the new energy automotive industry in the future. At present, there are seven hydrogen refueling stations in China: two in Bei- jing, two in Shanghai and one in Guangzhou and Shenzhen and Yutong Motor has built one by itself. 2017 is the first year of hydrogen fuel cell technology in China and the world’s first hydrogen fuel cell tram (Fig. 9) was officially launched in China in this year. The largest passenger capacity of the entire vehicle is 336 and it takes only 15 min for rapid hydrogenation. It can drive continuously for more than 40 km and the high speed is 70 km per h. It is estimated that the scale of China’s fuel cell

Fig. 9 The world’s ﬁrst hydrogen fuel cell tram 3 The Construction of New Energy Projects in China 187 vehicles will have reached 1 million by 2030 [6]. The discovery and utilization of clean energy in China have come to the forefront of the world. China truly achieves social innovation and makes contributions to the great development of the world.

4 Construction of Transportation Projects in China

Since 2012, the transportation in China has been astonishing the world and we embrace the world with the opportunity of the development of the “One Belt and Road” and make “Made in China” come to the world. China has achieved the transformation from the “big transportation country” to the “transportation power”. The Chinese Bridge, Chinese Road, Chinese cars, and Chinese ports are miraculous projects that allow the world to see “China power.” It is estimated that by 2020, China will have basically built a modern comprehensive transportation system that is safe and convenient, smooth and efﬁcient, green and intelligent.

4.1 Chinese Bridge

Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge (Fig. 10) is the world’s longest cross-sea bridge with the longest overall span, the longest bridge steel structure and the longest sea- crossing tunnels, which creates a number of miracles in the ﬁeld of bridge construction in the world. The British “Guardian” evaluated it as “one of the seven wonders of the New World”. “The Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge, which is 55 km long and consists of cross-sea bridges and undersea tunnels, starts on Lantau Island, Hong Kong and crosses the Pearl River Mouth via Tai O. It is ﬁnally divided into Y-shape with one end connected to Zhuhai and the other end connected to Macao. Hong

Fig. 10 Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge 188 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge is connected with Beijing-Zhuhai-Macao speedway Guangzhou-Zhuhai west line and it is under construction, Beijing-Zhuhai speedway in Zhuhai, the western coastal speedway, Jiangzhu speedway and Gaolan Port speedway and other main roads, which connects the whole Pearl River West Bank and even Pan-Triangular area. It is expected to be open to trafﬁc by the end of 2017 or 2018, the time of driving from Hong Kong to Zhuhai will be reduced from the current 3 h to half an hour or more. The Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge not only connects Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao but also will be a shining economic growth pole following the Tokyo Bay Area, the New York Bay Area and the San Francisco Bay Area on the map of the world economy due to its total area of 56,000 square km [7]. In addition to Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge, China’s world-class sea- crossing bridges include the Hangzhou Bay Bridge, the Zhoushan Sea-crossing Bridge, the Xiamen-Zhangdao Sea-crossing Bridge, the Pingtan Strait Bridge and the Qingdao Sea-crossing Bridge and so on. China’s cross-river bridge is also surpassing the world record. The Dan Kunt Bridge is the world’s longest bridge and the Dashengguan Changjiang River Bridge is the world’s fastest-designed railway bridge. There is also a new and unique modern bridge in China’s western mountain such as Guozigou Bridge, Duck Chi River Bridge, Shanghai Yangtze River Bridge, Qingshuihe River Bridge and Puro Bridge, which is making China’s economy even more unblocked. And they are also reshaping the new signs of China’s economic geography and outline a new map of the operational efﬁciency of China’s economy.

4.2 Chinese Road

1. The Highway

The total length of China’s highways (Fig. 11) is 131,000 km, ranking the ﬁrst in the world in terms of the length. 2. Chinese Railway By 2017, the total length of China’s high-speed railways (Fig. 12) will have reached 22,000 km, surpassing the total number of high-speed railways from the second to tenth countries. The “eight vertical and eight horizontal” grand blueprint of Chinese high-speed railway networks is clearly outlined. It is estimated that by 2020, the total mileage of Chinese high-speed railways will be raised to 30,000 km, covering over 80% of the big cities in China. Chinese high-speed railways are world-famous: Hainan Island high-speed rail is the world’s ﬁrst high-speed rail around the island; Lanxin high-speed rail can make you have an overall view of the western style; Beijing-Tianjin high-speed rail can make you go around the city in 30 min; Jingguang High Speed Rail is the world’s longest operation mileage with a mileage of 2,294 km, which can even make people experience the feeling of alternating seasons in 8 h. 4 Construction of Transportation Projects in China 189

Fig. 11 The total length of China’s highways

Fig. 12 China’s high-speed railways

China has become the longest-running high-speed railway, the fastest running speed, the most complete science and technology and the largest scale under construction in the world. The “Century Railway” set up by 226 tunnels and 396 bridges—the Lanzhou- Chongqing Railway (Fig. 13) was formally completed. The total mileage of the Lanzhou-Chongqing railway was 850 km and it crossed the Qinling Mountains located 3000 m above the sea level. The geological conditions along the route were 190 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

Fig. 13 the Lanzhou-Chongqing Railway

complicated and rugged. In addition, Hole No.2 tunnel in Huma mountain is considered a “gate of hell” and the construction difficulty is the biggest in the history of railway construction in China. In June 2017, Hu Ma mountain tunnel was open to traffic. In the past, it took 22 h by highway and now it just takes 6 h. Lanzhou- Chongqing railway becomes the third railway artery following Beijing-Guangzhou line, the Beijing-Shanghai line to cross China from north to south. The China-Europe train starting from the southwestern region also passes through here meaning that the international shipping time will save 11 h [8]. 3. The China-Europe Train Due to its advantages of safety, efficiency, environmental friendliness and low influence by the natural environment, the China-Europe train (Fig. 14) has become the main way of land transport in international logistics. Since the opening of the China- Europe train on July 18, 2013, there were three corridors of East, Middle and West that have been paved, with a cumulative starting of about 300 trains. In 2015, there were 156 trains with a total value of 721 million dollars and a total cargo volume of 62,800 tons covering three-quarters of China and 108 overseas cities in 20 countries. In 2016, the China-Europe train opened 200 trains to achieve the goal of three trains to go and three trains to return per week. Now it basically reaches 1 train a day, 1000 km a day and the entire transportation time is about 12 days. The China-Europe trains are still constantly deepening construction. In the “One Belt and One Road” strategy, it plays an important role in the transformation of the Silk Road from original “trade road” to an “economic belt” in which industry and population can gather together. The “Yiwu-Xinjiang-Europe” train (Fig. 15) is currently the longest line of transport routes and passing through the country with the largest number. It departs from 4 Construction of Transportation Projects in China 191

Fig. 14 China-Europe train

Fig. 15 “Yiwu-Xinjiang-Europe” train

Yiwu in China and exits at the Alashankou Port in Xinjiang. It has a total length of 13,000 km and passes through eight countries such as China, Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Poland, Germany, France, Spain, almost crossing the Eurasian continent. Now it takes less than 5 days from Yiwu to Alashankou, which reduces by 3–4 days than before and the transportation costs reduced by about one-third. It is the focus of “the One Belt and One Road” strategy and strengthens the connection between China’s eastern coast and Central Asia and Europe. 192 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

4.3 Chinese Port

The port is an important strategic pivot point and hub and a sign of measuring the overall national strength of a country. At present, at the top ten super-ports measured by its handling capacity in the world, there are seven from China. China has provided the world with more than 80% of the container harbor lifting equipment covering 99 countries and regions. “Chinese Port” has become a beautiful “Chinese business card”. Yangshan Deepwater Port (Fig. 16), located in Shanghai, is the largest full- automatic container terminal in the world with a total investment of over 70 billion yuan. It is expected to be completed in 2017. Then, the annual handling capacity of Shanghai Yangshan Port will exceed 40 million standard boxes, which is one tenth of the current handling capacity of the total ports in the world [9]. And each time the port will reduce the discharge of pollutants by 95% and”Made in China” is carrying the entire world. Beijing New International Airport (Fig. 17)is built in Beijing. It includes 7 run- ways and about 1.4 million m2 of terminal building under construction. The project investment is about 80 billion yuan. It is estimated that the ﬁrst phase of the new airport will be completed in 2019, that is to say, the new airport North Terminal will meet the annual throughput of 45 million passengers. By 2025, the annual passenger throughput will have been 72 million or more. And the annual throughput of cargo and postage will have reached 2 million tons and the aim of 620,000 ﬂights to take off and land.

Fig. 16 Yangshan Deepwater Port 5 The Construction of Water Conservancy and Environmental Protection Projects 193

Fig. 17 Beijing New International Airport

5 The Construction of Water Conservancy and Environmental Protection Projects

Water is the source of life, the key to production and the foundation of ecology while the construction of water conservancy project is a long and systematic project. During the “12th Five-Year Plan” (2010–2015), water conservancy investment was 1.8 trillion yuan with an average annual growth rate of over 20%, and the investment of the central government increased from 293.4 billion yuan to 800 billion yuan. In the process of water conservancy construction, whether in the aspects of the preliminary project planning, project construction or the post-project maintenance, China will ensure the long-term and high-efficient results of construction project operation while improving the speed and quality of projects construction. Tens of thousands of reservoirs have been built on the rivers, with a total storage capacity of 6 trillion m3, which provides a powerful guarantee for a better and faster economic and social development. 1. A Total of Five Water Treatment A total of five water treatment (Fig. 18) refers to the “governance of sewage, flood control, waterlogging, water supply and water conservation”. A total of five water treatment can not only expand investment and promote transformation but also improve the environment and bring convenience to people. The value of water culture is to let people know how to cherish water and love water. In Zhejiang Province, through the implementation of the project of “A Total of Five Water Treatment”, 130000 km of river are changing with each passing day, eliminating 6,500 km of trash river and completing 100 million m3 of annual dredging task [10]. Despite the remarkable results of water treatment, water treatment is endless. This project realizes the aim 194 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

Fig. 18 4G and 5G that the Castle Peak and the green water are still in. Focusing on the aim of water treatment, we can achieve the hope that man are in harmony with the nature and building a beautiful China. 2. TIBET WATER NETRY The Project of TEBET WATER NETRY (Fig. 19) is to divert water from Tibet’s Brahmaputra to Xinjiang and it is also the longest channel in the world. Speciﬁcally, it is a water network formed by the Brahmaputra, Nu Rive, Lancang River, Jinsha River, Xiangjide River, Golmud River, Naren Gulle, Timuric River and the Milano River through the artiﬁcial dam to optimize the allocation of water resources in order

Fig. 19 Guangzhou Opera House 5 The Construction of Water Conservancy and Environmental Protection Projects 195 to ease the occurrence of droughts and ﬂoods in Southeast Asia and other regions and to develop the resources in Qaidam Basin and Tarim Basin (equivalent to the French area). The total length of the man-made canals and diversion tunnels from the Brahmaputra to the water network hub of the Milan River is about 1300 km, which can collect 100 billion meters water from Tibet to Xinjiang. The amount of the generation from the diversion power station group formed in Xiang De River, the Golmud River and the Milano River is 13.48 million kilowatts, which are equivalent to the power generation of 3.5 Three Gorges Hydropower Stations. It can provide solutions to the survival problems of people in western China and Asia. The delivery of more than 10 billion tons of water to the Taklamakan Desert has played an important role in the construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the realization of “China Dream” as soon as possible.

6 Construction of Post and Telecommunications Projects in China

In recent years, communication technology, communication means and communication equipment have grown rapidly and the communication industry has become one of the fastest growing industries in the world. In China, benefiting from the the emphasis on the government and public safety and increasing large activities brought by rapid economic development, China’s private network communication industry has made rapid progress. China Mobile, China Telecom and China Unicom, as the three largest telecom operators in China, have become very powerful after years of development and growth. At the 3rd meeting of the 12th National People’s Congress on March 5, 2015, Premier Li keqiang has proposed the “Internet plus” action plan for the first time in his government work report to promote the integration of mobile Internet, cloud computing, big data, Internet of things and other modern manufacturing industries, boost the healthy development of electronic commerce, industrial internet and internet finance and guide Internet enterprises to expand international market. At present, Internet pluses communication has instant messaging. Almost everyone uses instant messaging App for voice, text and even video communication. By 2017, there has been already 751 million Internet users in China, more than 30% compared with 2012, ranking first in the world. Seeing from the digital scale, China has become a true network power having the world’s largest Internet users and the most abundant mobile network applications.

6.1 The 4G, 5G Network

4G and 5G (Fig. 20) are the abbreviations of the fourth-generation and ﬁfth- generation mobile communication technologies. The 4G system can be downloaded 196 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure …

Fig. 20 World Exposition Museum at 100Mbps and the speed of uploading can also reach 20 Mbp. It can meet almost all users’ requirements for wireless services. For the price that users pay most attention to, the 4G network are comparable with fixed broadband network and the billing mode is more flexible so the users can determine the required services based on their own needs. China has built the largest 4G exquisite network in the world, built up 2.99 million base stations and has 890 million users. In addition, China Mobile officially launched the research and development of 5G network in 2012 and has formed a set of 5G technology system. They have carried out the development and verification of 3.5 GHz prototype, the development and testing of high frequency communication prototype, concept verification of 5G system, etc. The arrival of 5G means that we will usher in an era of internet of everything. 4G network brings us an unblocked information highway while 5G network brings us an immersive experience [11].

6.2 Express Delivery Industry

With the rise and rapid development of e-commerce, shopping online starts to be one of the main patterns of consumption in China society. E-commerce enterprises gradually expand and layout from first and second tiered cities to third and fourth tiered cities even the rural market. The express delivery industry, which is an important supporting industry for shopping online, has also developed rapidly under the promotion of the continuous growth of the market of shopping online. The Chinese express delivery industry actively grabs the “Internet +” strategic opportunity and speeds up its integration into the construction of modern comprehensive transportation system, thus forming a more comprehensive basic service network. Under the active support of government departments, postal service and express delivery enterprises have basically realize two major achievements:”big network” and “big brand”. There are 183,000 express service outlets throughout the urban and rural areas, more than 200 under construction or newly built express logistics park, more than 200,000 main line vehicles, three autonomous airlines, 81 cargo planes of operation and six 6 Construction of Post and Telecommunications Projects in China 197 brand express enterprises whose annual turnover exceeds 30 billion yuan. At the same time, electronic waybill, automatic sorting and intelligent terminal technology are widely used and innovative modes such as smart express box and express delivery public service station are constantly emerging. In 2016, the annual number of transaction of China’s express delivery industry has exceeded 30 billion, reaching 31.28 billion, with year-on-year growth of 51.4%, and the increments of express delivery industry reached 10.61 billion. The revenue of express delivery industry completed 397.44 billion yuan, with year-on-year growth of 43.5%. The average daily handling capacity of the express delivery reached 85.71 million units, with the highest daily handling capacity exceeding 250 million. The daily average daily service amount exceeds 170 million and the per express usage is nearly 23 [12]. Since 2008, every year there is a special festival in our country called “Double 11”, namely every year on November 11. It takes the electronic commerce as a represen- tative and it is a large-scale shopping promotion carnival rising in the whole of China. Some large e-commerce websites typically take advantage of this opportunity to do some large sales promotion activity in order to improve sales amount. On Novem- ber 11, 2017, throughout the day the total turnover (GMV) of the T-mall’s double 11 world carnival reached 168.2 billion yuan and mobile transactions accounted for 90%, which produce 812 million logistics orders covering more than 220 countries and regions. The ways of payment are online payment, namely electronic transaction parties, including customers, manufacturers, and financial institutions, use the way of safe electronic payment to carry out monetary payment and fund flow through the network. It has advantages of convenience, speed, efficiency and economy. As long as the user has an Internet PC, the user can complete the entire payment process in a very short time without leaving home. The payment is only a few dozen of the traditional payment, even a few hundredths. Network payment can completely break the limits of time and space and can meet 24/7 work patterns, that is to say seven days a week, 24 h a day. At present, network payment has become a pervasive payment method for people in China.

7 Constructions of Cultural and Sports Projects in China

As one of the main growth drivers of our economy after entering the new normal, the culture industry is deeply supported by the government and the capital is inclined and its development momentum is very strong. According to the planning requirement, by the end of the 13th five-year plan, the cultural industry will have become a pillar industry of the national economy. At present, our country is vigorously pushing forward the construction of a culturally strong country and is taking every effort to achieve cultural progress and create new cultural achievements on the development path of socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. We are confident in our culture and carry out “culture+” strategy to promote creative transformation and innovative development of traditional Chinese culture. We also inherit revolutionary culture and develop advanced culture to meet people’s new expectations of a better life. We 198 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure … provide high-quality, rich, substantial and high-end cultural products and achievements to bring people with rich and healthy spiritual food. The cultural industry is experiencing rapid development and the industrial chain is also experiencing historic development opportunities, including cultural manufacturing, cultural wholesale and retail, cultural services and so on. In addition, as the cultural industry is growing, the international influence has also increased dramatically. In 2013, the added value of China’s cultural industry was 2135.1 billion yuan, which is 3.63% of GDP. In 2014, the added value of China’s cultural industry was 2394 billion yuan, which was 3.76% of GDP, with year-on-year growth of 12.1%. In 2015, the added value of China’s cultural industry reached 2582.9 billion yuan, 21.0% growth from 2013 and the average annual growth was 10.0%, 2.3 percentage points higher than the current GDP growth rate of the same period. In terms of funding in 2015, the annual national cultural enterprise cost was 68.297 billion yuan, an increase of 9.953 billion yuan over the previous year and the growth rate was 17.1%, 7.1 percentage points higher than the previous year. Moreover, The per capita cultural expenditure of the country was 49.68 yuan, an increase of 7.03 yuan from the previous year and the growth rate was 16.5% [13].

7.1 Guangzhou Opera House

Guangzhou Opera House (Fig. 21) is located in huacheng square, Tianhe district, Guangzhou and it is one of the landmark buildings on the new central axis of Guangzhou and the most advanced, perfect and largest comprehensive performing arts center in south China. It contrasts with the modern urban image of the surrounding high-rise buildings, whose main body is the “double gravel” of black, white and grey tones. The construction area is 73,000 m2 and the total height of the building

Fig. 21 Sharing bicycle 7 Constructions of Cultural and Sports Projects in China 199 is 43.1 m. There are three rehearsal rooms (opera rehearsal hall, ballet rehearsal hall and symphony rehearsal hall) to meet the needs of various performances. Its design breaks through the structural features of the past architecture, and the combination of dots, lines and faces gives the audience endless imagination space, which provides the most perfect audio-visual effect for the audience. It has average 340 appearances a year. By far, Guangzhou Opera House has successfully hired several world-famous artists to become the contract artists such as the world’s ﬁrst Chinese cellist yo-yo ma, the world’s ﬁrst opera conductor Daniel Oren, Roman Opera director Marty, the world command master Lorraine Maazel, Chinese command master Mu-hai Tang, etc.

7.2 World Exposition Museum

World Exposition Museum (Fig. 22) is located in the center of Shanghai Huangpu river and its gross floor area is 46,550 m2. There are three exhibition halls in order to show its history of more than 150 years, excellent works of all the previous world exposition and the content of the bidding, participation and management of it and etc. It is the only official museum and official documentation center of the international exhibition bureau jointly constructed by the Shanghai municipal government and the international exhibition bureau, having the characteristics of internationalism, uniqueness, exclusiveness and sustainability. It is not only the first real international museum in China but also the only one museum in the world to fully display the world exposition. It will be a creative design museum and international academic exchange center of “international integration, first-class Asian, Shanghai complementary and distinctive features”. Ordinary visitors need not travel around the world to feel the history of the world exposition for more than 150 years and they can achieve it in Shanghai and learn about the host cities of previous world exposition.

7.3 The Sharing Bicycle

The Sharing bicycle (Fig. 23) refers to a king of bicycle bike sharing service provided by enterprises in campus, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial area and public service area. It is a kind of time-sharing leasing model and a new kind of sharing economy. The fast pace of society also speeds up the pace of life for everyone and there is little time for exercise or fitness after work. The sharing bicycle is very good way to solve the problem. Users can travel healthily every day and it is very easy to operate. It doesn’t need to handle a card and the process of locating, borrowing, locking and paying can be completed on the phone. In addition, cycling is very convenient. You can walk around the street flexibly. It can also reduce the travel of other cars in order to ease traffic congestion phenomenon and reduce the air pollution. It is green, healthy, low-carbon and environmentally friendly. At 200 10 Development in Chinese Infrastructure … the same time, it enhances the quality of citizens, promotes the transformation and upgrading of the traditional industry of bicycle, boosts the development of sharing economy and makes the connection between people and city closer. By 2017, ofo sharing bicycles have been launched in 150 cities around the world, proving more than 2 billion travels for hundreds of millions of users. Mocar has provided service for millions of users in more than 150 cities at home and abroad and the number of vehicles put into practice has exceeded 6 million, providing more than 25 million rides per day [14].

References

1. The People’s Daily. 2017. The Per Capita Housing Area of Chinese Residents is 40.8 Square Meters. 2. Polaris Power Grid. 2017. China Energy: New Era, New Journey, New Pattern. 3. Polaris Power Grid. 2017. The Industry Development and Forecast Analysis of China wind power from 2017–2021. 4. China News. 2017. International Symposium on Materials and Safety Reliability of Nuclear Power Plants was held in Shenyang. 5. Polaris Power Grid. 2017. The Record of Electric Protection Work of State Grid Corporation of China in the National Congress of the Communist Party of China. 6. China News. 2017. The World’s First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Tram Runs in Tangshan. 7. Science and Technology Daily. 2017. The Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Has Become the World’s Longest Cross-sea Bridege. 8. CCTV, TV Documentary, Brilliant Chinese, Chapter 1: China Dream. 9. Xinhunet. 2017. Yangshan Deepwater Port. 10. China Government. 2017. Zhejiang: A Total of Five Water Treatment, Solving the Problem of Development. 11. Economic Daily. 2017. China Mobile: Leading the World is not a Dream. 12. China News. 2016. The Annual Delivery Volume of China’s Express Delivery Exceeded 30 billion pieces Ranking the First in the World in 2016. 13. Oriental Wealth. 2017. There are Five New Trends in the Rapid Development of Cultural Industry. 14. ZG News. 2017. Waiting for the Spring of the Sharing Bicycle. Index

A Nuclear plant, 73, 121, 122 Administrative center, 42–45, 160 Agriculture, 4–7, 34, 51, 73, 118, 124, 163 O Air transportation, 87, 94–96 Ofﬁce building, 37

C P Central Business District (CBD), 46–49 Petroleum, 55–57, 66 Clean energy, 66 Petroleum industry, 56 Coal, 4, 7, 13, 55–62, 65, 66, 69–72, 75, 76, Pipeline, 10, 62, 63, 66, 92–94, 102, 125, 127, 85, 86, 89, 91, 113, 164, 165 128, 166, 170 Culture construction, 147 Ports, 4, 9, 10, 88–93, 95, 96, 124, 157 Public sports, 155–157, 160, 161 D Desertiﬁcation, 116, 117 R Railway, 4–7, 10, 11, 59, 82–86, 129, 134, E 148, 165 Electric power, 10, 61, 63, 65, 66, 121, 123 Reclaimed water, 100, 103, 105, 107 Embankment, 120, 124–127, 130 Residential building, 13, 14, 17, 22–24, 29, 30 EMS, 137 S F Sewage treatment, 100–102 Five-Year Plan Outline, 113 Siheyuan, 14 Soil-water conservation, 116 G Solar energy, 70, 71 GDP, 37, 47, 60, 165 South-north Water Transmission Project, 118 Stage, 3–6, 10, 13, 20, 21, 23, 29, 56, 61, 62, H 65, 67, 68, 75, 76, 81, 82, 92, 95, 120, High-speed railway, 84–87, 165 123, 133, 141, 145, 169, 173 High-tech, 2, 3, 29, 49–53, 67, 73, 172 Highway, 4, 6, 7, 79–82, 134, 165 T Hydropower station, 4–6, 118, 119, 121, 123 Telecommunication, 4, 5, 133, 135–140, 163, 166 N Three Gorges Project, The, 118, 123 Natural gas, 56, 57, 61–63, 66, 72, 75, 88, 93, Tidal power, 68, 69 94, 163, 166

© Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 201 X. Qiu, China 40 Years Infrastructure Construction, Research Series on the Chinese Dream and China’s Development Path, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9558-1 202 Index

U Waste slag, 111 Urbanization, 24, 40, 41, 43, 101, 117 Wastewater, 101–105, 112, 114 Water transport, 87–90, 92, 120 W West to east gas transmission project, 93 Waste gas, 108 Wind resources, 67