Land use and Land cover change in the Churia-Tarai Region,

Submitted to: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation Rastrapati Churia Conservation program (RCCP) Coordination Unit Babarmahal,

by Motilal Ghimire, Ph.D

Acknowledgements

At the very outset, we express my heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Megh Bahadur Pandey, Joint Secretary/Coordinator, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Rastrapati Churia Conservation Programme (RCCP) Coordination Unit for granting us an opportunity to carry out this Project ―Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Churia-Tarai region‖. Also we sincerely extend out heartfelt thanks to Dr. Prem Paudel, for his initiative and sincere efforts in development of the project, arranging all logistic matters and giving valuable feedbacks at several stages of this Project. Our sincere gratitude goes to all staff of the RCCP for their cooperation and support in various ways to accomplish the Project. We also extend our heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Gokarna Jung Thapa, GIS officer, WWF, Nepal for providing us the satellite imageries as well printing maps and report for this Project. Last but not the least, we sincerely express our thanks to all the local people, who provided us information and various support during the field work.

Authors

Motilal Ghimire, Ph.D Laxmi Basnet

Table of contents Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 4 1. Background ...... 4 1.2. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 Chapter 2: Methods and Tools ...... 5 2.1. Imageries and map layers...... 5 2.2. Application of RS and GIS ...... 5 2.3. Land use and land cover mapping ...... 7 2.3.1. Definitions...... 8 2.3.2. Land use and land cover classification scheme ...... 8 2.3.3. Image classification for land use and land cover delineation...... 9 2.4. Field visit and ground truthing ...... 10 2.5. Definition of the Churia hills ...... 10 2.6. Study area...... 11 2.6.1. Physiography...... 11 2.6.2. Geology of the Churia hills ...... 14 2.6.3. Climate ...... 14 2.6.4 Demography ...... 15 2.6.5. Churia hills and the administrative unit ...... 15 Chapter 3: Land use and land cover pattern and change ...... 19 3.1. Land use land cover pattern, 1990/91 and 2010 ...... 19 3.2. Pathways of land use and land cover change (1990/91-2010)...... 24 3.3. Land use and land cover (2010) by slope ...... 26 3.4. Land use and land cover change (1990/91-2010) by slope ...... 27 3.5. Land use and land cover by districts, 2010 ...... 28 3.6. Land use and land cover change by districts ...... 28 Chapter 4: Drivers of land use and land cover change ...... 32 Chapter 5: Conclusions ...... 38 References ...... 39 APPENDIX-1 ...... 40 APPENDIX-2 ...... 49 APPENDIX-3 ...... 50 APPENDIX-3 ...... 51 APPENDIX-4 ...... 52

Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Background

Land use and land cover changes are widespread, accelerating, and significant processes driven by human actions but also producing changes that impact humans. These dynamics alter the availability of different biophysical resources including soil, vegetation, water, animal feed and others. Such phenomenon is no exception in the Churia-Tarai region of Nepal.

Human activities have altered the surface environment of Churia Hill and adjoining Indo-Gangetic parts of Nepal during the last five decades which witnessed multitude of events and developments like migration, deforestation, growth of infrastructures and settlement, urbanization and so on. One of the obvious manifestations is land use and land cover change, which affect the various ecosystems’ structure and function greatly. In recent years, plenty of serious resources, ecological and environmental problems have occurred in the Churia -Tarai region (here covers Churia Hills, Dun valleys, and Tarai). Churia hills are the most recent mountain system of the Himalayan orogeny and tectonically one of the most active mountains in the world (Gansser, 1964)

Churia hills characterize steep and dissected topography, which is underlain by highly deformed and complicated structure of sedimentary rocks (sandstone, mudstone, and conglomerates) (DMG, 2007). These hills receive greater amount and intensity of rainfall and experience frequent earthquake waves. Such biophysical conditions make watersheds of Churia-Tarai region extremely fragile and sensitive ecological environment to human disturbance.

At this backdrop, the impact of land use and land cover changes and use pattern of land resources in the Churia hills and adjoining Tarai has serious implications on the hazards and land degradation, and resource availability which have synergetic relationship with livelihood of the people living in the region. Land use and land cover change in Churia-Tarai region will play a pivotal role in the sustainability of the livelihood and future development and in explaining human response to development activities.

Yet it is still unclear to what extend land use and cover changes have occurred in the entire region over the last 20 years, and how these changes are driven by the socio-economic processes and what are the major pathways of these changes. In this context it is necessary to achieve the following objectives.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to examine land use and land cover change in the Churia-Tarai region in the last two decades, i.e., 1990/91-2010.

Specific objectives of study are to:

 establish historic and current information of land use and land cover to track the evolution of the major land use changes over the last 20 years;

 examine land use and land cover dynamics and their driving forces.

Chapter 2: Methods and Tools

2.1. Imageries and map layers

Landsat imageries of 1990/91 and 2010s procured from the WWW.Landsat.org in digital format were used for interpreting land use and land cover of the Churia – Tarai region (Figure 1). These imageries are described in detail in Table 2.1. Similarly, the topographic maps published between 1993 and 1998 at the scale of 1:25,000 by Department of Survey, GoN were used to verify and support the interpretation of land use and land cover types from the imageries.

In addition, recent high resolution imageries covering the study area provided by the Google Earth was also used for the purpose of ground truthing of the interpreted land use and covers types from the imageries.

Contour and spot height layers in GIS format digitized from the topographic maps (1: 25, 000, published in1993-1996) were procured from the Survey Department, Nepal. Digital elevation model was produced from these elevation layers and subsequently topographic parameter such as slope map was generated. A general physiographic division of the Churia-Tarai region was adapted from the LRMP’s physiographic map of Nepal, with little modification done by Ghimire et al (2007).

Geological maps at the scale of 1:125,000 produced by the Department of Mines and Geology, GoN in 2007 were scanned and digitized. These maps were used to describe the geological condition of the study area and examine the land use and land cover relationship. Boundaries of Village Development Committee (VDC) in GIS format were procured from the Survey Department. These maps were used for calculating the area of the Siwaliks in different VDCs and districts.

Table 1.LANDSAT imageries used in the study Imageries of 1990-1991 (LANDSAT TM, Band 1,2,3,4, 5 and 7) Resolution 28.5m S.N Path Row Date of pass Source/Provided by 1 139 42 24.11.1991 www.landsat.org 2 140 42 17.12.1991 3 140 41 17.12.1991 4 141 41 21.12.1990 5 142 41 26.12.1991 6 143 41 17.11.1990 7 143 40 17.11.1990 8 144 40 08.11.1990 Imageries of 2010 (LANDSAT ETM, Band 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) Resolution 28.5m 1 139 41 04-02-2010 www.landsat.org 2 143 40 04-02-2010 3 139 42 04-02-2010 4 140 41 04-02-2010 5 142 41 04-02-2010 6 143 41 04-02-2010 7 144 40 04-02-2010 8 144 41 04-02-2010 Note: Landsat ETM has 8 bands; however, in this study only seven bands were used.

2.2. Application of RS and GIS

As per study’s objective, RS and GIS techniques were employed for spatial data generation, integration, update and analysis. These data pertained to topography, geology, and land use and land cover. Remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring information (spectral, spatial and temporal) on material objects, areas or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device from measurements made at a distance without coming into physical contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation. Remote sensing processes involve interactions between electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and the targets of interest, which are recorded or measured by sensors on board satellites or aircraft. The energy recorded is reflected or emitted or back scattered by the targets in a wide range of electro-magnetic spectrum (EMS). The recorded energy is transformed into digital imagery, which forms the basis of earth’s surface information. Most of the remote sensing data are acquired in the visible, infrared and micro-wavelength portion of the EMR.

For the present study, satellite imageries acquired within visible and infrared (reflected) wavelength of EMR were used (section 2.1.1, Table 2.1.). Imageries were processed in the computer programmed by digital image processing capabilities in order to extract the images, geo-reference and make them amenable to information acquisition and GIS analysis. The software programs used for this purpose were ERDAS Imagine 9.2., and ArcGIS 9.0. The following image processing activities were carried out to extract the information used in this study.

2.2.2.1. Sub-image extraction The study area is covered by several scenes of LANDSAT-7 images, providing a synoptic view, covering an area of 185 km by 170 km of the earth’s surface. Each scene is defined by the path and row of satellite pass (Table 2.1.). Only that portion of the scene (sub-image) which covers the corresponding part of study area was clipped.

2.2.2.2. Image registration Although the obtained imageries were geo-referenced (in Universal Transverse Macerator Projection, WGS 84 in Zones 44 and 45 for western and eastern parts of the study area respectively) and geometrically corrected, they were not in the projection system, i.e. Modified Universal Transverse Macerator (MUTM) used for topographic mapping by the Survey Department, .

Figure 1: Landsat imageries used in the study

In order to bring the images compatible for overlay operation with the GIS layers derived from the topographic maps, the projection of the imagery was transformed to MUTM, which contains the following parameters:

Spheroid: Everest 1830, Central Meridian: 84, Central Parallel: 0, False easting: 500,000m, False Northing: 0 and Scale factor at central meridian: 0.9999.

The projection transformation was done by the geometric registration process, which involves identifying the image coordinates (i.e. row, column) of several clearly discernible points, called ground control points (GCPs), in the image and matching them to their true positions in ground coordinates (e.g. latitude, longitude). The true ground coordinates were measured from the geo-referenced digital topographic map. This process is called image to map registration. At least 25 GCPs, well distributed over image, were registered with reference to their position in the map. This registration was done using the affine transformation method. The accepted Root Mean Square error for geo registration was 0.5 or less. Then, geo-registered images were re-sampled to correct the geometry of the image pixels, which got distorted while doing geo-registration.

2.2.2.3. Image contrast Image contrast was performed to increase the visual distinction of features in the image. This was done by mathematically manipulating the digital pixel values in the image. For this purpose, both linear and non- linear methods of stretching imageries were performed (Jensen, 1996), wherever necessary. First, the histogram of the pixel values in image was examined and then the region of stretch was determined, avoiding the infrequent extreme values. Then, the image was stretched within the selected range so that the distinctions of the targets of interest become better.

2.2.2.4. Image filter Image filtering refers to the modification of the pixel value at i, j location in an image based on the pixel values in its immediate vicinity. Image filters are designed to highlight or suppress specific features in an image based on their spatial frequency (Jensen, 1996 and ILWIS 3.0). Low pass filter operation was done to suppress the high frequency component and emphasize the low frequency component. By doing so, the imagery is smoothened and the infrequent noise or very small land use and land cover type details occurring in isolation are removed. However, in some instances, high pass filter operation was also performed to enhance the linear features like riverbed, and somesmall features like landslides, ponds or like.

2.2.2.5. Colour composites and visual interpretations Colour composite refers to a combination of three bands by assigning the primary colours—red, green and blue—to each band. The pixels in the output image are displayed in the colour as defined by its position in the colour cube. Both true colour (assigning true colour images of respective bands, i.e. blue, green and red) and false colour composite (FCC) (unlike true colour composite) images were produced to increase the scope of detection.

2.2.2.6. GIS application: GIS was applied interactively with image processing like geo-reference, digitization of the imagery object (as defined by spectral pattern) and various topographic, geologic and cultural features from maps and for subsequent overlay analysis

2.3. Land use and land cover mapping

For land use and land cover mapping, following steps were followed (Fig. 2):

2.3.1. Definitions

Land use and land cover in this study is used as interchangeable terms, although each term has its own distinctive meaning. Land cover generally refers to a physical description of space, the observed (bio) physical cover of the earth surface (Di Gregorio and Jansen 1997). Land cover refers to the physical dimension of the earth surface, which is generally observed and mapped from the remote sensing sources. Whereas, land use refers to functional dimension, which corresponds to the areas used for residential, industrial or commercial purposes, for farming or forestry, for recreational or conservation purposes, and so on. Land use refers to the activity, economic purpose, intended use, and/or management strategy placed on the land cover type(s) by human agents or land managers (European Communities, 2001). Since all land use types may not be well discernible from medium resolution imageries like landsat, for practical purpose land cover and land use are used together to denote both types.

2.3.2. Land use and land cover classification scheme

For the purpose of study, considering the limitations of the medium resolution imagery as well as objectives of the study, a priory classification of land use and land cover was followed. The spectral pattern of the imageries was decided to classify into: cultivated land, grass/grazing land, shrub land, forest land, riverbed and others. For the classification, clear, precise and quantitative land use and land cover type boundaries were defined as far as possible. The following definitions were applied for identifying land use and cover types:

Cultivated land may be defined broadly as land used primarily for production of food and fiber (Anderson, 1976). Here the settlement areas and built-up areas, are also included in the cultivated land class. The reason behind is that except for a few urban built up in the cities, the interspersed settlement areas and rural built-up areas with cultivated land in the landsat imagery is not so much distinct. On satellite imagery, the chief indications of agricultural activity will be distinctive geometric field and road or trail patterns on the landscape.

Forest includes typical forest (which have a tree crown aerial density of 10 percent or more, and are stocked with trees capable of producing timber or other wood products), bush and grass vegetation, which exert an influence on the climate or water regime. It offers the ecological habitat for various wild flora and fauna.

Shrub are areas from which trees have been removed to less than 10 percent crown closure but which have not been developed for other uses. It includes degraded forest as well as forest which do not have well defined stems. Forest land or shrub land, which is grazed extensively would be included the respective categories because the dominant cover is forest and the dominant activities are forest related.

Grass/grazing are the areas which are vegetated meadows or grass which are basically non-woody species. Such grass/grazing land commonly occur on uncultivated flood plain area, old riverbed, or highly degraded forest areas, where the trees are scattered and virtually have no undergrowth. Such areas are commonly used for grazing of livestock.

Riverbed refers to active river channel, where annual or biannual flooding is common phenomenon.

Others refer to rest categories, which could be ponds, orchards, airstrip, and so on. Interpretation and analysis of remote sensing imagery involves the identification and/or measurement of various targets in an image to extract useful information on them.

Determination and definition of land use and land cover Acquisition of time series classes imageries Cultivated land, Grass/grazing land, Landsat TM, 1990/91 shrub, forest, riverbed, and Landsat ETM, 2010 and others

Visual interpretations Image processing Color, tone, texture, pattern, shape, Image registration, image contrast size, association, shape, size and filter, band combination

Land use and land cover Numerical classification boundaries Normalized difference, vegetation Cultivated land forest, grass/grazing index (NDVI) (Forest, land, riverbed, and other shrub/degraded forest)

Land use and land cover Types and change, pathways

Figure 2. Flow chart of land use and land cover mapping scheme

2.3.3. Image classification for land use and land cover delineation.

Land use and land cover mapping was carried out in two ways: visual interpretation or numerically using digital image processing method. Image classified into land use and land cover themes were finally integrated to produce final map.

2.3.3.1. Visual interpretation Visual interpretation is the extraction of qualitative and quantitative information in the form of a map/GIS layer on the shape, location, structure, function, quality, condition, relationship of and between objects, etc by using human knowledge or experience. Various interpretation keys such as shape, size, color, tone, texture, pattern, shadow, association and ground truths were used to identify agricultural land, forestland, roads, riverbed, shadow and cloud (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Visual interpretation of 1990/91 1andsat (432 FCC) imagery covering Kanchanpur and district

2.3.3.2. Numerical method Numerical method is a computer-based digital image processing method of information extraction by mathematically manipulating the digital number of the pixels of single or multi-imageries. In the present work, calculation of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and Unsupervised Classification was the numerical method performed to supplement the land use and land cover data to that interpreted from the visual method.

2.4. Field visit and ground truthing

Field visit was carried out between 05-03-2069 to 8-03-2069. Field work was done to verify image interpretations through ground truthing and to collect information through people about land use and land cover change on the hotspot areas of land use change detected from the time series image interpretation. During field visit, ground truthing and field information pertaining to land use change was taken from the following GPS points. Apart

2.5. Definition of the Churia hills

Churia Hills is a local synonym for the term Siwalik Hills, which is a common name to denote Sub Himalayas, which extends across India, Bhutan and Pakistan. The aerial extent of Churia hills is based on the maps of the Siwalik Hills in Nepal prepared by the Land Resource and Mapping Project, 1986. The northern boundary of the Siwalik Hill is defined by the major topographic break lines as determined river valleys and other topographic signatures close to Main Boundary Thrust which delimits the Siwalik rocks as geological unit (DMG, 2007). The southern boundary of the Churia Hlls is delimited by the topographic breaks between hill and plains with reference to topographic maps at the scale of 1: 25,000. These topographic breaks closely follow the Main Frontal Thrust, which is southern boundary of the Siwalik Formation (geological unit). See section 2.6.1.

2.6. Study area

Study area is located between 26.36o to 29.17o North latitude and 80.05o to 88.20o East longitude. It extends about 849 km in length and 24 to 72 km in breadth and has an area of 39, 236 km2 (Fig. 1). It shares international boundary with India in the east, west and south. The northern boundary of the study area is shared by the Middle Mountain Region.

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Sou rces: T op ogr aph ic M ap s: 1: 25 ,0 00 ( S ur vey D e pa rtm en t, H M G, N ep al) , D ig ital D ata o f P hysiog rap hy Pre pa red b y IC IM OD N ote : E xcept the u ppe r bo und ar y of the S iw ali ks, the b ou nda rie s o f the rest divisi ons ha ve be en m o difie d ba sed o n the T op og rap hic M ap s, scal e 1: 25,0 00

Figure 4. Churia-Tarai region

2.6.1. Physiography

Four physiographic regions based on topographic and geomorphic characteristics are identified for the study area. These are Churia hill slopes with inner river valleys, Duns, Bhabar and Tarai. A brief description of these physiographic units is provided below:

Churia hills are basically rugged, which are deeply dissected by gullies and streams. Escarpments and ant-dip steep slopes are common slope features as evidence to geological control and erosion. Chure hill slopes are generally dry and have poor soil development. Within Churia range there exist a number of notable inner river valleys comprising small floodplains and river terraces of two or three tiers at some east west sections. Churia hills (including river valleys) comprise about 36.6% of the total area. The proportionate area of hill is the highest in western Churia whereas it is the lowest in eastern Churia (Table 3.1). The maximum and the average relief of the hill slopes are 1,960m and 530m from the msl respectively. Generally, the relief increases from the east to the west (Table 3.2.). About 15% of the hill slopes lie above 1,000m in west Churia as against 3.9 and 1.7% in central and east Churia respectively. Consequently, average slope of the Churia hill slopes also increases towards west. Chure hill slopes are very dry and have poor soil development. Duns are inter-montane basins which are tectonically formed. They are longitudinal in extension and made of alluvial and fan deposits. Udaipur, Hetauda, Chitwan, Dang- and Surkhet are the Duns of Nepal. Duns are generally flat or rolling topography with minor relief caused by river channel shifting. In terms of area coverage, Duns comprise about 8.4 % of the total area, a largest area under Duns in the central part of the Churia-Tarai region, which is about 27.6 % of the total area.

Tarai is the northern end of the Indo-Gangetic plain, which form the southernmost part of Nepal. It is a depositional landform composed of recent Quaternary Alluvium, boulder, gravel, silt and clay, 400 to 600m thick. The region is normally flat and has a minor relief caused by river channel shifting. On the basis of landform characteristics, Tarai can be classified into three units: Bhabar, Middle Tarai and Lower Tarai (Fig. 6).

Figure5. Dun valley of Deukhuri in the mid-western Churia hills

Bhabar is known as piedmont zone, which consist of both active and inactive fans at the topographic break delineating the Siwaliks and the Tarai. Bhabar comprises about 14.9 % of the total area. Piedmont is essentially a coalescence of several alluvial fans, colluvial talus, and cones produced by deposits of rivers, gullies, and debris flows. At the foot slopes, the sediments are coarse and terrain is sloping (1-5o). Away from the foot slopes the median sediments size is finer and slope of the terrain is gentle (<0.5o). In the inactive fan areas, the river morphology is relatively stable: braiding or branching is virtually absent. Whereas in the active fan area, river is instable; frequent changes in channel course, bank cutting, and bifurcation and branching out of the channel is common in many cases. In imageries Bhabar is characterized by fans with wide riverbed, braided or bifurcated channels, bright tones due to coarse and bare sediments, and presence of forest cover in most inactive fan areas.

Bhabar

Middle Tarai

Lower Tarai

Figure 6. Identification of Bhabar, Middle Tarai and Lower Tarai in False Color Composite of bands 741, a part of Ratu Khola Watershed

The Middle Tarai is characterized by pebbly and sandy sediments with few clay layers. Its slope is less than 0.5%.. Meandering of channels is another characteristic of this zone. Various old meanders, including the oxbow lakes, chute cuts, and avulsions and anastomosing of channels at severalsites are also common in this zone.

Lower Tarai represents the typical Gangetic plain composed of finer sediments comprising mostly silt and clay. Channels are generally deep and narrow with virtual absence of pebbles and gravels.

Physiography and area Eastern Central Western Total

Physiographic unit/Region Km2 % Km2 % Km2 % Km2 % Churia hills 5698.8 30.5 3870.1 39.7 4801.5 44.6 14370.4 36.6 Duns 569.1 3.0 2690.1 27.6 49.6 0.5 3308.8 8.4 Bhabar 3406.9 18.2 829.6 8.5 1609.4 14.9 5845.9 14.9 Tarai 9027.0 48.3 2365.9 24.3 4317.6 40.1 15710.5 40.0 Total (Churia-Tarai) 18701.8 100.0 9755.8 100.0 10778.0 100.0 39235.6 100.0 . 2.6.2. Geology of the Churia hills

The Churia hills are developed on the rocks, which were formed of the sediments deposited in foreland basin deformed by thin skinned tectonics between Middle Miocene to Middle Pleistocene (Tokuoka et al. 1986; Lavé and Avouac 2001). The Siwalik rocks can be classified into three major groups, namely 1. the Lower Siwaliks (fine grained sandstone with interbeds of mudstone, shale, siltstone and occasional marl; proportion of mudstone is comparatively high), 2. the Middle Siwaliks (medium to coarse grained sandstone, pebbly sandstone with interbeds of siltstone and mudstone, with some content of coaly materials and plant fossil; proportion of sandstone is high as compared to mudstone ), 3. the Upper Siwaliks (boulder, cobble and conglomerate with mud and silts and sand lenses (DMG 2007). Several north dipping thrusts delineate tectonic boundary in the Siwalik Group. The northern border of the Siwalik Group is the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), where the Lesser Himalaya is thrusted onto the Siwalik units (DMG 2007). Active tectonics, along this zone, is evidenced by geomorphic features such as wide valleys forming inner river valleys, uplifts and offsets of unpaired terraces and sharp scarps and warping and fitting of rocks. The Siwaliks in the south are delimited by Main Frontal Thrust, which is most active thrust zone in all over Himalayas. Rapid upliftment, faulting and folding and followed by active erosion in this zone has caused high natural instability of the Churia hills.

Geological control over the topography of the Churia hills can be seen. Topography developed on the Lower Siwaliks is smooth textured and drainage characterizes dendrite pattern. In the Middle Siwaliks, hill slope characterizes smooth, sharp and cuesta topography. The drainage depicts trellis pattern. Hill slopes formed on the Upper Siwaliks have coarse texture and subdued topography and has relatively straight river course with wide valleys. Similarly topography developed on the dip slopes is manifested by slopes, whereas those in the anti-dip and orthoclinal slopes the topography is steep and scarps are developed along the fault and thrust zones. Generally, due to the influence sedimentary rock structure, and tectonic, the topography of the Churia hills is rugged with deeply dissected gullies and steep slopes.

2.6.3. Climate

Climate of the study area features subtropical to warm temperate type, depending upon the altitude of the location. The sub-tropical monsoon climate is experienced in the Tarai plains and warm temperate climate in the Churia hills above 1000 m msl. November-December and January are the coldest months while May, June and July are the hottest months. Seasonal temperature range becomes wider from the east to the west due to increased influence of continentality. The mean monthly temperature is between 24 and 27º C. Due to frontal location, the orographic effect is produced to the rain bearing summer monsoon, which results in heavy rainfall during monsoon regime (June-September) compared to other parts of Nepal. Rainfall characteristics are described in the Table 3. Westerly disturbances bring scanty rain in the winter season and thunderstorms are frequent in the months from March to May.

Table 3 Rainfall characteristics of the Churia area (more than 25 years daily rainfall record) Monsoo Max 25 Return period of extreme 24 hr rain (mm) Station Altitude Region Annual n (%) hrs 5 10 20 50 Dhangadhi 170.0 West 1700.9 87.6 267.0 184.0 210.0 234.0 263.0 Surkhet 720.0 West 1964.4 84.2 375.9 167.0 209.0 256.0 328.0 Gulariya 215.0 West 1374.9 85.0 311.0 193.0 228.0 261.0 304.0 Butwal 205.0 Central 2489.1 88.2 402.0 261.0 303.0 341.0 388.0 Beluwa 150.0 Central 2511.5 85.9 445.8 242.0 288.0 337.0 409.0 Jhawani 270.0 Central 1848.7 82.7 255.0 160.0 194.0 228.0 273.0 Amlekhgunj 396.0 Central 2177.5 84.9 297.4 203.0 235.0 269.0 316.0 Udaipurgadhi 1175.0 East 2047.0 79.0 287.6 179.0 207.0 233.0 268.0 138.0 East 1483.1 82.7 228.0 170.0 191.0 209.0 231.0 Siraha 102.0 East 1411.7 81.9 221.6 169.0 193.0 212.0 234.0 Dharanbazar 444.0 East 2447.6 82.8 352.0 213.0 254.0 295.0 353.0 Source: DHM, 2005

2.6.4 Demography

Total number of households of the study area is 2,142,235 and the population is 12,246,467 (Table 4) according to 2001 census (CBS, 2005). The average household size is 5.7 persons within the range of 5.1 (Duns) to 5.9 persons (Tarai).

The proportion of population is the highest in Tarai, followed by Bhabar and Churia hills, and the lowest in Duns. Compared to Tarai, Bhabar and Duns, population density is significantly low in the Churia hills. In the hill slopes, the population density for the whole area was 90; the highest was in the east (117 persons/km2) and the lowest in the west (56 persons/km2). Due to high production potential, good infrastructure facilities and urbanization, the density of population in low-lying areas, represented by the Duns, Bhabar and Tarai, is considerably high, particularly in the Tarai,

Table 4. Population and households of the Churia region Physiographic region Area (km2) Households Population Household size Density Churia hills 16676.4 265120 1509036 5.7 90.5 Duns 4295.3 216800 1114920 5.1 259.6 Bhabar 9451.1 438955 2414751 5.5 255.5 Tarai 13105.2 1221360 7207760 5.9 550.0 Churia region 43528 2142235 12246467 5.7 281.3

2.6.5. Churia hills and the administrative unit

The Churia hills are extended over 36 districts, namely Ilam, Jhapa, Moramg, Sunsari, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Siraha, Saptari, Udaipur, Sindhuli, Dhanusha, Mohattari, Sarlahi, Rautahat, Bara, Parsa, Makwanpur, Kavrepalanchowk, Lalitpur, Chitwan, Nawalparansi, Palpa, Tanahun, Arghakhanchi, Pyuthan, Salyan, Dang, Banke, Surkhet, Bardia, Kailali, Kanchanpur, and Dadeldhura. Percent area of the Churia Hills shared by these 36 districts is described in the Fig. 5. Dang, Sindhuli, Kailai and Surkhet occupy more than 6 % of the total area of the Churia hills in that order. Banke , Nawalparansi, Chitwan, Bardiya, Arghakhanchi, Dadeldhura, Ilam, Salyan, Dhanusa and Parsa share between 6-2 % of the Churia hills. Rest district share less than 2 % of the Churia hills’ area.

The proportion of the districts’ area shared by physiographic regions in Churia-Tarai region is presented in Table 5. It has to be noted that the district of Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Kavrepalanchok, and Tanahu share less than 1 % of their total area.

About 390 VDCs fully or partly lie in the Churia hills. There are 54 VDCs which has more 90 % area located in the Churia hills. Similarly, there are about 34, 61, and 92 VDCS whose 75-90, 50-75, and 25- 50 % area lie in the Churia hills respectively. About 35 VDCs fully lie in the Dun valleys. The area of VDCs located in the Churia hills is described in the Appendix 1. Table 6 describes about the VDCs that share the uria hills.

12.0

10.0 Percent 8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Figure 7. Percent of Churia hills shared by the districts in code (see SN of Table 5)

Table 5. Districts’ area located in Churia Tarai region Area in % Churia hills and Bhabar and Middle SN District Total area (ha) Duns Tarai Mountains 1 Ilam 169119 24.3 2.6 73.2 2 Jhapa 160950 2.2 97.8 0.0 3 Morang 182734 9.0 82.1 8.9 4 Sunsari 119457 7.7 90.8 1.4 5 Dhankuta 90095 0.6 0.0 99.4 6 Bhojpur 152674 0.004 0.0 100.0 7 Siraha 114057 16.3 83.7 0.0 8 Saptari 128649 13.4 86.6 0.0 9 Udaipur 258079 34.9 21.7 (Dun) 6.6 36.8 10 Sindhuli 248349 57.7 0.0 42.3 11 Dhanusa 118965 25.5 74.5 0.0 13 Mahottari 100136 14.7 85.3 0.0 13 Sarlahi 126463 15.0 85.0 0.0 14 Rautahat 103655 7.6 92.4 0.0 15 Parsa 140648 20.5 79.4 0.0 16 Bara 127261 12.3 87.7 0.0 17 Makwanpur 244967 45.8 11.6 (Dun) 0.0 42.6 18 Kavrepalanchok 139188 0.5 0.0 99.5 19 Lalitpur 39576 1.5 0.0 98.5 20 Chitwan 223972 29.4 54.8 (Dun) 0.0 15.8 21 Tanahu 157184 0.1 0.3 (Dun) 0.0 99.6 22 Nawalparasi 215193 30.8 22.5 (Dun) 27.4 19.3 23 Palpa 146190 17.1 0.0 82.9 24 Rupandehi 130447 12.5 87.5 0.0 25 Arghakhanchi 123907 37.1 0.4 (Dun) 0.2 62.4 26 Kapilbastu 165116 11.4 88.6 0.0 27 Pyuthan 132090 2.3 0.0 97.7 28 Salyan 193747 19.8 0.0 80.2 29 Dang 300341 48.5 32.3 (Dun) 0.0 19.2 30 Banke 188226 37.8 62.2 0.0 31 Bardiya 200353 31.2 68.8 0.0 32 Surkhet 248852 44.6 2.0 (Dun) 0.0 53.4 33 Doti 205448 1.9 0.0 98.1 34 Kailali 329300 40.2 59.2 0.6 35 Kanchanpur 162182 11.7 88.3 0.0 36 Dadeldhura 150610 28.2 0.0 71.8

Total 6038357 1437466 23.8 5.9 35.7

Table 6 Location of VDCs in Churia Hills.

District VDC Jhapa , Khudunabari, Shantinagar, , Bajho, Chulachuli, Danabari, Erautar, Jirmale, Kolbung, Mahamai, Sakfara, Ilam Laxmipur, Ebhang, Chisapani, Siddhithumka, Jitpur Morang Bhogateni, , Yangshila, Warangi, Ramite Khola, Patigaun, Letang Sunsari Barahachhetra, Bishnupaduka, Panchkanya, Dharan N.P. Bakdhauwa, Bhangaha, Dhodhanpur, Jandaul, Kalyanpur Kamalpur, Khojpur, Khoksarparbaha, Kushaha, Madhupati, Pansera, Rupnagar, Saptari Sitapur, Terahota, Theliya, Dharampur, Fatehpur, Pipra, Prasabani

Badharamal, Bishnupurkatti, Chandrodayapur, Dhodhana, Fulbariya, Siraha GovindpurTaregana, Jamadaha, , Muksar, Ramnagar Hadiya, Jalpachilaune, , Katari, Katunjebawala, Mainamiani, Pachchawati, Risku, , Sidhdipur Sundarpur, Tribeni, Triyuga N.P., Valayadanda, Basaha, Beltar, Chaudandi, Udaipur Khanbu, Sirise, Tapeswari, Tapashree, Thaksila Begadawar, Bharatpur, Godar, Nakatajhijh, Puspalpur, Tulsichauda, Dhanusha Yagyabhumi, Hariharpur, Umaprempur Mahottari Gauribas, Khayarmara, Maisthan, Arunthakur, , , Dadiguranshe, Dudhouli Hariharpur Gadhi, , , Jarayotar, Kakur Thakur , N.P., , Kyaneshwor (Mahendra), , Mahadevsthan, Mahendrajhayadi, Nipane, , Ranibas, Ranichuri Sindhuli Sirthouli, , Tandi, Tribhuvan Ambote Sarlahi Atrouli, Dhungrekhola, Kalinjor, Narayan Khola, Parwanipur, Pattharkot, Lalitpur Gimdi, Thuladurlung Kavre , , Salmechepak Parsa Royal Chitawan National Park, Thori Rautahat Chandranigahapur, Judibela, Paurai, Rangapur Bara Amlekhganj, Bharatganj Sigaul, Ratanpuri, Bharatganj Sigaul, Nijgadh Ambhanjyang, Basamadi, Betini, Churiyamai, , Faparbari, Handikhola, Hatiya, Hetauda N.P., Hurnamadi, Makwanpurgadhi, Manahari, Manthali, Padam Pokhari, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Raigaun, Sarikhet Palase, Shikharpur, Shreepur Makwanpur Chhatiwan, Thingan, Bhainse, Kankada Raksirang Ayodhyapuri, Bagauda, Bhandara, , Chainpur, Korak, Madi Kalyanpur, Piple, Royal Chitwan National Park, Siddi, Bhartpur N.P, Dahakharka, Chitwan Gandi, Kabilas, Amarapuri, , Dawanne Devi, Deurali, , Dhaubadi, Dhurkot, , , Gaidakot, , Makar, Mukundapur, , Prasauni, , , Ratanapur, Royal Chitwan National Park, Nawalparansi Rupauliya, , Tribeni Susta, , Shivamandir Baldengadhi, , , Juthapauwa, , Koldada, , Palpa , Bahadurpur, Jyamire, Kaseni, Rupandehi Butwal N.P., Devadaha, Dudharakchhe, Parroha, Saljhundi Arghakhanchi , Jaluke, , Simalpani, Sitapur, Subarna Khal, Thada, Maidan Pyuthan Bangesal Barakulpur, , , , Shivapur, Banganga, , Kapilbastu , Motipur Dang Bela, , Chaulahi, Dharna, , , , Goltakuri, , , Lalmatiya, Laxmipur, , Phulbari, , Rajpur, Rampur, , Sisahaniya, Sonpur, Daruwa, , Hapur, Tribhuvan N.P, Salyan Kabhrechaur, Kalimati Kalche, Kalimati Rampur , Chisapani, , , , , Banke , Kabrechuar, Kalimati Kalche, Kalimati Rampur Bardia Belawa, Royal Babiyachaur, , , , Chhichu, , Ghat Gaun, Hartiharpur, Kafalkot, , Lagaam, , Lekhgaun, , , , , Ramghat, Sahare, Satakhani, Taranga, Surkhet Tatopani, , , Gumi, Doti Chhatiwan, Barchen, Dhnaglagaun, Laxminagar, Nirauli , Chauha, Godawari, , Mohanyal, , , Ramsikhar Kailali Jhala, , , Malakheti, Chaumala, Kanchanpur Daijee, Jhalari, Krishnapur, Mahaendra Nagar N.P., Suda Dadeldhura , , Sirsha

Note: Names in bold letter indicates VDCs, which covers at least 20 % of the VDC area

Chapter 3: Land use and land cover pattern and change

3.1. Land use land cover pattern, 1990/91 and 2010

Forest and cultivated land were the dominant land use and land cover types in 1990/91, which occupy 44.2 and 43.3 percent of the total area in that order (Table 7). Grassland/grazing land and shrub covered 1.4 and 5.6 percent of the total area. Mostly the riverbank and flood plain areas, which are devoid of forest or shrubs are categorised as grass/ grazing land. Riverbed occupied about 5.1 % of the total area (Figure 8 and 13). The proportion of area under various land use and cover type as discussed earlier, in 2010 is largely similar to that of 1990/91. Comparatively the proportion of area under agriculture by 2010 has increased by 0.46 %, while forest coverage has decreased by similar percent, i.e., 0.40%. There has been a significant decrease in area under grass/grazing and riverbed by 2010.

Table 7. Land use and land cover, 1990/91 and 2010

Land use and land 1990/91 2010 Change % cover Hectare % Hectare % Agriculture 1730539 44.18 1748510 44.63 0.46 Grass 55383 1.41 22363 0.57 -0.84 Shrub 219090 5.59 230924 5.89 0.30 Forest 1694941 43.27 1710460 43.66 0.40 Riverbed 200090 5.11 181663 4.64 -0.47 Others 17326 0.44 23450 0.60 0.16 Total 3917370 100.00 3917370 100.00 0.00

Proportion of cultivated land is higher in the east sector (Jhapa-Sarlahi), than central (Rautahat- Kapilvastu) and west (Dang-Daeldhura) sector. Conversely, the proportion of area under forest is higher in the west and is followed by central and east sector in that order. Proportion of grass/grazing land and shrub land is also higher in west sector than other parts (Table 8). Over the last twenty years slight increase in agricultural land is recorded in all sectors, the highest increase was recorded in the central sector, i.e., 0.7 % and lowest being in the east sector, i.e., 03%. This change seems not so significant but this trend should not be allowed to continue, at least at the expense of forestry use. Similarly the forest land had decreased by 0.8 and 2.5% in the east and central sector respectively, whereas a significant rise in forest area is observed in the west sector, i.e., 4.3 %. An increase in shrub area was detected in the east (1.3%) and central sector (3%), whereas a considerable decrease in the shrub land was observed in the west sector. Increase in area under riverbed was observed in all sectors.

Table 8. Land use and land cover in Churia –Tarai region, 1990/91 and 2010 by regional sectors

1990/91 2010 Sector Land use/land cover Hectare % Hectare % Change % Cultivated land 806141.0 59.5 810193.0 59.8 0.3 Grass/grazing land 25282.0 1.9 11608.0 0.9 -1.0 Shrub 63391.0 4.7 82145.0 6.1 1.4 Forest 376426.0 27.8 366030.0 27.0 -0.8 East Riverbed 80178.0 5.9 74172.0 5.5 -0.4

others 4473.0 0.3 11743.0 0.9 0.5 Total 1355891.0 100.0 1355891.0 100.0 0.0

Cultivated land 538295.0 43.4 546443.0 44.1 0.7 Grass/grazing land 11696.0 0.9 5712.0 0.5 -0.5

Shrub 31949.0 2.6 68934.0 5.6 3.0 Central Forest 590190.0 47.6 559545.0 45.1 -2.5 Riverbed 59409.0 4.8 50050.0 4.0 -0.8

others 8597.0 0.7 9452.0 0.8 0.1 Total 1240136.0 100.0 1240136.0 100.0 0.0

Cultivated land 386051.0 29.2 391871.0 29.7 0.4 Grass/grazing land 18436.0 1.4 5054.0 0.4 -1.0

West Shrub 123791.0 9.4 79857.0 6.0 -3.3 Forest 728293.0 55.1 784841.0 59.4 4.3 Riverbed 60515.0 4.6 57453.0 4.3 -0.2

others 4257.0 0.3 2267.0 0.2 -0.2 Total 1321343.0 100.0 1321343.0 100.0 0.0

Figure 8: Land use and land cover, east sector (Jhapa-Sarlahi), 1990/91

Figure 9. Land use and land cover, east sector (Jhapa-Sarlahi), 2010

Figure 10. Land use and land cover, central sector(Rautahat-Kapibastu), 1990/91

Figure 11: Land use and land cover, central sector (Rautahat-Kapibastu), 2010

Figure 12. Land use and land cover, west sector (Dang to Dadeldhura), 1990/91

Figure 13. Land use and land cover, west sector (Dang – Dadeldhura), 2010

By physiographic regions, land use and cover pattern differed, but between 1990/91 and 2010 the pattern of land use and cover for each physiographic unit is more or less similar (Table 9 and 10). A little difference in land use /cover statistics can be observed. Forest including shrub is a pre- dominant land use types, which occupies more than 85 % of total land area in both years. Change in proportion of areas shared by each land use and cover type is described in Table 11. In the Churia hills, over these 20 years, there has been an increase in forest area, i.e., 51391 ha, decrease in shrub area, i.e., a decline of 35722 ha (Appendix 2). Similarly during these years, there has been a decrease in grass/grazing land and riverbed by 2455 ha. In contrast, agricultural land in Churia hills had increased by 1184 ha during the year1990/91-2010.

Comparatively in Duns about 51 % of the total land area was under agriculture in 1990 and 2010. More than 35 5 % of the total area was under forest. Similarly, area under shrub constituted about 4.9 % in 1990/91 and 6.5 % in 2010 (Table 9 and 10). Over the two decades, there had been an increase in area of 1567, 5418, and 4311 ha in agriculture, shrub and forest respectively (Appendix 2). During these decades, area under grassland and riverbed area declined, i.e., by 3542 and 7744 ha in that order, this could be due to afforestation or encroachment on flood prone area or old riverbed.

Bhabar region is largely covered by forest, however over two decades (1990/91-2010), the percent share of the forest coverage had decreased by 4.9 %, i.e., 28668 ha (Table 9. 10, and 11). Correspondingly there had been an increase in shrub area by 29286 ha ( 5.01 %) over the decades. Grass/grazing land had decreased by 6941 ha. Agricultural land in the Bhabar area had increased by 5071 ha (0.87 %), Similarly riverbed has also increased by 0.13 %, i.e., 736 ha (Table .11)

Agriculture is a predominant land use and land cover type in Tarai, which occupied more than 79 % of the total land area in 1990/91 and 2010 as well. The coverage forest and shrub was 11.2 and 12.4 % in 1990/91 respectively. By 2010 the share of forest cover had decreased to 10.4 % (net loss of 11714 ha or 0.75 %), whereas the shrub area had gained by 12851 ha ( + 0.82 %). In Tarai, relative share of area under both grass/grazing land and riverbed area had decreased.

Table 9: Land use and Land cover by physiographic region, 1990/91

Cultivated Grass/grazing Physigraphic region Area (ha) land land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total Churia hills 1432558 9.54 1.07 10.13 75.72 3.54 0.00 100.0 Duns 330471.1 51.15 1.42 4.86 31.38 11.18 0.00 100.0 Bhabar 584427 31.21 2.04 3.35 56.61 6.38 0.40 100.0 Tarai 1569914 79.14 1.49 2.44 11.18 4.78 0.96 100.0 Total 3917370 44.18 1.41 5.59 43.27 5.11 0.44 100.0

Table 10: Land use and land cover by physiographic region, 2010

Cultivated Grass/grazing Physiographic region Area (ha) land land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total Churia hills 1432558 9.62 0.05 7.63 79.32 3.37 0.01 100.0 Duns 330471.1 51.62 0.35 6.50 32.69 8.84 0.00 100.0 Bhabar 584427 32.08 0.86 8.37 51.71 6.51 0.48 100.0 Tarai 1569914 79.79 0.99 3.26 10.44 4.21 1.31 100.0 Total 3917370 44.63 0.57 5.89 43.66 4.64 0.60 100.0

Table 11: Land use and land cover change by physiographic region

Area change (%) Cultivated Physigraphic region land Grass/grazing land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Churia hills 0.08 -1.02 -2.49 3.60 -0.17 0.01 Duns 0.47 -1.07 1.64 1.30 -2.34 0.00 Bhabar 0.87 -1.19 5.01 -4.91 0.13 0.09 Tarai 0.65 -0.50 0.82 -0.75 -0.57 0.35 Total 0.46 -0.84 0.30 0.40 -0.47 0.16

3.2. Pathways of land use and land cover change (1990/91-2010).

Pathways or direction of the land use and land cover change during 1990/91 – 2010 is described in Table 12. Trade off between major pathways of change in the Churia hills were shrub to forest, forest to shrub, and forest to agriculture and agriculture to forest in certain places. In Dun, major pathways of land use and land cover change were conversion of a part of riverbed to shrub and forest, in some location riverbed to agriculture (2673 ha). In Duns a considerable part of forest was converted to cultivated land. Overall there was a net increase in the cultivated land. Bhabar area showed a considerable increment in cultivated land at the cost of forest area, i.e., 7184, but in some parts this change was partly traded off with conversion of cultivated land to forest which equals to 3014 ha. Nevertheless, there was a net expansion of cultivated land on 5071 ha in Bhabar (Table 8). In Tarai, conversion of forest either to shrub or to cultivated, conversion of old riverbed to cultivated land or to grass/grazing were dominant land use and land cover change pathways. Infact, Tarai witnessed a net increase in cultivated land by 10178 ha as well as shrub area by 12,851 ha, conversely there was a sum total decline of forest land by 11714 ha and grass/grazing land by 7880 ha during 1990/91-2010.

Table 12. Conversion trends (Pathways) of land use and land cover change by physiographic regions.

Physiographic region Pathways Churia hills Duns Bhabar Tarai Total A-G 51.1 2.7 612.5 163.5 829.8 A-S 1698.4 589.4 1646.2 193.8 4127.8 A-F 8828.3 1411.1 3014.9 143.4 13397.7 A-Rb 1468.2 3238.7 2583.9 1859.7 9150.5 A-O 34.7 238.2 141.1 414 G-A 281.6 398.7 831.2 407.8 1919.3 G-S 4758.9 1353.7 2719.5 514.4 9346.5 G-F 9212.7 1513.8 2792.8 428.2 13947.5 G-Rb 916.3 1367.4 4434.2 569.4 7287.3 G-O 1.7 213.8 193.3 408.8 S-A 2439.9 1140 1811.6 646.9 6038.4 S-G 348.3 31.5 394.7 83.2 857.7 S-F 116866.9 11247 10124.6 1939 140177.5 S-Rb 1847.8 1252.8 2657.3 176.2 5934.1 S-O 7.7 758.7 526 1292.4 F-A 8982.3 2587.5 7184.3 1022.9 19777 F-G 65.7 132.1 802.6 138.9 1139.3 F-S 77979.8 10020 34654 2435.2 125089 F-Rb 1819.5 2428.2 6945.6 608.7 140177.5 F-O 27.5 880 401.2 5934.1 Rb-A 1540.3 2673.2 2798.9 1018.1 1292.4 Rb-G 50 925.1 2215.4 932.4 19777 Rb-S 1351.2 7126.4 5725.5 1448.9 1139.3 Rb-F 5557.5 5307.9 4908.6 620.1 125089 Rb-O 8.1 238.7 97 343.8 O-A 0.4 541.1 423.5 965 O-G 0.1 0.1 23.8 7.1 31.1 O-S 0.6 287.6 64.2 352.4 O-F 0.7 957.2 304.7 1262.6 O-Rb 1.9 6.2 8.1

Note: A: agriculture (Cultivated land), G: grass/grazing land, S: shrub, F: forest, Rb: riverbed, O: others

Figure 14. Slope map of Churia hills and Duns

3.3. Land use and land cover (2010) by slope

Land use and land cover statistics by slope in Churia hills and Duns reveals that the proportion of area under agriculture decreases with increase in slope and conversely there is a predominance forest cover in the steeper slopes (Table 13 and Figure 14 ). In Churia hills due to very sensitive ecosystem, which characterises very weak and erodible geology, high tectonic activity (Lave and Avoach, 2000) and high seismicity (Validya, 1998), cultivation above 30 percent slope is not recommendable. However, there seems a discreet management relationship between land utilization and slope. Farmers have a tendency to avoid steeper slopes for forestry if the cultivation is not so viable.

Table 13. Land use and land cover by slope Agricultura Grass/grazing Slope in percent Area(ha) l land land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total 3 ≥ 468691 41.36 0.26 6.62 38.16 13.60 0.01 100.00 3-15 208164 20.16 0.03 6.69 68.97 4.14 0.01 100.00 15-30 336648 10.89 0.02 6.52 81.46 1.11 0.00 100.00 30-60 580845 5.84 0.04 7.46 86.41 0.25 0.00 100.00 Above 60 168712 1.90 0.15 12.46 85.38 0.11 0.00 100.00 Total 1763060 17.56 0.10 7.44 70.48 4.41 0.00 100.00

100.00 Agricultural land 80.00 Forest

60.00

40.00 % area

20.00

0.00 3 ≥ 3-15 15-30 30-60 Above Slope (%) 60

Figure 15. Distribution of cultivated land and forest cover, 2010 on the slope categories.

3.4. Land use and land cover change (1990/91-2010) by slope

The statistics of land use and land cover change imply that there had been a significant increase in agricultural land on slopes below 3 percent (Figure 15). Considerable increase in cultivated land can be seen on the slopes above 15. Interestingly the forest cover had increased on the hillslopes, while there was a decline in shrub cover on steeper slopes, particularly on 30-60 percent slope category. The increase forest cover may have been contributed by regeneration of shrub/degraded forest into a forest land. However, sufficient field verification is needed to verify this fact. A part of reason could be the quality of image and the role of atmospheric conditions or seasonally drived leaf availability or vegetation canopy (affecting the spectral pattern of imageries) on the time point the when the imageries were acquired.

Table 13. Land use and land cover change by slope

Area in ha Slope in Agricultural Grass/grazing percent land land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others 3 ≥ 1643 -5641 2373 10136 -8535 24 3-15 124 -1674 -3434 5713 -750 20 15-30 -170 -1692 -5891 8389 -651 15 30-60 694 -4257 -16589 20326 -180 5 Above 60 421 -4988 -6890 11466 -9 0 Total 2713 -18252 -30431 56031 -10125 64

25000 Agricultural land 20000 Shrub 15000 Forest 10000 5000

0

(ha) Area -5000 3 ≥ 3-15 15-30 30-60 Above 60 -10000 Slope(%) -15000 -20000

Figure 16. Change in of cultivated land, shrub, and forest cover between 1990/91-2010 by slope categories.

3.5. Land use and land cover by districts, 2010

Land use and land cover statistics of 2010 reveals that above 70 % of the land area was under cultivation or settlement in the district of Jhapa, Morang, Siraha Sarlahi and Rupandehi (Table 14), whereas the forest coverage in these districts ranged between 19 (Morang ) to 10 % (Rupandehi). Districts whose 60-70 % of land used for cultivation in the same year were Sunsari, Saptari, Dhanusha, Mohattari and Rautahat. These districts showed 27 % (Rautahat) to 13 % (Sunsari) of forest land. Shrub area coverage was between 1.3 (Dhanusha) to 9.7 % (Sunsari). Bara, Nawalparansi, Kapilvastu, Kailali and Kanchanpur districts had moderately high share of cultivated land, i.e., 40-60 %. Forest cover in these districts ranged between 34 % (Bara) to 57 % (Kailali); shrub areas in these districts were between 3.8 to 4%. The districts such as Udaipur, Sindhuli, Makwanpur, Palpa, Arghakhanchi, Pyuthan, Dang, Salyan, Banke, Surkhet, Doti and Dadeldhura showed a more than 60-80 % of the total area under forest. Except Banke, these districts share only Churia hills or Duns. Shrub area in these district accounted for 3.3 to 10 % of the total area. Grass/grazing land is generally equal or less than 2 % in all districts. Mostly the riverbank and flood plain areas, which are devoid of forest or shrubs are categorised as grass/ grazing land.

3.6. Land use and land cover change by districts

Distict of Saptari, Sarlahi, Nawalparansi, Rupandehi, Chitwan, Kapilvastu, Bardia, Kailali and Kanchanpur, reveals a net increase in cultivated land between 1100 (Bardia) to 3496 ha (Saptari) between 1990/91-2010 (Table 15). Districts like Sarlahi, Rupandehi, Kaplivastu, Kailali and Kanchanpur depicted a net increase of more than 2000 ha of the cultivated land during 1990/91- 2010. Ilam, Morang, Siraha, Udaipur, Sindhuli, Bara, Banke and registered a net increase of cultivated land within a range of 1000-100 ha. Conversely, Sunsari and revealed a net loss of 3901 and 1129 ha of cultivated land. Considerable loss of cultivated land (< 400 ha) was also found in Dang, Makwanpur, Dhanusha, Dhankuta, Rautahat, Arghakhanchi and Jhapa. Palpa, Salyan, Dadeldhura, Doti, Pyuthan, Bhojpur, Lalitpur, Kavrepalanchok, and Tanahu districts did not show any change in cultivated land. A remarkable decline in forest area has been observed in the districts of Sunsari, Saptari, Mohattari, Sarlahi, Parsa, Chitwan, and Kapilvastu. The decrease in forested area was between 5000-7590 ha. The loss of forest cover in large acreage was in Saptari, Parsa and Chitwan. Moderate loss of forest was witnessed in the Bara, Nawaparansi, Arghakhanchi and . The gain of forest cover above 3000 ha was found in Sindhuli, Dhanusha, Makwanpur, Dang, Salyan, Banke, Bardiya, Kalali and Dadeldhura.

A remarkable increase in shrub area (3000-8545 ha) was observed in the districts of Saptari, Mohattari, Sarlahi, Parsa, Chitwan, Nawalparansi and Kapilvastu. Part of the loss of the forest land was contributed by the conversion of forest to shrub in the above districts. Similarly, a moderate increase in the shrub land (2800 – 800 ha) was noticed in the districts of Ilam, Morang, Udaipur, Rautahat, Bara, Rupandehi, Arghakhanchi, and Bardia (Table 14). Conversely a notable net decline in shrub land (3000- 15133 ha) was observed in the districts of Siraha, Sindhuli, Dhanusha, Dang, Banke, Surkhet, Kailali and Dadeldhura. Similarly a moderate decline in the shrub area was registered in the districts of Salyan and Doti. Increase in the grass/grazing was recorded in the very few districts, but the increase was not so significant. Decline is grass/grazing land was noted in most district, a remarkable decrease (1000- 3000 ha) was found in Morang, Ilam, Udaipur, Saptari, Sindhuli, Dhaunsha, Nawalparasi, Dang, Bardia, Kailali and Kanchanpur. A moderate decrease (1000-500 ha) was observed in the districts of Sunsari, Siraha, Mohattari, Makwanpur, Sarlahi, Bara, Chitwan, and Kapilvastu. Loss of grass/grazing land could due to encroachment of cultivated land or settlement onto flood plains, or the due to afforestation along riverbanks, commonly on flood prone area or due to channel shift or bank cutting.

Table 14. Land use and land cover in Churia – Tarai region by districts, 2010

Percent Grazing District Area (ha) Agriculture Grass/land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Ilam 45340 29.1 0.3 17.4 47.6 5.5 0.1 Jhapa 160749 77.8 2.0 4.0 11.1 3.8 1.4 Morang 166338 73.0 0.3 3.5 19.2 3.6 0.5 Sunsari 117634 65.8 2.1 9.7 13.4 8.4 0.6 Dhankuta 395 0.0 0.0 62.3 34.4 3.3 0.0 Bhojpur 1 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Udaipur 134871 21.7 0.4 10.7 61.3 5.8 0.1 Saptari 128242 68.7 1.2 7.8 14.3 6.5 1.4 Siraha 113863 77.2 0.5 2.5 14.6 4.1 1.1 Sindhuli 143160 19.7 0.0 4.9 66.9 8.4 0.0 Dhanusa 118887 67.7 0.6 1.3 23.1 5.8 1.4 Mahottari 100092 69.6 1.0 6.6 16.4 4.7 1.9 Makwanpur 140430 23.5 0.2 3.9 64.9 7.4 0.0 Sarlahi 126320 70.9 0.7 6.3 17.0 4.2 1.0 Rautahat 103635 62.8 0.6 4.3 27.3 4.6 0.4 Parsa 140544 39.2 0.7 8.3 47.1 4.3 0.3 Bara 127193 56.7 0.3 3.8 34.4 4.2 0.6 Chitwan 188444 28.5 0.4 8.8 58.2 4.1 0.0 Tanahu 19 0.0 0.0 21.1 0.0 78.9 0.0 Nawalparasi 173541 41.7 0.3 4.6 47.4 5.4 0.7 Palpa 24556 16.6 0.0 3.3 79.3 0.8 0.0 Rupandehi 130315 73.1 1.5 2.9 18.7 1.5 2.4 Arghakhanchi 46551 9.7 0.0 10.1 78.5 1.8 0.0 Pyuthan 1352 20.1 0.0 1.3 69.7 8.9 0.0 Kapilbastu 164905 55.3 0.3 5.3 35.0 2.0 2.1 Dang 242556 28.4 0.0 6.5 61.3 3.8 0.0 Salyan 38307 5.9 1.0 3.4 85.5 4.1 0.0 Banke 188140 32.4 0.2 2.3 61.6 3.2 0.2 Bardia 200135 34.8 0.4 5.8 53.6 5.3 0.2 Surkhet 115760 17.1 0.1 8.5 70.4 3.9 0.0 Doti 3776 13.4 0.0 10.8 71.1 4.7 0.0 Kailali 327119 30.5 0.8 7.0 57.4 4.1 0.2 Kanchanpur 161734 39.7 0.4 7.7 45.7 6.0 0.6 Dadeldhura 42464 12.8 0.0 3.3 79.2 4.7 0.0 Total 3917370 44.6 0.6 5.9 43.7 4.6 0.6

Table 15. Land use and land cover change in Churia-Tarai region by district, 2010

Area (ha) Grass/grazing Distirct Agriculture land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Ilam 397 -2511 1634 714 -254 20 Jhapa -111 394 3536 -441 -4428 1050 Morang 541 -3375 2017 1780 -1145 182 Sunsari -3901 -517 8826 -6694 1885 401 Dhankuta -180 -8 195 -8 1 0 Bhojpur 0 -1 1 0 0 0 Udayapur 186 -1783 2179 428 -1182 172 Saptari 3399 -1020 5057 -7594 -802 960 Siraha 114 -903 -4996 4796 40 949 Sindhuli 607 -1017 -3147 3704 -147 0 Dhanusa -227 -1388 -4973 3691 1715 1182 Mahottari 811 -912 3429 -5020 124 1568 Makwanpur -317 -250 -2216 4143 -1360 0 Lalitpur 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kavrepalanchok 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sarlahi 2416 -634 4997 -5752 -1813 786 Rautahat -180 -204 2798 -117 -2329 32 Parsa -1129 -124 8545 -7272 -282 262 Bara 464 -707 2408 -2417 352 -100 Chitwan 1989 -988 10547 -6967 -4581 0 Tanahu 0 -4 4 0 0 0 Nawalparasi 1982 -3253 5015 -3874 -29 159 Palpa -78 -189 231 47 -11 0 Rupandehi 3486 796 1778 -5072 -1297 309 Arghakhanchi -166 -271 2830 -2415 21 1 Pyuthan -1 -9 -55 66 -1 0 Kapilbastu 2097 -789 5044 -6701 157 192 Dang -399 -3206 -15133 21272 -2534 0 Salyan -49 42 -1962 2041 -72 0 Banke 483 -1709 -5939 8028 -638 -225 Bardia 1149 -2498 -856 3424 -99 -1120 Surkhet 204 -1409 -6655 8045 -185 0 Doti -8 -60 -228 290 6 0 Kailali 2418 -2481 -7249 8665 -522 -831 Kanchanpur 2066 -1879 -2028 634 1021 186 Dadeldhura -43 -173 -3829 4083 -38 0 Total 18020 -33040 11805 15507 -18427 6135

Chapter 4: Drivers of land use and land cover change

The pathways of land use and land cover change reveals a complex interplay of natural and human factors. The change in land use and land cover is basically forest to agricultural land or shrub/degraded forest, however, it is not only in unidirectional, but also in reverse and multiple directions dictated by land use decision making, policy, state governance, and the natural factors like river activity, erosion and landslides.

In the historical context, a dramatic land use and land cover change in Tarai begins with the eradication malaria in 1950s and government policy to allow deforestation in Tarai and Duns to raise land revenue. Meanwhile Nepal launched resettlement program for the poor and natural disaster effected people, who had no land (Joshi, et al., 2000)

In the inner river valleys of Churia hills, deforestation and conversion of cultivated land was attributed to the migrants who were the victims of acute poverty and natural disaster in the nearby hills districts. In Ratu Khola river valley, Mahottari and Dhanusha districts settlements like Bhulke, Laminanda, Prasai, Bahummara, Lotagau, Rajbas, Upper Patu, Gumastatol, and Dhapsar came into existence after 1965. These settlers were mainly the disaster victims of Ramechap and Sindhuli districts.

The history about the large-scale migration in the hills is indefinite. Over pouring of hill migrants bounded or from to Tarai after the malaria eradication could be one of the causes. But the migration and settlement history of the people from middle mountain parts in the Churia hills is probably older than in Tarai. In Banganga watershed, Arghakhanchi districts many people, who were either poverty stricken, or disaster victim, including some outlawed people from Magarat region (part of Middle mountain) have arrived settled some 100 to 200 years ago in the Churia hills and have converted forest land on slopes and valleys to cultivated terraces and sheds. Origin of many settlements in Churia hills can be traced in their status as Kharkas in the recent past (before 20 years).These Kharkas were the sites of the marginal cultivated land in terms of productivity, located off the farmer’s main farm unit and also acted as the grazing place and seasonal sheds of cattle and buffaloes. In course of time these Kharkas have become sites of permanent residence of the households. Most of these households are families that branched off the joint family in the main farm unit based at permanently settled areas. Badahare, Kalleri, Netakharka, Bahunkharka,Chalunda, Ghartisara, Pahere, Malarani, Tallo Amja, Lunkun, Jamune, are the typical examples of the Kharkas in the Banganga area those now have become permanent settlements (Ghimire, 2001).

Subsequently the growth of urban centres and expansion of the road networks with as main artery of transportation joining east-west Nepal and hills through feeder ways has given impetus to deforestation and degradation (partly due to ineffective government regulation and restriction on undue exploitation of timber and other biomass resources and over grazing. Categorically speaking in the last two decades and more, the following driver of land use and land cover change has been indentified.

1. The growing population in the regions in relation to poor land productivity and cultivation in marginal land have forced deforestation and subsequent land degradation.

2. Increase in grazing livestock size, which fostered excessive and uncontrolled grazing and exploitation of forest resources for fodder and litter also hindered regeneration and plantations.

3. Grazing is common in Bhabhar and Tarai in the floodplain and old riverbed (Fig. 17). However, in dry season, grasses on such areas are not enough and people use nearby forest area for grazing land. Cattle from the villages in Bhabhar and Middle Tarai covering a travel distance of more than 20 km are brought for grazing. The Churia hill slope has been facing the grazing pressure from the livestock of Kamala watershed across northern boundary (ridge line) of watershed. The people of northern hill and Khoch use the watershed’s hill slope for grazing, establishing temporary cowshed (goth) because of better forage/fodder conditions.

Figure 17. Grazing of livestocks in the flood plain of Dudeira Khola.

4. Unemployed landless or people with little land also increased deforestation in the areas where there is market. Many people living in squatter settlements or nearly riverbanks and roads recurrently go into the forest, collect firewood both green as well dry, and bring hundreds of loads of firewood in the town. This activity has become only available means of livelihood for many families. Pulling cart and tractor are also usually used to extract firewood and timber (Figure 18 and 19). 5. High dependency on firewood for energy consumption in both domestic and commercial use in rural areas, semi urban areas, and market centers located in Churia-Tarai region, Bhabhar and Tarai and Duns has continued driving forces causing forest degradation and impoverisation.

A B

C D

Figure 18. Dependency on forest resources for firewood, fodder, and timber, at upstream of Jaladh Khola

Figure 19. Loads of firewood ready for sell to nearby towns (near Pathalaiya) .

6. High timber value tree such as Sal, Khayar, Khirro, Dabdabe, Sirish, Barkule,, Karam and Asan in the Churia hill slope are declining in the alarming rate. The average size of timber tree trunk has declined. Timber smuggling has been increasing rapidly because of incompetence in enacting forest rules and law. Such smuggling has been done in the camouflage of the firewood collection and sand and gravel quarry/extractions.

7. The impending poverty, coupled with lack of good governance and political turmoil in the recent past has been cause of undue and indiscreet exploitation of forest. In the Kamla Khola region, Chandanpur, Sindhuli in the Southern flanks an foothills of Churia hills, i.e., in Kalikhola, Gainchi, Selar Bafar, and Chaarkhola areas of , a large tract forest was cleared for cultivation and settlement in an organized or semi/pseudo organized way during the transition period after mass political movement in 2006 B.S., which brought an end to Maoist insurgency (Figure 20).

Figure 20. Emergence of new settlement in the recently forested part in Chandanpur area.

8. The lack of governance and very weak forest administration at the backdrop of heightened Maoist insurgency, followed by political transition and chaos after regime change in 2006, a large tract of forest land including plantation areas were illegally cleared on institutional level. Involvement of political and local institutions with undue nexus with state authority has fostered deforestation and expansion of cultivated land for rehabilitation of so-called landless, disaster victims or internally displaced people in several districts such as Ramauli area Sarlahi (Figure 21a and b).

Figure 22a. Extensive deforestation and conversion to cultivated land, Ramauli, south of Hariwan, Sarlahi

Figure 22b. Extensive deforestation and conversion to cultivated land, Sibir Basti, south of Hariwan, Sarlahi

9. Occupation of partiland (unregistered public land is commonly encroached by the landless or small size landholders or disaster victims is still going on in Bhabar area of Dhanusha, in Cheyattar bigha area (Figure 23).

Figure 23. Settlements on the unregisterd land in the Cheyattar bigha area at Bhalu Khola, Dhanusha district.

10. Changing river morphology and landslide and erosion has been natural drivers of change landscape in Churia-Tarai region. River course change has attributed change in micro- topography and land cover in Duns, Bhabar and Tarai. Interpreting river morphology from the 1990/91, 2001, and 2010 Landsat Imagery several incidence of land damage and course abandonment can be detected. Loss of cultivated land, grass/grazing land and forest land due to river encroachment, while in parts area abandoned by channels or old riverbeds have been brought into cultivation (Figure 24.), or reused as grazing areas or used for tree plantations in hazard areas. The cyclic pattern of the encroachment and abandonment has lent to the change in landscape of Churia-Tarai region.

Figure 24. Reclamation of old flood plain for agricultural land by the landowner, Ratu Khola area

11. Land fragmentation due to family separation is prevalent and is one of the limiting factors for modern technological and scientific innovation in agriculture. Pressure on cultivated land is increasing rapidly as result of population growth on one hand and the damage of cultivated land by flood in other hand. Although there is cycle of damage and reclamation of land between 6-7 years (Ghimire, et al., 2008), but the net pressure has been continuously positive which implies impending poverty, livelihood insecurity, and pressure on natural resources and land degradation and so on.

Chapter 5: Conclusions

Cultivated land and forest is dominant land use and land cover type in the Churia-Tarai region, which is followed by shrub and riverbed. In the last two decades, i.e., 1990/91-2010, there has an increase in agricultural land in the entire physographic regions, comparatively low in the hills and Duns and high in Bhabhar and Tarai. Deforestation was high in Bhabhar and Tarai , whereas the reverse process, i.e., regeneration of forest was observed in the Hills and Duns. Although much cultivated land lie on the gentle to sloping land, i.e., below 30 percent slope, but more than 7 % of the cultivated land lie on the steep slopes (< 30 percent), which is not ecologically viable. On gentler slopes of Churia hills expansion of cultivated land was observed whereas the steep slopes were now increased use for forestry, which is a good indicator in the hills. However, this is overall scenario of hills, whereas in certain locations of some districts deforestation for settlement and cultivated land was observed. Hence the location wise management strategy Churia hill land cover resources should be envisaged. The pathways of land use and cover change by physiographic units reveal that conversion of shrub to forest and old riverbed to shrub or forests in the Churia-hills and Duns was prevalent respectively. Whereas in the Bhabar conversion of forest to shrub/ degraded forest was dominant , other major pathways were conversion of forest or shrub to agriculture land and encroachment of riverbed on agriculture, forest or shrub and grass/grazing areas. In Tarai conversion of forest to shrub/degraded forest or cultivated was dominant. Conversion of riverbed to cultivated land and vice versa can also be consider a significant pathway of land use and land cover change in Tarai.

Distict of Saptari, Sarlahi, Nawalparansi, Rupandehi, Chitwan, Kapilvastu, Bardia, Kailali and Kanchanpur, revealed a net increase in cultivated land with above 1000 ha. Significant decline in forest cover was observed in Sunsari, Saptari, Mohattari, Sarlahi, Parsa, Chitwan, and (above 5000 ha). The forest cover had increased (over 3000 ha) in the Sindhuli, Dhanusha, Makwanpur, Dang, Salyan, Banke, Bardiya, and Dadeldhura. A remarkable increase in shrub/degraded forest area ( > 3000) was observed in the districts of Saptari, Mohattari, Sarlahi, Parsa, Chitwan, Nawalparansi and Kapilvastu.

The change in land use and land cover is basically forest to agricultural land or shrub/degraded forest, however, it is not only in unidirectional, but also in reverse and multiple directions dictated by poverty, landlessness and unemployment, natural disaster, policy, state of governance, and the natural factors like river activity, erosion and landslides. High incidence of landless people and marginal landholders and heavy dependency on agriculture mostly the subsistent traditional crop and growing livestock pressure, heavy dependency on fuelwood make the Churia hill-Tarai region vulnerable to deforestation, natural hazards and land degradation, which recycle the poverty and ecosystem degradation in vicious circle. In addition, the lack of good governance and policy instability has further encouraged for indiscriminate and illegal exploitation of forest resources in the Churia-Tarai region. References

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T, and Witmer, R.E, 1972. A land use classification system for use with remote sensor data: U.S. Geol. Survey Cire. 671, 16p.

CBS, 2005. Statistical Year Book of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, HMG, Nepal, 445 pp.

DHM, 2005. Precipitation Records of Nepal, 1980–2004. Department of Hydrology and Meterology, Ministry of Water Resoureces, HMG, Nepal.

DMG (Department of Mines and Geology), 2007. Geological maps of Exploration Block-1, Dhangadi, far western Nepal. Petroleum Promotion Exploration Project, Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu.

Gansser, A., 1964. Geology of the Himalayas. Interscience Publishers. John Wiley & Sons, London.

Ghimire, M., Pathak, M., Bhatta, B and Bogati, R. 2008. Situation and trend analysis of Churia Area using Geographic Information and Remote sensing. CAPS strategy.

Ghimire, M., Paudyal, P., Pathak, M. Bogati, R. 2008. Impact of Hydro-geological processes and land degradation on livelihood strategy in the Churia and Terai Region of Nepal.

Joshi A.L., Shrestha, K. and Sigdel, H. 2000. Deforestation and Participatory Forest Management Policy in Nepal. In Uderlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation. Asia World Rainforest Movement.

Lavé, J., Avouac, J.P., 2001. Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal. Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (B11), 26,561-26,591.

LRMP (Land Resource Mapping Project), 1986: Land system report, Kenting Earth Science, Kathmandu.

Tukuoka, T., Takayasu, K., Yoshida, M., Hisatomi, K., 1986. The Churia(Siwalik) group of Arung Khola area, west Central Nepal. Memoirs of the Faculty of Science Shimane University, 20, pp.135-210.

APPENDIX-1

VDCs located in Churia Hills and Duns

Churia hills Dun Total Distirct VDC Hectare % Hectare % Hectare Jhapa Bahundangi 23.9 4.5 534.4 Khudunabari 80.8 17 476.2 Satasidham 104.4 20.2 516.8 Shantinagar 67.1 14.9 450.1 Surunga 42.4 8 532.7 Ilam Bajho 719.9 73.5 979.4 Chisapani 7.6 2.4 313.4 Chulachuli 342.6 52.3 655.1 Danabari 977.3 94 1039.3 Ebhang 17.1 4 421.9 Erautar 135.7 45.2 300.4 Jirmale 147 41.8 351.5 Jitpur 3.7 0.8 458.6 Kolbung 108.6 31.4 346.1 Laxmipur 95 18.1 524.7 Mahamai 951.9 99.9 953.3 Sakfara 142.7 40.5 352.6 Siddhithumka 10.9 3.8 285.5 Morang Bhogateni 539.1 80.1 672.9 Kerabari 85.3 11 778.4 Letang 39 6.7 579.5 Patigaun 15.1 6.1 247.7 Ramitekhola 32.7 7.6 430.4 Tandi 481.4 100 481.4 Warangi 40.9 10.1 405.9 Yangshila 492.3 100 492.3 Dhankuta Ahale 52.3 14 373.8 Sunsari Barahachhetra 281.2 60.4 465.7 Bishnupaduka 365.9 77.7 470.8 DharanN.P. 22.6 2.3 962.9 Panchkanya 355.7 100 355.7 Bhojpur Dummana 5.8 1.5 392.1 Saptari Bakdhauwa 247.6 60.6 408.5 Bhangaha 226.2 64.2 352.6 Dharampur 4.4 11.8 37 Dhodhanpur 75.7 45.1 167.7 Fatepur 44.9 14.8 56.9 303.7 Jandaul 161.3 70 230.5 Kalyanpur 39.5 22.2 177.8 Kamalpur 71.1 30.8 231.2 Khojpur 104.7 49.8 210.2 Khoksarparbaha 162.7 59.8 272.1 Kushaha 31.7 25.7 123.5 Lohajara 0 0 114.1 Madhupati 30.6 22 138.9 Pansera 64.4 49.3 130.8 Pipra(West) 19.3 13.9 139.1 Prasabani 2.7 2.2 118.7 Rupnagar 44.7 28.3 157.9 Sitapur 43 33.3 128.9 Terahota 97.4 41 237.5 Theliya 128.5 53 242.3 Siraha Badharamal 86.1 23.8 362 Bishnupurkatti 737.5 81.2 908.7 Chandrodayapur 58.3 33.8 172.3 Dhodhana 177.1 64.4 275 Fulbariya 133.3 36.5 365.6 GovindpurTaregana 239.2 60.9 393 Jamadaha 64.4 38.7 166.4 Karjanha 109.7 50.4 217.8 Muksar 81.5 40.3 202.3 RamnagarMirchaiya 40.4 31.1 130 Udaipur Bashaha 5.7 0.8 670.9 680.3 Beltar 22.9 4 545.7 568.8 Chaudandi 69.5 15.3 18.2 454 Hadiya 324.3 28.1 830.3 1154.5 Jalpachilaune 104.2 28.9 0.5 360.6 Jogidaha 303.5 32 643.8 947.3 Katari 714 100 714 Katunjebawala 874.3 89.2 979.6 Khanbu 1.1 0.3 407.6 Mainamiani 333.1 59.1 563.5 Pachchawati 648.3 84.2 769.8 Risku 609.1 94.4 645.4 Saune 539.6 75.4 715.5 Sidhdipur 183.4 44.4 8.6 2.1 413.4 Sirise 26.8 6.4 417.4 Sundarpur 178.1 28.3 451.3 71.7 629.4 Tapeswori 0 0 252 35.9 701.3 Tawashree 33 8.5 388.9 Thoksila 41.4 3.9 66.8 6.3 1065.9 Tribeni 850.9 100 850.9 Triyuga N.P. 2114.5 55.1 1722.2 44.9 3836.7 Valayadanda 456.7 58.6 779.9 Dhanusa Begadawar 124.1 38.9 318.9 Bharatpur 76.8 22.9 336 Godar 1609.6 93.3 1724.7 Hariharpur 17.8 10.8 164.9 Nakatajhijh 233.8 63.6 368 Puspalpur 226.3 74.6 303.2 TulsiChauda 368.7 97.9 376.7 Umaprempur 12.9 5.5 235.2 Yagyabhumi 68.5 21.6 317.8 Mahottari Gauribas 456.5 88.9 513.5 Khayarmara 522.3 60.4 865.1 Maisthan 389.8 49.8 783.6 Sindhuli 51.2 13.5 380.5 Arunthakur 165.9 37 447.7 Bastipur 7.8 2.8 279.3 Belghari 363.4 100 363.4 Bhadrakali 55.6 11.9 469 Bhimsthan 235.7 54.9 429.3 Dadiguranshe 767.9 100 767.9 Dudhouli 209.2 100 209.2 Hariharpur Gadhi 605.1 99.8 606.4 Harsahi 217.2 100 217.2 Hatpate 490.7 100 490.7 Jarayotar 269 59.6 451.2 KakurThakur 257.8 40.8 632.3 Kalpabrishykha 1200.4 100 1200.4 Kamalamai N.P. 1813.6 93.8 1933.2 Kapilakot 877.9 88.1 996.8 Kyaneshwor 1146.9 100 1146.9 Ladabhir(Mahendra) 279 100 279 Lampantar 123.8 39.7 311.5 Mahadevsthan 564.6 100 564.6 Mahendrajhayadi 760.3 99.2 766.1 16.3 6.2 264.9 Nipane 176.3 100 176.3 Pipalmadi 652.1 100 652.1 Ranibas 472 100 472 Ranichuri 498.8 65.9 756.9 Santeswori(Rampur) 21.2 7.2 294.6 Sirthouli 446.6 100 446.6 Tamajor 102 30.9 329.9 Tandi 339.3 100 339.3 TribhuvanAmbote 122.2 31.2 392 Sarlahi Atrouli 205.7 66 311.6 Dhungrekhola 143.5 47.5 302.1 Kalinjor 169 44.5 379.9 Karmaiya 45 13.8 325.2 NarayanKhola 465.8 100 465.8 Parwanipur 567 67.6 838.6 Pattharkot 142.4 42.1 338.3 Lalitpur Gimdi 33.7 14.9 225.9 Thuladurlung 21 12.3 170.4 Kavre Palanchok 2.5 1.1 235.9 Gokule 48.4 10.3 472.1 Milche 7.1 3.1 225.8 Saldhara 1.8 1.1 162 Salmechakala(Taldhu) 1.5 1.8 84.8 Royal Chitawan Parsa National Park 2516.2 43.6 4.4 5776.8 Thori 163.9 24.6 666.9 Rautahat Chandranigahapur 354.6 30.3 1169.3 Judibela 137.8 40.8 337.5 Paurai 183.8 44.1 416.5 Rangapur 59.3 8.4 706.5 Bara Amlekhganj 594.1 57.9 1026.9 Bharatganj Sigaul 105.5 19.3 545.6 Nijgadh 125.2 13.2 945.6 Ratanpuri 633.7 52.9 1197.7 Makwanpur Ambhanjyang 143.1 38.3 36.9 9.9 373.4 Basamadi 461.2 67.2 97.6 14.2 686.1 Betini 590.8 94.7 624 Bhaise 39.4 6.7 13.7 2.3 585.4 Churiyamai 100.9 31 225.1 69 326 Dhimal 988.7 100 988.7 Faparbari 1322.3 100 1322.3 Handikhola 654.7 66.3 332.6 33.7 987.3 Hatiya 140.1 44.4 175.5 55.6 315.6 HetaudaN.P. 107.8 24.3 336 75.7 443.8 Hurnamadi 163.3 52.7 146.6 47.3 309.9 Kankada 79.4 11.1 717.2 Makwanpurgadhi 482.5 92.5 24 4.6 521.4 Manahari 703.4 81.2 162.9 18.8 866.3 Manthali 98 56.5 173.5 Padam Pokhari 63.3 18.1 285.6 81.9 348.9 Parsa Wildlife Reserve 704.6 46.4 812.8 53.6 1517.4 Raigaun 1006.1 100 1006.1 Raksirang 72.5 16 453.9 Sarikhet Palase 260.3 47.9 543.4 Shikharpur 372.9 100 372.9 ShreepurChhatiwan 1506.5 100 0.3 1506.8 Thingan 353.2 57.3 616.2 Chitwan Ayodhyapuri 707.5 66.3 359.9 33.7 1067.6 Bachhyauli 0 0 180.5 100 180.5 Bagauda 167.1 42.4 226.7 57.5 393.9 Bhandara 46.3 22.6 158.6 77.4 204.9 Bharatpur N.P. 8.1 0.5 1498.4 99.5 1506.5 Birendranagar 145.4 44.8 179.4 55.2 324.8 Chainpur 87.5 31.8 187.3 68.2 274.8 10.5 2.8 54.8 14.8 371.2 0 0 173.1 100 173.1 Fulbari 0 0 65.9 100 65.9 Gardi 45.1 18.3 201.7 81.7 246.9 0 0 154.4 100 154.4 Gunjanagar 0 0 211.6 100 211.6 Jagatpur 0 0 167.8 100 167.8 0 0 429.5 100 429.5 Kabilas 85.5 14.6 58.6 10 584.6 Kathar 0 0 157.7 100 157.7 0 0 165 100 165 Korak 275.9 58.6 4 0.9 470.9 Kumroj 0 0 197.3 100 197.3 Madi Kalyanpur 156.7 49.1 162.4 50.9 319.1 Mangalpur 0 0 236.6 100 236.6 0 0 282.7 100 282.7 Padampur 0 0 168 100 168 Parbatipur 0 0 93.1 100 93.1 0 0 171 100 171 Piple 250.6 63.5 143.9 36.5 394.5 0 0 128.2 100 128.2 N.P. 0 0 329.4 100 329.4 Royal Chitawan National Park 3927.7 47.6 4316.2 52.3 8250.2 Saradanagar 0 0 125.8 100 125.8 Shaktikhor 82.7 16.9 160.8 32.9 489 Sibanagar 0 0 117.6 100 117.6 Siddi 127.7 27.4 0 466.7 0 0 131.6 100 131.6 Nawalparasi Agryouli 0 0 184.2 100 184.2 Amarapuri 24.6 25.4 72.2 74.6 96.8 Benimanipur 422 65 226.8 35 648.8 DawanneDevi 200 46.4 0 430.9 Deurali 251.5 34.3 255 34.8 733 Devachuli 97.8 37.3 48.5 18.5 262.2 Dhaubadi 148.9 22.9 90 13.9 648.8 Dhurkot 1201.2 85 103.9 7.4 1413.1 Dibyapuri 165.7 59.2 83.7 29.9 279.9 Dumkibas 510.5 58.4 363.3 41.6 873.8 Gaidakot 275.9 46.5 175.2 29.5 593 Hupsekot 50.7 13.5 0 376 Kawaswoti 0 0 137.4 100 137.4 0 0 150 100 150 0 0 131.6 100 131.6 Mainaghat 342.8 93.4 24.2 6.6 367.1 Makar 198.6 43.8 0 453.7 Mukundapur 135.1 52.8 121 47.2 256.1 Narayani 0 0 163.6 100 163.6 Naya Belhani 125 22.4 434.1 77.6 559.2 Pithauli 0 0 139.9 100 139.9 0.1 0.1 140.7 99.9 140.8 Prasauni 82.7 32.1 175 67.9 257.7 Rajahar 168.8 46.4 96.7 26.6 364.2 Rakachuli 579.7 89.1 15.1 2.3 650.7 Ratanapur 347.1 64.3 540 Royal Chitawan National Park. 339.9 38.6 520 59.1 879.4 Rupauliya 58.3 29.9 195 Shivmandir 72.6 17.6 306.1 74 413.4 Sunwal 297.4 33.3 894.1 4.3 1.3 331.4 98.7 335.8 Tribeni Susta 65.4 33.6 194.5 Palpa Bahadurpur 13 6.9 187.8 Baldengadhi 226.4 96.3 235.2 Dobhan 621.7 84.2 738.6 Gothadi 547.7 83.1 659.4 Juthapauwa 75.9 26.2 289.4 Jyamire 46.1 11.4 403.5 Kachal 346 84.5 409.7 Kaseni 2.1 0.7 308.9 Koldada 128.2 32.5 394.7 Masyam 0.2 0.1 333.6 Rahabas 95.4 42.5 224.5 Satyawati 226.4 82 275.9 Tanahu Devghat 0 0 40.8 7.9 512.9 Kota 11.4 2.5 464.6 Rupandehi Butawal N.P. 336.2 52.2 643.7 Devadaha 502.5 56.3 893.3 Dudharakchhe 348.4 54.1 643.9 Parroha 196.5 45.1 435.8 Saljhundi 125.2 30 418 Arghakhanchi Jukena 105.3 21.5 488.6 403.1 53 760.2 Maidan 46.5 17 274.4 Siddhara 1853.5 96.1 1928.4 Simalapani 916.3 98.7 928.3 Sitapur 60.6 20.5 295.9 Subarnakhal 65.7 24 273.7 Thada 820.3 82.4 995.7 Pyuthan Bangesal 283.6 52.3 541.9 Kapilbastu Banganga 7 2.1 334 Barakulpur 281.8 27.8 1014.7 Dubiya 269.3 38.4 702.2 Gugauli 263.1 25.9 1014.1 Mahendrakot 26.5 5.9 450.3 Malwar 60.7 10.7 568 Motipur 37 9.5 390 Shivagadhi 380.9 56.6 673.2 Shivapur 423.8 35.3 4.7 0.4 1200.5 Dang 0.3 0.1 147 28.8 511 Bela 1504.5 78.7 406.7 21.3 1911.3 Bijauri 106.9 22.8 214.8 45.9 468.5 Chaulahi 176.8 41.3 251.1 58.7 427.8 0 0 210.1 100 210.1 Dharna 448.6 64.4 247.9 35.6 696.5 0 0 249.5 100 249.5 Duruwa 16.3 5 307.8 95 324.2 Gadhawa 459 58.6 324.5 41.4 783.5 Gangapraspur 278.9 52.9 248.1 47.1 527.1 Gobardiya 1091.8 73.2 399 26.8 1490.9 Goltakuri 469.3 76.4 145.1 23.6 614.4 Halwar 3.7 1 130.9 36.7 356.5 Hansipur 428.9 40.5 1059.6 Hapur 57.4 10 223.1 38.9 572.8 0 0 240.1 100 240.1 Koilabas 529.6 100 529.7 Lalmatiya 424.5 64.3 236.2 35.7 660.7 Laxmipur 331.8 52.4 238.1 37.6 632.7 Manpur 0 0 308.2 100 308.2 Narayanpur 0 0 264.9 100 264.9 Panchakule 489 71.5 194.7 28.5 683.7 Pawannagar 0 0 143 46.7 305.9 Phulbari 206.2 42.4 279.7 57.6 485.9 Purandhara 654.3 55.2 323.7 27.3 1184.4 Rajpur 3083.4 89.3 368.9 10.7 3452.4 Rampur 436.9 48 166.8 18.3 911 Satbariya 1567.1 75.9 497.9 24.1 2064.9 0 0 256.9 100 256.9 Shantinagar 3.2 0.9 133.3 37.3 356.8 Shreegaun 0 0 173.9 100 173.9 Sisahaniya 353.8 55.7 281.5 44.3 635.3 Sonpur 342.3 63.1 199.8 36.9 542.1 0 0 222.9 100 222.9 Tribhuwan Nagar N.P. 33.5 4.8 408.4 59 691.7 Tulsipur N.P. 29.1 3.4 330 38.5 856.7 0 0 244.5 100 244.5 Salyan Kabhrechaur 1114 100 1114 Kalimati Kalche 1165 84.9 1371.5 Kalimati Rampur 1282.4 75.1 1708.1 Banke Bejapur 597.5 54.4 1099.4 Chisapani 176.8 49.2 359.4 Kanchanapur 1244 47.4 2622 Kathkuiya 78.8 31.3 251.8 Khaskusma 2778.1 99.5 2793 Kohalpur 318.2 25.2 1263.8 Mahadevpuri 595.6 30.9 1927.3 9.4 2.1 447.4 Bardia Belawa 360 38.5 934.5 Royal Bardiya Nation 5445.5 65.3 8340.7 Surkhet Babiyachaur 276.5 63.4 435.9 Betan 299.6 44.5 673.7 Bidyapur 264.7 57.4 460.8 Bijaura 290.9 42 693.1 BirendranagarN.P. 0 0 107.1 32.9 325.1 601.6 100 601.6 Dahachaur 7.6 3.7 205.7 Dasarathpur 45.2 22.6 199.7 496.2 100 496.2 Gumi 28.4 8.6 329.3 108.1 17.9 603.6 Hariharpur 923 100 923 16.2 5.3 19 6.3 302.6 Kafalkot 192.8 55.3 348.3 Kunathari 508.2 59.7 851.3 Lagaam 338.6 31.5 1073.3 Latikoili 410 67 201.7 33 611.7 Lekhfarsa 41.8 7.9 530.1 Lekhgaun 984.8 100 984.8 60.6 23.7 256.3 Maintada 400.5 100 400.5 Malarani 95.2 33.8 281.1 Mehelkuna 241.4 89.1 270.9 Pokharikanda 304.1 42.1 723 Ramghat 393.3 100 393.3 Sahare 201.1 39.7 506.5 79.3 17 465.4 Satakhani 158.3 28.1 562.9 Taranga 1200.5 100 1200.5 Tatopani 1134.7 100 1134.7 Uttarganga 197.6 59.5 133.4 40.2 332.3 Doti Barchhen 110.5 10.3 1071.4 Chhatiwan 93.7 21.1 444 Dhanglagau 111.7 14.8 754.5 Laxmi Nagar 26.4 3.3 808 Nirauli 10.8 1.9 574.2 Kailali Baliya 404.6 34.1 1185 Chauha 180 25.1 715.9 Chaumala 12.8 1 1307.6 Godawari 1363 78.6 1734.7 Khairala 1904.3 88.5 2152.8 Malakheti 19.3 4.1 0 476.6 Masuriya 67.4 10.1 667 Mohanyal 1283.2 89.5 1434.3 Nigali 936.6 86 1088.8 Pandaun 1202.8 100 1203.2 RamsikharJhala 528.9 35.6 1484.8 Sahajpur 1327.3 99 1340.2 Sugarkhal 3056.4 95.9 3187.1 Kanchanpur Daijee 327.7 34.5 949.9 Jhalari 330.3 29.1 1135.1 Krishnapur 397.8 25.9 1537.1 MahendranagarN.P. 368.6 23.1 1596.1 Royal Shuklaphanta 153.5 10.2 1510.1 Suda 184.4 34.4 535.8 Dadeldhura Alital 1088.1 74.7 1457.3 Jogbuda 2226.4 100 2226.5 Sirsha 632.4 39 1620.3

APPENDIX-2

Land use and land cover by physiographic unit, 1990/91

Physigraphic Grass/ region Cultivated land grazing land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total Churia hills 136639 15320 145075 1084783 50739 2 1432558 Duns 169033 4709 16064 103714 36952 0 330471 Bhabhar 182427 11940 19602 330853 37290 2315 584427 Tarai 1242441 23415 38349 175591 75109 15009 1569914 Total 1730539 55383 219091 1694941 200090 17326 3917370

Land use and land cover by physiographic unit, 2010

Physigraphic region Agriculture Grass/grazing land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total Churia hills 137803 664 109353 1136375 48283 80 1432558 Duns 170590 1167 21482 108025 29208 0 330471 Bhabhar 187498 4998 48888 302185 38026 2832 584427 Tarai 1252619 15535 51200 163876 66146 20538 1569914 Total 1748510 22362.7 230923.6 1710460 181663.2 23450.2 3917370

APPENDIX-3

Land use and land cover in Churia-Tarai region by district, 1991

Area (ha) Cultivated Grass/grazing District land land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total Ilam 12793 2669 6260 20849 2759 10 45340 Jhapa 125130 2835 2891 18216 10526 1151 160749 Morang 120902 3819 3771 30122 7129 595 166338 Sunsari 81261 2976 2551 22487 8038 321 117634 Dhankuta 180 8 51 144 12 395 Bhojpur 1 1 Udayapur 29034 2347 12212 82272 8991 15 134871 Saptari 84761 2576 4988 25959 9156 802 128242 Siraha 87813 1491 7807 11851 4599 302 113863 Sindhuli 27643 1017 10214 92126 12160 143160 Dhanusa 80719 2120 6527 23825 5202 494 118887 Mahottari 68810 1887 3132 21410 4545 308 100092 Makwanpur 33375 514 7671 87058 11812 140430 Sarlahi 87095 1537 2987 27165 7061 475 126320 Rautahat 65244 780 1673 28394 7139 405 103635 Parsa 56281 1099 3168 73474 6300 222 140544 Bara 71612 1123 2442 46182 4937 897 127193 Chitawan 51739 1690 5982 116673 12360 188444 Tanahu 0 4 0 15 19 Nawalparasi 70368 3724 2886 86159 9412 992 173541 Palpa 4145 189 588 19423 211 24556 Rupandehi 91726 1097 2010 29444 3255 2783 130315 Arghakhanchi 4691 271 1852 38943 794 46551 Pyuthan 273 9 72 876 122 1352 Kapilbastu 89114 1204 3677 64440 3172 3298 164905 Dang 69292 3218 30781 127460 11805 242556 Salyan 2327 343 3248 30730 1659 38307 Banke 60517 2097 10321 107892 6659 654 188140 Bardiya 68433 3352 12433 103766 10686 1465 200135 Surkhet 19599 1521 16505 73423 4712 115760 Doti 513 60 637 2393 173 3776 Kailali 97490 5214 30101 178960 13931 1423 327119 Kanchanpur 62143 2449 14469 73243 8715 715 161734 Dadeldhura 5464 173 5224 29550 2053 42464 Grand Total 1730487 55414 219131 1694909 200102 17327 3917370

APPENDIX-3

Land use and land cover in Churia-Tarai region by district, 2010

Area (ha) Cultivated Grass/grazing District land land Shrub Forest Riverbed Others Total Ilam 13190 158 7894 21563 2505 30 45340 Jhapa 125019 3229 6427 17775 6098 2201 160749 Morang 121443 444 5788 31902 5984 777 166338 Sunsari 77360 2459 11377 15793 9923 722 117634 Dhankuta 246 136 13 395 Bhojpur 1 1 Udaiapur 29220 564 14391 82700 7809 187 134871 Saptari 88160 1556 10045 18365 8354 1762 128242 Siraha 87927 588 2811 16647 4639 1251 113863 Sindhuli 28250 7067 95830 12013 143160 Dhanusa 80492 732 1554 27516 6917 1676 118887 Mahottari 69621 975 6561 16390 4669 1876 100092 Makwanpur 33058 264 5455 91201 10452 140430 Lalitpur 0 0 0 0 Kavrepalanchok 0 0 2 2 Sarlahi 89511 903 7984 21413 5248 1261 126320 Rautahat 65064 576 4471 28277 4810 437 103635 Parsa 55152 975 11713 66202 6018 484 140544 Bara 72076 416 4850 43765 5289 797 127193 Chitwan 53728 702 16529 109706 7779 188444 Tanahu 0 4 15 19 Nawalparasi 72350 471 7901 82285 9383 1151 173541 Palpa 4067 819 19470 200 24556 Rupandehi 95212 1893 3788 24372 1958 3092 130315 Arghakhanchi 4525 0 4682 36528 815 1 46551 Pyuthan 272 17 942 121 1352 Kapilbastu 91211 415 8721 57739 3329 3490 164905 Dang 68893 12 15648 148732 9271 242556 Salyan 2278 385 1286 32771 1587 38307 Banke 61000 388 4382 115920 6021 429 188140 Bardia 69582 854 11577 107190 10587 345 200135 Surkhet 19803 112 9850 81468 4527 115760 Doti 505 409 2683 179 3776 Kailali 99908 2733 22852 187625 13409 592 327119 Kanchanpur 64209 570 12441 73877 9736 901 161734 Dadeldhura 5421 1395 33633 2015 42464 Total 1748507 22374 230936 1710416 181675 23462 3917370

APPENDIX-4

Locations of ground truthing and local interactions SN Latitude Longitude Location Remarks 1 27 24.546 85 02.606 Rajpani, Hetuada Photo taken of cutivated patches on hillslopes Kurotol 2 27 11.750 85 59.555 Pathlaiya, Bara Firewood collection and uncertified settlement Dudheura Khola 3 27 11.316 85 00 220 bridge, Bara Shrub areas and grazing land Near Dudherura 4 27 10.492 85 00. 345 Khola Forest degradation 7 27 10.771 85 09 916 Pasaha Khola Grazing land 6 27 09.161 85 14.633 Dhanbar bridge Khayar forest Newar tole, Local interaction and resettlement on flood 7 27 07.507 85 29.070 Bagmati bridge affected area 8 27 01. 476 85 54.728 Near Patu Landslides, forest and shrub I km ahead of 9 27 01.105 85 54.320 Patu Cultivated land at Ratu bridge, 10 27 04 32 85 56.534 Bahunmara Local interactiions and ground truthing 11 27 05.175 85 86.530 , Sindhuli Cultivated land, grassland/grazing land Amaha, Kamala 12 27 05 0.52 85 59.626 river, Sinduli Cultivated land, grassland/grazing land Kause, Kamala 13 27 02.635 86.02.626 river, Sindhuli Recent deforested and settled area Local interaction, recent deforested and settled 14 27 02.592 86 02.718 Chandanpur area 15 26 57.851 85 55.335 Badahari Khola Landless squatter area Birendra Bazar, 16 26 53.957 86 04.877 Dhanusha Settlement on uncertified land 17 26 57.478 85 52.710 Bhalu Khola Settlement on uncertified land Ramouli Tole, Local interaction, recent deforested and settled 18 27 03.372 85. 39.606 Hariwan area