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Effects of on World Supplies

Nature 405, 1017-1024 (2000)

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Aquaculture Environment Interactions

Direct Effects Indirect Effects

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BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Issues to Cover Genetic interactions /

Capture Based Aquaculture Extra considerations: Global vs Local trends sustainability

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries What are the industrial fisheries?

What are the issues? 1. Availability - Globalization 2. Sustainability of fisheries 3. Impact on trophic web

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Increase in global aquaculture in relation to capture fisheries

Source: SOFIA 2012 FAO

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Using wild fish for aquaculture feed

What are the answers we need? Skretting Whole fish vs By-products % FI-FO «Trash fish» use

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries How much fish is needed?

Summary totals for fed species and aquafeed production (million tonnes)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

Production, Million Tonnes Million Production, 10

0 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019 YEAR

Total fed aquaculture production Total feeds used Source: Tacon et al 2011 FAO

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries What species use the most feeds? (Tacon et al 2011)

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Example: Fish production in Norway from both wild fisheries and aquaculture in 2000, together with the amount of wild fish used to produce farmed fish

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Conversion of Wild Fish to Farmed Fish: the efficiency argument

5.16

4.69

2.81

3.16

2.46

1.41

0.94

0.84

0.75

1.90

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Wild fish inputs used in feed for the ten most common farmed fish and shellfish: What does it cost to produce 1 kg in aquaculture?

Total % Ratio of %fishmeal in % fish oil in Average Species Production produced wild:farmed feed feed FCR (k tonnes) with feed fish Marine fish 754 50 50 15 2.2 5.16 233 50 50 10 2 4.69 Marine 942 77 30 2 2 2.81 737 100 45 25 1.5 3.16 473 100 35 20 1.5 2.46 946 35 15 1 2 1.41 Milkfish 392 20 10 3 2 0.94 428 82 10 3 1.8 0.84 Fed 6985 35 8 1 2 0.75 Filter-feeding 5189 0 Molluscs 7321 0

FIFO explained, as pdf or click here

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Fishmeal demand by sector in 2002 and 2010.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Fishmeal demand 1995 - 2010

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Demand for fish oil by sector in 2002 and 2010.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Variation in yields of fishmeal and fish oil from different species

On average, roughly 6 kg of fish is needed to produce 1 kg of fishmeal, and roughly 12 kg of fish is needed to produce 1 kg of fish oil.

According to EWOS (2001), ‘for every 100 kg of fish that are caught, 5 kg of fish oil, and 18 kg of fishmeal is obtained .’

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Who does the fishmeal and fish oil come from?

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Global fishmeal and fish oil production: where does it come from? (Tacon et al 2011)

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Catches of the three important ¨industrial ¨ fish species in the SE Pacific, 1970 - 2000.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries South American pilchard - Sardinops sagax

ß The South American pilchard feeds mainly on planktonic such as , and phytoplankton. ß South American pilchard is an important prey for various large fish, birds and marine mammals. ß While some of the pilchard catch goes to human consumption, most is utilised for fishmeal and fish oil production. ß Dramatic decrease in catch. Following the first catches in 1961, the harvest increased from the 1970s, and peaked in 1985 at 6.5 million mt. ß Dramatic decline due to El Nino and over- - total catch in 2001 was 60,406 mt. Maximum exploitation.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Anchoveta (Peruvian ) - Engraulis ringens

ß The anchovy is a plankton feeder, and is completely dependent upon the rich phytoplankton created by the nutrient-rich water. ß Lives for 3 years and grows up to 20 cm. The anchoveta is an important prey for many seabirds. ß Anchoveta is caught to produce fishmeal and fish oil, and is one of the most heavily exploited fish in world history. ß After peaking in the 1970s (> 13 million mt), catches declined dramatically due to and a strong El Nino in the 1980s. ß During the 1990s the stock recovered until the strong El Nino in 1997-1998. The catch in 2001 was 6,443,000 mt. Maximum exploitation.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Chilean jack - murphyi

ß feeds primarily on crustaceans and , but also small and . ß Chilean jack mackerel is caught commercially using trawls, purse seines or long line. ß Can grow up to 60 cm, and is canned for human consumption as well as being used for fish meal production. ß Decrease in stock since 1996. ß Total catch in 2000 was 1,540,494 mt.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Stock catches of the main ¨industrial ¨ fish species in the North East Atlantic, 1970 - 2000.

ICES fish stock status reports

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Atlantic - harengus

ß The can grow up to 40 cm, but is usually 20-25 cm, and matures at 3-9 years. ß The herring feeds mainly on planktonic copepods, but eats other (amphipods, euphausids) and small fish. ß The Atlantic herring is one of the most numerous fish, and has been traditionally exploited in northern Europe. ß Stocks have collapsed in the mid-1960s and again in the mid-1970s due to over exploitation. ß Norwegian spring-spawning stock and autumn-spawning stock is OK. spring-spawning stock is exploited outside safe biological limits. ß Total Atlantic herring catch in 1990 was 2,400,000 mt, most of which was used for human consumption, but the surplus was used for fishmeal and fish oil production. ß Important food for many fish species (salmon, ) and is probably the most important prey for killer whales.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries European - Sprattus sprattus

ß The grows to 12-16 cm, and feeds on planktonic crustaceans. ß The European sprat is important in the North Sea, the Baltic and the Norwegian coastal waters. ß In 2001, catches of 340,000 and 200,000 mt was reported for the Baltic Sea and North Sea respectively. ß Most sprat is used in fishmeal and fish oil production, although a small amount is used for human consumption (sold as ¨anchovy ¨). ß The state of sprat stocks is assessed together with herring.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries - Mallotus villosus

ß Capelin may reach a maximum size of 23 cm, and feeds on small planktonic crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, euphausids) and small fish. ß Capelin is a key species in the food chain of the circumpolar waters, as it forms a major part of the diet for cod, , seabirds (e.g. puffin and guillemot), cetaceans, and its larvae is feed for herring. ß Stocks are fully exploited , but within safe biological limits. However, the Barents Sea stock collapsed in 1986 due to over fishing, and stocks were expected to decrease in 2003. ß In 2001, the Barents Sea catch was 568,000 mt, while the Iceland-Jan Mayen catch was 1,125,000 mt ß Main countries catching capelin are Iceland, Norway and Russia.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Norway pout - Trisopterus esmarkii

ß The Norway pout reaches 25 cm, but is typically 13-19 cm. This species feeds on bottom living crustaceans (shrimps and amphipods) as well as small fish. ß The Norway pout is an important prey species for many larger species (cod). ß Present stocks within safe biological limits. ß Total catch in 2001 was 65,600 mt.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Blue whiting - Micromesistius poutassou

ß The blue whiting can reach 50 cm, but is normally in the range 15-30 cm. Feeds mostly on small crustaceans, but will also eat small fish and cephalopods. ß Blue whiting is an important prey for larger fish such as ling, cod, haddock and also marine mammals such as pilot whales and common dolphins. ß Maximum exploitation . Presently, stocks harvested outside safe biological limits. ß The total catch in 2001 was almost 1.8 million mt. ß Most of the catch was landed for industrial purposes (fishmeal and fish oil production), although increasing quantities are sold for human consumption. ß Principle countries: Norway, Iceland, Russia and the Faeroe Islands.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Small sandeel and Lesser sandeel - Ammodytes marinus & A. tobianus

ß The small sandeel can reach 20 cm and the lesser sandeel can reach 25 cm. ß Sandeels feed on small planktonic crustaceans, fish and larvae. ß Small sandeel is an important prey for many larger fish such as cod, and many sea birds (e.g. puffin). ß Maximum exploitation , although stocks are presently within safe biological limits. ß During the last decades, the sandeel has become increasingly important for the fishery due to the decline of other more traditional species such as the herring and mackerel.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries - Trachurus trachurus

ß Atlantic horse mackerel can grow up to 60 cm, but is generally in the range 15 - 30 cm. ß Atlantic horse mackerel caught mainly for human consumption, but some is used for fishmeal and fish oil production. ß The European catch in 2001 was estimated to be 283,000 mt, with Norway, Denmark, Ireland, Netherlands and Spain being the main countries. ß North Sea stock collapsed in the 1970s due to over exploitation. ß Maximum exploitation - state of stocks are under safe biological limits.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries - scombrus

ß The Atlantic mackerel can reach 60 cm, and feeds on zooplankton and small fish. ß Recruitment is poorly understood. ß Atlantic mackerel is an important prey for , and dolphins. ß Maximum exploitation of stocks. North Sea stock collapsed in the early 1970s due to over exploitation. ß Presently, no proper recovery and low abundance. Considered to be harvested outside biological safe limits. ß Total catch in 2001 was estimated to be 678,000 mt

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Secondary Impact of Industrial fishing: Food web interactions.

ß Industrial fishing impacts the whole ecosystem, not just the target populations ß For example, in the North Sea, over- exploitation of many capelin, sandeel and Norway pout stocks, mainly for fishmeal production, have been implicated in the decline of the more valuable carnivorous species such as cod.

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Impact of industrial fishing: Food web interactions

∑ The effects of industrial fishing is also having a catastrophic impact upon seabird populations. The RSPB has reported that the UK has suffered serious seabird disasters in 2004.

∑ In the Shetland and Orkney, entire colonies of seabirds failed to produce any young because of severe food shortages. ∑ Also, hundreds of birds have been washed ashore, having perished at sea. Lack of food is thought to be the main reason.

seagulls razorbill puffin

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Food web interactions

Ecological links between intensive fish and shrimp aquaculture and capture fisheries (Naylor et al 2001)

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Industrial fishing - summary of the consequences of over-exploitation

ß Most species have a history of over-fishing.

ß Most species are a very important component of the marine ecosystem as prey for other fish, seabirds and marine mammals.

ß Some fisheries have a high by-catch of other species.

ß Some species have a natural fluctuating stock, vulnerable to change in environmental factors such as temperature (El Nino). ß All species are either fully exploited or there is not sufficient knowledge to increase catch.

ß All fish species used for fishmeal and fish oil production in both the Pacific and the Atlantic are very important for the marine ecosystem, as they are prey for a variety of fish, birds and mammals. Increased exploitation of these species to meet the demand from an expanding fish farm industry could very well turn out to be an ecological time bomb under the industry. ß From an ethical point of view should species that have traditionally be used for human consumption (herring, mackerel, pilchard) be used for fishmeal production? What has changed since 2005?

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries More Readings: SOFIA 2012 FAO Tacon et al 2011 pp. 172 – 181 Demand & supply of aquafeed pp. 186 – 193 Outlook Agriculture Chapters 2 & 4 FAO World Aquaculture 2010 Naylor et al 2001 Box 2, pp. 20-21

SAMS 2002 Scottish Bærekraftig fôr - IMR Office Synthesis Chapter 6

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Team Work

A (Borge, Frogg, Langnes, E (Egor, Mahmud, Gry, Felipe, Megan) Loopstra) How much wild fish does it take to make Is it cheaper for a small scale 1kg of fish meal? 1kg of fish oil? Does it fish farmer to use commercial matter what species are used? feed or trash fish?

B (Boge, Tysse, Nestor) What goes into fish «by- products»? What species F (Blackburn, Frey, Homm, Myklatun, are used? Santiago) What secondary effects can be caused by C (Anderssen, Gossmann, Klitschke, Werner, Wong) industrial fishing? And how does this affect sustainability? How many stocks How much wild fish does it are under sustainable management? take to grow 1 kg of farmed fish? See FIFO

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Preview: Fish meal and protein substitutes

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries : traditionally used for human consumption, as well as fish feeds.

Austevol Fishery

Krill Fishery

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries : recent history

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Antarctic Food Web

BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries Key Antarctic species dependent upon krill

Gentoo Seals penguin

Black-browed albatross

Baleen whales BIO 208 - 2016 Impact on Wild Fisheries