Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain Piotr H. Kosicki · Sławomir Łukasiewicz Editors Across the Iron Curtain

Europe Redefned Editors Piotr H. Kosicki Sławomir Łukasiewicz Department of History Institute of European Studies University of Maryland John Paul II Catholic University of College Park, MD, USA Lublin Lublin, Poland

This publication has been made , in part, by the support of the Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung, Poland Offce.

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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Editors’ Preface

In a 2015 lecture at the Catholic University of Lublin, in Poland, Wolfram Kaiser—perhaps ’s most incisive historian of Catholic politics—declared, “the history of Christian Democracy in twentieth- century Europe as a research feld is currently in a profound crisis.” Having neglected “research on the transfer of ideas and practices”— Kaiser argued—mainstream scholarship on this infuential political fam- ily is producing work of increasingly marginal impact. On the other hand, Kaiser suggested that the very audience that he was addressing—a mix of scholars and practitioners from across Western and East-Central Europe—had the opportunity to defne a promising new direction for the study of modern European politics. Poland, which played host to the conference, has, after all, consistently been the most Catholic of the for- mer Iron Curtain countries. In Kaiser’s words: “because Polish research on Christian Democracy has been somewhat disconnected from the friendly circles which have researched and propagated what I have called ‘pure’ Christian democracy, it may well be easier to develop and insert innovative ideas and approaches into changing networks and research themes.” We, the editors of this book, organized that conference. We heard in Wolfram Kaiser’s sobering assessment—which, in revised form, appears as the introduction to this book—a call to gather scholars from across the entire continent in order to defne a genuinely European research agenda.

v vi Editors’ Preface

The purpose of the May 2015 gathering in Lublin was to establish the state of the art of scholarship on Christian Democracy in twentieth-­ century Europe. Having heard over thirty presentations, we chose to invite eighteen authors to contribute to a multi-author volume propos- ing a transnational, East-to-West understanding of Christian Democracy’s many roles in the creation of a united Europe. We tasked these authors with providing a fresh perspective based on their latest research. Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain: Europe Redefned pre- sents the results of that work. We have organized this book around three thematic axes: the horizon lines of Christian Democracy as a political force in twentieth-century Europe; the successes and failures of Christian Democracy throughout the in permeating and penetrating back and forth across the Iron Curtain; and the specifc consequences of how Christian Democracy in East-Central Europe (and especially in Poland) has interacted with European Christian Democracy writ large. The volume we offer here to the reader is the fruit of our collective labors. In the aftermath of World War II, the success of (Western) assured the ascendancy of a new favor of political economy— at once neoliberal and welfarist—predicated on the incorporation of a peaceful Federal Republic of Germany into a transnational system of security guarantees. As historians from Tony Judt to Alan Milward have argued, this was a moment of revolutionary rupture in the continent’s history. Sixty years later, this order is in danger of collapsing under pressure from a whole host of threats: from the looming prospect of “Brexit”, to an unprecedented migration crisis, to the rise of a populist, xenopho- bic extreme right across the continent. In this context, it is essential for scholars to re-examine the roots of European integration in order to understand where things went wrong and, if possible, how to fx them. Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain does precisely this, through the lens of one transnational political force. Though its ori- gins lay in late-nineteenth-century Catholic social thought and activ- ism, Christian Democracy came into its own in the aftermath of World War II as the lone political force of the right that, rather than collaborate with , distinguished itself by unrepentant resistance to the Third Reich and its allies. With the Vatican’s enthusiastic support, Christian then played a central role in laying the foundations of a united Europe in the 1940s and 1950s. Editors’ Preface vii

This, at least, is the story as traditionally told. Virtually absent from this account, however, is what political scientist Jacques Rupnik has called the “other Europe”: the East-Central European nations trapped behind the Iron Curtain for four decades, until the annus mirabilis of 1989. East of the Rhine, too, Christian Democrats had once had an important voice—until the ascendancy of Communist regimes either halted, or coopted, their participation in national politics. Yet even then, both at home and in exile, the Christian Democratic dissidents of East- Central Europe played a crucial role in advancing a non-Communist politics of social justice throughout the Cold War. They also helped to launch transnational networks to lobby for this agenda across Europe— and beyond the continent’s borders, as well. East-Central European Christian Democrats benefted especially from American support, establishing themselves as Cold Warriors delicately balancing their own religious commitments with a subjective under- standing of “national interest” on the one hand, and American geopoli- tics on the other. Poles, in particular, played a central role in establishing transnational Christian Democratic networks both within Europe, and between Europe and Latin America. And yet, since the Communist collapse in 1989, Christian Democracy in Poland has arguably fared worse than while the Soviet Bloc still existed. In fact, the whole of East-Central Europe has, since the fall of the Iron Curtain, witnessed an ongoing tug of war between an integral nationalism with roots predating World War II and a technocratic neo- liberalism inspired by the American model. One of the most important results of this contest has been the sidelining of social justice as a ral- lying cry, with the result that Social and Christian Democratic move- ments alike have largely failed as political forces in East-Central Europe. While the former remains tainted by its roots in the Communist anciens régimes, the latter lacks the kind of strong backing from the Catholic Church that Western European Christian Democracy, for example, received following World War II from Pope Pius XII. There are many scholarly studies—especially in the French, German and Italian languages—of the Christian Democratic politics of postwar Western Europe, but there is not yet a single volume in any language that examines the links between transnational Christian Democracy and the nations of East-Central Europe. Moreover, existing histories of Christian Democracy have tended to focus either on ideology (e.g. the work of Philippe Chenaux) or party politics (e.g. the works of Michael viii Editors’ Preface

Gehler and Wolfram Kaiser). Most of the studies produced in French and Italian have emerged from within the Christian Democratic fold: these studies make no pretense of objectivity, instead taking as one of the prin- cipal tasks of their scholarship the dissemination of a glorious legend of Christian Democracy. While building on the foundations laid by previous generations of scholars, we insist that understanding the trajectory of “Europe” in the second half of the twentieth century requires looking beyond the conti- nent’s western half. Our volume is distinctive in two respects: its spatial geography, which looks east as well as west; and its conceptual vocabu- lary, which goes beyond the tired confnes of neofunctionalism, rational choice theory and ideological confessionalism. Instead, this book under- stands Christian Democracy—on both sides of the Iron Curtain—as a mix of nationalism, transnationalism and Cold War geopolitics. Given the dearth of scholarship highlighting the Central/Eastern European side of European transnationalism, this book represents a major step toward redefning the present agenda for research into transnational European politics and ideology. We sincerely hope that it will inspire educators and policymakers alike to seek new perspectives rooted in the most current interdisciplinary research. *** Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain is divided into three parts. The frst consists of six chapters, which broadly explore different forms taken by Christian Democracy in post-World War II Europe, offer- ing case studies at the crossroads of transnational politics and European integration that challenge well-worn scholarly narratives of the European community’s “founding fathers.” These chapters stand on their own as an argument for reimagining Christian Democracy’s role in European transnationalism, but they also provide a foil for understanding the role of East-Central European Christian Democrats. The book begins with a powerful introduction by Wolfram Kaiser, who explains the central goal of our collective efforts: breaking through the logjam of confessional and institutional agendas that have long fro- zen the lion’s share of research into European Christian Democracy into a positivist stasis. Kaiser proposes a broad-minded exploration of how Christian Democracy has interacted with other political, cultural and reli- gious forces in late-twentieth-century Europe—and how the continent’s eastern half played a central role in crafting today’s Europe that, as yet, remains almost entirely unexplored. Editors’ Preface ix

Leading Belgian historian Patrick Pasture’s chapter explores how Christian Democrats conceived of “Europe” in the 1940s and 1950s, in the fedgling years of European integration. In particular, Pasture reconstructs both continuities and discontinuities across the traditional caesura in twentieth-century European history: World War II. Defning the shifting trendlines for how Catholics and Christian Democrats imag- ined Europe allows Patrick Pasture to lay the groundwork for a new spatial geography of European Christian Democracy. The outcome de- centers the confessional commitments of well-known Western European Christian Democrats like and , instead creating a space for a pluralistic understanding of Europe, with varying confessional and ideological commitments. Pasture’s argument offers a foundation for understanding how activists from across the Iron Curtain, too, could play a serious role in forging a European identity already in the frst decades of the Cold War. In the volume’s third chapter, Tiziana Di Maio offers a much-needed reality check on the so-called “founding fathers” of European integra- tion. She explores how the famous Christian Democratic statesmen Konrad Adenauer and Alcide De Gasperi moved their nations beyond the stain of fascism, to the point of making them motors of a new supra- national order. By de-centering France in the story of European inte- gration’s origins, Di Maio paints a portrait of two postwar European peripheries—Germany and —linked by a shared experience of defeat in World War II, actively encouraging their Western European colleagues to accept a project of European integration. Theirs is a lesson that speaks volumes in the face of twenty-frst-century European challenges con- nected to “Brexit” and resurgent populism and xenophobia across the continent. In the fourth chapter, eminent international historian Antonio Varsori offers a counter-history of European Christian Democracy from the continent’s “southern” periphery, establishing a baseline for thinking longitudinally about the limits of Christian Democracy as both a con- cept and a political program. Tracing the slow death of Italian Christian Democracy from Fanfani through Berlusconi, ending with Italy’s most recent former prime minister , Varsori presents a story of weakening ideology and European commitments. This Italian story becomes a crucial foil for the detailed stories of East-Central European Christian Democracy—and the rise and fall of its commitment to Europe—that occupy the rest of our volume. x Editors’ Preface

In the ffth chapter, the Reverend Wiesław Bar pulls together the work of Pasture, Di Maio and Varsori, offering an East-Central European per- spective on the frst postwar generation of Western European Christian Democrats, among whom one fnds the proverbial “founding fathers” of a united Europe. By systematically reconstructing the criteria used by the Catholic Church in determining whether or not to beatify Christian Democratic politicians like Alcide De Gasperi and Robert Schuman, Rev. Bar makes clear that Christian Democracy has been as much about faith as about policy, and that, as such, its legacy has been substantially shaped by the late Polish pope John Paul II. Moreover, Bar’s conclusions illu- minate the well-honed criteria that today’s East-Central Europeans have at their disposal for assessing how Europe has fared relative to the inten- tions of its “founders.” Beata Kosowska-Gąstoł closes the frst part of Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain by turning to a more traditional subject of schol- arly inquiry into Christian Democracy: transnational party politics. Her chapter, however, takes the unusual approach of locating the disconnect between the traditional core of the European integration project (France, Germany, Italy) and Europe’s East-Central periphery in how trans- national political cooperation has evolved at the level of the . This chapter shows that, while the European People’s Party has weakened—rather than strengthened—transnational Christian Democratic ideology since the 1970s, East-Central European actors nonetheless still look to it as an anchor for a potential European revival. Part II of Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain shifts the focus squarely to East-Central Europeans, covering activities both behind the Iron Curtain and among Cold War political émigrés, as well as transfers between the two. Eight chapters offer broad arguments about the role played by East-Central Europe’s Christian Democrats—especially Poles— in both the rise and fall of the region’s commitments to a “united Europe.” Jarosław Rabiński’s chapter opens this part with a case study in how the establishment of Communist regimes in East-Central Europe at the close of World War II led to the elimination of political pluralism. Rabiński recounts the dismantling of a Christian Democratic network that had distinguished itself throughout the war both on Polish soil and in the London-based state apparatus in exile. Within three years after the war’s end, a party that had been actively encouraged by postwar Poland’s nascent Communist establishment to rebuild its feld organization and stand for elections had been pushed either into exile, or into the Stalinist Editors’ Preface xi interrogation rooms of the postwar secret police. At the turn of the 1940s and the 1950s, the center of gravity for East-Central European Christian Democrats shifted back into the political emigration. In the book’s eighth chapter, Paweł Ziętara continues this story. With Christian Democracy eliminated from open political activity by the late 1940s, the select group of Polish Christian Democrats who were able to settle west of the Iron Curtain took on the mantle of representing both their region and their political family to the world. As self-styled media- tors of East-Central European political Christianity, the men and women of the Polish Christian Labor Party working in Brussels, London, Paris and forged a “European” political culture that they then sought to feed back across the Iron Curtain. Ziętara reconstructs the trajec- tory that these exiles followed after de-Stalinization opened a window in 1956. Piotr H. Kosicki’s chapter answers a crucial question: what made it possible for East-Central Europe’s Christian Democratic émigrés to remain so active in exile, to develop and maintain such extensive part- nerships across Western Europe and to establish a successful network of acolytes behind the Iron Curtain after 1956? As Kosicki shows, it was American funding, logistical support and political knowledge funneled through the Free Europe Committee, Inc.—the forerunner and par- ent organization of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty—that brought “Iron Curtain” Christians into European transnationalism. Nonetheless, the horizon line for these East-Central Europeans’ activities was never European integration proper, but rather a delicate balance of American Cold War geopolitics and East-Central European sovereignty. By explain- ing what made the exiles’ transnational activities possible, this chapter also reveals the limitations of their commitments to the European idea. In the tenth chapter of Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain, Idesbald Goddeeris explores the trade unionism of Polish Christian Democrats who settled in Belgium after World War II. By zeroing in on the oft-neglected case of Poles in Belgium—working in and around Brussels, the epicenter of the postwar European integration project—Idesbald Goddeeris makes clear just how deeply a small network of committed activ- ists could impact the culture of a unifying Western Europe. At the same time, as Goddeeris demonstrates, it is essential to look beyond the world of intellectuals and political elites, to understand how Christian Democracy penetrated into the daily lives of workers across Europe—and shaped their long-term responses to crises on both sides of the Iron Curtain. xii Editors’ Preface

Leszek Jesień hones in one of the most infuential fgures to emerge from Goddeeris’s story. From the mid-1950s until the end of the Cold War, Belgian-based Polish Christian Democrat Jan Kułakowski served as one of the principal architects of Christian trade unionism not only in Western Europe, but across multiple continents. In 1989, he returned to Poland and became the country’s new ambassador to the European Communities; a decade later, he would negotiate the terms of Poland’s accession to the . As Leszek Jesień demonstrates, Kułakowski moved away from political Christian Democracy, turning from confessionalism to pluralism in a manner that has heralded the longer trajectory of political Catholicism in Europe. Like Jesień, Małgorzata Choma-Jusińska tells the story of a politi- cal émigré who played a crucial role in shaping a cross-Iron Curtain Christian Democratic political culture. Polish-born engineer Jerzy Kulczycki, having settled in the after World War II, became in the 1960s one of the world’s most prominent purveyors of East-Central European books. After launching a Polish-language Christian Democratic publishing house, Kulczycki undertook the project of promoting a European identity behind the Iron Curtain through the distribution of books. Yet while Kulczycki helped to build an awareness behind the Iron Curtain of what it meant to be part of a larger European community, less and less of this culture has survived among generations of Europeans raised since the end of the Cold War. Sławomir Łukasiewicz rounds out the book’s three biographical case studies with a portrait of the London-based émigré Stanisław Grocholski. A life-long activist in Catholic organizations, both in pre-World War II Poland and in post-World War II Western Europe, Grocholski never joined a Christian , yet he advanced an agenda that shaped the social activism of Christian Democrats with whom he inter- acted in Western Europe and behind the Iron Curtain. By testing the boundaries of Christian Democracy as a political affliation, Grocholski’s case demonstrates how the transnational success of East-Central European Christian Democracy failed to translate either into long-term national success or strong European commitments. Closing the book’s section on European Christian Democracy East and West, Aleks Szczerbiak and Tim Bale offer a comprehensive and compelling answer to the question: why did Christian Democracy in East-Central Europe after 1989 not experience the kind of ascendancy that it enjoyed in Western Europe after 1945? Szczerbiak and Bale refect Editors’ Preface xiii specifcally on the failure of Christian Democracy to gain a foothold in democratic, almost homogenously Catholic Poland. None of the cur- rently successful Polish parties that identify themselves, or have identi- fed themselves, with the center-right profle themselves as Christian Democratic, nor can they be objectively labeled as such. While super- fcially Poland looks like fertile ground for Christian Democracy, the factors that were crucial to the formation and success of Christian Democratic parties in postwar Western Europe were largely absent during the emergence of democratic, multi-party politics in post-­ Communist Poland. Indeed, Szczerbiak and Bale argue, it is unlikely that such a conjuncture will ever occur anywhere in Europe again. For its third and fnal section, Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain gives voice to prominent statesmen who helped to build a cross-Iron Curtain Christian Democratic political culture—only then to see that culture called into question following the end of the Cold War. Three of twentieth-century Europe’s most infuential Christian Democrats take us across the important divide of 1989, thinking about the challenges that have survived Christian Democracy’s encounters with the Iron Curtain. These extraordinary practitioners combine informed analysis, frst-hand recollections of key past moments and compel- ling predictions about the role that Christian Democracy might play in ­present and future European crises. For four decades, from the time of his emigration from Poland until his return in 1990, Stanisław Gebhardt has been one of the world’s most infuential Christian Democratic political operatives. In the book’s ffteenth chapter, he offers a brief history of the exile-driven Christian Democratic Union of Central Europe, in which he played a leading role. Based out of Western Europe after World War II, East-Central Europeans like Gebhardt and his Polish Christian Labor Party worked to square American Cold War geopolitics, European identity and a deep commitment to the national sovereignty of their homelands. The way in which these exiles passed that blend of commitments on to subse- quent generations—or rather, were partially blocked in doing so by their Western European colleagues—explains both the euphoric embrace of a united Europe in 1989 and a subsequent, dramatic turn back to the nation. In the sixteenth chapter of Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain, former Slovak prime minister Ján Čarnogurský reconstructs the winding road of Christian Democracy in Slovak lands, frst behind xiv Editors’ Preface the Iron Curtain and then since its fall. Like no one else in this book, he understands the promise and the pitfalls of Cold War-era Christian Democratic transnationalism for the countries of East-Central Europe. Refecting on the circumstances for his own party’s emergence out of the ashes of the Soviet Bloc, Čarnogurský makes clear that the Western European Christian Democratic vision of the “other Europe” left little place for a new generation of activists trained by East-Central European exiles. In the testimony that brings our book to a close, distinguished econo- mist—and former minister-president of Saxony—Georg Milbradt con- fronts the reality of Christian Democracy’s displacement from European public life. In a day and age where the supranational European People’s Party barely acknowledges its ideological roots, while Germany’s rul- ing Christian Democratic Union has virtually abandoned the , Christian Democracy’s history as a founding force of European integration might seem irrelevant to Europe’s present prob- lems. Yet, as Milbradt suggests, considered refection on who Europeans are and what heritage they are willing to embrace is crucial to surmount- ing the crises facing Europe today, from “Brexit,” to spiraling debt, to the continental turn toward populist authoritarianism. To avoid a rever- sion to chauvinist nationalism, some force greater than a nebulous “European” identity must speak to future generations of Europeans—in the West, Center and East. This may not be Christian Democracy, but, given its historical role, Christian Democracy is a logical starting point for new refections on an integrated Europe’s chances for survival. *** In the years that we have devoted to bringing this project to fruition, we have incurred many debts of gratitude. Before the book, there was a concept, and before the concept, there was a conference. The conference entitled “Christian Democracy and the European Union: Poland, Central Europe, Europe” was above all the brainchild of Sławomir Łukasiewicz, who, with the initial idea in place, brought on board Piotr H. Kosicki. The conference could never have come to fruition, however, without the support of its institutional sponsors: the Institute of National Remembrance, Lublin Branch—par- ticularly, its director Jacek Welter; the Institute of European Studies of the Faculty of Law, Canon Law and Administration at the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin—and Rev. Piotr Stanisz, dean of the Editors’ Preface xv faculty; and the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Poland Offce—and its direc- tor Falk Altenberger. We would also like to acknowledge the support of the Department of History at the University of Maryland, especially department chair Philip Soergel. The Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung’s Poland Offce deserves particular acknowledgment and gratitude for making possible the realization of our concept for moving from a collection of papers to a coherent vol- ume. The offce fnancially supported the translation of six chapters—in other words, more than one-third of the book—into English from either Polish or Slovak. The offce’s director, Falk Altenberger, was personally involved at every step. We thank the Adenauer Foundation in general, and Falk Altenberger in particular. Intellectually, this book has many infuences that may not be immedi- ately refected in its table of contents. First and foremost among these is the CIVITAS-Forum of Archives and Research on Christian Democracy. Co-founded by the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, the KADOC Research Center at the Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium) and the Istituto in Rome, this network of scholars has revolutionized the potential for the study of Christian Democracy. Special thanks are due to CIVITAS president Hanns Jürgen Küsters for his support for our pro- ject, as well as his attendance in Lublin and his advice throughout the process. We also sincerely thank the other scholars of CIVITAS-FARCD, especially Jan De Maeyer and Michael Gehler. Lorenz Lüthi also pro- vided indispensable advice, and Samuel Miner assisted with logistics. Two individuals have played greater roles than any other in shaping the way in which we have designed this volume, and they both deserve additional credit. Wolfram Kaiser, author of the introduction, offered indispensable advice on the book’s overall design and core assumptions. Stanisław Gebhardt, emeritus Christian Democratic activist and author of the book’s ffteenth chapter, has generously given his time and input. This book has incurred various debts of gratitude for permissions. For access to visual material, we thank the Kulczycki family, and espe- cially Richard Kulczycki. Two chapters contain textual material that has been previously published in an earlier version and a different form. For Wiesław Bar’s chapter, we thank the editorial board of the Annals of Juridical Sciences, published by the Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawła II, for permission to reuse material published in Polish in an earlier version in Wiesław Bar, “Sprawy beatyfka- cyjne Roberta Schumana i Alcidego De Gasperiego w aspekcie ich waloru xvi Editors’ Preface eklezjalnego,” Roczniki Nauk Prawnych 26, no. 3 (2016): 79–98. For Aleks Szczerbiak and Tim Bale’s chapter, we gratefully acknowledge Sage Publications for granting permission to re-publish parts of Tim Bale and Aleks Szczerbiak, “Why Is There No Christian Democracy in Poland—and Why Should We Care?,” Party Politics 14, no. 4 (July 2008): 479–500. Last but not least are the individuals most directly involved in ena- bling us to prepare and publish this volume. We are deeply grateful to our editors at Palgrave Macmillan, Molly Beck and Oliver Dyer, for wel- coming this book and shepherding it throughout the publication pro- cess, as well as Palgrave’s wonderful production team. Finally, we thank the individuals most responsible for sustaining us in our work on this book, as in all else: our respective spouses, Melissa Azoulay and Anna Łukasiewicz.

Piotr H. Kosicki College Park, USA Sławomir Łukasiewicz Lublin, Poland

Bibliography Chenaux, Philippe. Une Europe vaticane? Entre le Plan Marshall et les Traités de Rome. Brussels: Éditions Ciaco, 1990. Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945, edited by Michael Gehler and Wolfram Kaiser. London: Routledge, 2004. Durand, Jean-Dominique. L’Europe de la Démocratie chrétienne. Brussels: Éditions Complexe, 1995. European Union History: Themes and Debates, edited by Antonio Varsori and Wolfram Kaiser. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945. New York: Penguin Press, 2005. Kaiser, Wolfram. Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Kosicki, Piotr H. “The Soviet Bloc’s Answer to European Integration: Catholic Anti-Germanism and the Polish Project of a ‘Catholic-Socialist’ International”. Contemporary European History 24, no. 1 (2015): 1-36. Editors’ Preface xvii

Łukasiewicz, Sławomir. Third Europe: Polish Federalist Thought in the United States, 1940–1970s. Translated by Witold Zbirohowski-Kościa. St. Helena, CA: Helena History Press, 2016. Milward, Alan S. The European Rescue of the Nation-State. London: Routledge, 2000. 2nd edition. Papini, Roberto. The Christian Democrat International. Translated by Robert Royal. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefeld, 1997. Rupnik, Jacques. The Other Europe. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989. Revised edition. Contents

Part I Christian Democracy Reframed

1 Introduction: From Siege Mentality to Mainstreaming? Researching Twentieth-Century Christian Democracy 3 Wolfram Kaiser

2 Catholic and Christian Democratic Views on Europe Before and After World War II: Continuities and Discontinuities 25 Patrick Pasture

3 Alcide De Gasperi and Konrad Adenauer: A New Approach 57 Tiziana Di Maio

4 Not Only De Gasperi: Italian Christian Democrats’ Commitment to Europe 91 Antonio Varsori

5 Sainthood vs. Nationhood: The Beatifcation Causes of Schuman and De Gasperi 105 Wiesław Bar

xix xx Contents

6 A Truly “European” Christian Democracy? The European People’s Party 127 Beata Kosowska-Gąstoł

Part II Christian Democracy Across the Iron Curtain

7 The Elimination of Christian Democracy in Poland After World War II 153 Jarosław Rabiński

8 Christian Democrats Across the Iron Curtain 177 Paweł Ziętara

9 Christian Democracy’s Global Cold War 221 Piotr H. Kosicki

10 The Polish Section of the Belgian Christian Trade Union ACV/CSC 257 Idesbald Goddeeris

11 The Social Virtues of Christian Democracy, European and Polish: The Case of Jan Kułakowski 277 Leszek Jesień

12 Christian Democracy off the Bookshelf: The Case of Jerzy Kulczycki 291 Małgorzata Choma-Jusińska

13 Christian Democracy beyond Christian Democracy: The Case of Stanisław Grocholski 321 Sławomir Łukasiewicz

14 Explaining the Absence of Christian Democracy in Contemporary Poland 343 Aleks Szczerbiak and Tim Bale Contents xxi

Part III Christian Democracy Across the Cold War Caesura

15 The Christian Democratic Union of Central Europe 411 Stanisław Gebhardt

16 Christian Democracy in Slovakia 425 Ján Čarnogurský

17 The Prospects of Christian Democracy in Contemporary Europe: Experiences from Germany 439 Georg Milbradt

Index 449 Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Piotr H. Kosicki is Assistant Professor of History at the University of Maryland. He is the author, among others, of Catholics on the Barricades: Poland, France and “Revolution,” 1891–1956 (Yale University Press 2018) and editor of Vatican II behind the Iron Curtain (CUA 2016). He is the author of more than two-dozen scholarly articles and chapters, including in Contemporary European History, East European Politics and Societies and Modern Intellectual History. He has also written for Commonweal, The Nation, The New Republic and the Times Literary Supplement. Sławomir Łukasiewicz is director of the Institute of European Studies at the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin and a staff historian at the Institute of National Remembrance. He is the author of Third Europe: Polish Federalist Thought in the United States 1940–1970s (Helena History Press 2016) and many other studies of Polish and East-Central European Cold War exiles.

xxiii xxiv Editors and Contributors

Contributors

Tim Bale is Professor of Politics at Queen Mary University of London and has written and edited books on the Conservatives, on Labor and on the politics of immigration and the relationship between parties and unions. His latest book is the fourth edition of European Politics (2017). The Reverend Wiesław Bar is Professor of Canon Law and Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Law at the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin. Rev. Bar has authored or edited fourteen books, and he has published over eighty scholarly articles and chapters.

Ján Čarnogurský (JUDr) is former prime minister of Slovakia (1991– 1992) and former chairman of the Christian Democratic party of Slovakia (1990–2000). A lawyer by training, he was barred from prac- tice in 1981 for defending political dissidents; in November 1989, he was the last political prisoner to be freed during ’s Velvet Revolution. Having variously served since 1989 as Slovakia’s justice min- ister, deputy prime minister and prime minister, he returned to the prac- tice of law following his retirement from politics. He is the author of two books and numerous articles in the Slovak and international press. Małgorzata Choma-Jusińska is a scholar at the Lublin branch of the Institute of National Remembrance, Poland. Between 2010 and 2016, she was the editorial secretary of Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość, a scholarly jour- nal of contemporary history. Her research focuses on opposition to the Communist regime in Poland, as well as the readership in Poland of the literature published in the West before 1989. She is the author of arti- cles and co-editor of books on these subjects—most recently: “A Catholic Voice: Inicjatywa Wydawnicza Spotkania of Lublin”, in Duplicator Underground: The Independent Publishing Industry in Communist Poland, 1976–1989, edited by Paweł Sowiński and Gwido Zlatkes (Slavica 2016). Tiziana Di Maio is Associate Professor of Humanities at LUMSA University of Rome. She is the author of Alcide De Gasperi e Konrad Adenauer (2004; German edition 2014) and Fare l’Europa o morire (2008), as well as numerous scholarly articles and chapters. Stanisław M. Gebhardt is President of the Ignacy Paderewski Foundation for the Rebuilding of Democracy and a life-long Christian Democratic political operative. After fghting in the World War II Editors and Contributors xxv underground, he was a prisoner in Mauthausen until his liberation at American hands in 1945. As a university student in the UK, he co- founded of Christian Social Youth, then joined the Polish Christian Labor Party in exile, beginning a decades-long career in trans- national Christian Democratic structures, including as Secretary-General of the World Union of Young Christian Democrats (1962–1968) and Executive Secretary (1970–1974) and then Deputy Secretary-General (1974–1985) of the World Union of Christian Democrats, responsible for contacts with Africa, Asia, the United Nations and UNESCO. He has been awarded Poland’s Cross of Merit with Swords, Cross of Valor and the Order of Polonia Restituta, as well as Chile’s Order of Bernardo O’Higgins, Italy’s Order of Merit and Venezuela’s Simon Bolivar Order of the Liberator. Idesbald Goddeeris is a Slavist and a historian, and an Associate Professor of History at the University of Leuven. He is the author of multiple monographs and the editor of, among others, with Solidarity: Western European trade unions and the Polish crisis, 1980–1982 (Harvard Cold War Studies Book Series 2010; paperback 2013). He has most recently published articles in Dzieje Najnowsze (2017), Archiv für Sozialgeschichte (2016) and the Journal of Contemporary History (2015). Leszek Jesień is Associate Professor of European Politics at the Collegium Civitas University in Warsaw. He also serves as director of the Department of International Cooperation at PSE S.A., Poland’s electricity transmission system operator. He has formerly been advisor for European Union affairs to three Polish prime ministers, as well as to the ministers of economy and of the environment, to the Chief Negotiator of Poland’s Accession to the EU and to the European minister. His most recent books include New Electricity and New Cars: The Future of the European Energy Doctrine (with M. Kurtyka 2016) and The EU Presidency: Institutionalised Procedure of Political Leadership (2013, 2011). Wolfram Kaiser is Professor of European Studies at the University of Portsmouth. He is the author or co-author of four books, including Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union (Cambridge University Press 2007) and the editor or co-editor of numerous books, including Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945 (with M. Gehler, Routledge 2004). xxvi Editors and Contributors

Beata Kosowska-Gąstoł is Assistant Professor of International Affairs at Jagiellonian University. She is the author of, among others, three mono- graphs about transnational political cooperation in Europe, including Europejska Unia Demokratyczna, czyli o współpracy partii chrześcijańsko- demokratycznych i konserwatywnych (Księgarnia Akademicka 2004). Georg Milbradt is Professor of Economics and Public Finance at the Technical University of Dresden and a prominent statesman of the Federal Republic of Germany’s Christian Democratic Union. Since 1990, he has variously served the Free State of Saxony as a state MP, fnance minister (1990–2001) and minister-president (2002–2008). He has also served as president of Saxony’s CDU, a member of the federal executive committee of the CDU (2001–2008), chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Federal Council of Germany (2002–2008) and vice-president of the “Fiscal Council” of the Federal Republic of Germany (2013–). Patrick Pasture is Professor of History and Director of Transnational and Global Studies at the University of Leuven. He is the author of four scholarly books, including Christian Trade Unionism in Europe since 1968 (Avebury 1994); editor or co-editor of eleven volumes and author of dozens of scholarly articles and chapters. He has been a Visiting Fellow/Scholar at the IISG (Amsterdam), the Centre d’histoire sociale du XXe siècle (Université de Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne) and the University of Pennsylvania, as well as Visiting Professor at Kobe University (Japan) and Peter Paul Rubens Chair at the University of California, Berkeley. Jarosław Rabiński is Assistant Professor of Contemporary History at the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin. He is the author of three monographs, including Stronnictwo Pracy we władzach naczelnych Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na uchodźstwie w latach 1939–1945 (KUL 2012). His research focuses on Christian Democratic politics, Polish politics during World War II and propaganda in totalitarian systems. He leads a scholarly team currently preparing, together with the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum and with the Institute of National Remembrance, a critical edition of the diaries of General Władysław Sikorski. Editors and Contributors xxvii

Aleks Szczerbiak is Professor of Politics and Contemporary European Studies at the University of Sussex. He is author of Poles Together? The Emergence and Development of Political Parties in Post-Communist Poland (CEU Press 2001) and Poland within the European Union: New Awkward Partner or New Heart of Europe? (Routledge 2012), as well as co-editor of Centre-Right Parties in Post-Communist East-Central Europe (Routledge 2004). Antonio Varsori is full Professor of the History of International Relations at the University of Padova. He is a member of the com- mittee for the publication of the Italian Diplomatic Documents at the Italian Foreign Ministry, a member of the ESA History Project Academic Council and chairman of the liaison committee of historians of con- temporary Europe. Among his most recent books are L’Italia e la fne della guerra fredda: La politica estera dei governi Andreotti (1989–1992) (Mulino 2013); Storia internazionale dal 1919 a oggi (Mulino 2015) and Maggio radioso: Come l'Italia entrò in guerra (Mulino 2015). Paweł Ziętara is a historian and a lawyer, associated with the University of Warsaw, where he earned his Ph.D., and with the Institute of National Remembrance. His research interests focus on Polish postwar exiles and the secret services of the Polish People’s Republic. He is the author, among others, of the books (in Polish): Mission of the Last Chance: Attempt to Unite Polish Political Exiles by Gen. Kazimierz Sosnkowski in the Years 1952–1956 (1995) and Exiles and October: Attitudes of Polish Émigré Circles toward Liberalisation in the Polish People’s Republic in the Years 1955–1957 (2001). Abbreviations

AAN Central Archive of Modern Records (Archiwum Akt Nowych), Warsaw AAS Acta Apostolicae Sedis, Acts of the ABVV General Belgian Trade Union (Algemeen Belgisch Vakverbond) ACLI Christian Association for Italian Workers Abroad (Associazione Cristiana per Lavoratori Italiani all’Estero) ACS Central State Archive (Archivio Centrale dello Stato), Rome ACV General Christian Trade Union (Algemeen Christelijk Vakverbond) ACW General Christian Employees’ Union (Algemeen Christelijk Werknemersverbond) ADS Archives of August Edmond De Schryver, KADOC, Leuven AIPN Archives of the Institute of National Remembrance (Archiwum Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej), Warsaw AJZ Janusz Zabłocki Collection (Akta Janusza Zabłockiego) AMRDG Maria Romana De Gasperi Archives (Archivio Maria Romana De Gasperi) AMSZ Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Archiwum Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych), Warsaw AN National Alliance (Alleanza Nazionale) AP Popular Alliance (Allianza Popular) APIASA Archives of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America ARP Anti-Revolutionary Party (Antirevolutionaire Partij) ASG Private Collection of Stanisław Gebhardt (Archiwum Stanisława Gebhardta)

xxix xxx Abbreviations

ASMAE Diplomatic Historical Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Archivio storico diplomatico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri), Rome BGUO Main Library of Opole University (Biblioteka Główna Uniwersytetu Opolskiego) BUKUL University Library of the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin (Biblioteka Uniwersytecka Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawła II) CAP Common Agricultural Policy CARHOP Center of Animation and Research on People’s and Workers’ History (Centre d’Animation et de Recherche en Histoire Ouvrière et Populaire) CBOS Public Opinion Research Center (Centrum Badań Opinii Społecznej) CDA Christian Democratic Appeal (Christen-Democratisch Appèl) CDS Center of Social Democrats (Centre des Démocrates Sociaux) CDU Christian Democratic Union (Christlich Demokratische Union) CDUCE Christian Democratic Union of Central Europe CFTC french Confederation of Christian Workers (Confédération Française de Travailleurs Chrétiens) CHU Christian Historical Union (Christelijk-Historische Unie) ChZWPwB Christian Union of Free Poles in Belgium (Chrześcijańskie Zjednoczenie Wolnych Polaków w Belgii) CISC International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions (Confédération internationale des Syndicats chrétiens) CISL Italian Confederation of Workers’ Trade Unions (Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori) CKS Central School Committee (Centralny Komitet Szkolny) CSC General Christian Trade Union (Confédération des Syndicats Chrétiens) ČSL Czechoslovak People’s Party (Československá Strana Lidová) CSU Christian Social Union (Christlich Soziale Union) DC Christian Democracy (Democrazia Cristiana) DER Division of Exile Relations DL Liberal Democracy (Démocratie Libérale) DM German Mark (Deutsche Mark) DP Displaced Person DS Democratic Party (Demokratická strana) EC European Communities ECHR European Convention on Human Rights ECOSOC Economic and Social Council of the United Nations ECPM European Christian Political Movement Abbreviations xxxi

ECR European Conservatives and Reformists ECSC European Coal and Steel Community ED European Democrats EDC European Defense Community EDG European Democrat Group EDU European Democrat Union EEC European Economic Community EESC European Economic and Social Committee EMS European Monetary System EMU Economic and Monetary Union EPP European People’s Party EUCD European Union of Christian Democrats EU European Union FEC free Europe Committee, Inc. FEER free Europe Exile Relations FG fine Gael FGTB General Belgian Trade Union (Fédération Générale du Travail Belge) FI GDR German Democratic Republic H Høyre Hovedorganisasjon HIA Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford HZDS Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (Hnutie za demokratické Slovensko) IAC International Advisory Council ILC International Literary Center ISH Institute of Social History IUYCD International Union of Young Christian Democrats (Union internationale des jeunes démocrates-chrétiens) KADOC Documentation and Research Center for Religion, Culture and Society, University of Leuven KAI Catholic Information Agency (Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna) KDH Christian Democratic Movement (Kresťanskodemokratické hnutie) KDS Christian Democratic Party (Křesťanskodemokratická strana) KDÚ Christian Democratic Union (Křesťanskodemokratická únia) KF Danish Conservative People’s Party (Det konservative folkeparti) KIK Catholic Intelligentsia Clubs (Kluby Inteligencji Katolickiej) KOK (Kansallinen Kokoomus) KRN State Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa) KSČ Czechoslovak (Komunistická strana Československá) KUL Catholic University of Lublin (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski) xxxii Abbreviations

KVP Catholic People’s Party (Katholieke Volkspartij) LCM National Union of Christian Health Services (Landsbond der Christelijke Mutualiteiten) LR (Les Républicains) MBP Ministry of Public Safety (Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego) MEP Member of the European Parliament MOC Christian Workers’ Movement (Mouvement Ouvrier Chrétien) MP Member of Parliament MRP Popular Republican Movement (Mouvement Républicain Populaire) MSp Moderate Coalition Party (Moderata Samlingpartiet) ND (Νέα Δημοκρατία) NEI New International Teams (Nouvelles Équipes Internationales) NGO Non-governmental Organization NiD Polish “Independence and Democracy” Freedom Movement (Polski Ruch Wolnościowy “Niepodległość i Demokracja”) NKVD People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del) NKWPB Main Committee of Free Poles in Belgium (Naczelny Komitet Wolnych Polaków w Belgii) NPR National Workers’ Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza) ODCA Christian Democratic Organization of America (Organización Demócrata Cristiana de América) ODiSS Center for Social Documentation and Studies (Ośrodek Dokumentacji i Studiów Społecznych) ODS Civic Democratic Party (Občanská Demokratická Strana) ONR National Radical Camp (Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny) ÖVP Austrian People’s Party (Österreichische Volkspartei) PC Center Agreement (Porozumienie Centrum) PD Democratic Party (Partito Democratico) PiS Law and Justice (Prawo i Sprawiedliwość) PISM Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum PMK Polish Catholic Mission, Brussels PMS Polish School Mother (Polska Macierz Szkolna) PO Civic Platform (Platforma Obywatelska) PP People’s Party (Partido Popular) PPI Italian Popular Party (Partito Popolare Italiano) PPS Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna) Abbreviations xxxiii

PRRE Polish Council of the European Movement (Polska Rada Ruchu Europejskiego) PSL Polish Peasants’ Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe) RMK Catholic Labor Youth (Robotnicza Młodzież Katolicka) RPR Assembly for the Republic (Rassemblement pour la République) SAB State Archives of Belgium SB Security Service (Służba Bezpieczeństwa) SEA Single European Act SIPDIC International Secretariat of Democratic Parties of Christian Inspiration (Secrétariat international des Partis démocratiques d’Inspiration chrétienne) SK Catholic Organizations (Stowarzyszenia Katolickie) SMK Association of Catholic Men (Stowarzyszenie Mężów Katolickich) SN National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe) SP Christian Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy) SPK Association of Polish War Veterans (Stowarzyszenie Polskich Kombatantów) TRJN Provisional Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej) UDF Union for French Democracy (Union pour la Démocratie Française) UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UEF Union of European Federalists UFE Union for Europe UMP Union for a Popular Movement (Union pour un Mouvement Populaire) UNRRA United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration VPN Public Against Violence (Verejnosť proti násiliu) WCL World Confederation of Labor WEOD West European Operations Division WUCD World Union of Christian Democrats ZChN Christian National Union (Zjednoczenie Chrześcijańsko- Narodowe)