CULTURA 2013_264973_VOL_10_No2_GR_A5Br.indd 1 CULTURA judged tomake anovelandimportantcontributiontounderstan- the submissionofmanuscriptsbasedonoriginalresearchthatare The editorialboardencourages regional andinternationalcontexts. mote theexplorationofdifferentvalues andculturalphenomenain ted tophilosophyofcultureandthestudyvalue. Itaimstopro Founded in2004, Culture and Axiology and Culture www.peterlang.com ding thevalues andculturalphenomenainthecontempo ISBN 978-3-631-64973-2 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy of Journal International Cultura. isasemiannualpeer-reviewed journaldevo- rary world. - 2013
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF 2 CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY CULTURA CULTURA 2013 AND AXIOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHYCULTURE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Vol X Vol 10.01.14 KW 0215:23 No 2 No CULTURA 2013_264973_VOL_10_No2_GR_A5Br.indd 1 CULTURA judged tomake anovelandimportantcontributiontounderstan- the submissionofmanuscriptsbasedonoriginalresearchthatare regional andinternationalcontexts. The editorialboardencourages mote theexplorationofdifferentvalues andculturalphenomenain ted tophilosophyofcultureandthestudyvalue. Itaimstopro- Founded in2004, Culture and Axiology and Culture www.peterlang.com ding thevalues andculturalphenomenainthecontempo Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy of Journal International Cultura. isasemiannualpeer-reviewed journaldevo-
rary world. 2013
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF 2 CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY CULTURA CULTURA 2013 AND AXIOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHYCULTURE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Vol X Vol 10.01.14 KW 0215:23 No 2 No CULTURA
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology E-ISSN (Online): 2065-5002 ISSN (Print): 1584-1057
Advisory Board Prof. Dr. David Altman, Instituto de Ciencia Política, Universidad Catolica de Chile, Chile Prof. Emeritus Dr. Horst Baier, University of Konstanz, Germany Prof. Dr. David Cornberg, University Ming Chuan, Taiwan Prof. Dr. Paul Cruysberghs, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Prof. Dr. Nic Gianan, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines Prof. Dr. Marco Ivaldo, Department of Philosophy “A. Aliotta”, University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy Prof. Dr. Michael Jennings, Princeton University, USA Prof. Dr. Maximiliano E. Korstanje, University of Palermo, Argentina Prof. Dr. Richard L. Lanigan, Southern Illinois University, USA Prof. Dr. Christian Lazzeri, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, France Prof. Dr. Massimo Leone, University of Torino, Italy Prof. Dr. Asunción López-Varela Azcárate, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain Prof. Dr. Christian Möckel, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany Prof. Dr. Devendra Nath Tiwari, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Prof. Dr. José María Paz Gago, University of Coruña, Spain Prof. Dr. Mario Perniola, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy Prof. Dr. Traian D. Stănciulescu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iassy, Romania Prof. Dr. Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, Purdue University & Ghent University
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief: Co-Editors: Prof. dr. Nicolae Râmbu Prof. dr. Aldo Marroni Faculty of Philosophy and Social- Dipartimento di Lettere, Arti e Scienze Sociali Political Sciences Università degli Studi G. d’Annunzio Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100 Chieti Scalo, Italy B-dul Carol I, nr. 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania [email protected] [email protected] PD Dr. Till Kinzel Executive Editor: Englisches Seminar Dr. Simona Mitroiu Technische Universität Braunschweig, Human Sciences Research Department Bienroder Weg 80, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University 38106 Braunschweig, Germany Lascar Catargi, nr. 54, 700107 Iasi, Romania [email protected] [email protected]
Editorial Assistant: Dr. Marius Sidoriuc Designer: Aritia Poenaru Cultura International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology Vol. 10, No. 2 (2013)
Editor-in-Chief Nicolae Râmbu Guest Editor: Prof. Aldo Marroni Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.
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ISSN 2065-5002 ISBN 978-3-631-64973-2
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CONTENTS
AESTHETICS VALUES AND THE PROCESS OF CIVILIZATION
Aldo Marroni 7 The Aesthetic Crisis of Society
Evan Osborne 23 Art as a Capital Asset
Mario Perniola 41 Knowledge, Power and Politic-Cultural Civilization
Geoffrey Skoll 49 The Art of Living Together: How Artistic Work Makes the Moral Bonds of a Community
Paolo Bartoloni 71 The Aesthetics of Renunciation, and the Irregularities of the 20th Century
Montserrat Martínez García 93 A Panoramic Overview of British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics
Pedro Sargento 113 New Materialism and Neutralized Subjectivity. A Cultural Renewal?
VARIA
Lingling Peng & Yang Geng 127 Cultural Semiosis in Artistic Chinese Calligraphy
Janez Strehovec 141 Algorithmic Culture and E-Literary Text Semiotics
A.A. Gede Rai Remawa & Imam Santosa & Biranul Anas Zaman 157 Aesthetic and Space Concept of Visual Composition in Interior and Architecture of Bali Madya Dwelling
Joseph S. Fulda 173 Value-Sensitive Design as an Ongoing Process of Market Discovery
10.5840/cultura201310210
Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22
The Aesthetic Crisis of Society
VARIA Aldo Marroni Department of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences University “Gabriele d’Annunzio” Lingling Peng & Yang Geng 127 Via dei Vestini, 31 66100 Chieti, Italy Cultural Semiosis in Artistic Chinese Calligraphy [email protected]
Abstract. The evaluation of subjectivity and the birth of aesthetics represent the pre- Janez Strehovec 141 suppositions of the modern idea of civilization, intended as an endless progress of Algorithmic Culture and E-Literary Text Semiotics society. In the contemporary world, the degeneration of subjectivity into narcissism and aesthetics into intimism has destroyed the productive relationship between indi- vidual sentiments and society, leading to the phenomenon of neo-cynical de- civilization. A.A. Gede Rai Remawa & Imam Santosa & Biranul Anas Zaman 157 Keywords: modernity, subjectivity, civilization, aesthetics, neo-cynicism. Aesthetic and Space Concept of Visual Composition in Interior and Architecture of Bali Madya Dwelling THE CRISIS OF AESTHETIC CIVILIZATION
The term “aesthetic civilization” points to an unavoidable question: what Joseph S. Fulda 173 kind of correspondence can be established between the idea of civiliza- Value-Sensitive Design as an Ongoing Process of Market tion and aesthetics? Apparently none, if to be civilized means to observe Discovery impersonal social conventions or if aesthetics is exclusively committed to a fixed definition of metaphysical beauty. Fortunately, this is not how things are. For when we think about civilization, our thoughts immedi- ately turn to all the various ways in which people have structured their lives in material, social and spiritual terms. Furthermore, when aesthetics is freed from the limitations of beauty, we realize that in the category of the sentiments we can include the soul and the aspirations of an entire century. This clarification makes it obvious that the term “aesthetic civi- lization” is not a forced concept, but a definite historically motivated correspondence between two ideas on which the West has established its identity. The relationship between culture and aesthetics, however, would appear artificial and incomprehensible if it were not thought of as an acquisition deriving mainly from modern thought, at the center of which lies a subjectivity which has become hypertrophic. On the other hand, the birth of aesthetics is only imaginable in the context of a mo- dernity that is committed to bestowing a philosophical status to sensa- tions and sentiments, just as the triumph of subjectivity takes on full
7 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society meaning only against the background of an aesthetic type of emotion. The modern co-presence of aesthetics and subjectivity (which is certainly not accidental) has given rise to the concept of civilization, the philo- sophical legitimacy of which has been the basis for verifying how much socially relevant energy is available for the sentiments and how much his- torically significant faith should be put into recognizing a power for the self-foundation of the individual. The birth of the modern consciousness is normally made to coincide with the discovery of the American continent. The desire to face the un- known, which is implicit in the desire to venture beyond the known world, had a profound cultural significance, since it clearly allowed the recovery of autonomous thought. This factor symbolically marked the transition from the closed world of the Medieval Age to the open world of modernity. The sense of omnipotence gained by the individual, who now believed he could challenge a reality that had been considered eter- nal and immutable, gave impetus, especially in England, to the industrial revolution. If we think of this period as exclusively one of economic growth or as the expression of an obstinate desire for wealth and the apotheosis of irrational greed, we will never completely understand its significance. It would only be an incomprehensible historical phenomena if we did not consider another revolution, one of aesthetic inspiration, from which industrialization derived its legitimacy and initiative; that is, the promotion and celebration of the sentiments in the individual. It is precisely the complicit link between aesthetic sentiment and the empow- ering of the individual which became the ideology of the rising classes (Eagleton, 1990). In the modern age, the urge for novelty, underlined by the desire for success, emerged as the driving force that could reinvent the world. This was the widespread creative and artistic ideal of the whole culture of this period. The total control man had over himself and his full recognition of the social function of thought, made this a fertile moment in the relationship between knowledge and society. In the eight- eenth century, in fact, the conviction that scientific and social progress would be unstoppable had become engrained. The idea of progress seemed to have become a certain guide to the destiny of the community until it became the characteristic sign of the whole of the eighteenth cen- tury (Ghio, 1962). If Christianity had preached about the realization of the city of God, the illuminists preached about building the city of man- kind. The certainty that history was one continual uninterrupted line (as
8 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22 meaning only against the background of an aesthetic type of emotion. Leibiniz put it “natura non facit saltus”), underscored the philosophical The modern co-presence of aesthetics and subjectivity (which is certainly reflections of the whole period. This expectation was maintained by the not accidental) has given rise to the concept of civilization, the philo- ideology of civilization appropriated by the middle-class, which had tak- sophical legitimacy of which has been the basis for verifying how much en responsibility for establishing the orientation of Western society. The socially relevant energy is available for the sentiments and how much his- conception of history as an endless process of civilization, as Lucien torically significant faith should be put into recognizing a power for the Febvre believed, was particularly widespread in France between 1765 and self-foundation of the individual. 1798, on the basis of a coded classification of people and a rigid anthro- The birth of the modern consciousness is normally made to coincide pological hierarchy. On the lowest level were “les sauvages,” a little high- with the discovery of the American continent. The desire to face the un- er up the scale “les barbares,” and finally the people that detain “la civili- known, which is implicit in the desire to venture beyond the known té” (Febvre, 1930). The concept of “civilization” did not only refer to world, had a profound cultural significance, since it clearly allowed the good manners, but also included complete faith in economic progress. recovery of autonomous thought. This factor symbolically marked the Furthermore, the appeal to absolute rationality, which was intrinsic to transition from the closed world of the Medieval Age to the open world the production system, represented a tool of unparalleled political legiti- of modernity. The sense of omnipotence gained by the individual, who macy, because it projected a limited and specific view of the world as a now believed he could challenge a reality that had been considered eter- historical-philosophical justification for current events, through the intel- nal and immutable, gave impetus, especially in England, to the industrial ligent use of reason and the passions, as Descartes had already recom- revolution. If we think of this period as exclusively one of economic mended in the closing section of his Treaty Les passions de l’âme (1649). growth or as the expression of an obstinate desire for wealth and the Having faith in oneself was not only considered a matter of common apotheosis of irrational greed, we will never completely understand its sense but an indispensable premise for unlimited progress and intrinsic significance. It would only be an incomprehensible historical phenomena to the collective consciousness. It was precisely common sense that if we did not consider another revolution, one of aesthetic inspiration, paved the way towards an aesthetics that was no longer conceived of in from which industrialization derived its legitimacy and initiative; that is, terms of traditional schemes, but as the founding thought of the desire the promotion and celebration of the sentiments in the individual. It is for civilization. Moreover, such a tendency would have been meaningless precisely the complicit link between aesthetic sentiment and the empow- and vacuous without the contribution of aesthetics whose multiple levels ering of the individual which became the ideology of the rising classes of identity were being established during those years. The expression (Eagleton, 1990). In the modern age, the urge for novelty, underlined by “aesthetic civilisation” is a founding value because it conveys the idea of the desire for success, emerged as the driving force that could reinvent “sense” as functioning in terms of an indivisible unity between reason the world. This was the widespread creative and artistic ideal of the and sentiment, strategy and risk. The British empiricists and the French whole culture of this period. The total control man had over himself and philosophes were preoccupied with these very issues in their descriptions his full recognition of the social function of thought, made this a fertile of the complex map of a type of sentiment that perceived beauty as the moment in the relationship between knowledge and society. In the eight- driving force of history. Shaftesbury (2003) saw the union between pul- eenth century, in fact, the conviction that scientific and social progress chrum and honestum as the basis for a general moral and aesthetic educa- would be unstoppable had become engrained. The idea of progress tion of humanity, especially in terms of politness whose representative was seemed to have become a certain guide to the destiny of the community the man of taste. No less important was Hume’s proposal (1967) of cate- until it became the characteristic sign of the whole of the eighteenth cen- gorizing taste, which had been considered one of the senses most ex- tury (Ghio, 1962). If Christianity had preached about the realization of posed to relativism, within a clear perceptive hierarchy, one that would the city of God, the illuminists preached about building the city of man- be especially established and accepted by the cultural elite keen to pre- kind. The certainty that history was one continual uninterrupted line (as serve the cohesion of society against the threat of individualism.
8 9 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society
If l’honnête homme had represented the idea of man in the seventeenth century, the civilisé was the human representative of the Enlightenment. Faith in the process of civilization would also inspire the Encyclopédie, a work that was first conceived by Diderot and d’Alembert for whom the championing of reason was the certain premise for the evolution of soci- ety and the unification of the sciences (Chouillet, 1974). The Encyclopédie contains no references to the process of civilization because it is the very product of reason whose task is to construct the city of mankind. Louis de Jaucourt, who was one of the most prolific contributors to the work, reflects on the affinities between “Civility, Politesse, and Affabilité.” In fact, he places them under a common denominator, considering them the honest ways of behaving and conversing with others in society. This form of behaviour arises from an internal sentiments and is an exercising of a free and established natural right (Encyclopédie III: 497). But the real protagonist of the idea of progress was Condorcet, who spoke openly about the unlimited progress and infinite perfectibility of mankind. In Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humaine (1795) the philos- opher describes ten ages, ten passages through which humanity will be- come fully accomplished. The tenth age, in fact, is the future, in which he foresees the end of inequality, the affirmation of equality and “the real perfecting of man” (Condorcet, 1989: 300). His reflections are particular- ly striking for the direct connection he makes between progress and “es- prit humaine,” that is between civilization and the sentiments and history and aesthetics. The Encyclopédie itself suggests what is meant by “spirit”: it is “une qualité de l’ame,” which manifests itself in “jugement, génie, goût, talent, pénétration, étendue, grace, finesse.” All of these definitions may be unified under the single faculty “raison ingénieuse” (Encyclopédie XV: 973). Émile Littré, in the Dictionnaire de la langue française (1863�1873), connects the term to a collective dimension, in which among other possible meanings he includes: “Opinions, sentiments communs à un certain nombre de personnes et aux grands corps” (Littré, 1984: 226). In Condorcet there are no explicit references to aesthetics, however there are references to the sentiments (in the physiological and psychological sense of pleasure and pain), above all because he establish- es its faith in progress on Condillac’s theory of sensations. The dream of Condorcet and the other illuminists crumbled the moment it was discov- ered that their ideas, laden with social values, in reality contained the vi- rus of antisocial individualism, as a result of which they recoiled into a
10 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22
If l’honnête homme had represented the idea of man in the seventeenth self-centered hedonism. The sociologist Raymond Aron has underlined century, the civilisé was the human representative of the Enlightenment. the end of that dream as a disillusionment of progress, especially in view Faith in the process of civilization would also inspire the Encyclopédie, a of the fact that industrial civilization is not neutral with respect to values work that was first conceived by Diderot and d’Alembert for whom the (Aron, 1969: 274). There is an implicit dialectic in modernity that has the championing of reason was the certain premise for the evolution of soci- power to turn into their opposites the principles of equality, personality, ety and the unification of the sciences (Chouillet, 1974). The Encyclopédie socialization and universality. Hence the bitter realization of facing a contains no references to the process of civilization because it is the very “société a-social,” a “ordre an-archique,” a “rationalité déraissonable” product of reason whose task is to construct the city of mankind. Louis (Ibid.: 197). de Jaucourt, who was one of the most prolific contributors to the work, reflects on the affinities between “Civility, Politesse, and Affabilité.” In fact, THE AESTHETIC CRISIS OF CIVILIZATION he places them under a common denominator, considering them the honest ways of behaving and conversing with others in society. This In the same year Condorcet published his Esquisse d’un tableau historique, form of behaviour arises from an internal sentiments and is an exercising Friedrich Schiller in Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen, in einer Reihe of a free and established natural right (Encyclopédie III: 497). But the real von Briefen (1795) (Schiller, 1993) described modernity as the point of an protagonist of the idea of progress was Condorcet, who spoke openly “aesthetic crisis” as a result of the breakdown in the relationship between about the unlimited progress and infinite perfectibility of mankind. In man and nature. In his reflections he clearly notes the domains of a Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humaine (1795) the philos- ghostly and intimate vision of aesthetics and describes the attempt to re- opher describes ten ages, ten passages through which humanity will be- store the idea of a political community under the banner of beauty come fully accomplished. The tenth age, in fact, is the future, in which (Merlio, 2004). Schiller proposed a great reconciliation between raison he foresees the end of inequality, the affirmation of equality and “the real and sentiment, Vernunft and Sinnlichkeit, with the intention of preventing perfecting of man” (Condorcet, 1989: 300). His reflections are particular- Verstand from taking up all the space of beauty. We are invited to inter- ly striking for the direct connection he makes between progress and “es- pret his appeal to overcome this “aesthetic crossroads” (Aroux, 1987) as prit humaine,” that is between civilization and the sentiments and history a withdrawal of aesthetic sensibility from tabellarischer Verstand and the and aesthetics. The Encyclopédie itself suggests what is meant by “spirit”: it detached calculations of the intellect. The criticism of the principle of is “une qualité de l’ame,” which manifests itself in “jugement, génie, utility expressed in the “Second Letter” (Schiller, 1993: 110) is the begin- goût, talent, pénétration, étendue, grace, finesse.” All of these definitions ning of a struggle to save aesthetics and the art of historical marginaliza- may be unified under the single faculty “raison ingénieuse” (Encyclopédie tion that would inevitably signal its death. For Schiller, however, the po- XV: 973). Émile Littré, in the Dictionnaire de la langue française litical problem of modernity is an aesthetic problem, and can only find a (1863�1873), connects the term to a collective dimension, in which reply if art and beauty can become the driving forces of society once among other possible meanings he includes: “Opinions, sentiments more. In his “fourth Letter” (Ibid.: 120) he makes a clear distinction be- communs à un certain nombre de personnes et aux grands corps” (Littré, tween the “barbarian” and the “savage”: in the first sentiments are de- 1984: 226). In Condorcet there are no explicit references to aesthetics, stroyed by principles, in the second, on the contrary, it is sentiments that however there are references to the sentiments (in the physiological and dominate principles. The suffocation of impulses inspires the life of the psychological sense of pleasure and pain), above all because he establish- “barbarian,” whilst their release conditions the behaviour of the “sav- es its faith in progress on Condillac’s theory of sensations. The dream of age.” What threatens the aesthetic education of man is the complete sur- Condorcet and the other illuminists crumbled the moment it was discov- render to either one or the other inclination of his character. If savage ered that their ideas, laden with social values, in reality contained the vi- instinct agitates the minds of the lower classes, barbarism dwells in the rus of antisocial individualism, as a result of which they recoiled into a heart of the civilized individual, i. e. the bourgeois. Civilized man offers
10 11 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society an unworthy spectacle of his sentiments that is condemned by Schiller in his “Fifth Letter” as “superb self-satisfaction” (Ibid.: 123). Modernity os- cillates between these two opposites, which are emblematic of the “aes- thetic crisis” of society. The striving for beauty advocated by the Ger- man poet is an attempt to reconcile sentiments with things, and to re- store the fruitful mutual relationship between aesthetics and politics with the aim of preventing all forms of intellectualism and aestheticism. For Herbert Marcuse, Schiller’s project initiates “a reform of civilization by virtue of the liberating force of the aesthetic function” (Marcuse, 2001: 200). The meaning implicit in the German poet’s work is to restore “the order of the senses against the order of reason” (Ibid.: 202), not with the intention of casting society into a condition of “savagery” but to restore all political power to aesthetics. Of course, it was not Schiller’s ideas which paved the way for the expression of disordered impulses, but bourgeois “barbarism” when it was superseded and replaced by its ex- treme form, until it led to blind emotionalism. The signs of a deep crisis were to be openly manifested when the “barbaric” soul, which had pushed itself beyond the limits of the intellect, consciously embraced the “savage” freedom of the impulses. The term “aesthetic civilization” was gradually deprived of its ability to engage with things directly and was re- placed by the new watchword “aesthetic culture” which seemed to per- fectly reflect the U-turn of the individual. If the close correspondence between civilization and aesthetics evoked the certain link between social progress and common sentiments, in the relationship between culture and aesthetics there appeared the dangerous degeneration of the senti- ments itself in the individual. It was the young critic Georges Lukács who was responsible for the introduction of the concept of “aesthetic culture.” Lukács saw its sudden emergence as a weakening of the social vocation of sentiment. “Aesthet- ic culture” was the negation of creative ability and power of action, but the celebration of the moment enjoyed subjectively in its entirety. Even art became powerless because its “possibilities of effect” remained su- perficial (Lukács, 1977: 18). The growing influence of “aesthetic culture” marked the inevitable break in the fruitful relationship of reciprocal legit- imacy between the civilizing process and aesthetics. It could no longer claim any power over reality, just as the notion of civilization was no longer connected with the idea of collective progress. The link between subjective and collective sentiment and between knowledge and society
12 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22 an unworthy spectacle of his sentiments that is condemned by Schiller in had been broken. Now the game was more open than ever, since the in- his “Fifth Letter” as “superb self-satisfaction” (Ibid.: 123). Modernity os- dividual had openly reversed the direction of his sentiments, in that he cillates between these two opposites, which are emblematic of the “aes- was no longer orientated towards the outside, to the point of extreme thetic crisis” of society. The striving for beauty advocated by the Ger- individualism. The crisis of aesthetic civilization saw the end of the civi- man poet is an attempt to reconcile sentiments with things, and to re- lizing process and the introduction of a perverse relationship between store the fruitful mutual relationship between aesthetics and politics with aesthetics and civilization, signalled by their degraded version, that is, the aim of preventing all forms of intellectualism and aestheticism. For aesthetic intimism (Marroni, 2013) and the subsequent de-civilization in Herbert Marcuse, Schiller’s project initiates “a reform of civilization by a neo-cynical sense. The contemporary world is not characterized by the virtue of the liberating force of the aesthetic function” (Marcuse, 2001: crisis of aesthetics, but by the “aesthetic crisis” of society. It is a histori- 200). The meaning implicit in the German poet’s work is to restore “the cal rupture that marks the passage from a socially effective aesthetics to a order of the senses against the order of reason” (Ibid.: 202), not with the form of inverted actuality that carries with it an antisocial sensibility. This intention of casting society into a condition of “savagery” but to restore aesthetic crisis is the discontinuity operating within that continuity in all political power to aesthetics. Of course, it was not Schiller’s ideas which modern thought had placed so much faith, and the assumption of which paved the way for the expression of disordered impulses, but an intimistic drifting, and for this reason perverted, of the sentiments, bourgeois “barbarism” when it was superseded and replaced by its ex- which still exerts its force, but is no longer part of history, but of the pri- treme form, until it led to blind emotionalism. The signs of a deep crisis vacy of the ego in which has emerged a powerful antisocial inclination. were to be openly manifested when the “barbaric” soul, which had Now that the idea of civilization has died, the individual can give free pushed itself beyond the limits of the intellect, consciously embraced the rein to his impulses, with the consequence that he feels authorized to re- “savage” freedom of the impulses. The term “aesthetic civilization” was nounce the social values of his actions, to become the cynical promoter gradually deprived of its ability to engage with things directly and was re- of himself. placed by the new watchword “aesthetic culture” which seemed to per- Reinhart Koselleck (2012) has made it clear that the notion of this cri- fectly reflect the U-turn of the individual. If the close correspondence sis has many meanings, among which to separate, to divide and to between civilization and aesthetics evoked the certain link between social choose. Therefore, when we evoke it we must not imagine it as a chasm progress and common sentiments, in the relationship between culture where we feel imprisoned, but think of it as a passing phase that can and aesthetics there appeared the dangerous degeneration of the senti- change the meaning of all things. The condition of crisis, adds Koselleck, ments itself in the individual. is “a distinctive feature of the modern era” (Ibid.: 52). To see modernity It was the young critic Georges Lukács who was responsible for the as a permanent state of crisis, in the sense of a change or passage, is introduction of the concept of “aesthetic culture.” Lukács saw its sudden clearly to confirm the fragility of the ideas of civilization and progress, emergence as a weakening of the social vocation of sentiment. “Aesthet- precisely because the reversal of values occurs within their very being. ic culture” was the negation of creative ability and power of action, but Intimistic and neo-cynical de-civilization does not, therefore, emerge the celebration of the moment enjoyed subjectively in its entirety. Even outside the established thought patterns of the modern world, but art became powerless because its “possibilities of effect” remained su- through their distortion and extremism. Aesthetic civilization is not im- perficial (Lukács, 1977: 18). The growing influence of “aesthetic culture” mune from the threats deriving from within its organism, because it be- marked the inevitable break in the fruitful relationship of reciprocal legit- comes afflicted precisely as a result of the degenerative tendency in soci- imacy between the civilizing process and aesthetics. It could no longer ety. For Ortega y Gasset (1946) every period of crisis is also a time of claim any power over reality, just as the notion of civilization was no great confusion, “because, ultimately, this thing called ‘crisis’ is only a longer connected with the idea of collective progress. The link between transition man goes through as he clings to things and clings to others” subjective and collective sentiment and between knowledge and society (Ibid.: 13). Crises, however, may be of different natures: normal crises
12 13 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society have the character of continuity, because the vision of the world remains the same. Historical crises, however, have the sense of a radical change, because beliefs are no longer the same and man is “without a world” (Ibid.: 26). It is the feeling without certainty of compelling individuals to create a world for themselves that is knowingly false and fictitious. “In times of crisis” – says Ortega – “false and fake positions are frequent. Entire generations falsify themselves, that is, they follow artistic styles, doctrines and political movements that are insincere and fill the void of genuine convictions” (Ibid.: 26). The result is an existence without affec- tions which Ortega calls “minimal life” (Ibid.: 27). However, this “mini- mal life” is not totally void of emotion. The aesthetic dimension is still evident, but it has an opposite and inauthentic meaning, because it has severed its ties with historical evolution, in order to reach the internal realm of the individual. The moment the desire for self-falsification is manifested, the emptiness deriving from this crisis produces both the re- nunciation of reason and that of renewed forms of indifference and de- tachment from society. “It is curious - Ortega writes – that the first stage of every crisis is a cynical one” (Ibid.: 22). The aesthetic crisis of society should be a positive occurrence, an almost almost unrepeatable moment in which the possibility of choice, of moving on to a new beginning, suddenly appears, no matter how obscure it seems. It is a narrow path which must be taken in order to arrive at a greater awareness. According to Burckhardt, crisis is “an aid from nature, like a fever” (Burckhardt, 1998: 191), to awaken in man his unexpected energies. Jacob Burckhardt (Ibid: 185) is even more emphatic than Ortega regarding the possibility that every phenomenon of crisis can be turned into an opportunity for affirming decadence and cynicism., because he has identified the optimal condition for those who, having abandoned all ideals, have made self- interest the exclusive object of their aesthetic impulses. To this regard he writes:
What must be stated first of all is the psychological fact that a certain number of ca- pable, resolute and coldly calculating men will always swim in the waters of every crisis and only seek to gain from every crisis in order to further themselves in socie- ty. (Ibid.)
Such men always behave with extreme “confidence since no aspiration, however difficult, is an obstacle to them” (Ibid.).
14 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22 have the character of continuity, because the vision of the world remains Paul Valéry was a harsh critic of civilization and saw the idea of pro- the same. Historical crises, however, have the sense of a radical change, gress as an attempt to “link the benefits of life with the advantages of because beliefs are no longer the same and man is “without a world” death” (Valéry, 1994: 33). In Valéry’s opinion, civilized, European man is (Ibid.: 26). It is the feeling without certainty of compelling individuals to a sort of monster” because he has “extravagant ambitions and a bound- create a world for themselves that is knowingly false and fictitious. “In less desire for knowledge and wealth” (Ibid.: 47). His life is full of con- times of crisis” – says Ortega – “false and fake positions are frequent. tradictions because he constantly fluctuates between faith and atheism Entire generations falsify themselves, that is, they follow artistic styles, and the anarchy of feelings and the rigours of morality. His mind is con- doctrines and political movements that are insincere and fill the void of fused and he feels a continual need for stimulants while his sensibility genuine convictions” (Ibid.: 26). The result is an existence without affec- has become almost numbed. Neither the most dazzling light, nor the tions which Ortega calls “minimal life” (Ibid.: 27). However, this “mini- loudest noises can awaken him from his dream and his journey appears mal life” is not totally void of emotion. The aesthetic dimension is still to have no destination: “Our sensibilities,” says the French poet, “have evident, but it has an opposite and inauthentic meaning, because it has diminished and become generally nebulous (…) the conditions of mod- severed its ties with historical evolution, in order to reach the internal ern life tend to inevitably flatten out individuals and their characters and realm of the individual. The moment the desire for self-falsification is unfortunately the average person tends to inescapably conform at the very manifested, the emptiness deriving from this crisis produces both the re- lowest level” (Ibid.: 78). For the French sociologist, Michel Maffesoli, con- nunciation of reason and that of renewed forms of indifference and de- temporary sentiment is content to float “in the emptiness of appearanc- tachment from society. “It is curious - Ortega writes – that the first stage es” (Maffesoli, 1993). Aesthetics continues to exert a cohesive function of every crisis is a cynical one” (Ibid.: 22). The aesthetic crisis of society between feeling and society but the relationships between people have should be a positive occurrence, an almost almost unrepeatable moment changed because they have become exclusively hedonistic: “social ties in which the possibility of choice, of moving on to a new beginning, have become emotional” (Ibid.: 11). This is the age in which hedonism suddenly appears, no matter how obscure it seems. It is a narrow path has invaded our whole existence so that “nothing is really important any which must be taken in order to arrive at a greater awareness. According longer and thus everything becomes important” (Ibid.: 12). As a result of to Burckhardt, crisis is “an aid from nature, like a fever” (Burckhardt, this interchangeability of all values, hedonism easily arises in its inability 1998: 191), to awaken in man his unexpected energies. Jacob Burckhardt to attribute pleasure with the sense of a difficult conquest. The crisis of (Ibid: 185) is even more emphatic than Ortega regarding the possibility aestheticism has its roots precisely in this exemption from feeling pleas- that every phenomenon of crisis can be turned into an opportunity for ure and in the expropriation of feeling (Perniola, 1991). affirming decadence and cynicism., because he has identified the optimal condition for those who, having abandoned all ideals, have made self- THE SHADOW OF PLEASURE interest the exclusive object of their aesthetic impulses. To this regard he writes: With the aesthetic crisis of society the idea of civilization collapsed. As we have said, it was civilized “barbarism” itself which determined the What must be stated first of all is the psychological fact that a certain number of ca- backward path of society and the unpredictable ebb towards a “savage” pable, resolute and coldly calculating men will always swim in the waters of every condition, in which could be seen the emergence of desire and pleasure crisis and only seek to gain from every crisis in order to further themselves in socie- in place of discrete intellectual strategies. But desire is double-edged: if ty. (Ibid.) we desire ourselves, we lose the world, if we desire things, we risk losing
ourselves in them. In either case we are faced with an impoverishment: Such men always behave with extreme “confidence since no aspiration, “either as a form of narcissism or as subjection to an object” (Butler, however difficult, is an obstacle to them” (Ibid.). 2009: 39). The neo-cynic has no hesitation, he has already chosen to lose
14 15 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society the world. In fact, because of its emphasis on individualism, belief in the power of reason turned into a narcissistic admiration of one’s self (Lasch, 1992) that became an essential prerequisite to give full vent to one’s sentiments. Self-desire was celebrated as the necessary impulse for the progressive liberation from the psychological constraints of moderni- ty and the absolute assertion of the instincts. This interpretation of exist- ence was adopted by the neo-cynic in order to legitimize his yearning for freedom and consequent anti-social behaviour from an ethical point of view. This silent revolt of desire, grew beyond all proportion within the soul of the individual spreading like a contagious disease and occupying all the spaces of his consciousness. What is worse, it did so to the indif- ference of society. With this insubordination the individual intended to regain possession of his sexuality which had been inhibited by society, above all in terms of economic growth. Norbert Elias (2010) has traced the progression through which hu- manity renounced pleasure and sacrificed it for civilization. The hetero- constrictions imposed by the norms of society were then overturned into self-constrictions which produced conditions of psychological distress. On a practical level, only those who knew how to restrain their desires were able to take advantage of the anguish generated by self-control. As Elias writes: “Repression of spontaneous aggression, control of the af- fections and the broadening of mental horizons, are different aspects of the same modifications of behaviour (…) And these modifications of behaviour are the progression towards civilization” (Ibid.: 307). The psy- chic economy of the individual suffered a great limitation since it was subject to unavoidable rules. Expressions of feeling had to be restrained and human relations conducted according to the precepts of civility. “In a certain sense,” Elias suggests “life became less exposed to danger but also more empty of affections at least as far as the immediate manifesta- tions of one’s desire for pleasure was concerned” (Ibid.: 315). If, on the one hand, civilisation encouraged social cohesion, on the other, it forced the individual to moderate his sentiments. For in his relations with oth- ers he seemed to adopt an anaesthetic behaviour that was emotionally cold and lacking in affection. Before Elias, Freud had revealed the hid- den dangers of society. In his well-known Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) (Freud, 1978), he describes how the advent of civilised society (obsessed with economic gain) gave origin to a general condition of “un- happiness.” He also notes with bitterness that: “(L)ife as it is imposed
16 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22 the world. In fact, because of its emphasis on individualism, belief in the upon us, is too hard for us, and gives us too much pain and disillusion- power of reason turned into a narcissistic admiration of one’s self ment and too many impossible tasks to solve” (Ibid.: 567). It is very dif- (Lasch, 1992) that became an essential prerequisite to give full vent to ficult to feel any instinctive well-being. Pleasure has become an unreach- one’s sentiments. Self-desire was celebrated as the necessary impulse for able urge and for this reason all forms of sublimation have been created the progressive liberation from the psychological constraints of moderni- by man as objects of aspiration in order to divert desire and obtain some ty and the absolute assertion of the instincts. This interpretation of exist- kind of appeasement without an object. Sexuality has been confined to ence was adopted by the neo-cynic in order to legitimize his yearning for prescriptions conceived exclusively to guarantee the increase of the hu- freedom and consequent anti-social behaviour from an ethical point of man species, with the aim of obtaining the maximum economic wealth. view. This silent revolt of desire, grew beyond all proportion within the The process of civilization forestalled the sexual evolution of humanity soul of the individual spreading like a contagious disease and occupying and placed maximum ethical importance on guilt and punishment. The all the spaces of his consciousness. What is worse, it did so to the indif- exaggerated domination of the conscience was transformed into the Su- ference of society. With this insubordination the individual intended to per-Ego whose task was to raise a psychic barrier before any unusual regain possession of his sexuality which had been inhibited by society, sexual behaviour condemned by political and religious institutions. “This above all in terms of economic growth. substitution of power from the community to the individual,” Freud Norbert Elias (2010) has traced the progression through which hu- points out, “is the vital stage towards civilisation. Its essence consisted in manity renounced pleasure and sacrificed it for civilization. The hetero- the fact that the satisfaction of the members of the community were lim- constrictions imposed by the norms of society were then overturned into ited, whilst those of the individual knew no such restrictions” (Ibid.: self-constrictions which produced conditions of psychological distress. 585). Society is profoundly different to the years in which Freud and Eli- On a practical level, only those who knew how to restrain their desires as made their considerations. The idea of civilisation has lost all of its were able to take advantage of the anguish generated by self-control. As appeal and the reasons for its existence. Once powerful and recognisable Elias writes: “Repression of spontaneous aggression, control of the af- by everyone, it now appears hazy. This is why renouncing pleasure no fections and the broadening of mental horizons, are different aspects of longer seems to have any sense, for it has been reversed into a command the same modifications of behaviour (…) And these modifications of to enjoy pleasure. We are now witnessing a process of collective desub- behaviour are the progression towards civilization” (Ibid.: 307). The psy- limation. Society has dissolved from a unified structure into so many in- chic economy of the individual suffered a great limitation since it was dividualities in the desperate search for pleasure at all cost. The sublima- subject to unavoidable rules. Expressions of feeling had to be restrained tion of desire, with the end of aesthetic civilisation, has exhausted its and human relations conducted according to the precepts of civility. “In function as a social cohesion and the individual can no longer relate to a a certain sense,” Elias suggests “life became less exposed to danger but unified discourse, or find satisfaction in art, literature, friendship or a also more empty of affections at least as far as the immediate manifesta- married life lived according to the highest ethical values. Now all he tions of one’s desire for pleasure was concerned” (Ibid.: 315). If, on the wants is pleasure. De-civilisation and de-sublimation are the individual’s one hand, civilisation encouraged social cohesion, on the other, it forced answers to the question of the full satisfaction of his desires. De- the individual to moderate his sentiments. For in his relations with oth- civilisation, inspired by the “savage” celebration of the individual self jus- ers he seemed to adopt an anaesthetic behaviour that was emotionally tifies his anti-social behaviour, whilst de-sublimation restores the in- cold and lacking in affection. Before Elias, Freud had revealed the hid- stincts repressed by social norms which increase in power. We now see den dangers of society. In his well-known Civilization and Its Discontents the victory of the principle of pleasure over the principle of reality: the (1930) (Freud, 1978), he describes how the advent of civilised society former vindicates its own absoluteness and its right to express itself with (obsessed with economic gain) gave origin to a general condition of “un- no holds barred; the latter disappears from the individual’s psychological happiness.” He also notes with bitterness that: “(L)ife as it is imposed horizon together with a sense of submission to social norms. According
16 17 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society to the psychoanalyst Charles Melman, the collapse of the great ideologies and the emerging vision of a liberal world led to the desire to abolish “les restrictions de la jouissance” (Melman, 2010: 55), in order to enter a di- mension of excess which would be conceived of as a normal condition. This radical change of the affections, for Melman, can be explained by the transformations which occurred in society, especially in the economy:
We can say that the watchword of the liberal ideology is that to ensure the enjoy- ment of all. This is the new ethics: everyone has the right to fully satisfy its enjoy- ment, independently from the modality of this enjoyment (...) we are no longer de- pendent on a boss, but we have become dependent objects. (...) It is not necessary to be drug addicts today to be dependent on a number of objects whose presence has become essential for us (...) who commands is a new boss, it is the object, is the satisfaction, it is the enjoyment. (Ibid.: 60)*
For Melman, what must be taken into consideration is the advent of a “nouvelle économie psychique” the rejection of the idea of the Father, or the “big Other” (Evans, 1996: 132), as theorised by Jacques Lacan, for whom modernity had delegated the power to establish its certainties. In the meanwhile, progress has made many things available to satisfy hu- man needs but has also created the conditions of widespread psychologi- cal misery. Dissatisfaction has become a constant factor of human exist- ence and in his reiterated demand for possession the individual thinks he can pinpoint the presuppositions to be recognised as a being that desires. However, the recognition of individual identity heralded the disowning of the totally Other, as represented in the “great texts” of Western cul- ture: “One of the most important phenomena of our time – Melman underlines – is the disappearance of the important texts. And as if there was a general disinvestment in the great founding texts of our culture” (52). The rejection of the “big Other, its exclusion and, therefore, the re- fusal to obey his every command” was what characterised the contempo- rary world (Ibid.: 61). The sense of loss is one of the consequences of such a rejection. The individual has rejected the sublimation of desire be- cause it only promised him an object of ghostly desire. Now, de- sublimation offers him an elusive shadow of it. Sublimation gave the in- dividual a foundation on the basis of a fictional satisfaction. Now he only feels he exists on the condition that he can raise dissatisfaction to a style of life, in a single eternal return of desire. “If the subject of desire –
18 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22 to the psychoanalyst Charles Melman, the collapse of the great ideologies Melman writes – is completely taken by the object, it disappears as the and the emerging vision of a liberal world led to the desire to abolish “les subject” (Ibid.: 27). The problem of the total freedom of the instincts restrictions de la jouissance” (Melman, 2010: 55), in order to enter a di- remains open. If the neo-cynic wants to maintain his identity intact and if mension of excess which would be conceived of as a normal condition. he wants to aim for the recognition of his existence, he is forced to con- This radical change of the affections, for Melman, can be explained by trol his impulses and subject them to an ambiguous conception of sexu- the transformations which occurred in society, especially in the economy: ality. He must continually repeat his demand for complete access to pleasure and consider it the basis of his certainties and at the same time We can say that the watchword of the liberal ideology is that to ensure the enjoy- see it as a threat to his identity and therefore ask for his desires to be sat- ment of all. This is the new ethics: everyone has the right to fully satisfy its enjoy- isfied and at the same time keep the possibility of their satisfaction at a ment, independently from the modality of this enjoyment (...) we are no longer de- distance. One of the consequences of this vicious circle of excess is that pendent on a boss, but we have become dependent objects. (...) It is not necessary to be drug addicts today to be dependent on a number of objects whose presence the individual, as Melman says, “has become an atopic subject. He can has become essential for us (...) who commands is a new boss, it is the object, is the no longer find his place, his voice” (Ibid.: 111). If this is how things satisfaction, it is the enjoyment. (Ibid.: 60)* stand, one may ask whether it is still possible to experience pleasure.
For Melman, what must be taken into consideration is the advent of a ANHEDONIC AESTHETICS “nouvelle économie psychique” the rejection of the idea of the Father, or the “big Other” (Evans, 1996: 132), as theorised by Jacques Lacan, for The impossibility of experiencing pleasure to the full generates two nega- whom modernity had delegated the power to establish its certainties. In tive effects in the psyche of the neo-cynic: a devaluation of the desired the meanwhile, progress has made many things available to satisfy hu- object or a dependence on it, in the form of endless hedonistic addiction. man needs but has also created the conditions of widespread psychologi- The individual becomes a hostage of desire, because he will never be able cal misery. Dissatisfaction has become a constant factor of human exist- to bridge the distance from which the object of pleasure is kept at bay by ence and in his reiterated demand for possession the individual thinks he a spirit of self-preservation. If he were able to reach his object he would can pinpoint the presuppositions to be recognised as a being that desires. deprive himself of all power. For this reason, his ambition of taking However, the recognition of individual identity heralded the disowning permanent possession of pleasure and his intention of fixing its identity of the totally Other, as represented in the “great texts” of Western cul- forever are in conflict. Both must be seen in terms of an inescapable ture: “One of the most important phenomena of our time – Melman negativity: the impossibility of experiencing satisfaction to the full and underlines – is the disappearance of the important texts. And as if there the impossibility of making its identity immutable. The result is a state of was a general disinvestment in the great founding texts of our culture” frustration that soon becomes aesthetic disinterest and instinctual patho- (52). The rejection of the “big Other, its exclusion and, therefore, the re- logical impotency. The French psychologist Théodule Ribot was the first fusal to obey his every command” was what characterised the contempo- to introduce into the psychological and philosophical debate this un- rary world (Ibid.: 61). The sense of loss is one of the consequences of known disease under the name of anhedonia, i. e. the inability to experi- such a rejection. The individual has rejected the sublimation of desire be- ence pleasure, in his work La psychologie des sentiments (Ribot, 1896). In his cause it only promised him an object of ghostly desire. Now, de- long chapter on pleasure he notes that while there have been many stud- sublimation offers him an elusive shadow of it. Sublimation gave the in- ies on pain, pleasure has not received the same attention. Mistakenly, dividual a foundation on the basis of a fictional satisfaction. Now he only pleasure and pain have been studied as if they were united by an intrinsic feels he exists on the condition that he can raise dissatisfaction to a style bond. For Ribot, however, things are not so straightforward because of life, in a single eternal return of desire. “If the subject of desire – pleasure, like pain, can be analysed as a condition in itself, in isolation
18 19 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society from the overall context from which it arises, and in certain circumstanc- es it may even disappear, as in the case of anhedonia. “Anhedonia (forgive the neologism thought in opposition to analgesia) – Ribot writes – has been studied little, however it exists” (Ibid.: 54). It is a form of “insensi- tivity to pleasure,” that “does not exist only for the physical pleasure, but also for the moral pleasure (joy, happiness)” (Ibid.). Ribot further clari- fies the nature of this disease in his following work Problèmes de psychologie affective (Ribot, 1910) where it is seen as affecting mainly physical pleas- ure, particularly sexual pleasure. However, it also concerns the loss of many other forms of “non-physical feelings: joy, sadness, hatred, tender- ness, in a word, every emotion - a state of indifference to everything and everyone, intelligence remains intact and the semi-automatic way of life” (Ibid.: 23). This change in emotional life has dramatic consequences. Ri- bot notes a state of “depersonalization, loss of sense of reality, a sense of alienation, isolation” (Ibid.). Jacques Lacan seemed to make a further contribution to Ribot’s idea of hedonic inability when he introduced to the debate on pleasure the concept of jouissance, to which, when projected onto the realm of reality, he gave the sense of an unattainable fulfilment. As Jacques-Alain Miller commenting on Lacan’s ideas, explains, once the “big Other” is expelled from life, the power of attraction shifts entirely onto small objects (the small other as distinct from the “big Other”). The small object has the power to turn on desires, to be a reserve for the libido, but also the end that creates all the anxieties of the individual (Evans, 1996: 125). In spite of these qualities, it is impossible to think of “small” pleasures as an ex- perience that can delete the interval of unattainable enjoyment. This im- possibility is sublimated by “surplus enjoyment” (Miller, 2001: 32) which is a product of the small object when it is identified “with all the objects of industry, culture and sublimation (…) These small fragments are all we are allowed to enjoy” (Ibid.: 33). Lacan calls them “small slices of en- joyment” (Ibid.). The neo-cynic’s way of experiencing enjoyment seems to be made up precisely of these “small slices,” which, because they lack substance, are unable to satisfy society’s hunger for pleasure. “We see our cultural world,” Miller writes: “being filled with substitutes of en- joyment which are little nothings. These small slices of enjoyment give their style to our way of living and our way of enjoying things” (Ibid.). This enjoyment allows no enjoyment. Repeated to excess it becomes the complete realisation of anhedonic experience. This is the typical condi-
20 Aldo Marroni / The Aesthetic Crisis of Society Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 7–22 from the overall context from which it arises, and in certain circumstanc- tion of the spirit in which contemporary society has chosen to live, from es it may even disappear, as in the case of anhedonia. “Anhedonia (forgive the moment neo-cynicism substituted the “big Other” with the right to the neologism thought in opposition to analgesia) – Ribot writes – has experience limitless pleasure, as embodied by small objects. The exercis- been studied little, however it exists” (Ibid.: 54). It is a form of “insensi- ing of such prerogatives, conceived in conjunction with the intimation of tivity to pleasure,” that “does not exist only for the physical pleasure, but the sentiments, creates the anxious need to possess all the possible ob- also for the moral pleasure (joy, happiness)” (Ibid.). Ribot further clari- jects of pleasure offered by the liberal economy, such as a career without fies the nature of this disease in his following work Problèmes de psychologie obstacles, positions of high authority in society and the possibility to ob- affective (Ribot, 1910) where it is seen as affecting mainly physical pleas- tain whatever one desires (Sloterdijk, 1992). Underlying all pleasures that ure, particularly sexual pleasure. However, it also concerns the loss of have been satisfied, then nullified to be pursued once again in other many other forms of “non-physical feelings: joy, sadness, hatred, tender- small objects, remains the immense sense of an obscure and indescriba- ness, in a word, every emotion - a state of indifference to everything and bly depressing aesthetic impotency. everyone, intelligence remains intact and the semi-automatic way of life” (Ibid.: 23). This change in emotional life has dramatic consequences. Ri- * The translation in English of the quotations from Ribot’s and Melman’s bot notes a state of “depersonalization, loss of sense of reality, a sense of books is mine. alienation, isolation” (Ibid.). Jacques Lacan seemed to make a further contribution to Ribot’s idea References of hedonic inability when he introduced to the debate on pleasure the Aron, Raymond. Les désillusions du progrès. Essai sur la dialectique de la modernité. Paris: concept of jouissance, to which, when projected onto the realm of reality, Calmann-Lévy, 1969. Auroux, Sylvain. “La Bifurcation esthétique.” MLN 102.4 (1987): 811�831. he gave the sense of an unattainable fulfilment. As Jacques-Alain Miller Burckhardt, Jacob. Sullo studio della storia. Lezioni e conferenze (1868-1873). Ed.Maurizio commenting on Lacan’s ideas, explains, once the “big Other” is expelled Ghelardi, Torino: Einaudi, 1998. from life, the power of attraction shifts entirely onto small objects (the Butler, Judith. Soggetti di desiderio. Trans. Gaia Giuliani, Roma-Bari: Laterza, 2009. small other as distinct from the “big Other”). The small object has the Chouillet, Jacques. L’esthétique des Lumières. Paris: Puf, 1974. power to turn on desires, to be a reserve for the libido, but also the end Condorcet. Quadro storico dei progressi dello spirito umano. Trans. Michele Augias, that creates all the anxieties of the individual (Evans, 1996: 125). In spite Milano: Rizzoli, 1989. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of Aesthetic. London & New York: Blackwell, 1990. of these qualities, it is impossible to think of “small” pleasures as an ex- Elias, Norbert. Potere e civiltà. Il processo di civilizzazione II. Trans. Giuseppina Panzieri, perience that can delete the interval of unattainable enjoyment. This im- Bologna: Il Mulino, 2010. possibility is sublimated by “surplus enjoyment” (Miller, 2001: 32) which Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (1751-1772) sous la is a product of the small object when it is identified “with all the objects direction de Diderot et D’Alembert.
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Lasch, Christopher. La cultura del narcisismo. L’individuo in fuga dal sociale in un’età di disillusioni collettive. Trans. Marina Bocconcelli, Milano: Bompiani, 1992. Lukács, György. Cultura estetica. Trans. Marinella D’Alessandro, Roma: Newton Compton, 1977. Maffesoli, Michel. Nel vuoto delle apparenze. Per un’etica dell’estetica. Trans. Claude Béguin, Milano: Garzanti, 1993. Marcuse, Herbert. Eros e civiltà. Trans. Lorenzo Bassi, Torino: Einaudi, 2001. Marroni, Aldo. “L’intimità oltre l’intimismo.” Ágalma. Rivista di studi culturali e di estetica 25 (2013): 47�58. Melman, Charles. La nouvelle économie psichique. La façon de penser et de jouir aujourd’hui. Toulouse: érès, 2010. Merlio, Gilbert. “La crise de la modernité selon Schiller.” Revue germanique internationale 22 (2004): 145�160. Miller, Jacques-Alain. I paradigmi del godimento. Ed. Antonio Di Ciaccia, Roma: Astrolabio, 2001. Ortega y Gasset, José. Schema della crisi e altri saggi. Trans. Franco Meregalli, Milano: Bompiani, 1946. Perniola, Mario. Del sentire. Torino: Einaudi, 1991. Ribot, Théodule. La psychologie des sentiments. Paris: Alcan, 1896.
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