CHRISTUS CULTURA

The Journal of in the Social Sciences

Volume 2: Issue 1 | April 2020

Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

Mission Statement Christus Cultura, Staff

Our mission at Christus Cultura is to Managing Editor, explore and highlight in innovative, cutting edge ways the intersection of Christian faith Charles William Carter, Ph.D. and the human experience as expressed in the study of the social sciences, including Associate Professor of History history, political science, psychology, Shorter University sociology, criminology, international studies, Christian and missionary studies, Associate Editor, and much more. Jared Linebach, Ph.D. Vision Associate Professor of Criminal Justice and Chair of the Department of Social Sciences To that end, contributors to this journal present original research and solicited Shorter University items–from articles and essays to book reviews and commentaries–on issues Webmaster, important to the Christian life as it is experienced now, in the past, or could be Andrew Bailey experienced in the future. Our scope is Shorter University intentionally broad, both in terms of geography and time, as well as in content, because we seek to provide readers with a rich mosaic of the ways in which the influence of a single man, a humble carpenter from Nazareth, has continued to shape the human experience, society, and culture in profound ways. It is our sincere desire that readers will find the journal rewarding and spiritually life-enriching and that the content presented will serve, whether in profound or subtle ways, as a vehicle of the Great Commission (Matthew 28:16-20).

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Contents A of New Beginnings: How the Letter From Editors Power of Relationship Brings Hope

Scholarly Articles Section and Redeems Lives Author: Rob Cowles & Matt Roberts, with Dean Merrill The Curious Setting of Eden: The Publisher: Thomas Nelson, 2018 Ethical Implications of the Review by Sydney Holmes, Narrative Setting of Genesis 2–3 University of North Carolina

--Cory Barnes, Shorter University Faith for Exiles: 5 Ways for a New Theology in Stone: Gothic Generation to Follow Jesus in Architecture, Scholasticism, and the Digital Babylon Medieval Incarnational View of Author: Kinnaman & Mark Matlock Knowledge Publisher: Baker Books, 2019 Review by Jodi S. Ford, Liberty University --Brenton H. Cook, Bob Jones University

The Case for Christ: Daily Moment A Christian Perspective on Police of Truth Body Worn Cameras and Related Author: Lee Strobel & Mark Mittelberg Theories: A Case Study of Houston, Publisher: Zondervan, 2018 Texas Review by Luciana Y. Philyaw, Shorter University --Daniel Augusto, Liberty University

Promoting Resilience in Special Undergraduate Spotlight Essay Survivors of Suicide The Conversion of Vladimir the --Natalie Ford, Truett McConnell University Great to Orthodox Christianity Anthony Cantanzaro Scholarly Book Reviews Section History Major I Think You’re Wrong (But I’m Shorter University

Listening): A Guide to Grace-Filled Political Conversations Author: Beth A. Silvers & Sarah Stewart Holland Publisher: Thomas Nelson, 2019. Review by Justin Pettegrew, Shorter University

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Contributors to the Acknowledgments

This Edition The Editorial Staff would like to thank some individuals who contributed to the design of this journal. Mr. Andrew Bailey, the Daniel Augusto, Ph.D. Candidate in webmaster of Shorter University, who Criminal Justice, Liberty University administers the journal’s online webpage.

Cory Barnes, Ph.D. (New Orleans Baptist Seminary), Dean, Journal Cover Photo Credit: Grant Whitty School of Humanities and Social on Unsplash Sciences, Shorter University

Anthony Cantanzaro, History Major, Shorter University

Charles W. Carter, Ph.D. (Ohio State University), Associate Professor of History, Shorter University

Brenton H. Cooke, Ph.D. (Bob Jones University), Associate Professor of Bible and History, Bob Jones University

Jodie S. Ford, Ph.D. Candidate in Criminal Justice, Liberty University

Natalie Ford, Ph.D. (Liberty University), Assistant Professor of Behavioral Science, Truett McConnell University

Sydney Holmes, History Graduate Student, University of North Carolina

Justin Pettegrew, Ph.D. (Loyola-Chicago), Associate Professor of History, Shorter University

Luciana Philyaw, Ed.D. (North Central College), Assistant Professor of Human Services, Shorter University

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Letter from the Editors only that, this pandemic has created opportunities for Christians to show their care for one another and others, Greetings, Dear Readers! actualizing love in ways that would not be possible otherwise. There are indeed Like the inaugural edition last unprecedented occasions to win over year, this second publication of our people to Christ even in a pandemic Christus Cultura: The Journal of such as this by manifesting solidarity Christianity in the Social Sciences with our fellow man and following marks the culmination of a year-long Jesus’ love commands, as laid out in the process of turning into reality a vision Gospel of Matthew. of an where scholars To be sure, the Christian can publish on topics that examine the worldview does not promise in this life social sciences through an Evangelical a world free of sorrows, but we can Christian lens. This year scholars from know with certainty that all things will such institutions as Liberty University, work out in the end for those who put Bob Jones University, Truett their trust in Christ Jesus. “And we McConnell University, Shorter know that in all things God works for University among others, have the good of those who love him,” the contributed to help make the journal’s Apostle Paul writes, “who have been vision possible. To each contributor, called according to his purpose” we are grateful for your scholarship, (Romans 8:28). Accordingly, we, as and hope it is read widely throughout Christians, should focus on God’s the Evangelical Christian higher providence and omnibenevolence in education community. this trying time to give us the strength With the ongoing coronavirus to love one another. pandemic, this spring has brought new challenges that the global community In Christ, has never faced before, at least not in Charlie Carter & Jared Linebach modern times. Yet as Christians we can Shorter University have confidence that God will see us Rome, GA through these times, however troubling and stressing they may be. It is precisely in times of crisis May 1, 2020 such as this that much is revealed about society. People learn who their true friends are and who cares for them. People ideally set asides differences, whether cultural or ideological, to come together for the common good. Not

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The Curious Setting of Eden: narrative is the primary means of ethical expression in the biblical text, understanding The Ethical Implications of the the narrative of the Bible is essential for Narrative Setting of Genesis 2–3 constructing a biblical ethic. Christian Scripture contains multiple Cory Barnes, Ph.D. narrative levels. Local narratives comprise the most basic level of narrative. Local narratives Shorter University are bound into units containing unique

characters, settings, and plots.2 At times

strings of local narratives form cycles of narratives within the text in which the individual narratives function as parts within a larger cycle.3 Local narratives and narrative cycles are important for understanding the ethical message of Scripture, but the most ethically fertile level of narrative is the metanarrative that encapsulates all other levels of narrative.4 The ethical message of Scripture hearkens to readers through its metanarrative and beckons readers to join in the story by conforming their ethical understanding to the 5 force of the narrative. Image Credit: Pixabay If the Bible is a story, then it must have a beginning and an end. As in all stories, A biblical ethic is naturally to understand the meaning of the narrative one predisposed toward narrative expression. The must grasp the meaning of these two terminal chief cause of the bend toward narrative points. At the beginning of the biblical story is methodology in biblical is that the Bible the narrative of the creation of the world in itself takes the form of narrative. Those who Gen 1–3. The creation narrative naturally falls wish to form an ethical framework from into two sections with Gen 1:1–2:4 Scripture based on moral concepts rather than representing a holistic view of creation and on narrative expression must wrestle with the Gen 2:4–3:246 a focused view on the role of fact that narrative and not reason is the way in human agents in the creation and the fall.7 which Scripture conveys truth.1 Because

1 Johan Baptist Metz, "A Short Apology of Narrative," in Why 5 Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical- Narrative?: Readings in Narrative Theology, ed. Stanley Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Hauerwas and Gregory L. Jones (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Westminster John Knox, 2005). 1989), 252. 6 For the sake of brevity, Gen 2:4–3:24 will be referred to 2 Gordon D. Fee and Douglas K. Stuart, How to Read the hereafter as Gen 2–3. Bible for All Its Worth, 4th ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 7 Possible form-critical reasons for dividing Gen 1:1–2:4 are 2014), 95–96. outside the scope of this paper. For a discussion of the 3 R. Dennis Cole, “Old Testament Narrative: Telling the Story thematic and narrative continuity between Gen 1:1–2:4 and of God’s Handiwork in History,” in Biblical Hermeneutics: A Gen 2:5–3:24 see John H. Walton, The Lost World of Adam Comprehensive Introduction to Interpreting Scripture, ed. and Eve: Genesis 2-3 and the Human Origins Debate Bruce Corley, Steve Lemke, and Grant Lovejoy (Nashville: (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2015), 63–70. Broadman & Holman, 2002), 272–74. 4 A. K. M. Adam, “Metanarrative,” ed. Robert L. Brawley, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

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Because Gen 2–3 is the beginning of the story Gen 2–3. In this passage, the reader of God and humanity, the narrative of Gen 2– encounters curious waters, curious soil, and 3 orients the ethical force of the biblical curious trees that shape the meaning of the metanarrative. narrative as well as its ethical implications. An examination of Gen 2–3 cannot provide an all-inclusive understanding of the ethical force of the biblical narrative. The The Curious Waters of Eden current study examines how the setting of the The first mention of water in Gen 2–3 narrative of Gen 2–3 orients the ethical comes in the description of the state of the expectations of the biblical metanarrative for ground in Gen 2:5–6. Instead of rain, the which it serves as an introduction.8 Others source of water upon the earth came in the have discussed the ethical implications of the form of the ‘ēd which rose upon the earth.10 entire Eden narrative, but the current study Whatever the appropriate translation of ‘ēd, gives special attention to the temporal and the word denotes an otherness to the initial spatial settings of Eden and their role upon the way in which the earth was irrigated. The ethical force of the narrative. 9 presence of the‘ēd rising from the earth The current study concludes with a highlights the fact that the lack of vegetation juxtaposition of the beginning of the biblical in the fields (agriculture) mentioned in Gen metanarrative in Gen 2–3 and the climax of 2:4–5 comes from the absence of man and not the biblical metanarrative in Rev 21–22. The the absence of God creating a fecund world focus of the final section will be to propose ready to produce agriculture.11 how the setting of Gen 2–3 informs the The presence of the ‘ēd contributes to understanding of the ethical message of the the ethical force of the narrative of Gen 2–3 biblical metanarrative and serves as an by demonstrating that the lack of agriculture appropriate beginning for constructing a upon the earth is due to the absence of biblical ethic in the contemporary world. humankind, not the absence of water or any other non-human element. The vital role of humanity in the appropriate ecology of The Curious Setting of Eden creation is essential in orienting the ethical Understanding how the setting of Gen force of the narrative of Gen 2–3 in terms of 2–3 orients the ethical force of the biblical the relationship between humans and the rest metanarrative requires an analysis of the of creation. Creation without humanity does major features of the narrative setting of the not constitute a fully functioning ecology. passage. Each element of the setting of Gen 2– Humanity is dependent upon all other 3 has curious qualities that have significant elements of creation, but the other elements of implications for the ethical force of the narrative. The spatial setting of Eden has deep significance for the ethical implications of

8 Others have endeavored to provide a broader picture of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 528 (New York: T&T ethical implications of the biblical metanarrative. See John Clark, 2010), 11–33. has long baffled אֵד Goldingay, Israel’s Gospel, Old Testament theology 10 The translation of the Hebrew (Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press, 2003); Brian Brock, interpreters. For a discussion see Robert Alden, “‘ēd. Mist,” Singing the Ethos of God: On the Place of Christian Ethics in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament I:17; David Scripture (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007). Toshio Tsumura, The Earth and the Waters in Genesis 1 and 9 Robert P. Gordon, “The Ethics of Eden: Truth-Telling in 2: A Linguistic Investigation, JSOTSup 83 (Sheffield: JSOT Genesis 2–3,” in Ethical and Unethical in the Old Testament: Press, 1989), 94–116. God and Humans in Dialogue, ed. Katharine Dell, Library of 11 Gordon Wenham,Genesis 1–15, Word Biblical Commentary 1a (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1987), 59.

6 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences creation are equally as dependent upon geography in the writing of biblical history. humanity to achieve their intended role.12 Rather the two perspectives must be related in The curious waters of Eden are not a geographical interpretation of the four rivers limited to the ‘ēd.13 One of the most peculiar of paradise.”16 A better way forward is to descriptions of Eden is the description of the understand the description of the space of the river that flows out of Eden, which first waters rivers in such a way that embraces the the Garden of Eden, then splits into four concrete-physical and conceptual natures of branches: the Phishon, the Gihon, the Tigris, the description in Gen 2:10– 14. and the Euphrates (Gen 2:10–14). The Understanding the rivers of Gen 2:10–14 as a description of the rivers seems to be a strictly part of the spatial setting of Gen 2–3 requires physical description locating Eden, however considering the conceptual or conceived space any attempt to read the description as a of the rivers rather than only their physical or physical boundary throws the reader into perceived space.17 geographical disarray. Beyond the uncertainty The presentation of the conceived of locating the Pishon and Gihon14 any space of the rivers in Gen 2:10–14 begins with attempt to recreate the geography of Gen the fact that rivers have their headwaters in the 2:10–14 requires the reader to imagine a space region of Eden. Multiple etymologies of the where the Tigris and Euphrates flow from a name of the region of Eden have been common tributary rather than flowing parallel proposed.18 The most likely etymology for coming together just before Persian Gulf.15 Eden is that it comes from an Aramaic One explanation to this geographical cognate meaning abundance, particularly an oddity would be to dismiss the description of abundance in water supply.19 The etymology the space of Eden as strictly figural, that is to of Eden orients the use of the conceived space dismiss any connection to a concrete-physical of the rivers that are flowing from Eden in the world and explore only a figural/symbolic narrative of Gen 2–3. reading of the description of Eden’s location. Eden’s identification with plentiful Such a dismissal, however, would be overly water has a profound effect on the simplistic. Thomas Dozeman observes, “A presentation of its conceived space and the simple dichotomy between fact and fiction ethical implications of the narrative of Gen 2– will not capture the dynamic role of 3. First and foremost, the presentation of Eden

12 J. Toly and Daniel I. Block, “Keeping God’s Earth,” spatial theory in biblical studies see Mark K. George, “Space in Keeping God’s Earth: The Global Environment in Biblical and History: Siting Critical Space for Biblical Studies,” in Perspective, ed. Noah J. Toly and Daniel I. Block (Downers Constructions of Space I: Theory, Geography and Narrative. Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2010), 19–21. eds. Jon L. Berquist and Claudia V. Camp (Library of Hebrew 13 Cf. Isa 51:13; Eze 28:13; 31:9; 2:3. In addition to the Bible/Old Testament Studies 481; New York: T & T Clark, explicit references to Eden in the OT, there are multiple 2007); Christopher Meredith, “Taking Issue with Thirdspace: passages which elicit Edenic themes. See George W. Savran, Reading Soja, Lefebvre and the Bible,” in Constructions of “Beastly Speech: Balaam’s Ass and Intertextuality in the Space III: Biblical Spatiality and the Sacred, eds. Jorun Garden of Eden,” JSOT 64 (1994): 33–55. Okland, J. Cornelis de Vos, and Karen Wenell (Library of 14 See Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1– Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 540; London: 17, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament Bloomsbury, 2016). (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 166–70. 18 For example, that it was a name for the region of northern 15 See Carl G. Rasmussen, Zondervan Atlas of the Bible Mesopotamia, or that it comes from a Sumeric cognate (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 76–77. meaning “steppe.” John H. Walton, Genesis, NIV Application 16 Thomas B. Dozeman, “Biblical Geography and Critical Commentary 1 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001), 167. Spatial Studies.” inConstructions of Space I: Theory, 19 David Toshio Tsumura, Earth and the Waters in Genesis 1 Geography and Narrative eds. Jon L. Berquist and Claudia V. and 2: A Linguistic Investigation (Library of Hebrew Camp (Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 481; Bible/Old Testament Studies 83; Sheffield: Sheffield New York: T & T Clark, 2007), 100. Academic Press, 2000), 137–53. See also Mathews, 201. 17 The idea of conceived and perceived space is heavily influenced by spatial theory. For an overview of the use of

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as a space with plentiful water emphasizes the creation—that is as the source of creation’s paradisiacal nature of Eden because plentiful life and food.21 water for irrigation in the ancient Near East Many ethicists highlight Adam’s role (ANE) meant a greatly diminished chance of as the archetypical human and the profound famine.20 ethical implications of this role.22 Paul makes The most important element of the Adam’s archetypical role clear in the New conceived space of Eden presented in Gen Testament in Rom 5 and 1 Cor 15.23 An 2:10–13 is that a river flowing from the region understanding of the role of Eden’s conceived of Eden watering the garden of Eden and then space opens the possibility that just as Adam out of Eden it separates and becomes and Eve are the archetypical humans, Eden is headwaters of four rivers. Whatever the the archetypical place. Eden is the conceptual perceived location of the four rivers, their center of the world. What happens in Eden conceived location is a river which flows out will not stay there but will have effect on all of the river which waters the Garden of Eden. places in creation. The fact that the rivers of The primacy of the river, which flows from the world flow from Eden demonstrates that the region of Eden to water the Garden of God has oriented creation with Eden at its Eden, has two major ethical implications. center, and from Eden the rest of creation First, the fact that the location of the receives life. Any movement away from Eden Garden of Eden is along the tributary to four is a movement away from the center of other major rivers highlights the fecundity of creation, away from the center of fecundity, the Garden of Eden itself. The waters of the away from the ideal space for God’s creatures. fertile places of the ANE must first flow through the Garden of Eden. This shapes the conceived space of the Garden of Eden by The Curious Soil of Eden further highlighting the ideal nature of the The setting of Eden has great effect on garden for agriculture. The imagery comes the characters of the narrative of Gen 2–3. The together to demonstrate that the Garden of intricate relationship between characters and Eden is an agricultural paradise. God has setting is nowhere more evident than in the taken man and placed him in a space where he description of the creation of the man in Gen can perfectly fulfill his vocational role. There 2:7, “And YHWH God formed the man from is ecological balance because there is a man to the topsoil ('ā ̄pār)24 of the soil ('ādāmāh).”25 keep the garden and abundant water to sustain A more traditional understanding for the word it. Secondly, that the river which flows from 'ā ̄pār is “clay,” specifically the clay material Eden provides water for other major rivers associated with the work of a potter.26 The demonstrates that Eden is the center of reason that many interpreters understand the

20 Peter Lau, “Famine,” The Lexham Bible Dictionary in Gen 2:7 is to the loose dirt at the top of the ground. While (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). this may be thought of as “dust” the agricultural setting makes 21 See M. Sarna, Genesis, The JPS Torah “topsoil” a legitimate option and a helpful one to demonstrate Commentary 1 (Philadelphia, PA: The Jewish Publication the continuity of the agricultural theme of the narrative. See Society, 1989). Francis Brown, R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The 22 McQuilkin and Copan, An Introduction to Biblical Ethics, Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody, 81–84; David VanDrunen, Divine Covenants and Moral MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2010), 646–47. Order: A Biblical Theology of Natural Law (Grand Rapids: 25 Unless otherwise noted, all translations from the Old Eerdmans, 2014), 41–77; Christopher J. H Wright, Old Testament are the author’s own and are from the Biblia Testament Ethics for the People of God (Downers Grove, Ill, Hebraica Stuttgartensia (Stuttgart: German Bible Society, 2004), 118–22. 1997). 23 See Walton, The Lost World of Adam and Eve, 92–95. 26 John Lee Thompson, ed., Genesis 1–11 (Downers Grove, 24 'ā ̄pār is nearly always translated “dust” in English Bibles. Ill., 2012), 71–75; Wenham, 59–60. There is nothing wrong with the translation, but the reference

8 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences material used to shape the man as having a earth and bring it under control and rule over connection to the work of a potter is because the fish in the sea and the birds in the heavens he verb used for forming in Gen 2:7 is yṣr. yṣr and all the living things that move about on is commonly used to describe the work of a the earth.” The authority of the man over potter.27 While YHWH’s creative activity is creation is further demonstrated in YHWH’s described using such vocabulary, the material commission to name the other living things in described by 'ā ̄pār has stronger ties to the creation (Gen 2:19–20).29 Although the man is concept of fertile soil than to the concept of a made of the same material as the other living potter’s clay.28 The text makes clear that beings in the created order, he is superior to 'ā ̄pār is soil rather than clay by noting that the them. That the man is equal to the other living 'ā ̄pār comes from the 'ādāmāh. From the things in substance but superior to them in 'ādāmāh YHWH brings forth the vegetation authority and value highlights that the within Eden, as well as the other life forms privileged place of humanity in creation created within the Garden (Gen 2:18–19). comes from their role as God’s divine image Realizing the agricultural vocabulary bearers, not material superiority. of 'ādāmāh and 'ā ̄pār opens significant The ethical force of the relationship windows for understanding the ethical force of between the man and soil in the narrative of the narrative of Gen 2–3. First it orients the Gen 2–3 orients the understanding of the relationship between Adam and the rest of ethical force of the metanarrative of scripture. creation. That Adam and the rest of the The role of humanity as God’s representative created life are made from the same material exercising dominion over the earth is an encourages humanity to view themselves element of humanity’s divinely appointed within the same ecology as the rest of function, not material superiority.30 The Bible creation. Whatever may separate humanity rejects any notion that humanity is subservient from creation, it is not materialistic. Just as the to other forms of created life—a notion well- relationship between humanity and water known to other ANE cultures31—but this emphasizes the symbiotic need of human and rejection comes from understanding the non-human elements for proper ecological special relationship between humanity and function, so the material link between God, not the materialistic superiority of humankind and other forms of life serves to humanity. Oriented by the ethical principles of remind readers of the biblical narrative that Gen 2–3, Paul lambasts Roman paganism, humanity is a component of creation as well crying out “they changed the glory of the as its captain. incorruptible God for the ones in the same Though humanity’s materialistic image as perishable humans and birds and connection to creation enforces the concept of four footed animals and reptiles” (Rom humankind as a part of creation, the reality 1:23).32 Worshipping anything that is of the also raises the issue of why humanity is not same substance as created things is unworthy equal to the rest of creation. Already in Gen of the divine image bearers. 1:28 God commanded humans to “fill up the

27 Wenham, 59. See Isa 44:9–10; Jer 18:2. Scientific. Journal of Humanist Studies 7, no. 13 (2015): 27– 28 Hamilton, 156–60. 34; Katy Feroze Dalal, “Cambyses the Achaemenid and the 29 Wenham, Genesis 1–15, 69. Story of the Apis Bull: A Vindication,” in K R Cama Oriental 30 See VanDrunen, 58–60 for a discussion of the role of Institute: Second International Congress Proceedings humanity as representatives of God's sovereignty within (Bombay: K R Cama Oriental Inst, 1996), 111–24. creation. 32 Unless otherwise noted, all translations from the New 31 See Andra Elena Cicarma, “The Animals and of Testament are the author’s own and are from the Eberhard Ancient Egypt. Examples of Osirian Animals as the Nestle et al., Novum Testamentum Graece (Stuttgart: Receptacles or the Recipients of the Transmigrating Soul,” Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012).

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Contemporary readers of the biblical of the tree in 2:15–17 lends dramatic narrative will find significant implications in anticipation to the narrative.34 the assertion of Gen 2–3 that humanity is The conceived space of the tree of life separated from the rest of creation by divine and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil decree and not material superiority. Scientific must be considered to understand their role in advances, in particular the decoding of the the narrative. There are few descriptors of the human genome, have shown that the genetic perceived space of the trees beyond the fact makeup of human beings is not radically that they are appealing to the eye and to the different from that of other species.33 The pallet.35 The conceived space of the trees, genetic similarity between humans and other however, has dramatic implications for the forms of life present no ethical issues when narrative of Gen 2–3. determining the place of humanity within creation. The biblical narrative makes clear from Genesis forward that the distinction between humanity and the rest of creation is in the relationship between humanity and God, not humanity and the materialistic universe. Likewise, the narrative of Gen 2–3 makes clear that the role of humanity in ruling creation does not come from the nuanced physical differences between humanity and other forms of created life. Humanity has a higher purpose in the created order, not because of opposable thumbs and microRNA, but because God has decreed that humanity bear his image and breathe with his breath.

Image Credit: Pixabay The Curious Trees of Eden The first mention of the trees in Eden comes in Gen 2:9. Here the narrative states Both trees are in the midst (beṯôḵ) of that “the tree of life was in the midst of the the Garden of Eden. Some translations garden and also the tree of the knowledge of translate beṯôḵ as “middle.”36 Hamilton notes, good and evil.” After the initial mention of the “The phrase In the middle of the garden need trees, the narrative diverges to the discussion not be taken literally to mean that these two of the rivers in Eden and the creation of the trees were in the exact center of the garden.”37 man. The narrative effect is that the reader is Hamilton’s assertion is valid considering the left wondering about these two trees, each of broad semantic domain of beṯôḵ. Even though which are named in ways that cannot help but the narrative does not locate the trees in the catch the reader’s attention. Diverting geographic center of the garden, the fact that attention away from the trees in 2:10–14 only they are in the “midst” of the garden is to return to discussing the foreboding nature

33 See Santpere et al., “Differences in Molecular 36 See the New International Version (NIV). The New Evolutionary Rates among microRNAs in the Human and Revised Standard Version (NRSV) curiously translates beṯôḵ Chimpanzee Genomes,” BMC Genomics 17 (2016): 1–12. as “midst” in Gen 2:9, but as “middle” in Gen 3:3. 34 Wenham, 64. 37 Hamilton, 162. 35 Hamilton, 162.

10 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences significant. The trees are literally “in the expects the alleviation of death from the thick” of the setting of Eden. Whatever creatures who bear God’s image. narrative is unfolding within the space of Eden The role of the second tree introduced will involve these two curious trees. in Gen 2–3 within the conceived space of Within the conceptual world of the Eden is more difficult to determine. The tree ANE, the author of Gen 2–3 presents the of the knowledge of good and evil is not a familiar concept of the tree of life in an well-known concept within the ANE world.42 unconventional manner.38 Rather than the tree Unlike the tree of life, the tree of the of life representing a structural element of the knowledge of good and evil is not a major cosmos, the tree represents the sustaining theme through the rest of the biblical text. The element for life in God’s intended creation. tree of the knowledge of good and evil is not The conceptual space of the tree of life in the named after Gen 2:17 and is not referenced garden effects the narrative of Gen 2–3 by after the close of the narrative of Gen 3. The highlighting the intended perpetuation of life lack of familiarity with the tree of the from the outset of the biblical narrative. knowledge of good and evil in the conceptual Walton sees the role of the tree as removing world of the ANE and the lack of biblical the burden of mortality from humanity, “The reference or allusion to the tree makes its role tree of life indicates that though the human within the conceived space of Eden difficult to body was created mortal, it was not God’s determine. original plan for us to feel the constant burden Many interpreters have proposed that of impending death.”39 the tree’s function within the narrative of Gen The conceived space of the tree of life 2–3 brings about an unwanted sexual becomes an established theme in the biblical awareness.43 The above examination of the narrative. Multiple Old Testament (OT) and conceived space of Eden, however, New Testament (NT) texts reference or invoke recommends that such a choice does not fit the the imagery of the tree of life.40 Cole notes ethical force of the narrative. Understanding that the tree of life “was apparently a concept the tree of the knowledge of good and evil widely current among the Israelites.”41 The requires attention to the way the tree role of the tree of life in the biblical narrative contributes to the conflict of the narrative. deserves special consideration due to the How could a tree that represents such continued influence of the tree of life on the polarities not influence the narrative? Walton biblical narrative. recommends, “Good and evil is consistently The major ethical implications of the used as a merism and therefore indicates a role of the tree of life in the narrative of Gen whole range of knowledge, not knowledge of 2–3 are clear. The role of the tree of life in the two isolated things.”44 The tree, therefore, narrative of Genesis 2–3 orients the biblical should be taken to reference the full spectrum narrative toward an understanding that death of knowledge—that is the knowledge things is not the intended outcome of human both good and evil. existence. From Gen 2–3 forward, the biblical If the tree represents a broad range of narrative possesses an ethical force that knowledge then the consequence of eating its

38 Other ANE myths contain trees which sustain life by 39 Walton, Genesis, 185. providing the physical structure that sustains the cosmos. See 40 See Prov. 3:18; 11:30; Rev 2:7; 22:2–19. Jennifer O’Reillym “The Trees of Eden in Medaeval 41 R. Dennis Cole, “Foundations of Wisdom Theology in Iconography,” in A Walk in the Garden: Biblical Genesis One to Three” (Master’s Thesis, Western Iconographical and Literary Images of Eden, Journal for the Conservative Baptist Seminary, 1978), 98. Study of the Old Testament Supplement 136 (Sheffiedld, 42 Walton, The Lost World of Adam and Eve, 122. England: JSOT Press, 1992), 170; Walton, The Lost World of 43 Walton, Genesis, 214; Thompson, 138–39. Adam and Eve, 120–21. 44 Walton, Genesis, 170.

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fruit can be viewed as transforming the man under God’s control through his death and and woman’s approach to knowledge, not just resurrection. knowledge of one particular thing. The choice All ethical issues are oriented by to partake of the fruit means that humanity has whether or not human creatures will live under rejected an existence in which what is known God’s control. The tree of the knowledge of to them is that which is revealed by God. good and evil within the narrative of Gen 2–3 God’s command not to eat of the fruit is not infuses the metanarrative of the Bible with the one that limits the breadth of knowledge, but overarching plot of humanity’s usurpation of one that limits how knowledge is acquired. In God’s sovereign design through seeking to the garden, humanity was to be reliant upon exert their own sovereignty in the acquisition God for his sustenance. This was true of food and application of knowledge. Humankind has and companionship and was to be true of chosen to partake of a wide variety of knowledge itself. knowledge, the conflict of the narrative is now Eating of the fruit does not result in driven by the fact that they will consistently inappropriate knowledge, rather, it results in partake of destructive knowledge if left to knowing something in an inappropriate way. their own devices. The man and woman make a choice to be like God in becoming sovereign over their own actions. Hamilton posits “What is forbidden to Leaving Eden . . . And Coming Back man is the power to decide for himself what is to Something Better in his best interests and what is not.”45 The The movement away from Eden occurs curse of the tree of knowledge of good and in the climactic ending of the narrative of Gen evil is that it gives the man and woman what 2–3. Understanding the setting of Eden causes they want—a pretended sovereignty. readers to understand the movement away No other element of the setting of from the garden for the tragedy that it is. Eden has so much effect on the narrative of Hamilton notes “So then, man leaves the Gen 2–3, or the metanarrative of the Bible. garden, and the opening behind him has been The man and woman’s choice to eat of the barred. Paradise has been lost and forfeited.”46 fruit of the tree catapults the narrative away Genesis 2–3 makes clear that the setting of from one motivated by a happy symbiosis Eden is the ideal setting for humanity. The between God and humanity in the ideal narrative makes equally clear that the ideal agricultural setting to a narrative motivated by setting has been lost. Cherubim with swords the tension between what God desires for his are now stationed by God to prevent humanity creatures and what they desire for themselves. from re-entering the garden paradise. This theme is central to the metanarrative of That Cherubim are symbols of God’s the Bible. God’s desire for humanity versus presence in all other appearances in Scripture humanity’s desire for itself is the conflict, indicates that they are symbols of God’s driving the metanarrative of human history. presence in Gen 3.47 God, who once The metanarrative is played out in the OT fellowshipped with the man and woman in a through the conflict of God’s people Israel garden paradise, now prohibits them from being called to live under God’s commands, entering into that space. The movement away but constantly going their own way. The from Eden orients the metanarrative of the metanarrative finds consummation in the NT Bible by creating a sense of sustained tension as Jesus restores humanity’s ability to live within the metanarrative in regard to the

45 Hamilton, 166. 47 Ibid., 210. 46 Ibid., 169.

12 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences condition of humanity and their place in the his creatures are to make ethical decisions, world. The biblical story is a story driven by then they must orient their actions and space. is promised the space of decisions in a manner that values life. Canaan, Joshua and the Israelites are to A less obvious facet of the relationship possess the space. The kings are to keep the between the setting of Eden and the setting of space but cannot. The Persians restore the the new heaven and earth in Rev 21–22 is the space and the people rebuild their temple— absence of the tree of the knowledge of good then weep at its completion out of and evil. The absence of this tree indicates that dissatisfaction (Ezra 3:12). The New the new heaven and new earth cannot simply Testament echoes the expectation that there be viewed as a restored Eden but is something must be a new space—a new heaven and a better. Stevens notes that John’s Apocalypse new earth (Isa 65:17; 66:12; Rev 21–22). The contains a theme of a “transcended Eden.”49 narrative expects a resolution to the loss of the The tree which symbolized the opportunity of ideal space within the presence of God. humankind to reject God’s provision for them The book of Revelation contains a is removed from the setting of Eden. vision that resolves the expectation of the Careful consideration of the narrative metanarrative. The space of the new heaven setting of the Garden of Eden in Gen 2–3 and and new earth in Rev 21–22 contains many the setting of the new heavens and the new features that echo the imagery of a restored earth in Rev 21–22 orients the metanarrative Eden.48 The conceived space of the new of Scripture by demonstrating a resolution of heaven and earth in Rev 21–22 provides sin. This is not to say that the biblical fascinating parallels with the conceived space metanarrative has an ethical force that of Eden. The most obvious parallel is the eliminates free choice, rather the biblical presence of the tree of life (Rev 22:2). The metanarrative has an ethical force that presence of the tree of life in the new heaven anticipates a return to correct ethical decision and new earth recommends that the alleviation making for God’s people. The space of Eden of human death is resolved in the is an ideal agricultural paradise, but the eschatological resolution of the biblical narrative setting makes readers ever aware of metanarrative. the capacity of the characters within the The ethical force of the metanarrative setting of Eden to choose for themselves what pushes toward an ethic of life. The above God has forbidden. The setting of the new examination of the setting of Eden indicates heavens and the new earth offers no such that life is at the center of the paradisiacal option. garden of Gen 2–3. The Garden has life The above examination reveals the providing waters, life sustaining soil and a life importance of considering the setting of the prolonging tree. These themes are present in narrative of Gen 2–3 for understanding the the new creation of Rev 21–22. The ethical ethical force of the biblical metanarrative. The implication is that anyone seeking to orient ethical implications of the space of Eden are their ethics according to the ethical force of myriad, the two most important being that the the biblical metanarrative must have ethics ethical force of the biblical metanarrative oriented towards life. Biblical ethics must be moves toward an ethic of life and an ethic that oriented by the concept that God is moving anticipates a resolution of sin. Because Gen 2– the story of creation in the direction of life. If 3 is the beginning of the story of God and

48 Grant R. Osborne, Revelation, Baker Exegetical 49 Gerald L Stevens, Revelation: The Past and Future of Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich: John’s Apocalypse (Eugene, Oreg., 2014), 566. Baker Academic, 2008), 768–76.

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humanity, the narrative of Gen 2–3 orients the ethical force of the biblical metanarrative. Rev 21–22 confirms that the ethical force found at the beginning of the metanarrative will be realized in the eschatological culmination of the story.

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Theology in Stone: Gothic The fourth crusade conquered , briefly unifying the whole Architecture, Scholasticism, of Christendom under the papal banner. and the Medieval Scholasticism expanded with the swelling ranks of scholars entering the new Incarnational View of universities. Two new mendicant orders, the Knowledge Dominicans and Franciscans, enriched the ecclesiastical magisterium. The greatest medieval scholar, , By Brenton H. Cook, Ph.D. systematized the teaching of the church in his Summa Theologica. Accompanying Bob Jones University these developments was a burgeoning new movement in church architecture spiraling toward the heavens. , like Aquinas’s scholastic masterpiece, was massive in scope, intricately detailed, and reflected the quintessential medieval quest for a unified worldview.1 Aquinas’s Summa narrates the world’s story in three major themes: God, Man, and the Redeemer. Gothic architecture embodies the same themes in stone. The elite sons of the church, who could afford a university education, were lectured on Aquinas’s Summa. Paupers and peasants were lectured in the stone and glass adorning their local . Aquinas harmonized divine theology with the greatest achievements of human . Gothic architecture harmonized heaven and earth by anticipating the arrival of the New Jerusalem.2 The development of scholasticism in the high medieval period remarkably parallels the development of church architecture. Edwin Panofsky observes, “There exists between Gothic architecture and Scholasticism a palpable and hardly Image Credit: Pixabay accidental concurrence in the purely factual domain of time and place—a concurrence so inescapable that the historians of medieval philosophy, uninfluenced by ulterior The Glories of the Thirteenth Century considerations, have been led to their The crowning achievements of material in precisely the same way as do the medieval culture converged in the thirteenth art historians theirs.”3 century. The most powerful occupied Peter’s chair in the person of Innocent III.

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This work demonstrates that the affair with Heloise, he committed to philosophical currents undergirding observing the monastic lifestyle at the old scholasticism were identical to those abbey church of -Denis in Paris a few undergirding the Gothic . It years prior to Suger’s becoming abbot of the explores Gothic architecture as a medium same monastery church. From this Parisian for communicating an incarnational and center, scholasticism and Gothic architecture holistic worldview centered on the reunion would both radiate across . Panofsky of God and man through Christ.4 Scholastic is insightful, theology, likewise, offered an incarnational Thus Early Scholasticism was born worldview that embraced all domains of at the same moment and in the same human learning.5 environment in which Early Gothic architecture was born in Suger’s Parallel Beginnings: Gothic Architecture Saint-Denis. For both the new style and Scholasticism of thinking and the new style of Scholars generally date the Gothic building (opus Francigenum)— period in architecture from the end of the though brought about by ‘many Romanesque to the beginning of the masters from different nations,’ as Renaissance periods.6 The distinction is Suger said of his artisans, and soon somewhat arbitrary, but beginning with the developing into truly international rebuilding of the monastery church of Saint- movements—spread from an area Denis near Paris under the direction of comprised with a circle drawn Abbot Suger, several architectural around Paris with a radius of less innovations evolved out of Romanesque than a hundred miles. And they style.7 Since the sixth century, the church at continued to be centered in this area Saint-Denis had been the burial site of the for about one century and a half.9 French monarchy. Suger erected over their sarcophagi a building as magnificent as any Panofsky demonstrates that the in Christendom. “The cathedral,” says Ernst parallels between Gothic architecture and Levy “as the kingdom of God on earth gazed scholasticism are numerous. High down upon the city and its population, scholasticism, begun in the twelfth century, transcending all other concerns of life as it coincides with the High Gothic Cathedrals transcended all its physical dimensions.” of Chartres and Soissons, also erected in the Suger aspired to create “a spectacle in which twelfth century.10 Twelfth-century heaven and earth, the angelic hosts in scholastics were especially influenced by the heaven and the human community in the great ancient philosopher Aristotle, whose sanctuary, seemed to merge.”8 works enjoyed a renaissance following the Suger’s life (1081-1151) intersects early crusades. To Thomas Aquinas, with the life (1033- Aristotle was “the philosopher” who did not 1109) and nearly parallels that of Peter need to be named. But Aristotle’s influence Abelard (1079-1142), two of the greatest was also breathed into High Gothic statuary. schoolmen. Anselm’s treatises mark the “The infinitely more lifelike. . . High Gothic beginning of scholasticism proper, and statues of Reims and Amiens, Strasbourg Abelard’s writings represent the earliest and Naumburg and the natural—though not, distinctly French contribution to as yet, naturalistic—fauna and flora of High scholasticism. Gothic ornament proclaim the victory of Suger may have known Abelard Aristotelianism.”11 This Aristotelian personally. After Abelard’s tumultuous love emphasis on the body, though animated by

16 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences the immortal human soul, corresponds with rendering them far heavier and potentially the scholastic attempt to demonstrate God’s cracking the stones at the base. existence through empirical demonstration Consequently, Romanesque churches could rather than by a priori means.12 never achieve the enormous heights of the The glories of scholasticism and Gothic churches. Gothic architecture also begin to fade The Gothic pointed arch, by simultaneously in the late thirteenth century. contrast, rotates much of the horizontal A bifurcation appears in the scholastic pressure in a semi-vertical direction attempt to wed theology and philosophy in a lessening the pressure at the summit of the systematic whole, finally culminating with supporting columns. Transferring the weight the loss of universals as seen in William of downward also focused pressure on points in Ockham’s nominalism. Likewise in the support columns that could be buttressed architecture, the Gothic attempt to wed externally. Consequently, Gothic walls universal forms with particulars in stone, became lighter, and a second distinguishing reverted to far less ambitious architectural characteristic of the Gothic emerged, the styles.13 external flying buttresses—looking very much like the exoskeleton of an exotic Piercing the Heavens: From Romanesque insect. By redistributing much of the to Gothic enormous weight off the ceiling, walls and Gothic architecture evolved out of supporting pillars, architects were thus able the earlier Romanesque style, even as the to raise the height of the building Romanesque represents several innovations considerably. Lighter walls also opened up beyond the simple basilica dating to the time large spaces for windows emitting of Constantine.14 Like the basilica, considerably more light than the older Romanesque is heavy, rectangular, and Romanesque. generally large in scale. Romanesque The Gothic style also applied the distinguished itself from the basilica with architectural principle of the pointed arch to the addition of towers—generally two the intricate structure of the ceiling. An adorning the entrance. The flat wood elaborate series of pointed arches, or ribbed ceilings of the basilica were replaced by vaulting, crisscrossed the central nave and vaulted ceilings. The most distinguishing evenly distributing the weight of characteristic of the Romanesque is the the ceiling to the support pillars, which in rounded arch, often mounted atop thick, turn were supported by the external heavy columns. buttresses. Charles Moore describes the Whereas Romanesque churches felt effect of these innovations. heavy, somber, and foreboding, the Gothic, This framework, made up of piers, by contrast, begins to feel increasingly open, arches, and buttresses, is freed from light, airy, and grand. The distinguishing every unnecessary encumbrance of architectural characteristic of the Gothic is wall, and is rendered as light in all its the pointed arch, replacing the earlier parts as is compatible with Romanesque circular arch and barrel strength—the stability of the fabric vaulting. The Romanesque arch thrust the depending not upon inert enormous weight of the ceiling outward in a massiveness (except in the outermost horizontal direction, cracking the supporting abutments), but upon a logical pillars at the point where they intersected the adjustment of active parts whose arches. To compensate, Romanesque architects increased the size of their pillars,

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opposing forces neutralize each other by spires adorning the entries to the and produce a perfect equilibrium.15 transepts and numerous pinnacles mounted above the flying buttresses. The famous These foundational structural Cologne Cathedral is ringed by a whole changes produced not only a new style in forest of spires penetrating the heavens. architecture, but were accompanied by To the medieval mason, every corner several ornamental developments serving to of the Gothic cathedral was sacred space. complete the Gothic style. Large Stone flowers, creatures great and small, fenestration spaces created a demand for images of Christ and the received the stained glass, producing a revolution in this same elaborate attention to detail whether medium. The triforium gallery, situated they adorned the tympanum over the main above the compound pillars, was often entrance or were situated in obscure niches, ornamented by stained glass forming a band rarely observed. The delicate scroll work of of color circumscribing the building. Above the traceries framing ornate stained glass in the triforium, large clerestory windows the clerestory far above were as carefully emitted profusions of color through stained planned and exquisitely crafted as the glass, glittering downward like so many windows below. The entire structure rainbows cascading from the heavens. radiated the same beauty of holiness seen in Lancet windows situated at both ends of the ’s ancient Temple.17 Like the Holy nave and transepts were crowned by rose of Holies, sacred spaces rarely observed by windows where Christ, the light of the world human eye were as ornate and beautiful as radiates outward from the center. the frontal façades. This was art done in These highly ornamental windows service of God, not man. Kurt Gerstenberg were complemented by elaborate stone identifies “a basic principle of Gothic art.” carvings adorning the façades and included “Beauty”, he says, “exists for its own sake, images of both biblical figures and medieval it exists, even though no human eye may see patrons and saints. The Gothic style also what is, above all, meant for the eye of the incorporated and improved the intricately Creator.”18 carved tympanums found in the earlier The architectural innovations of Romanesque. The western façade of Gothic builders ultimately converged into , for instance, is crowned one defining characteristic of the Gothic: by three arches rising above three doors. The Light. Otto von Simson says, “The Gothic central arch depicts the eternal Christ wall seems to be porous: light filters through enthroned in the heavens. On the left is an it, permeating it, merging with it, image of Christ’s second coming, and on the transfiguring it. . . . In this decisive aspect, right, and image of Christ’s incarnation. then, the Gothic may be described as The Gothic cathedral often added transparent, diaphanous architecture. . . . No two triumphant spires purchased atop the segment of inner space was allowed to towers introduced by the Romanesque style. remain in darkness, undefined by light.”19 In some instances, a single spire rises from Suger’s large , situated at the the intersection of the nave and transepts as north end of his cathedral, depicts God, the in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. creator of light, at the center. Radiating out Salisbury Cathedral in England boasts a from God are the days of creation. single central spire rising more than 400 feet Doubtless, Gothic architects sought above the ground, approaching the height of to communicate through the mediums of the Great Pyramid in Egypt.16 These large stone and glass their conviction that Christ Gothic spires are frequently complemented

18 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences was the light sent to penetrate the darkness in Ascoli Piceno, Italy, the fifteenth-century of the world below (John 8). “The glow of painter Carlo Crivelli depicts the greatest the stained glass of cathedrals like Chartres, medieval mind, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Bourges, York or Strasbourg suggests a light holding a church in his right hand, and his from another world shining into the Summa in his left. Festooned to his chest, a darkness.”20 Light’s ability to completely giant ornament of the sun pours out its rays eradicate darkness reflects Christ’s power to on both church and text.23 completely eradicate the darkness of human Aquinas’s Summa rivals a cathedral sin. The achievement of light in the Gothic in length, running to some sixty-one windows so nearly approaches completion volumes in its English edition.24 Despite its that “the solid elements of the tracery float, enormity, Aquinas left it unfinished at his as it were, on the luminous window surface, death, like so many Gothic architects who its pattern dramatically articulated by never witnessed the completion of their light.”21 masterpieces. The Summa attempts to The holistic effect of the comprehensively answer every question of architectural innovations of the Gothic is to sacred theology creating a harmonious communicate an aesthetic vision of the system enabling man to live under God’s reunion of God and man. Phillip Schaff is sacred dominion. Like a mason considering descriptive. every joint and angle and adorning the entire The most magnificent and beautiful sacred space of the building, Aquinas probes buildings of the period are the the entire space of sacred creation. Diarmaid cathedrals—those giant stone MacCulloch says, “The Summa deals with flowers with their countless turrets, the most abstract questions of being and the storming the heavens and bearing the nature of God, yet it also extends to very soul on high, and their mysterious practical discussions of the way everyday devotional gloom, visited never by life should be viewed, and how we should the light of the natural day, but only live as part of God’s purpose. . . . It presents by mystic irradiations poured a harmonious view of God’s earthly and through stained glass; domes, the heavenly creation.”25 authors of which stood so completely Panofsky also recognizes this quest in the general life of the church, and for a harmonious worldview or “totality” were so occupied only with the that was shared in the High Medieval period honor of God in their work, that with by author and architect. a divine carelessness they have left Like the High Scholastic Summa, the even their own names to perish in High Gothic cathedral aimed, first of oblivion.”22 all, at ‘totality’ and therefore tended to approximate, by synthesis as well Philosophy in Tome: Reading the as elimination, one perfect and final Summas solution; we may therefore speak of Medieval man believed the light of the High Gothic plan or the High the sun enflamed more than cathedrals Gothic system with much more walls. It symbolized sacred learning also, confidence than would be possible in illuminating the scholastic theologians who any other period. In its imagery, the constructed elaborate cathedrals of High Gothic cathedral sought to knowledge in a new medieval genre, the embody the whole of Christian Summa Theologica. In a famous altarpiece knowledge, theological, moral,

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natural, and historical, with In the centuries following everything in its place. . . . The Constantine’s conversion to Christianity, second requirement of Scholastic Christian art and symbolism exploded. Art writing, ‘arrangement according to a became a central medium for system of homologous parts and communicating the Christian message, parts of parts,’ is most graphically especially in the western half of expressed in the uniform division Christendom.30 Church fathers, martyrs, and and subdivision of the whole saints would soon enjoy their own symbols: structure [of the cathedral].26 St. Sebastian bears the arrow, St. Augustine the heart aflame, and the skull, Theology in Stone: Reading the Gothic depicting his morbid fixation with death. Cathedrals Even an illiterate medieval peasant could Knowledge in the medieval world read the symbols and icons of the church as was often the reverse of the modern world. easily as an educated twenty-first century Whereas the medieval world had a westerner can read text. developed appreciation for art and Gothic art and architecture, in this architecture, the modern information age medieval context, would have been read focuses on text. Western civilization has effortlessly. Simson argues, “The medieval achieved nearly universal literacy rates.27 mind . . . was preoccupied with the symbolic The written word has become the chief nature of the world of appearances. communication medium in society, Everywhere the visible seemed to reflect the academia, trade and diplomacy. But few invisible.”31 Simons further argues that education curricula from primary schools to whereas Gothic architecture has become universities give any attention to incomprehensible to modern minds, to the as a communication medium. In the medieval mind it was “the representation of medieval period, interpreting art and supernatural reality.” Further, “to those who architecture was commonplace. Even designed the cathedrals, as to their illiterate peasants could interpret symbols in contemporaries who worshipped in them, stone and canvass. this symbolic aspect or function of sacred As early as the third century, and architecture overshadowed all others.”32 possibly much earlier, Christianity began to The main objective of the Gothic adopt aesthetic mediums and a rich cathedral, like the Summas is to symbolism to communicate the faith.28 In communicate a synthesis between heaven the Catacombs and mosaics adoring the and earth. Simons beautifully summarizes basilicas, images of the Holy Spirt as a dove, the intent of Abbot Suger’s architectural Jesus as the Good Shepherd, and more agenda, as Suger himself describes it in his general Christian symbols of the fish, ship, account of the building of St. Denis. anchor, and fisherman frequently appear.29 In its opening passages, the author Scenes of the Last Supper, early baptisms, unfolds before us a mystical vision and images of heaven adorned with gardens of harmony that the divine reason limn the plaster of Christian graves in the has established throughout the subterranean vaults beneath the city of cosmos. The treatise ends with the Rome. In the early fourth century, the Chi account of the consecration Rho as well as the Alpha and Omega ceremony that Suger had arranged become standard symbols for Christ. with calculated splendor and that he now describes as a spectacle in

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which heaven and earth, the angelic This reunion of God and man is seen hosts in heaven and the human also in glass. The west façade of Chartres community in the sanctuary seem to cathedral contains an elaborate genealogy of merge.33 Christ, the Messiah, growing organically from the root of Jesse. The lies Wim Swam makes a similar observation, recumbent in the lowest pane. From his “God’s presence was universal; but a body emerges a fruitful vine producing four cathedral was his home. . . . He was the of Jesus’s royal ancestors—David, Solomon, architect of the universe, the supreme and two unidentified kings—in ascending master-mason. . . . Earthly architectural panes. Above them is the Mary, and skills were a reflection of his and an offering from her, the vine blossoms again depicting to him.”34 Christ in the position of honor. Christ is full The cathedral is a portal between of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit heaven and earth, drawing the soul upward represented by seven encircling doves. through its majestic heights, and drawing the Flanking each central pane are two prophets, radiant glories of heaven downward like so fourteen total (Nahum, Joel, , , many sunbeams falling through stained glass , , , Balaam, Samuel, to the floor beneath. Soaring towers, and , Zechariah, Daniel, , and countless spires seem to break the bonds of ), witnessing to the union of God gravity and transport the worshipper to and man through Christ, Jesse’s heir.37 another world. But domestic scenes etched A variation on the Chartres glass can in stone and wood of students and soldiers, be seen in Britain’s York Minster, home of kings and bishops, prophets and the greatest collection of medieval stained physicians—crafted with increasingly glass. Many of Europe’s cathedrals were realistic Aristotelian precision—tell another badly damaged in the Second World War story, that God has come to earth and other cataclysms since the late medieval authenticating the miseries and triumphs of period. But the York Minster boasts a human existence below. stunning collection of 128 ancient windows The cathedral’s nave and transepts protected by the York Glaziers Trust.38 The intersect forming a cross over the altar extant, but fragmented Tree of Jesse window enshrining Christ’s broken body and shed in the York Minster is thought to be the blood. The cross is the anchor joining this oldest panel of stained glass in England, world to the world above, reuniting God and dating to approximately 1170.39 man. Gerstenberg says, “A feeling that all Such examples illustrate the Gothic human action was governed by a higher plan notion of synthesis by uniting God and man permeated the faith of the Gothic period.”35 through the Redeemer. But synthesis Bath Abbey, a late example of extended beyond the atonement. The stones Gothic architecture in the south of England, also depict the unity of human learning with communicates the medieval notion of a the Christian faith. Medieval thinkers unity between heaven and earth. Adoring the recognized an acute compatibility between two great towers of the front entrance are Greek virtue ethics and Christian virtues. two great ladders populated by angels as in The western façade of Amiens Cathedral, ’s dream. The angels move for example, brings the two together through ceaselessly, ascending and descending, a series of quatrefoils depicting twelve conducting their business between heaven virtues and their opposites: (1) faith and and earth.36 idolatry (2) courage and cowardice (3) hope

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and despair (4) patience and impatience (5) Their place implies that human wisdom is charity and avarice (6) gentleness and dependent on Divine Wisdom and directed violence (7) chastity and lust (8) concord toward it.”43 and discord (9) prudence and folly (10) These and similar examples from constancy and rebellion (11) humility and Gothic architecture demonstrate the pride (12) perseverance and inconstancy.40 medieval conviction that Christianity can One of the clearest examples of the accommodate secular learning. Thomas medieval synthesis of faith and learning can Aquinas demonstrates the identical attitude be seen in the famous Chartres tympanum. in his Summa. Gothic architecture and Surrounding Christ at the center, the scholasticism both testify to a profound archivolts are carved with personifications belief that the universe can be subdued by a of the seven liberal arts as well as several synthesis of faith and reason. ancient philosophers. Adolf Katzenellenbogen identifies the central significance of the The Age of Light tympanum. Opponents of Christianity have long At Chartres the personifications of dismissed the Middle Ages as simply the secular learning were . . . considered “Dark Ages.” Gothic architecture is but one important enough to frame a of several medieval achievements that force theological cycle. While in the us to reconsider this glib dismissal of the tympanum and its lintels theological pre-Renaissance world. James Michener, in concepts are made understandable to an oft-cited line, proclaimed “An age is the intellect through the ideographic called Dark not because the light fails to clarity of their representation, in the shine, but because people refuse to see it.”44 archivolts are shown the intellectual The synthesis of stone and light, philosophy means that prepare the wisdom and theology, structure and beauty found in seeker for such an understanding. the Gothic style is unmatched by the Underneath each of the Liberal Arts aesthetic achievements of any other age, is represented an author who by his past or present. thoughts and writings had primarily One has to wonder what a medieval contributed to the substance of that traveler, who is transported suddenly to the art. That the seven branches of modern world, would think of much modern secular learning and seven authors of art, especially when contrasted with the the past, mostly pagan, were given a distinct Christian narrative etched in stone place on a church façade is, indeed, a and glass by Gothic architects. Many tangible example of the modern art forms replace distinct lines, protohumanism pervading the form, symmetry, and correspondence to School of Chartres.41 objective natural phenomena with twisted and grotesque figures, misshapen creatures, Katzenellenbogen believes this and unconventional combinations of color. emphasis on the liberal arts should be Modern culture operates on the attributed to Boethius who argued, “In order metaphysical assumption that behind to become truly wise, man should know the everything is nothing at all: no God, no seven liberal arts.”42 He says further, “The purpose, no destiny, no final explanations, peripheral place of the Liberal Arts in no meaning, order or shape to the world. relation to the central position of Christ, the Modern art is anti-teleological, it Divine Wisdom, on the Royal Portal corresponds to these concepts of Boethius.

22 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences communicates no metanarrative, and it 5 Norman Klassen and Jens Zimmermann argue suggests no coherent view of reality.45 for a “genuine humanism” centered on the Gothic architecture, on the other incarnation of Christ that was a product of the hand, coupled with its contemporary medieval mind. “Medieval confidence in reason summas, form a nearly a perfect contrast to and the intelligibility of the universe arose out of a fundamental commitment to the tenets of the character of modern philosophy and Christianity, now being worked out in a detailed modern art. The Middle Ages were indeed and systematic way.” Thomas Aquinas, in an age of light, but in a world darkened by particular, “exemplifies this holism.” “Thomas the heritage of the Enlightenment, modern did two things especially well, and they are men are ill-equipped to see the light. surely related. First, he took seriously both God’s word and God’s world, following the example of the early scholastic humanists. Second he embraced man of the insights of the References ancient Greek (and therefore pagan) philosopher Aristotle.” The Passionate Intellect: 1Philip Schaff celebrated this medieval mindset: Incarnational Humanism and the Future of “It is this precisely which renders the Middle University Education (Grand Rapids: Baker Ages so grand and venerable, that religion in this Academic, 2006), 49, 51. period appears the all-moving, all-ruling force— 6 Andre Martindale, Gothic Art: From the the center around which all moral struggles and Twelfth to the Fifteenth Centuries (New York: triumphs, all thought, poetry, and action are Frederick Praeger Publishers, 1967), 7. found to revolve. All sciences, and philosophy 7 In a rare example of a medieval architectural itself—the science of the sciences—were narrative, Abbot Suger describes his rebuilding handmaids to theology.” Philip Schaff, The of Saint-Denis in considerable detail. Erwin Principle of Protestantism, (Eugene, OR: Wipf Panofsky, ed. Abbot Suger: On the Abbey & Stock Publishers, n.d.), 175. Church of St.-Denis and its Art Treasures, 2nd 2 Otto von Simson is descriptive. “The church is, ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, mystically and liturgically, an image of heaven. 1946). Art historians are nearly unanimously Medieval theologians have, on innumerable agreed that the church of Saint-Denis is the occasions, dwelt on this correspondence. The earliest embodiment of the major characteristics authoritative language of the dedication ritual of of Gothic architecture (see below). See for a church explicitly relates the vision of the instance, Harald Busch and Bernd Lohse, eds., Celestial City, as described in the Book of Buildings of Europe: Gothic Europe (London: Revelation, to the building that is to be erected.” B.T. Batsford Ltd, 1959), v. The Gothic Cathedral: Origins of Gothic 8The Gothic Cathedral, xix. Architecture and the Medieval Concept of Order 9Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism, 4-5. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1956), 8. 10Ibid., 5. 3Erwin Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and 11Ibid., 6. Scholasticism (New York: Meridian Books, 12Ibid., 6-7. 1957), 2-3. 13Panofksy sees the end of both projects by the 4 The term “Gothic” was first used in the middle of the fourteenth century. Ibid., 11. sixteenth century as a smug and derogatory 14Examples of Romanesque can be found in dismissal of pre-Renaissance art. It essentially Maria Laach Abbey in Germany (1093), the dismissed the medieval achievement as Abbey Church of Vezelay Church in “barbaric” but incorrectly associated Gothic (1104), Tum Collegiate Church in architecture with the raiding bands of Goths who (1161), and the Abbey Church of Conques in overran the Roman Empire a millennium earlier. France (11th c.). See Andrew Martindale, Gothic Art: From the 15Charles Herbert Moore, Development and Twelfth to the Fifteenth Centuries (New York: Character of Gothic Architecture, 2nd ed. Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1967), 7. (London: The Macmillan Company, 1906), 8.

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16http://www.salisburycathedral.org.uk/history/a http://www.medievalart.org.uk/Angers/Bay_103 dding-spire (accessed 10/18/14) b/Angers_Bay103b_Key.htm (accessed 17 “The Temple of Solomon . . . and the Temple 11/8/2014) of Ezekiel were . . . understood as images of 38https://www.yorkminster.org/history-and- heaven. They, no less than the Heavenly City, conservation/york-glaziers-trust.html (accessed were looked upon as archetypes of the Christian 11/8/2014) sanctuary and actually inspired the medieval 39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_Jesse#me builder.” The Gothic Cathedral, 11. diaviewer/File:England_YorkMinster_JesseTree 18 “Introduction” in Harald Busch and Bernd _c1170.JPG (accesses 11/8/2014) Lohse, eds. Buildings of Europe: Gothic Europe 40http://www.medievalart.org.uk/Amiens/West_ (London. B.T. Batsford Ltd, 1959), iii. Facade/VirtuesAndVices/AmiensWest_Quatrefo 19The Gothic Cathedral, 4. il_VirtuesVices_Key.htm 20Buildings of Europe, Gothic Europe, xvii. 41Adolf Katzenellenbogen, The Sculptural 21The Gothic Cathedral, 4. Programs of Chartres Cathedral (Baltimore: 22Principle of Protestantism, 175-176. The John Hopkins Press, 1959), 16. 23http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/ca 42Ibid., 17. rlo-crivelli-saint-thomas-aquinas (accessed 43Ibid. 11/8/2014) 44 James A. Michener, Space (1982). 24Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity: The First 45 “When the travesties scattered throughout our Three Thousand Years (New York: Viking, modern art museums are set alongside the 2009), 413. glories of ancient Greece, the Christian heart 25 Ibid. should swell with pride. Our Lord has thrown 26Panofsky, 44-45. unbelievers down, and they can never recover. 27http://world.bymap.org/LiteracyRates.html Look at what they now do on their own! The (accessed 11/2/14) modern materialist has truly fallen between two 28The Diocletian persecution from 303 to 311 stools—he cannot have the Nike of Samothrace, destroyed much of the material evidences of and he cannot have Bach’s Mass in B Minor. He early Christianity. Eusebius records that “I saw cannot have Vergil and he cannot have Milton. with my own eyes the houses of worship But he can hang a toilet seat on the gallery wall demolished to their foundations.” Paul L Maier, and apply for federal grants—we are all just ed. Eusebius: The Church History (Grand prisoners here of our own device.” Douglas Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1999), 290. Jones and Douglas Wilson, Angels in the 29An excellent recent treatment of catacomb art Architecture: A Protestant Vision for Middle is, Vincenzo Fiocchi Nicolai, Fabrizio Bisconti, Earth (Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 1998), 34. and Danilo Mazzoleni, The Christian Catacombs of Rome: History, Decoration, Inscriptions (Rome: Schnell & Steiner, 2002). 30The iconoclastic controversy would limit Greek Orthodox art. 31The Gothic Cathedral, xxi. 32 Ibid., xvii. 33The Gothic Cathedral, xix. 34 Christopher Brooke, “The Cathedral in Medieval Society” in Wim Swam, ed. The Gothic Cathedral (Doubleday & Co., Inc.), 15. 35Buildings of Europe: Gothic Europe, iii. 36http://www.bathabbey.org/sites/default/files/La dder2783.jpg (accessed 11/8/2014) 37http://www.medievalart.org.uk/chartres/049_p ages/Chartres_Bay049_key.htm A similar window can be found in Cathedral.

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attention. The issues resulted in protests, and A Christian Perspective on at times, riots in response to perceived excessive force by officers. In 2014, in Police Body Worn Cameras and Ferguson, Missouri, a police officer shot and Related Theories: A Case Study killed a black man, resulting in significant of Houston, Texas amounts of conflicting information regarding the justifiability of the use of force (Sacca, 2017; Lum, Stoltz, Koper & Scherer, 2019). In Daniel Augusto 2015, civil unrest and riots resulted from the Liberty University death of a black man while in police custody (Sacca, 2017; Lum et al., 2019). In 2016, white officers in Baton Rouge, Louisiana shot and killed an armed black man, which also resulted in riots (Sacca, 2017; Lum et al., 2019). That same month Milwaukee, Wisconsin, riots ensued after a black police officer shot and killed a black man (Sacca, 2017; Lum et al., 2019). Later in 2016, more riots erupted when Charlotte, North Carolina officers shot and killed a black man (Sacca, 2017; Lum et al., 2019). As a result of the aforementioned incidents, many agencies began deploying BWCs (Lum et al., 2019). According to Image Credit: Pixabay Bureau of Justice Statistics Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS), approximately 30% of law Introduction enforcement agencies used BWCs on patrol This paper discusses three theoretical officers as of 2013 (Bureau of Justice frameworks relevant to the Houston Police Statistics, 2013, Lum, 2019). The Department Department (HPD) policy requiring the use of of Justice also authorized a $20 million pilot Body Worn Cameras (BWC). The paper program with grants to fund law enforcement starts with a relevant history on BWCs agencies’ deployment of BWCs (DOJ, 2015). nationwide. Next, the paper discusses some The program was based on “enhancing criminology theories relative to HPDs use of transparency and promoting accountability” BWCs: Deterrence Theory, Objective Self- (DOJ, 2015). Awareness Theory, and Rational Choice As of 2016, LEMAS reported that 60% Theory. The paper concludes with application of local police departments had deployed of the theories to the author’s Christian World BWCs (Hyland, 2018). The previous statistics View, and a summary. prompted Lum et al. (2019) to estimate that the total number of law enforcement agencies History Leading up to Policy in the U.S. that use BWCs doubled between Implementation 2013 and the end of 2018. Texas law Police use of force and accountability enforcement agencies, including HPD, were came into the national spotlight with a series no exception to the nationwide diffusion of of incidents of use of force against racial BWCs among police agencies in the U.S. minorities, causing nationwide media

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clarify when BWC are required to be activated Texas State Law Regarding BWCs and reinforced that officers may face The Texas Legislature passed State disciplinary action if the BWC policy is not Bill No. 158, which, among other items, followed. This policy aligns with the authorized Texas police agencies to apply for requirements set forth by SB 158. However, grants for BWCs (SB 158, 2015). SB 158 one civil rights group known as Upturn in (2015) also requires grantees to establish association with the Leadership Council on policies covering activation and deactivation Civil and Human Rights created a BWC of BWCs by officers, data retention policy scorecard. The scorecard indicates that timeframes, and storage requirements for HPD policy aligns with only three out of eight recordings. SB 158 (2015) further requires possible requirements of a high-quality BWC agencies to establish BWC training for policy (The Leadership Conference, 2017). officers and agency employees, as well as The aforementioned disparity between financial reporting requirements from grantees HPD’s policy compliance with SB 158 versus to the Texas Commission on Law HPD’s scorecard results show a gap between Enforcement, and other administrative expectations within government and law reporting requirements to the Texas enforcement agencies and civil rights groups. Legislature. Finally, SB 158 establishes Government agencies may view BWCs as punishment as a Class A misdemeanor for evidence of an officers’ justified actions while unauthorized release of BWC recordings, civil rights groups primarily view BWCs as an punishable by up to a year in county jail accountability measure for police (The (Texas Penal Code, n.d.). Leadership Conference, 2017). Having discussed a backdrop on the call for and HPD Begins Implementation of potentially hasty nationwide implementation BWCs of BWCs, focus will shift toward the During 2013 and 2014, HPD began a theoretical underpinnings associated with pilot study wherein 100 HPD officers wore implementation of BWCs across America, and BWCs (Hernandez, 2014). During December, specifically at HPD. 2014, Harris County, Texas Commissioners unanimously approved BWC funding for HPD, and Harris County law enforcement, Theoretical Underpinnings of BWCs and in November 2015, Houston City Council A Primer for Theory: Viewing BWC approved the purchase of 4,500 BWCs for with a Critical Eye HPD officers (Bauer, 2015). In 2015, HPD One potentially important area of study management announced that it would fully provides a bridge between BWC videos and implement the BWCs as part of a larger effort the real-world implications associated with to improve relations with the community judgments made from those videos. When (Hasan, 2015). HPD also implemented a observing or measuring a phenomenon, the policy on the use of BWCs by HPD officers. term perspectival observation describes a specific approach to the act of observation HPD Policy on BWCs (Dent, 2005). Perspectival observation In keeping with the requirements of considers the differences in perspective that SB 158, Houston Police Department HPD arise when a phenomenon is observed from a issued General Order (GO) 400-28 regarding different physical location, as in the case of the use of BWC by officers. GO 400-28 was footage from multiple BWCs, or from a updated on August 16, 2017 to revise and different personal frame of reference on a

26 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences subject (Dent, 2005; Schwartz & Ogilvy, contextual considerations for weighing the 1979). In short, when observing a value of BWC video, focus will shift toward phenomenon, one should realize that their certainty of punishment as a theme running observation of the phenomenon is not actually throughout this paper. reality, but one snapshot of a bigger picture of the totality of reality relative to the A Primer for Theory: Certainty of phenomenon. Collecting multiple snapshots Punishment as an Important Recurring from multiple physical or mental vantage Theme points will begin to add context and data, An important theme that resonates eventually revealing a fuller picture of the true through the three theories discussed below, reality, with the appropriate context intact and throughout this paper, is that certainty of (Dent, 2005; Steward & Cohen, 1997). punishment is an important and effective The aforementioned approach to deterrent to crime (Bernard, Snipes, & observation would seem to imply a note of Gerould, 2015; National Institute of Justice, caution regarding over-reliance upon BWC 2016). This is particularly true when video footage. Application of Dent’s (2005) compared to severity of punishment as a discussion shows that the BWC provides a deterrence (Bernard et al., 2015; National single perspective on a situation. Combining Institute of Justice, 2016). Severity of that single camera angle with footage from punishment is, perhaps surprisingly, correlated hundreds of other BWC angles might present instead with an increase in crime (Bernard et a full picture of the event. Each camera angle al., 2015; National Institute of Justice, 2016). provides a single shadow out of thousands, As this paper progresses, the reader will likely which combine to make up reality. BWC notice ways in which the idea of certainty of footage value can also be reduced by poor punishment as a deterrent, weaves throughout weather conditions, officer movement, video and supports the theoretical underpinnings quality, and other stimuli observed by the described below. officer, but out of view of the camera Relevant Theory 1: Deterrence The news media, law enforcement Theory administrators, judges, juries, and the general According to Bernard et al. (2015), public should take care not to pass immediate deterrence theory is essentially the theory that judgment on law enforcement or the alleged certain criminal justice policies could have a offender’s actions from a single video angle, deterrence effect on crime. According to without taking steps to gather what Braga, et al. (2017), deterrence theory is one information is available from all the other commonly used as a foundation or angles and data. This data could be made up justification for the use of BWCs by police by witness statements, officer statements, officers. With deterrence theory as a lens, one BWC video footage, witness cell phone might assume that BWCs are intended to footage, and police dash-cam footage. enhance the civility of interactions between Another inaccurate representation of reality the police and citizens. Deterrence theory exists when the video can be paused, or posits that a type of cost vs. benefit analysis slowed down in order to easily make a occurs prior to the decision to commit any determination on the events from the safety of crime. Bernard et al. (2015) described three a court room, while the involved officer often types of deterrence theory research. has less than one second to observe the threat, According to Bernard et al. (2015), the decide what actions to take, and take the first type of deterrence research has shown decided-upon action. Having discussed that attempts to deter specific crimes in

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specific places have resulted in an initial be verbally combative or even physically deterrent effect, which deteriorates quickly. resistant if they are aware that their actions Researchers have hypothesized that offenders will later be viewed during the judicial revert back to the specific crime once they process. Lum et al. (2019) conducted a learn that they overestimated the likelihood of comprehensive review of available BWC being detected. Thus, the importance of research and found that 32 articles addressed certainty of punishment could be a factor. the use of BWCs on officer behavior. Lum et This might imply that potentially offenders al. (2019) found that a majority of the research would take steps to determine if an officer’s indicated that officers using BWCs experience BWC is operational prior to acts against less complaints, which researchers may officers, or potentially even make a practice of interpret as an indication that BWCs do attempting to take the BWC from the officer moderate officer behavior. during violent encounters with officers. One might also expect, under Bernard et al. (2015) also discussed the deterrence theory, a reduction in the filing of second type of deterrence research, known as false or exaggerated complaints against perceptual deterrence. This research focused officers, particularly when the complainant is on the importance of perceived certainty of aware that the officer acted appropriately. punishment. This stream of research has been Lum et al. (2019) found that, in general, the criticized for unclear causal pathways. Other research on officer perceptions of BWCs criticisms involve the inability of a survey to aligns with this assertion. Officers surveyed determine what a person will actually do in a indicated that they believed the BWCs real-world situation. moderate citizen behavior and make them less The third type of deterrence research likely to file frivolous complaints (Lum et al., discussed by Bernard et al. (2015) involved a 2019). Given the need for certainty of comparison of certain criminal justice policies punishment (Bernard et al., 2015; National in relation to crime rates, to determine if a Institute of Justice, 2016), false complaints deterrence effect is occurring. Direction of against officers might also be less deterred if causation is a problem with this type of complainants do not learn about other false research as well, and Bernard et al. (2015) complainants being charged for incidents of referred to the findings as “unsatisfying” (p. false police reports. Thus, agencies might 45). However, this type of research did help consider press releases or public awareness determine the importance of certainty of campaigns related to convictions for false punishment, while also adding data to support police reports and complaints. the premise that the death penalty is not only ineffective, it has been associated with Relevant Theory 2: Objective Self- increased homicides (Bernard et al., 2015). Awareness Theory According to Silvia and Duval (2001), Deterrence Theory and BWCs objective self-awareness (OSA) theory One might presume that the cost vs. originally asserted that self-attention led to an benefit analysis decision process not only evaluation of one’s self. This internal focus occurs within the mind of the citizen, but also resulted in objective self-awareness, thus the officer involved in the interaction. resulting in an individual comparison of one’s Officers might be inclined to exhibit a more self against established norms, standards, and professional demeanor, knowing that any of rules. The theory posited that people are more their supervisors might review the video of the likely to follow social norms when they are interaction. Citizens might also be less likely aware they are being observed (Silvia &

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Duval, 2001; Farrar, 2013). People gain self- al., 2015; National Institutes of Justice, 2016) awareness in public, exhibit more socially that the certainty of punishment implied by the acceptable behaviors, and sense a heightened presence of a BWC is an effective deterrent need to cooperate with rules and laws (Silvia not only for offenders, but potentially for & Duval, 2001; Farrar, 2013). officers as well. Silvia and Duval (2001) also described the evolution of the theory, as research Relevant Theory 3: Rational Choice increased. OSA theory evolved to emphasize Theory the congruity between the individual’s self According to Bernard et al. (2015), versus the standard. It is now thought that rational choice theory asserts that criminals people will also change their standards more use a rational decision-making process to toward themselves to ensure consistency weigh costs and benefits when considering between themselves and the standard. In whether to commit a crime. This theory short, it is thought that, if people cannot bring assumes an ever-present population of themselves to meet the established standard, potential offenders are weighing risk versus they will work to change the standard to better reward in their daily travels, possibly willing meet them where they are. to commit a crime if the right situation presents itself. However, rational choice OSA and BWCs theory does not address what motivates people Farrar (2013) conducted a study on to consider crime as an option to begin with. BWCs aimed in part at testing OSA theory. Rational choice theory could be seen at Patrol officers (N=54) for the Rialto, work during the 1992 Los Angeles riots, California Police Department wore BWCs for where looting of non-essentials such as one year to test the effects of BWCs. The televisions and alcohol, occurred in the study found a 50% reduction in use of force absence of police presence, after evacuation of incidents and 10 times less citizen complaints business owners (Lieberman & O’Reilly, against officers using BWCs. Farrar’s (2013) 1993). Bernard et al (2015) also describe interpretation of the findings was that the rational choice as “opportunity theories” (p. reductions were indicative of OSA theory in 46), because the theory addresses action, since officers were more likely to circumstances creating opportunity to commit conduct their appropriately if they knew crime, potentially by people who, absent the they were being recorded. obvious opportunity, would not normally Farrar (2013) also did not rule out the commit crime. The below excerpt is from a possibility that members of the public were Los Angeles Times article reporting on a more civil if they knew the officer was study of nearly 700 people convicted of riot- wearing a BWC. One might argue that these related felonies, more than 90% of them findings still align with the evolution of OSA looters (Lieberman & O’Reilly, 1993). theory since the utilization of BWCs does not Yet the multiracial legions who took to provide any opportunities to change the the streets a year ago included others standards to match any individual. Thus, who were unlikely looters--people who under OSA theory, officers and the public had jobs, clean records and semblances would be thought to work to gain congruity of family lives, but who were swept up with society’s standard expectations of in the frenzied lawlessness that began interactions between officers and the public. April 29, 1992. Often, they could not In addition, one might also argue that these say what turned them into criminals findings also tie to earlier findings (Bernard et for a night. "I'm poor, but I'm not a

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thief," insisted Carlos Olivo, 29, a targets by increasing the perception of effort street-corner laborer who joined a and risk involved in committing a specific crowd ransacking a Pico-Union liquor crime. store (Lieberman & O’Reilly, 1993). Examples of such target hardening can Bernard et al. (2015) stated that be seen in many places. Fences, vehicle motivated offenders consider ease of access, search areas, and security forces are present at likelihood of being observed, and expected military bases (Air Force, 2019). Airports use reward in their “situational selection” (p. 46) a multi-layered security approach, including of opportunities for crime. These theories fences, baggage searches, Federal Air assume that all crime is committed for the Marshals, and passenger screening to deter benefit of the offender, and that we can learn various crimes related to aviation (TSA, 2019; from the purpose of the decision, which may Bernard et al., 2015). Bernard et al. (2015) be irrational. also describe Crime Prevention Through To illustrate another point Environmental Design (CPTED) as a form of relative to rational choice theory, consider the rational choice as a basis for security. CPTED example of an offender who applies a specific involves the changing of the layout of an focus to decisions relative to specific intended environment to increase the perceived crimes, and uses different tools in different challenges associated with crime in a circumstances, against different victims for particular area (Atlas, 2002). different crimes (Bernard et al., 2015). Douglas Walker was sentenced to life in Rational Choice Theory and BWCs prison after his second and third convictions One might also see the theme of the for domestic violence and dissuading a need for certainty of punishment in rational witness (Hoggard, 2018). These followed his choice theory (Bernard et al., 2015; National conviction for being an accomplice in an Institute of Justice, 2016). One might argue armed robbery in 1992. Walker’s actions in that the basis of the offender’s decision is that 1992 inspired the Three Strikes law in they are trying to avoid certain punishment. California (Hoggard, 2018). Walker’s tactics Lower certainty of punishment would likely likely shifted from using a weapon in the impact the offender’s potential decision to armed robbery, to verbal threats or coercion commit a crime. It follows that a potential when dissuading a witness. This crime- benefit of studying opportunities for crime is specific focus and identifying the right tool for to determine how to reduce those the job against a particular victim in a opportunities. particular circumstance shows rational Rational choice theory could apply to decision making in keeping with rational the potential offender in their decision to choice theory (Bernard et al., 2015). commit crimes in the presence of a BWC. According to Bernard et al. (2015), Rational choice theory could also apply to the rational choice asserts that all crime is an responding officer in their decision to conduct intentional and measured decision undertaken police misconduct, up to and including the to benefit the offender in some way. As a criminal level, with the knowledge that their result, no crime should be thought of as own BWC or perhaps other responding irrational, but offenders are thought of as officers’ BWCs are recording the events. One sometimes making poor decisions based on could also argue that the importance of the risks of being caught. This premise is also certainty of punishment (Bernard et al., 2015; used as a foundation of target hardening National Institute of Justice, 2016) would also efforts used to reduce the attractiveness of be at play when officers know that any citizen

30 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences complaints stemming from inappropriate This criticism does pose a potential impact actions will have consequences, since they when applied to offenders committing crimes were recorded. in front of officers with BWCs, but in this Critics of rational choice theory author’s opinion, would likely not have a large indicate that efforts such as target hardening impact on false complaints against officers, may simply be moving crime to another area once the offender’s intoxication has subsided. (Bernard et al., 2015), and not actually This author also believes that officer reducing crime. However, one could argue intoxication would only be a factor in an that such deterrence may be considered a extremely limited number of instances of success where private security forces are BWC recorded officer wrongdoing. concerned, or where a potential offender chooses to commit a crime at a bus stop instead of a nuclear power plant because of Commonalities Between the Three perceived challenges of accessing a nuclear Theories plant. Application of this criticism to BWCs There are common themes between might have limited results as well. deterrence theory, OSA theory, and rational Since most, if not all, police agencies choice theory. Rational choice theory and in the United States are likely moving toward deterrence theory are both part of the classical the use of BWCs (Lum et al., 2019), it might approach to criminology (Bernard et al., create limited options for offenders to simply 2015). One could also view rational choice choose another situation in which to commit a theory as a foundation for deterrence theory crime or file a false complaint against an since one cannot be deterred without first officer, since it would be understood that most being in the process of a rational choice. officers have BWCs. Additionally, officers Additionally, OSA theory is dependent upon a who plan to commit unauthorized or illegal person’s decision to align with accepted acts would likely refrain from doing so with standards and laws (Silvia and Duval, 2001). the BWC recording. Officers would also That decision is also based on a rational know that this practice would likely become choice approach. Finally, one might also see highly suspicious after a few instances of certainty of punishment as a key factor alleged crimes or misconduct by the officer affecting the various decision-making are paired with his or her BWC not being processes proposed by all these theories. operational. Thus, from the standpoint of the One might argue that all three theories offender or the ill-intentioned officer, this are at least partially built on, or at a minimum, author believes that BWCs are unlikely to linked to what is known in the study of result in the movement of that particular crime quantum mechanics as the observer effect. to another area. Although not a criminological theory, the Bernard et al. (2015) also mentioned observer effect suggests that the act of that critics of rational choice theory also observation inevitably changes that which is indicate that the theory does not account for being observed (Ball, 2017). A similar impaired decision making and emotional phenomenon is found in the aforementioned processes as a result of intoxication or other comprehensive approach to observation and substances affecting decision making of the measurement known as perspectival potential offender. Since 19% to 37% of observation (Dent, 2005). This phenomenon, violent crimes involved alcohol from 2002 to also applied within perspectival observation, 2008 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010), this is that the process of measuring something is arguably a potentially legitimate criticism. may alter that which is being measured (Dent,

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1999; Dent, 2005). Indeed, neither deterrence within the Holy Bible is likely intended as a theory, rational choice theory, or OSA theory lesson on the importance of caring for fellow can gain traction without an understanding mankind, particularly those who are in need, it that observation and measurement may very may have another lesson as well. Matthew likely change the actions of police and 25:46 (NIV) states the following:“Then they civilians. will go away to eternal punishment, but the Readers have likely noticed the righteous to eternal life.” This quote could be recurring theme of certainty of punishment, a reflection of the certainty of punishment and originally popularized by Beccaria, and reward, depending upon the choices a person reinforced by other researchers (Bernard et al., makes. 2015; National Institute of Justice, 2016). Bernard et al. (2015) described rational Although Lum et al. (2019) found the research choice theory as a rational decision-making findings to be inconsistent regarding BWC process where potential offenders weigh costs effect on officer discretion, there were some and benefits when considering whether to studies that found an increase in enforcement commit a crime. One might imagine a large action by officers using BWCs (Braga et al., population of potential offenders, weighing 2018; Katz et al., 2014). One might argue risk versus reward every day. This approach that, in the long term, if BWCs do result in aligns directly with the Holy Bible’s less officer discretion, and an almost numerous examples of people who made a guarantee that even minor offenses will result choice to follow God’s laws or not. This in some form of citation, BWCs may author believes the following passage to be a eventually have the unintended result of fitting reflection of rational choice reflected in lowering instances of low-level crime. People the Holy Bible: will eventually begin to see consequences as But if serving the LORD seems inevitable even for minor offenses. undesirable to you, then choose for yourselves this day whom you will Application of a Christian serve, whether the gods your ancestors Worldview served beyond the Euphrates, or the One could argue that all three of the gods of the Amorites, in whose land theories addressed in this paper align with you are living. But as for me and my standard teachings that a person with a household, we will serve the LORD. Christian worldview would likely identify. (Joshua 24:15, NIV). This could be a reflection of the Holy Bible’s One could argue that Joshua, in overall approach being reflected in the making his statement, relied upon the rational classical criminology approach, and the decision making of all the people of Israel to alignment of these theories also with the do the right thing. Additionally, the fact that classical framework (Bernard et al., 2015). this passage is included in the Holy Bible One might also consider certainty of serves as further reinforcement of each punishment as deterrence to be a theme person’s duty to decide for themselves to aligning with a Christian worldview. follow God. One could see mankind, with Beccaria’s idea that certainty of sinful hearts, as a population of potential punishment is an effective crime deterrent offenders, making a rational choice to not only (Bernard et al., 2015; National Institutes of follow God, but also making choices every Justice, 2016), perhaps reflects Beccaria’s day to fight against sin or not. Bernard et al. understanding of the teachings of the Holy (2015) also mentioned that rational choice Bible. Although the sheep and goats parable theory does not answer what motivates people

32 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences to consider crime as an option, while others do is fully aware that God is with him at all times not. The same could be said for mankind, and tries to act accordingly. where the question remains why some individuals seem to easily follow the word of Conclusion God, while others struggle daily to do right by All three theories apply to the use of God, but fail most of the time. Perhaps that is BWCs by HPD and nationally, and one can an example of God’s unique tests of each potentially apply a Christian worldview and person’s faith. certainty of punishment as deterrence, to The Holy Bible also uses deterrence further bolster the connection. Deterrence several times. One example of deterrence can theory applies when officers and citizens are be seen in Proverbs 28:13 (NIV), which states deterred from acting inappropriately, in order “whoever conceals their sins does not prosper, to avoid the perceived certain punishment that but the one who confesses and renounces them would result from BWC footage. The idea of finds mercy.” Another example can be found deterrence is also seen in the Holy Bible, in Galatians 5:19-21 (NASB): where certain judgment by God awaits Now the deeds of the flesh are evident, everyone, and hopefully deters sin and crime. which are: immorality, impurity, Rational choice theory applies in that sensuality, idolatry, sorcery, enmities, the wicked heart of man creates an ever- strife, jealousy, outbursts of anger, present awareness and desire to commit sin disputes, dissensions, factions, and crime, but a decision must be deliberately envying, drunkenness, carousing, and and rationally made to do the right thing, both things like these, of which I forewarn with Christians actively deciding to avoid sin, you, just as I have forewarned you, and with officers and citizens deciding to that those who practice such things avoid inappropriate activity. OSA also applies will not inherit the kingdom of God. to officers and citizens since both groups are OSA theory proposes that people gain aware of the watchful eye of the camera, much self-awareness in public, and exhibit more like Christians should be aware of the socially acceptable behaviors, and sense a omniscience of God. Finally, the theme of heightened need to cooperate with rules and certainty of punishment serves as an laws (Silvia & Duval, 2001; Farrar, 2013). A overarching nexus connecting deterrence to similar process could be happening among rational choice to OSA, and might also Christians who, while among non-Christian resonate with Christians, as certainty of friends, might unfortunately take steps to punishment or reward is also a theme visible minimize their faith, with the understanding in the Holy Bible. that the non-Christian friends are observing. This paper discussed the HPD policy Likewise, a Christian who surrounds himself requiring the use of BWCs by officers, as a with other Christians might be more likely to subset of the overall trend toward use of make his faith more prominent as it is socially BWCs nationwide. The HPD policy and acceptable or even expected within that group. national trend is reviewed in the context of the Yet another way that OSA could apply to a deterrence theory, rational choice theory, and Christian is when the Christian is aware that OSA theory, with additional application of a God is with him always, and this knowledge Christian worldview. Additionally, replicates a person’s awareness of being Beccaria’s certainty of punishment as a observed in public. Thus, the Christian deterrence factor is a recurring theme woven follows God’s word more readily because he throughout Christianity as well as the three theories relevant to BWCs.

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Criminal Law and Criminology, 108 References (3), 511–538. Retrieved from Air Force (2019). Enlisted Security Forces https://scholarlycommons.law.northwe Policing Our Bases. Retrieved from stern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article= https://www.airforce.com/careers/detai 7632&=&context=jclc&=&sei l/security-forces. . Atlas, R. (2002). The Sustainability of Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2010). Alcohol CPTED: Less Magic, More Science. and Crime: Data from 2002 to 2008. The CPTED Journal, 1 (1), 3-14. Retrieved from Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/acf/ac_co http://cpted.net/resources/Documents/I nclusion.cfm. CA%20Resources/Guidebooks%20and Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2013). Data %20Journals/Journal_Vol01_I01_2002 collection: Law enforcement _Part1.pdf. management and administrative Ball, P. (16 Feb 2017). The strange link statistics survey (LEMAS). between the human mind and quantum Washington, DC: Office of Justice physics. BBC.com. Retrieved from Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170 Retrieved from 215-the-strange-link-between-the- bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=24 human-mind-and-quantum-physics. 8. Bauer, J. (2015, November 18). Body Dent, E. B. (1999). Complexity science: A Cameras for Houston Police Officers worldview shift. Emergence: A Approved by City Council. Journal of Complexity Issues in Click2Houston. Retrieved from Organizations and Management, 1 (4), https://www.click2houston.com/news/ 5-19. Retrieved from https:// DOI: body-cameras-for-houston-police- 10.1207/s15327000em0104_2. officers-approved-by-city- Dent, E. (2005). The Observation, Inquiry, council_20151125214614332. and Measurement Challenges Surfaced Bernard, T. J., Snipes, J. B., and Gerould, A. by Complexity Theory. In Richardson, L. (2015). Vold’s Theoretical K. A. (Ed.), Managing the Complex: Criminology (6th ed.). Oxford Philosophy, Theory and Practice (pp. University Press, New York, NY. 253-283). United States of America: Braga, A., Coldren, J., Sousa,W., Rodriguez, Information Age Publishing. D. & Alper, O. (2017). The benefits of Department of Justice. (1 May2015). Justice body-worn cameras: New findings Department Announces $20 Million in from a randomized controlled trial at Funding to Support Body-Worn the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Camera Pilot Program. Retrieved Department. Final report to the from National Institute of Justice, 2013-IJ- https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice- CX-0016, September 2017. department-announces-20-million- Alexandria, VA: CNA Corporation. funding-support-body-worn-camera- Braga, A., Sousa, W., Coldren, J. & pilot-program/. Rodriguez, D. (2018). The effects of Farrar, T. (19 March 2003). Self-Awareness to body-worn cameras on police activity Being Watched and Socially-Desirable and police-citizen encounters: A Behavior: A Field Experiment on the randomized controlled trial. Journal of Effect of Body-Worn Cameras on

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Police Use-of-Force. Police Center for Violence Prevention and Foundation. Retrieved from Community Safety, Arizona State https://www.policefoundation.org/publ University. Retrieved from ication/self-awareness-to-being- publicservice.asu.edu/sites/default/files watched-and-sociallydesirable- /ppd_spi_feb_20_2015_final.pdf behavior-a-field-experiment- Lieberman, P. & Oreilly, R. (1993, May 2). on-the-effect-of-body-worn-cameras- Most Looters Endured Lives of Crime, on-police-use-of-force/. Poverty : Riots: Thieves ranged from Houston Police Department. (2017). General addicts to students. Majority were Order 400-28. Retrieved from repeat offenders, Times analysis http://www.houstontx.gov/police/body shows. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved _cameras/ from Hasan, S. (2015, February 5). Houston Police https://www.latimes.com/archives/la- Work to Improve Relations with xpm-1993-05-02-mn-30326- Community. Houston Public Media. story.html. Retrieved from Lum, C, Stoltz, M, Koper, C. & Scherer, J. https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/a (2019). Research on body‐worn rticles/news/2015/02/05/55741/housto cameras: What we know, what we n-police-work-to-improve-relations- need to know. Criminology & Public with-community/. Policy, 18 (1), 93– 118. https://doi- Hernandez, P. (2014, December 8). Houston org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1111/1745- Police to Outfit Officers with Body 9133.12412 Cameras. Houston Public Media. National Institute of Justice. (2016). Five Retrieved from Things About Deterrence. Retrieved https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/a from https://nij.gov/five- rticles/news/2014/12/08/54630/housto things/pages/deterrence.aspx#addenda. n-police-to-outfit-officers-with-body- Sacca, G. (2017). Not just another piece of cameras/. equipment: An analysis for police Hoggard, C. (2018, March 5). Man who body-worn camera policy decisions. inspired three strikes law sentenced to Retrieved from life in prison for most recent act of https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=8082 violence. ABC 30 Action News. 78. Retrieved from Schwartz, P. & Ogilvy, J. (1979). The https://abc30.com/man-who-inspired- emergent paradigm: Changing three-strikes-law-sentenced-to-life-in- patterns of thought and belief. Menlo prison-for-most-recent-act-of- Park, CA: SRI International. violence/3177651/. Silvia, P. J. & Duval, T. S. (2001) Objective Hyland, S. S. (2018). Body-worn cameras in Self-Awareness Theory: Recent law enforcement agencies, 2016. Progress and Enduring Problems. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Personality and social psychology Justice, Office of Justice Programs, review, 5 (3), 230–241. Retrieved from Bureau of Justice Statistics. https.doi:// Katz, C., Choate, D., Ready, J., & Nuňo, L. 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_4. (2014). Evaluating the impact of Stewart, I., & Cohen, J. (1997). Figments of officer body worn cameras in the reality: the evolution of the curious Phoenix police department. Phoenix:

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mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Texas Penal Code. (n.d.). Title 3, Chapter 12, Subchapter A. Retrieved from https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/ PE/htm/PE.12.htm Texas State Bill No. 158. (11/18/2015). Retrieved from https://www.houstontx.gov/police/pdfs /Texas-2015-SB158-Enrolled.pdf The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights and Upturn. (2017). Police Body Worn Cameras: A Policy Scorecard. Retrieved from https://www.bwcscorecard.org/static/p dfs/LCCHR%20and%20Upturn%20- %20BWC%20Scorecard%20v.3.04.pd f. Transportation Security Administration. (2019). Federal Air Marshal Service and Law Enforcement. Retrieved from https://www.tsa.gov/about/jobs-at- tsa/federal-air-marshal-service-and- law-enforcement.

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other forms of bereavement. The complicated Promoting Resilience in grief that accompanies suicide bereavement is often comprised of feelings of guilt, shame, Survivors of Suicide anger, and blame. This framework is supported by various researchers and Natalie Ford undergirds the current study (Agerbo, 2005; Truett McConnell University Bailey et al., 1999; Bell et al., 2012; De Groot et al., 2006). Introduction Over one million people suicide yearly Methods (SAMHSA, 2009), with six-ten others Losing a spouse to suicide is a severely impacted (National Center for Injury devastating experience that often results in Prevention and Control, 2015). In the U.S., suicidal ideation or attempts by the survivor. seven percent report losing someone in their In this study the narratives of resilient social network to suicide within the past year, survivors were explored with the goal of one percent of whom are a family member delineating resiliency factors. An (Kaslow et al, 2009). Research indicates that Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis survivors of suicide experience affective, (IPA) was selected because of its propensity to behavioral, and cognitive symptoms and unearth in-depth understanding of the complex stigma associated with the suicide (Terhorst & processes undergirding many phenomena and Mitchell, 2012) and 18% - 34% of survivors rich and meaningful answers to research become maladjusted during the first four years questions (Smith, et al., 2013). following the suicide, with two percent experiencing significant psychiatric symptoms Participants in the first year (Andriessen, 2009). Women After IRB approval was ascertained, who lose husbands to suicide are at a greater participants were recruited from Survivors of risk for suiciding themselves than the general Suicide (SOS) support groups and snowball population (Berman, 2011), especially the first sampling. In keeping with IPA year following the loss (Pompili, Shrivastava, recommendations, a small, purposive sample Serafini, Innamorati, Milelli, Erbuto & of six participants were selected (Dyregrov, Girardi, 2013). Given the numbers of Dieserud, Hjelmeland, Straiton, Rasmussen, survivors at risk for Posttraumatic Stress Knizek, & Leenaars, 2011; Pietkiewicz & Disorder (PTSD), complicated grief, and Smith, 2012). All six participants were suicidal ideation it is vital to understand required to sign written statements of survivor needs and the efficacy of current informed consent prior to participation. postvention strategies (Cerel et al., 2009). A Participants lost their husbands at least two comprehensive review of the literature reveals years previously and scored a 3.8 or higher on that no previous studies address postvention the Brief Resiliency Scale (BRS) (Smith et al., factors for this population. The purpose of this 2008). The 2-year limit was chosen based on study was to explore the coping narratives of research indicating that this amount of time resilient survivors to promote understanding allows healing to begin and for survivors to of their needs and efficacious treatment. gain perspective (Vandecreek & Mottram, 2009). Prior to contacting potential candidates, Conceptual Framework a pilot study was conducted so that interview This study was conducted in the questions could be modified as needed for context of the theoretical framework that suicide bereavement is uniquely different from

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clarity. Demographic information on the Have you remarried since losing your sample is provided in Table 1. spouse to suicide? Yes 4 No 1 Table 1 Engaged 1 Participant Demographics Mode of spouse’s suicide Variable n = 6 Gunshot wound 4 Age Poisonous Gas 1 18-29 3 Hanging 1 30-49 3 50-64

Highest Level of Education Trade/Technical/Vocational training 1 College Graduate 5 Data Collection Religious Preference To obtain rich and meaningful Protestant 5 Other 1 information on spousal resilience, participants Race partook in in-depth interviews, submitted White 5 reflective journals and were available for African American 1 follow up via e-mail for clarifications (Ryan, Total Income Before Taxes Lister, & Flynn, 2013). Some of the questions Under $20,000 asked during the open-ended interviews Over $20,000 4 Did not answer 2 included: • Tell me about your experience Number of Children of losing your husband to 0 suicide. 1 1 2 2 • Describe your life since the 3 2 loss. 4+ 1 • How have you adapted, Number of years married to the husband positively or negatively, to the deceased by suicide suicide of your husband? Less than 2 years 1 2-5 years 1 • How were you able to maintain 5-10 years 1 some sense of “normal” as you 10-15 years 2 made it through? 15-20 years • Describe how your 20+ years 1 relationships with others were Marital satisfaction prior to suicide on scale of 1-10 (1 being extremely helpful or not helpful. dissatisfied and 10 being extremely Interviews were digitally recorded and satisfied). transcribed and the data was pooled for 1-3 1 analysis. To ensure trustworthiness, an audit 4-6 2 trail, very briefly explain, examples from the 7-9 3 data, and credibility checks (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012) were used. Member checking Number of marriages prior to your was used so that participants could make husband who died by suicide needed additions or corrections, and 0 4 participants were given the final written 1 1 2 1 transcript so that they could validate the descriptions and meanings assigned to their

38 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences experiences and clarify any misunderstandings transforming. Themes in the data included (McKinnon & Chonody, 2014). reformation of identity, loss of expected identity and future, and profound isolation and Data Analysis aloneness. Each transcript and journal was read and reread in order to identify common Redefining Identity themes; notes were written in the margins for In the process of bereavement, future reference. Hermeneutical participants redefined their identities. Esther, a phenomenological analysis (Smith et al., pseudonym, said that she “did not want to be a 2013) entailed a process of immersion failure in life. I’m almost 30. I don’t even wherein each aspect of the data was read, have a real job. I don’t have any money, and reflected upon, and re-read several times in now I’ve got to go move back in with my order to unearth common themes (Fielden, parents. Who wants to do that?” Not only did 2003). A preliminary list of categories was she lose her husband, but she also experienced identified and coded (Roberts, 2010) and then a loss of herself and the identities inherent to organized according to the corresponding daily life as she knew it. Teasley expressed it research questions. A valid theme was one this way: “For the first time in my life, I that all of the participants referenced in the couldn’t process what was going on, what my data. A final review of the data and themes role was, what others’ roles were, and what I was completed to ensure that the identified was supposed to do.” She too, struggled to themes and patterns were consistent with the know who she was and what her role was collected data (Roberts, 2010) and common since the loss. This painful experience of themes were then described in narrative form double loss may be intolerable for some and (Smith et al., 2013). possibly related to the suicidal ideation common to this population. Results In this study the voices of those who A Loss of the Anticipated Self were resilient after experiencing spousal Another process theme is the loss of suicide were sought to answer the research the anticipated self. The anticipated self refers questions. Describing their bereavement, to a person’s anticipated future, including participants revealed experiencing a near hopes and dreams. Existing research concurs, intolerable process of redefining themselves, suggesting that when survivors lose a loved losing their anticipated selves, and existential one to suicide, their personal lives are loneliness. Participants’ perceived that sense- drastically changed forever, leading to a making and finding purpose in the loss, a transformation of thoughts and dreams resolve to stay strong no matter the level of regarding the future (Begley & Quayle, 2007). pain, and a regular daily routine kept them Esther gave up her hopes of being a chef; going. Participants reported that the primary Teasley had dreams of spending her golden hindrance to effective coping was shame and a years as renewed honeymooners. Grace desire to hide. Sharing their journey of loss dreamed of growing old and raising with others in need proved to be a pivotal grandchildren with her husband. The women factor in full recovery. not only had to grieve the loss of the anticipated self, but also had to learn to dream The Bereavement Process again – to transform their ideal of their future Participants described bereavement as selves. Each of the widows had to relinquish emotionally unbearable while also life control and open up their hearts and minds to

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the unknown before they could grieve the loss congruent with existing research (Bell et al., of the anticipated self and reframe their 2012; Supiano, 2012). All six participants’ anticipations for the future. In doing so, all experiences suggest three key elements in the six were able to adapt to their circumstances, ability to make sense of and find purpose in demonstrate resilience in the present, and hope the loss: purging or getting out cognitions and for the future. emotions associated with the loss, spirituality, and helping others.

Loneliness Purging Consistent with existing research, The widows had to express their participants reported experiencing intense negative thoughts and feelings related to the loneliness (Sveen & Walby, 2008). suicide in order to process and purge them. Participants shared how friends offered This is consistent with research describing support initially, but were not there over time. meaning-making as the process of working Here Kristen captures the depth of this, through feelings of guilt and shame while There were many times I felt like I wrestling with questions regarding why the didn’t belong. The people we used to suicide occurred and about their prior hang around with…other couples with relationship with the deceased (Begley & kids…didn’t seem to be a fitting place Quayle, 2007). Esther remembered trying to for me anymore. However, even single understand the suicide and feeling “lost and friends of mine couldn’t understand confused.” She was angry at herself for not what I had just lost. So, there were knowing, and mad at God for allowing the times I felt like I was in a bit of a self- suicide. “How did I miss this? How did I not imposed exile.” Even in the context of know? I could have done this…and then it hit previously close relationships, Kristen me. You know what? There was nothing that I felt alone. could have done. You know what I mean? It These findings underlie the extent of was just so much.” The struggle is real for identity loss and loneliness that surviving survivors to try and find a rational explanation widows experience and their need for for the suicide of their loved ones. Sadly, “journeymen” to come alongside them over an even if there was an answer to the question, extended period, monitoring for suicidal “Why?” the pain remains. Teresa and Teasley ideation and providing maximum presence both had rational explanations for the suicides, and support at those times. but this did not take away the feelings of guilt, the what-ifs, and numerous other questions Adaption and resiliency factors that plagued them. Teasley asked: Participants revealed that there was a What could I have done different? set of factors that supported them in their Why did I ever say that? Who saw recovery. For this sample, sense-making, what I missed? When did this slow resolve to stay strong, and routine were those decline into an abyss begin? Where factors. did I go wrong in not catching some small thread of the reality present in Sense-making his mind? Sense-making refers to finding As the women came to accept that meaning in the loss or a sense of there were not adequate answers, they were purposefulness in the aftermath of the suicide able to move forward. (Begley & Quayle, 2007). This finding is

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Spirituality just let it come. I was going to go after All of the participants reported that it. Tackle it and pin it down and tie it their faith supported them in making sense of up and say ‘you're mine’…I always their loss. Teasley believed she would not thought I was going to make it. I just have bounced back without her spiritual didn't know if I would like myself after beliefs. She shared, “God’s over the top I had. I didn't know what normal provision” in the form of unfailing love and would look like or feel like. I just presence provided her with the ability “to knew I had to get there. accept what happened” and to convince Likewise Grace shared, “I’m a herself that she was not to blame. She credits survivor, so you know it was never something God for her ability to adapt and to find I doubted. I just had to take it one day at a perspective, comfort, and comradery in the time.” The desire to feel better propelled the wake of the unfathomable loss. participants to face their grief head on as intolerable as it was. For many, the needs of Helping others those around them, i.e., children, propelled Lastly, participants were able to find them to actively grieve and to stay strong. meaning and purpose in the loss as they helped others. Esther never got the answers Routine she sought, but she came to a place of Lastly, routine was identified as an understanding that she could use her pain to adaptation and resiliency factor. This finding help others: “I remember asking ‘Why? Why corroborates with previous literature me?’ Now I say, ‘Why not me?’ I’ve been suggesting that survivors adapt by engaging in able to help so many people with my the mundane tasks of daily living (Gaffney & experience.” Esther leads a Survivors of Hannigan, 2010; Hahn et al., 2011). In Suicide (SOS) group today to encourage maintaining a routine in parenting, religious others who have lost a loved one to suicide. participation, and vocation, participants found She described working with this group as “the encouragement through the hard times. most rewarding experience.” Knowing that Kristen described her life saying, their pain can help others gives meaning to I would get up. I would go to my job their losses. Making sense of the loss was and even if I couldn’t make it all day, I crucial for participants’ adaptation and started. For me it was establishing the resilience. things I would have done pre-suicide. I would have worked. I would have Resolve to stay strong taken care of my daughter. I would Resolve is a determination to take have gone to church. . . Just trying to control of life’s direction and to restore what do the normal things... I really think was lost (Ratnarajah et al., 2014). The women that helped to usher in normal, and described a strong sense of resolve to face then it was a matter of not hiding. grief head on and to move forward strongly. The participants’ lives did not stop due When asked about a time when they knew that to suicide. They and their lives had they would make it, five explicitly stated that significantly changed, and they were they never doubted it. Teasley shared, determined to not only survive, but to thrive in The decision that I was not going to the wake of the loss. This determination, this blame myself and then the decision explicit decision to pass through the grief with that everything good that could come dignity and strength and regularity helped out of this would. I was not going to

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usher them through the transformational to share their stories for the sake of helping journey. others. Stigma: Hindrance of adaptation Discussion and Recommendations All six of the participants reported that Spousal suicide is a complicated loss shame was like a sharp knife, intermittently that may lead to severe symptoms, including cutting away at their re-stabilization. The suicidal ideation and attempts. As a means of temptation to protect self from the judgement addressing a gap in the literature on of others continually threatened the drive to understanding and effectively responding to move forward and share the pain with caring this population, we engaged in this study. Our others. Teresa described it this way, findings provide a glimpse into the experience There were other people that of this kind of loss and information about questioned everything, and they should what may promote or hinder recovery. The have just kept their mouths closed. following recommendations are grounded in You know, just nosy. Wanting to know these findings: all the details and how did it happen? 1. Sense-making What did he do and all these things Purging hurt, anger, and guilt and where did you find him and did may foster sense-making, and can you find him? All this stuff that was be done through journaling, so hurtful and so painful and you had support groups, and therapy. to relive that every time you would tell Professionals can also encourage that story and it’s just because they’re survivors to identify any positives nosy. that may have occurred as a result Esther described an incident where she of the suicide such as inner was pulled over by a police officer who strength, new friendships, and recognized her car and wanted to ask her empathy. This approach is unsolicited questions about her husband’s congruent with the trauma research suicide. Dealing with nosy people and feeling indicating that narrating one’s blamed by others hindered adaptation at times. story promotes sense-making and Participants actively decided to endure the recovery (Ratnarajah et al., 2014). shame as the value of aiding others emerged Counselors can guide the as a guiding force. Interestingly, stigma – the process of molding the present and very thing that drove them to hide the truth – the future by assisting the survivor was diminished when the women revealed the in telling and reframing the truth about their struggles. narrative in therapy and eventually To summarize, participants described with someone in vivo. The the bereavement process as a struggle to following narrative approaches are redefine self, loss of the anticipated self, and recommended: writing extreme loneliness. The co-researchers interventions, peer-led support identified three factors that fostered adaptation groups such as Survivors of and resiliency: sense-making, resolve and Suicide (SOS) groups, therapeutic routine. Lastly, one factor was identified as support groups led by a hindering adaptation and resiliency: a desire to professional, narrative therapy, protect image from stigma. The co- bibliotherapy and attachment researchers were able to overcome the therapy (Szumilas & Kutcher, impediments caused by stigma as they felt free 2011). Reading another survivor’s narrative may help more recent

42 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

Table 2 survivors to describe their Recommended Resources own story. Theme Recommended Empirical 2. Routine Resources Treatments Sense- Finding Your Way Narrative therapy, Therapists often use making after the Suicide of writing therapy behavior therapy, specifically Someone You Love SOS Support Groups. (Biebel & Foster, therapeutic support behavior activation to promote 2005) groups led by a routine. Interpersonal social professional, bibliotherapy and rhythm therapy is also an attachment therapy effective form of therapy for both Religious Tears to Joy (Flake, Spiritual integration beliefs 2012) establishing and maintaining a routine (Frank, Swartz, & Helping List of Survivors of SOS support groups Others Suicide (SOS) Boland,2007). support groups at 3. Resolve http://afsp.org/find- support/ive-lost- Resolve is often motivated someone/find-a- by a person’s inner self-talk. support-group/ Routine Behavior Activation Behavior activation; Clinicians can employ cognitive Chart Interpersonal social behavior therapy to help clients rhythm therapy Resolve www.suicidology.org Cognitive Behavior meditate on thoughts promoting a Therapy sense of hope and cognitive Grief After Suicide: Understanding the restructuring to encourage Consequences and resolve. Clinicians can help Caring for the Survivors (Jordan & clients to identify ways that their McIntosh, 2011) spiritual beliefs instill a sense of Dead Reckoning: A Therapist Confronts personal resolve and His Own Grief perseverance. (Treadway, 1996) Limiting My Son…My Son: A Cognitive 4. Stigma the Guide to Healing Restructuring Clinicians can use effects of After Death, Loss or Reframing the stigma Suicide (Bolton, narrative cognitive restructuring and 1995) SOS support groups reframing the narrative to help A Special Scar: The survivors to perceive the loss Experience of People from different points of view. Bereaved by Suicide (Wertheimer, 2001) Survivor of Suicide (SOS) groups and other peer-led support groups The Invisible Front: Love and Loss in an help to normalize the complicated Era of Endless War grief process and promotes (Dreazen, 2014)

universality. http://afsp.org/find- Recommended resources and support/ive-lost- someone/resources- empirically supported treatment options loss-survivors/books- may be found in Table 2. loss- survivors/#section1. Limitations

The qualitative interview process may be limited by participants’ insights, their

capacity to remember and articulate their experiences, and social desirability. In an

effort to control for these limitations, pseudonyms were used to guard against

43 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

socially desirable answers and reflective researchers hope that future studies will be journals were used prior to interviews to conducted so that therapists, physicians, and enable the co-researcher time for reflection. clergy can create greater efficacy in Rich, thick descriptions were used to convey postvention services. Future qualitative studies the findings in an effort to add validity to the that expand on these findings and explore findings (Creswell, 2009). whether or not the themes remain consistent The author’s role in data collection and for other populations bereaved by suicide analysis may have influenced the would be beneficial. Additionally, a study interpretation of interviews due to her own exploring whether or not resiliency existed in experience of losing a spouse to suicide. the participants in the current study pre- However, the bias was explicitly stated at the suicide or if it developed post-suicide would beginning of the study, and in effort to control be helpful. The participants in the current for this bias, triangulation was used to study experienced posttraumatic growth as strengthen validity (Creswell, 2009). well as resiliency. Is it possible for survivors Reflective journals, qualitative interviews, and of suicide to experience resiliency in the member checking were all incorporated in an absence of posttraumatic growth or do the two effort to delineate the risk of personal bias occur concurrently? Future studies are needed distorting participants’ experiences to explore these queries in greater detail. (Moustakas, 1994). Another limitation is the self-selection References bias of the research sample. Because Agerbo, E. (2005). Midlife suicide risk, participants were recruited through regional partner's psychiatric illness, spouse SOS groups and snowballing, they may and child bereavement by suicide or represent a population that tend to seek help other modes of death: A gender for the adaptive process more than those who specific study. Journal of do not participate in support groups. The Epidemiology and Community Health, participants shared a common religious 59(5), 407-412. doi: system, Christianity, and future studies are 10.1136/jech.2004.024950 needed to explore whether Christian beliefs Andriessen, K. (2009). Can postvention be and principles or religious beliefs in general prevention? Crisis, 30, 43-47. doi: serve as an adaptation factor. Less religious 10.1027/0227-5910.30.1.43 individuals may produce different attributions Begley, M., & Quayle, E. (2007). The lived for resiliency than religious; more research is experience of adults bereaved by needed in this area. While there were suicide: A phenomenological study. limitations in the current study, the findings Crisis, 28, 26-34. doi: 10.1027/0227- remain valuable for guiding treatment 5910.28.1.26 planning for professionals working with Bell, J., Stanley, N., Mallon, S., & Manthorpe, survivors. J. (2012). Life will never be the same again: Examining grief in survivors Conclusion bereaved by young suicide. Illness, Many of the sub-themes were Crisis & Loss, 20(1), 49-68. congruent with the current research regarding doi:10.2190/IL.20.1.e adaptation and resiliency after suicidal loss. Berman, A. (2011). Estimating the population Implications for professionals were shared in of survivors of suicide: Seeking an an attempt to guide postvention efforts for evidence base. widowed survivors of suicide. The

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Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, Flake, N. (2012). Tears to joy. Mustang, OK: 41(1), 110-116. doi:10.1111/j.1943- Tate Publishing. 278X.2 010.00009.x Frank, E., Swartz, H., & Boland, E. (2007). Biebel, D., & Foster, S. (2005). Finding your Interpersonal and social rhythm way after the suicide of someone you therapy: an intervention addressing love. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. rhythm dysregulation in bipolar Bloomberg, L., & Volpe, M. (2012). disorder. Dialogues in Clinical Completing your qualitative Neuroscience, 9(3), 325–332. dissertation: A road map from Gaffney, M., & Hannigan, B. (2010). Suicide beginning to end. Washington, DC: bereavement and coping: A descriptive SAGE Publications. and interpretive analysis of the coping Bolton, I. (1995). My son… my son: A guide process. Procedia Social and to healing after death, loss or suicide. Behavioral Sciences, 5, 526-535. doi: Atlanta, GA: Bolton Press. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.137 Cerel, J., Padgett, J., Conwell, Y., & Reed, G. Hahn, E., Cichy, K., Almeida, D., & Haley, (2009). A call for research: The need W. (2011). Time use and well-being in to better understand the impact of older widows: Adaptation and support groups for suicide survivors. resilience. Journal of Women and Suicide and Life-Threatening Aging, 23(2), 149-159. doi: Behavior, 39, 129-281. doi: 10.1080/08952841.2011.561139 10.1521/suli.2009.39.3.269 Kaslow, N., Berry-Mitchell, F., Franklin, K., Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: & Bethea, K. (2009). Postvention for Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed- African American families following a methods design (3rd ed.). Thousand loved one’s suicide. Professional Oaks, CA: Sage. Psychology: Research and Practice, Dreazen, Y. (2014). The invisible front: Love 40, 165-171. doi: 10.1037/a0014023 and loss in an era of endless war. New McKinnon, J., & Chonody, J. (2014). York, NY: Crown Publishing. Exploring the formal supports used by Dyregrov, K., Dieserud, G., Hjelmeland, H., people bereaved through suicide: A Straiton, M., Rasmussen, M., Knizek, qualitative study. Social Work in B., & Leenaars, A. (2011). Meaning- Mental Health, 12(3), 231-248. doi: making through psychological autopsy 10.1080/15332985.2014.889637 interviews: The value of participating Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological in qualitative research for those research methods. Thousand Oaks, bereaved by suicide. Death Studies, CA: Sage. 35(8), 685-710. Retrieved from National Center for Injury Prevention and http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07481187.20 Control. (2015). Retrieved from 11.553310 http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pd Fielden, J. (2003). Grief as a transformative f/suicide-datasheet-a.PDF experience: Weaving through different Pietkiewicz, I., & Smith, J. (2012). A practical lifeworlds after a loved one has guide to using Interpretative completed suicide. International Phenomenological Analysis in Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 12, qualitative research psychology. 74-85. doi: 10.1046/j.1440- Psychological Journal, 20(1), 7-14. 0979.2003.00271.x doi: 10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7 Pompili, M., Shrivastava, A., Serafini, G.,

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Innamorati, M., Milelli, M., Erbuto, Studies, NSDUH Series H-38A, HHS D., & Girardi, P. (2013). Bereavement Publication No. SMA 10- after the suicide of a significant other. 4586Findings). Rockville, MD. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(3), Supiano, K. (2012). Sense-making in suicide 256-263. doi:10.4103/0019- survivorship: A qualitative study of the 5545.117145 effect of grief support group Ratnarajah, D., Maple, M., & Minichiello, V. participation. Journal of Loss and (2014). Understanding family member Trauma, 17(6), 489-507. doi: suicide narratives by investigating 10.1080/15325024.2012.665298 family history. Omega Journal of Sveen, C., & Walby, F. (2008). Suicide Death and Dying, 69(1), 41-57. doi: survivors' mental health and grief 10.2190/OM.69.1.c reactions: A systematic review of Roberts, G. (2000). Narrative and severe controlled studies. Suicide & Life - mental illness: What place do stories Threatening Behavior, 38(1), 13-29. have in an evidence-based world? Retrieved from Advances in Psychiatric http://ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login?u Treatment, 6(6), 432- rl=http://search.proquest.com/docview/ 441. doi: 10.1192/apt.6.6.432 224890074?accountid=12085 Ryan, M., Lister, R., & Flynn, L. (2013). Szumilas, M., & Kutcher, S. (2011). Post- Giving voice to those bereaved by suicide intervention programs: A suicide: The 'nothing prepared me for systematic review. Canadian Public this' project. Advances in Mental Health, 102, 18-29. Retrieved from Health, 11(3), 213-222. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41996173 http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=G Terhorst, L., & Mitchell, A. (2012). Ways of ALE%7CA348873813&v=2.1&u=vic coping in survivors of suicide. Issues _liberty&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid in Mental Health Nursing, 33(1), 32- =34ce0254c83bed46b815ca2206bbb01 38. 1 doi:10.3109/01612840.2011.618584 Smith, B., Epstein, E., Ortiz, J., Christopher, Treadway, D. (1996). Dead reckoning: A P., & Tooley, E. (2013). The therapist confronts his own grief. New foundations of resilience: What are the York, NY: Basic Books. critical resources for bouncing back Vandecreek, L., & Mottram, K. (2011). The from stress? In S. Prince-Embury religious life during suicide (Ed.), Resilience in children, bereavement: A description. Death adolescents, and adults (pp. 167-188). Studies, 33(8), 741-761. doi: New York, NY: Oxford. 10.1080/07481180903070467 Smith, J., & Osborn, M. (2007). Interpretative Wertheimer, A. (2001). A special scar: The Phenomenological Analysis qualitative experience of people bereaved by psychology: A practical guide to suicide. New York, NY: Routledge. research method. London, England: World Health Organization (WHO). (2007). Sage Publications. Suicide prevention (SUPRE). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Retrieved July 11, 2007, 2007, from Administration. (2010). Results from http://www.who.int/mental_health/pre the 2009National Survey on Drug Use vention/suicide/suicideprevent/ and Health: Volume I. Summary of en/print.html National Findings (Office of Applied

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I Think You’re Wrong (But I’m Listening): A Guide to Grace-Filled Political Conversations

Author: Beth A. Silvers & Sarah Stewart Holland

Publisher: Thomas Nelson, 2019.

Review by Justin Pettegrew Shorter University

The book I Think You’re Wrong (but I’m Listening): a guide to grace-filled political conversations offers practical solutions and thoughtful advice about how to engage in political discussions. Sarah Stewart Holland and Beth Silvers wrote this book to address the current political climate where conversations about politics have become “toxic and hopeless” (xi) The authors examine the sensational nature of the news, the ugly and hate-filled social media memes, and the exhaustion caused by the constant political rancor. Holland and Silvers note that “People we sit in the pew with every Sunday have begun to feel like strangers, and loved ones sitting across our dinner tables have begun to feel like enemies.” (xi) This problem has become so bad, they say, that many Americans have chosen to ignore the political world rather than having to face our current divisive, argumentative milieu.

Holland and Silvers offer this book as part of the solution rather than accepting the

47 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

inevitability of our present negative political with group affiliation. But there is something environment. Both Holland and Silvers are tremendously wrong with prioritizing our Christians. Discussions of faith and values differences over our sameness and abdicating come up frequently in the book. For example, our personal responsibility to independently they draw from Colossians 3:12 as they consider and act on issues in favor of implore the reader to “put on a heart of following the group’s checklist.” (47) compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness, Instead of simply cheering for your and patience” and apply these biblical own political team, the book proposes that the principles to political conversations. (xi-xii). reader carefully consider their fundamental The authors ask Americans to reject the values with the goal of discovering nuanced current situation which they see as a choice political positions and thoughtful policy and instead “… engage with respect and agendas. Policy conversations are often absent empathy… give grace, and be vulnerable from the national conversation, they argue, when discussing the issues that affect your because the focus is instead on political family, your church, and your country.” (xii) victories. The authors implore us to keep While covering weighty topics, this book is perspective on the role of the government and not intended as an academic treatise but rather not elevate it to an unnatural position. While as a “virtual kitchen table.” (xiv) The authors some view the government, as the cause of, stress that they are not professional pundits and/or solution to all our problems the book but were friends who found themselves on recommends that we recognize that change opposite sides of the political aisle. After often comes from other institutions such as starting a podcast and discussing politics at family and church. Identifying the proper length, they decided to write this book. Not place of government helps us to create surprisingly, the tone is conversational and the realistic political expectations which, in turn, book is designed to create dialogue. Each allows us to have a healthy conversations chapter ends with a section called “Continue about political issues. the Conversation’ designed to have the readers The second section of the book “Turn do just that. your eyes outward” proposes that we try to The authors divided the book into two find shared principles, values, and purposes sections. The first section called “Start with with those around us. Here the authors You” naturally deals with each individual emphasize the virtues of empathy, humility, reader’s personal response to political issues. faith, and grace. These ideals are foundational Holland and Silvers challenge the reader to to understanding other’s opinions, prioritizing examine their own beliefs and values in order relationships over disagreements, and to “face our weaknesses, mistakes, and engaging in compassionate civic limitations with humility and grace.” (xvi) conversations. In chapter 9, “Exit the Echo They encourage us to remain engaged in Chamber’ the book provides specific politics while rejecting the partisanship that challenges and models designed to help the dominates our current culture. In chapter 2 reader to move beyond their own political “Take off your Jersey” Holland and Silvers bubbles. These include examples of argue that many people’s political associations productive social media political discussions, are similar to sports’ fans who view politics as demonstrations of positive family political a battle for their team’s victory. Instead, they interactions, and suggestions on changing suggest we attempt to move beyond these news sources in order to view differing associations. According to Holland and opinions. Overall, this book succeeds in Silvers, “There is nothing inherently wrong offering helpful advice and strategies that will

48 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences enable Americans to productively engage in talking to know they have messed up, but they civic discussions. do not know how to fix their lives. Some have even tried church before and felt unworthy or looked down on by church members, so they left. Once they accept Christ, their lives are transformed. There are a couple stories where A God of New Beginnings: a new Christian falls off the straight and narrow path, and they immediately reach out How the Power of for help. They stumble, but now with Christ, Relationship Brings Hope they no longer fall. I loved reading all the stories of how some people came to Christ and and Redeems Lives the stories of people still being reached. One of the highlights of this book is Author: Rob Cowles & Matt Roberts, how the Genesis Project, the church, was founded. Many people in the congregation with Dean Merrill thought the idea of a church buying a strip club was not God’s hand. It is amazing to Publisher: Thomas Nelson, 2018 watch God move and change people’s lives in a building that used to destroy their lives. Just Review by Sydney Holmes like the people who were broken, disregarded, University of North Carolina and deemed unworthy of grace, the church building itself became a symbol of hope and redemption. The other highlight is a testimony Most churches, if not all churches, from one of the ladies who came to Christ have international connections to charities through this ministry. Her story made my eyes they sponsor and local ministry to help their water as I read it. I am so glad I serve a God community. While this is a great thing for the who can bring people out of terrible situations expansion of the Kingdom of Christ, one and bondage and turn them into a beautiful group of people seem to slip by the church's creation, like a kintsugi work of art. This is radar. These people are the drug addicts, the my absolute favorite concept in the book. I street workers, and the sex offenders. The God will not spoil it for you, but the chapter on of New Beginnings by Rob Cowles and Matt spiritual kintsugi was one of the best analogies Roberts shares the trials but also the great joy for how broken can be beautiful that I have that comes with reaching “messy” people. ever heard. The book focuses on how these two men can In a way, this book was almost a bring hope into a world where people have critique of the modern church. Both pastors turned their back on God. The main point the mentioned in different parts of the book how book reiterates repeatedly is relationships. modern churches seem to be afraid to accept These two pastors build relationships “messy” people. Jesus came to save the lost, with the people they are trying to reach. By not the found. Jesus came to reach the broken, building these relationships, not only are they not the whole. One of the pastors mentioned forming a connection with the person, but they that other churches would send people who are also representing Christ in a loving way. did not fit their ideal church member to them. Once they have a connection with a person, Neither pastor minded this, as they saw it as they can then have a real conversation about an opportunity to help save more lost people. Christ and how He fits into their lives. Most of the time, the person one of the pastors is

49 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

I have already recommended this crossroads that became the unwilling home of book to several friends, family, and even one Judean exiles” (Kinnaman & Matlock, 20). of my pastors at church. It gave a new Unlike the city of Babylon Digital Babylon is perspective on ministry and how to run a not a physical place but it is “the virtual home ministry. It answered a question many people, of every person with Wi-Fi, a data plan, or – who are not necessarily in ministry, have for most of us – both” (Kinnaman & Matlock, asked: How can I help reach lost people? I 20). loved this book and it has a message for Through a great deal of research everyone. Kinnaman and Matlock use Faith for Exiles to explore modern day exiles (18-29-year-olds) and their relationships with religion, the church, and their own faith. Kinnaman and Faith for Exiles: 5 Ways for a Matlock have broken down their population of New Generation to Follow 18-29-year-old exiles into four basic categories: prodigals, or ex-Christians; Jesus in Digital Babylon nomads, or the unchurched; habitual churchgoers; and resilient disciples. These Author: David Kinnaman & Mark categories are referred to throughout the book, so it is important to clearly understand the Matlock group defined by each category. The authors then explore the 5 practices for the resilient Publisher: Baker Books, 2019 disciples to engage in to continue to grow their faith. The five practices focus on Review by Jodi S. Ford understanding of self, understanding the role Liberty University as a Christian in today’s world, building relationships, understating the role as a Christian in today’s workplace, and how to live differently despite cultural norms. Faith For Exiles: 5 Ways for a New One of the key points is that these five Generation to Follow Jesus in Digital practices cannot just be taught from the Babylon written by David Kinnaman and on Sunday, they must be delivered in a Mark Matlock is an enjoyable and insightful manner that is received by today’s new read, even for those who do not do a lot of generation that walks around with a world of spiritual reading, and those who are not a knowledge in their pocket. Early on it is member of the “new generation”. The book stated “instant access to information is not begins with the story of both authors, fathers, wisdom” (Kinnaman & Matlock, 18), and this dropping their freshman daughters off at statement is echoed throughout the book. college and the fear and uncertainty this life Also, it is pointed out, the use of technology changing event brings every parent. Both can have an impact on how and if the new fathers were worried about their daughter’s generation continues to grow in their faith. ability to continue to grow in their faith and Despite the fact that nearly two-thirds of 18- love for Jesus in their new scholastic 29-year-olds have dropped out of church environments and in a time Kinnaman and (Kinnaman & Matlock, 15) there are still Matlock define as Digital Babylon. Digital millions of “young Christians demonstrating Babylon gets its name from the city of that Jesus’s work is alive and well” Babylon a “pagan-but-spiritual, (Kinnaman & Matlock, 211). Based on the hyperstimulated, multicultural, imperial

50 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences research shared throughout the book the new “Moment of Truth.” The “Moment of Truth” generation may not want to participate in the identified in the book refers to scriptures that same type of religion, church, or faith we did relate to the message or the scenario given to when we were young, they are still on fire for the reader. Each message is about one to two God. The new generation is not afraid to pages in length. This book will reach any share their faith, in their own way in this population of people but mostly focuses on technology driven world, and the five Christianity. Strobel gave scriptures practices shared in this book can help them do throughout the entire book that supported the that. Additionally, reading this book can give correct way to handle problems Christians older generations insight to helping the new face living in a falling world. For example, generation grow in their faith, and maybe the scenario entitled The Life-Changing rekindle some fire we have lost. Gospel started by stating, “I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is the power of God that brings salvation to everyone who believes” (Romans 1:16). Within this The Case for Christ: Daily scenario, a teacher was facilitating a class Moment of Truth about the love Jesus showed through His death. During the break, one leader approached the teacher, challenging him about Author: Lee Strobel & Mark the gospel and how Jesus died for the sins of Mittelberg the world. The facilitator spent some time talking with the leader, walking through his Publisher: Zondervan, 2018 concerns about the gospel, and eventually helped him to understand that by the blood of Jesus, people can repent, turn to Jesus, and Review by Luciana Y. Philyaw receive salvation. At the end of the scenario, Shorter University the man who challenged the teacher prayed to God, asking for forgiveness. The author of this book Lee Strobel, The “Moment of Truth” read: who is known as the award-winning editor of “In many ways, our message is simple: the Chicago Tribune, who focuses on God loves us; we blew it; Christ died providing daily words of encouragement to for us; we must receive Him. But don’t the readers. Strobel attended the University of let its simplicity make you think this Missouri and obtained a Bachelor of truth is not potent, because, as today’s Journalism degree. Later he received a Master verse says, it is the power of God that of Studies degree in law from Yale Law brings salvation to everyone who School. Strobel has written more than twenty believes. So share this message boldly, books and servers as a pastor of a church in and watch God use it” (p. 201). Texas. Strobel has won Gold Medallions for Overall this book was an easy read and The Case for Christ, The Case for Faith, The would be an excellent tool for new Christian Case or a Creator, and Inside the Mind of believers or a useful tool for seasoned Unchurched Harry and Marry. believers. There are reminders and examples The book gives a daily lesson based on throughout the book of the incredible love either a short scenario or general message as God has bestowed upon humanity. The book to how Christians should deal with life would be delightful for readers of all ages. challenges that arise. At the end of each The book will make as a gift to a friend, a gift message, the author gives what he calls a

51 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

to a loved one, or for personal use. The book Sviatoslavich, the . His aligned biblically and provoked thought for conversion was necessary for that to happen, study topics. and the effects of siding with the East over the West can be observed to this day. This has led historians to ask why Vladimir took that direction. The details we know of Vladimir’s

conversion are that he had prior exposure to Special Undergraduate Spotlight Christianity through his grandmother and his Essay advisors, personal interest and inquiry into other popular religions around him, and a The Conversion of Vladimir the political motive to achieve greatness his Great to Orthodox Christianity people had never seen before. The conversion of the Rus can actually

be traced to a century before Vladimir. Anthony Cantanzaro Russian and Byzantine sources referring to the History Undergraduate of the Rus go as far back as Shorter University between A.D. 860 and 867, but Russian

chroniclers after Vladimir’s rule had expunged

most recordings of the conversion as to not cause a decline in the famed ruler’s status as the first successful baptized ruler (Ericsson, 98). Later on, many Russian mercenaries would leave to serve as mercenaries for the , and because of these ties and their long-standing trade relationships, many mercenaries would convert to Christianity. Many would find themselves back in Rus with their new faith and establishing Churches (Spinka, 42-44). So Christianity would not have been completely alien to the Rus, and even Vladimir’s grandmother, Olga, would become enamored with Christianity. The true details behind her conversion are not clear due to a lack of

Image Credit: Pixabay verifiable information and conflictions between available sources (Ibid., 44-45). The events that led to the acceptance Russian legend has it that Olga traveled to of Christianity by the Russians is still Constantinople and was baptized by the somewhat shrouded in mystery that historians patriarch and sponsored by the emperor, have yet to fully solve. However, it is no Constantine VII (Butler, 232-33). She was the mystery that the conversion of the Rus was designated regent in Rus following the death instrumental to the development of Russian of her husband until her son Sviatoslav grew cultural identity. The distinction between old enough to assume the throne. Vladimir Russians and other Slavic ethnic groups began was educated by Olga in his youth after she in the late with Vladimir had left her role as regent. She had influence

52 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences over him and that caused Vladimir to develop converting, and it is reasonable to believe that a deep appreciation for his grandmother and Vladimir had an honest desire to have a her life (Spinka, 49). This would become a spiritual awakening. contributing factor later when his advisors There is, however, another reasonable bring up her history and wisdom during his and realistic reason that involves a religious search. Because Vladimir held Olga consideration of the powerful Christian in such high regard and he trusted in his neighbors that bordered Kievan Rus, advisors’ judgment, converting to Christianity particularly the Byzantine Empire. That power could appear to be a desirable option if could be consolidated for the people of Rus, presented. and Christianity was the conduit by which it Many writers have posited that could be reached. Vladimir had a sincere conviction to convert The empire was suffering a civil war to Christianity on his own merits (Ibid., 47- by an upstart by the name of Bardas Phocas, 50). This could correlate with the fact that he who had a significant amount of support sent subjects to foreign countries to observe within the empire. Basil II, the legitimate and examine their local religions. With regard emperor of the Byzantine Empire, was to Islam, customs like circumcision and beginning to run out of options and turned to abstinence of and alcohol did not Vladimir. Basil knew of Vladimir’s growing compliment the customs of Vladimir’s own interest in Christianity and came up with a culture, so he was quick to dismiss it. He proposal that Basil knew he would not be able would have had similar reservations with to resist. Basil wanted military assistance from Judaism, accompanied by a perception that it Vladimir, in exchange, he would be offered is a weak religion due to the destruction of the the hand of Basil’s beautiful sister Anna in Second Temple in Jerusalem. Christianity was marriage. In order for this to happen though, the next logical place to look. The schism Vladimir would have to convert to between the East and the West had yet to Christianity and lead his people to Christianity occur, but there were still distinct differences as well. Vladimir agreed and offered six between the two that Vladimir and his envoys thousand soldiers to serve the emperor, and were able to recognize. the emperor used his army to defeat Phocas One difference they could see was the and protect his claim to the throne. architecture. Eastern churches were adorned Afterward, Vladimir and the Kievans with beautiful and colorful iconography, while were baptized into the Orthodox Church. The Western churches were considered by the emperor was not expeditious in arranging the emissaries to be uninspiring and depressing to marriage between Vladimir and Anna, look at. The St. Sophia Cathedral in because the Rus were considered barbarians to Constantinople was especially moving to the the Byzantines. A Byzantine princess getting men and they told Vladimir the glorious married to a perceived barbarian would be temples to God the Eastern Christians built for otherwise unthinkable. Him (Moss, 18). But eventually, the underestimation of An investigation into the life of Olga the power of Vladimir would be a tremendous by Vladimir’s advisors would find its way to miscalculation by Basil. Vladimir angrily him. The advisors validated his love and assaulted empire and took the city of respect for Olga by saying to him that she was from them. Basil gave into pressure and sent a wise woman, and if it were an evil faith, she Anna to Cherson to wed Vladimir in order to would not have converted to it. These events cease the hostilities (Poppe, 197-98). This weighed heavily on his consideration of marriage was extremely important to

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Vladimir. He succeeded where Charlemagne extensive that after the fall of Constantinople and so many other European rulers failed. The in 1453, many Russians considered the city of relations gained by marrying into the line of Moscow to be “the Third Rome” (Moss, 96). Roman emperors were extremely beneficial The influence of Christianity and Byzantine towards increasing his influence and power ideology on Russian culture, society, and within the world. It would also begin to set a beliefs is practically undeniable. precedent amongst the Rus from then on out In conclusion, the ambition of with this new Byzantine influence and Eastern Vladimir the Great to become powerful was Orthodox Church influence (Ibid., 231). By dependent on him converting to Orthodox incorporating these elements into the Kievan Christianity, and his spread of Christianity Rus society, Russian identity would begin to began the process of developing a new start developing into a separate distinct culture Russian identity that would impact the history amongst Slavs. Vladimir had a lot of incentive of the world for centuries to come. to invest his time, money, and effort, into the Orthodox Church because the Empire was References able to build and sustain a multiethnic state under one emperor that was identified as Butler, Francis. "Ol'Ga's Conversion and the God’s earthly representative among the Construction of Chronicle church’s clergy. Perhaps if Vladimir were to Narrative." The Russian Review 67, no. join and marry into the royal family, he would 2 (2008): 230-42. be able to gain the advantages as well (Moss, www.jstor.org/stable/20620746. 18). These political advantages would have Ericsson, K. "The Earliest Conversion of the been envied and sought over any able-bodied Rus' to Christianity." The Slavonic and ruler in Europe, and Vladimir was able to East European Review 44, no. 102 capitalize on these events. (1966): 98-121. With the schism between the Western www.jstor.org/stable/4205715. and Eastern churches, it would appear to be a Moss, Walter. 2002. A history of . logical decision for the Russians to have sided London: Anthem. 18-21. with the Patriarch of Constantinople over the Poppe, Andrzej. "The Political Background to Bishop of Rome (Moss, 19), because the the Baptism of Rus': Byzantine- efforts of Vladimir and his successors went to Russian Relations between 986- in order to establish Russians as powerful 89." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 30 influencers in the Eastern church would not (1976): 195-244. have been wanted to go to waste. Not only doi:10.2307/1291395. was Rus powerful within the church, they Spinka, Matthew. "The Conversion of were also able to establish themselves as a Russia." The Journal of Religion 6, no. dominant political and military power to be 1 (1926): 41-57. reckoned within Europe. The distance from www.jstor.org/stable/1195545. the Papacy meant that they could not sufficiently threaten or influence Rus, and even if they did, the Pope in Rome had no way of ensuring the Russians that would retain the power and influence in the Western church that they had in the Eastern church. The influence of the Byzantine empire and the Christianization of Rus was so

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