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“Mary Madeline” redirects here. For the American the , the Orthodox equivalent of one of the political activist, see Mary Matalin. Western Three Marys traditions. This article is about a biblical figure. For other uses, see Mary Magdalene (disambiguation). 1 Identity: Marys in the New Tes- Mary Magdalene (original Greek Μαρία ἡ tament Μαγδαληνή),[2] or Mary of and sometimes The Magdalene, is a religious figure in . She is often thought of as the second-most important woman in the after Mary, the mother of .[3] Mary Magdalene traveled with Jesus as one of his followers. She was present at Jesus’ two most important moments: the crucifixion and the .[4] Within the four she is named at least 12 times,[5] more than most of the . Carol Ann Morrow views the references as describing her as courageous, brave enough to stand by Jesus in his hours of suffering, and beyond.[3] The says seven demons had gone out of her,[Lk. 8:2] and the longer ending of Mark says Jesus had cast seven demons out from her.[Mk. 16:9] The “seven demons” may refer to a complex illness, not to any form of sinfulness.[6] She is most prominent in the narrative of the crucifixion of Jesus, at which she was present, and of the events on the morning after the immediately fol- lowing sabbath,[4] when, according to all four canonical Gospels,[:1–8] [:9–10] [:10] [:18] she was either alone or as a member of a group of women the first to testify to the .[7] John 20 and Mark 16:9 specifically name her as the first person to see Jesus after his resurrection. Mary Magdalene was there at the “beginning of a move- ment that was going to transform the West”.[4] She was the “ to ”, an honorific that fourth- [8] Mary in fine clothes, from a German group of century orthodox theologian Augustine gave her and of that others earlier had possibly conferred on her. Ideas that go beyond the gospel presentation of Mary Mary was a very common name in New Testament times, Magdalene as a prominent representative of the women held by a number of women in the canonical Gospels. The who followed Jesus have been put forward over the cen- reception history of Mary Magdalene has been greatly turies. These include giving her a role similar to that of affected by different interpretations as to which biblical Simon Peter among the male disciples, believing that she references actually refer to her, beyond those where she had been a harlot, or that she was the secret lover or wife is identified by the toponym “Magdalene”. Historically, of Jesus and the mother of their child.[4][5][8] the Greek Orthodox Fathers, as a whole, distin- guished among what they believed were three Marys:[9] Mary Magdalene is considered to be a by the Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches — with a feast day of July 22. Other Protestant churches • The Mary, mother of Christ honor her as a heroine in the faith. The Eastern Ortho- • Mary of , the sister of and Lazarus dox churches also commemorate her on the Sunday of :38-42 and

1 2 2 THE “COMPOSITE MAGDALENE” OF THE

• Mary Magdalene

In addition, there were Mary, the mother of James and Mary . In the four Gospels, Mary Magdalene is nearly always distinguished from other women named Mary by adding “the Magdalene” (ἡ Μαγδαληνή) to her name.[2] This has been interpreted to mean “the woman from Magdala extquotedbl, a town on the western shore of the Sea of . :2 says that she was actually “called ,”Migdal means “tower מגדל Magdalene”. In Hebrew “fortress extquotedbl; in , “Magdala” means “tower” or “elevated, great, magnificent”.[10] Talmudic passages speak of a “hamegadela se’ar nasha”, “Miriam, the plaiter of women’s hair” (Hagigah 4b; cf. 104b), which could be a reference to Mary Mag- dalene serving as a hairdresser.[11] In the , Mary Magdalene is also referred to simply as “Mary” at least twice.[12] Gnostic writings use Mary, Mary Magdalene, or Magdalene. Mary Magdalene’s name is mostly given as Μαρία (Maria), but in Matthew 28:1 as Μαριάμ Penitent Magdalene, , typically shown half- [18] (Mariam),[13][14] both of which are regarded as Greek dressed The Walters Art Museum. forms of Miriam, the Hebrew name for ' sister. The name had become very popular during Jesus’ time of Bethany, the sister of Martha and Lazarus; this inter- due to its connections to the ruling Hasmonean and pretation is often called the “composite Magdalene” in [15] Herodian dynasties. modern scholarship. The seven devils removed from her by Jesus “morphed into the seven capital sins, and Mary Magdalene began to be condemned not only for lust but 2 The “composite Magdalene” of for pride and covetousness as well.”[3]

the Middle Ages She whom Luke calls the sinful woman, whom John calls Mary, we believe to be the It is almost universally agreed today that characteriza- Mary from whom seven devils were ejected ac- tions of Mary Magdalene in as a re- cording to Mark. And what did these seven pentant prostitute or loose woman are unfounded,[3][4][8] devils signify, if not all the vices? arising from conflating or merging her identity with the It is clear, brothers, that the woman pre- unnamed sinner who anoints Jesus’ feet in :36- viously used the unguent to perfume her flesh 50.[3] The figures of Mary Magdalene, the anointing sin- in forbidden acts. What she therefore dis- ner of Luke, and , who in John 11:1-2 played more scandalously, she was now offer- also anoints Jesus’ feet, were long regarded as the same ing to God in a more praiseworthy manner. She person. Though Mary Magdalene is named in each of had coveted with earthly eyes, but now through the four gospels in the New Testament, none of the clear penitence these are consumed with tears. She references to her indicate that she was a prostitute or no- displayed her hair to set off her face, but now table for a sinful way of life,[4][8] nor link her with Mary her hair dries her tears. She had spoken proud of Bethany. Modern scholarship has restored the under- things with her mouth, but in kissing ’s standing of Mary of Magdala as an important early Chris- feet, she now planted her mouth on the Re- tian leader.[16][17] deemer’s feet. For every delight, therefore, she The notion of Mary Magdalene being a repentant sinner had had in herself, she now immolated herself. can be traced at least as far back as Ephraim the Syr- She turned the of her crimes to virtues, ian in the fourth century,[19][20] and became the gener- in order to serve God entirely in . ally accepted view in Western Christianity because of its — Gregory the Great ( [22] acceptance in an influential homily of XXXIII) (“Gregory the Great”) in about 591,[21][22] in which he identified Magdalene not only with the anonymous sinner The aspect of the repentant sinner became almost equally with the perfume in Luke’s gospel, but also with Mary significant as the in her persona as depicted in 3

Western art and religious literature, fitting well with the ther of Mary of Bethany nor of the sinful woman of Luke great importance of penitence in medieval theology. In 7:36–50, but only of Mary Magdalene, the first person to subsequent religious legend, Mary’s story became con- whom Christ appeared after his resurrection”.[31] Mary of flated with that of St Mary of , another repen- Bethany’s feast day and that of her brother Lazarus is now tant prostitute who then lived as a hermit. With that, on 29 July, the of their sister Martha.[32][33] Mary’s image was, according to Susan Haskins, author Nevertheless, the reputation still lingers.[4] The misiden- of Mary Magdalene: and Metaphor, “finally set- [23] tification of St. Mary Magdalene as a repentant prostitute tled...for nearly fourteen hundred years,” although in was followed by many writers and artists into the 1990s. fact the most important late medieval popular accounts of Even today it is promulgated by some secular groups. It her life describe her as a rich woman whose life of sexual is reflected in 's film adaptation of Nikos freedom is purely for pleasure.[24] Kazantzakis's novel The Last , in José The “composite Magdalene” was never accepted by the Saramago's The Gospel According to Jesus Christ, Andrew Eastern Orthodox churches, who saw only Mary the dis- Lloyd Webber's musical , Mel Gib- ciple, and believed that after the Resurrection she lived son's The Passion of the Christ, Jean-Claude La Marre's as a companion to the Virgin Mary, and not even in Color of the and Hal Hartley's The Book of Life. the West was it universally accepted. The Benedictine It was because of this association of St. Mary Magdalene Order always celebrated Mary of Bethany together with having been a prostitute that she became the patroness Martha and on 29 July, while Mary [25] of “wayward women”, and Magdalene asylums became Magdalene was celebrated on 22 July. Not only John established to help save women from .[34] Chrysostom in the East (Matthew, Homily 88), but also (De virginitate 3,14; 4,15) in the West, when speaking of Mary Magdalene after the resurrection of Je- sus Christ, far from calling her a harlot, suggest she was a 3 New Testament sources virgin. In 1518, on the brink of the Protestant Reforma- tion, the leading French Renaissance humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples wrote arguing against the conflation of Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany and the unnamed sin- ner in Luke. There was a flurry of books and pamphlets, most opposing Lefèvre d'Étaples, but others supporting him. In 1521 his views were formally condemned by the theology faculty of the Sorbonne, and debate died down, overtaken by the larger issues raised by .[26] Although Protestant theologians and biblical commentators such as rejected the compos- ite Magdalene,[27] for Luther and Zwingli Mary Magda- lene is the composite Magdalene of medieval tradition,[28] belief in it long survived the in much Protes- tant devotional literature, where the emphasis of depic- The Magdalene washing the feet of Jesus, surrounded by tions of Mary Magdalene continued to be on the penitent grisailles of other scenes from the life of the “composite Mag- whose sins had been forgiven because of her love for Je- dalen”, Frans Francken II, 1637 sus. From the 12th century Abbot Hugh of Semur (died Primary sources about Mary Magdalene can be divided 1109), (died 1142), and Geoffrey of Ven- into canonical texts that are collected into the Christian dome (died 1132) all referred to Mary Magdalene as the New Testament and apocryphal texts that were left out sinner who merited the title apostolarum apostola (Apos- from the , being judged as heretical during the tle to the Apostles), with the title becoming commonplace development of the New Testament canon. These apoc- during the 12th and 13th centuries.[29] ryphal sources are usually dated from the end of the 1st to the early 4th century, all possibly written well after The common identification of Mary Magdalene with St. Mary’s death. (The canonical gospels are often dated other New Testament figures was rejected in the 1969 from the second half of the 1st century.)[35] In addition, revision of the , with the com- the Gregorian figure of the composite Magdalen devel- ment regarding her liturgical celebration on 22 July: “No oped an elaborate literary and artistic tradition in the change has been made in the title of today’s memorial, but Middle Ages. it concerns only Saint Mary Magdalene, to whom Christ appeared after his resurrection. It is not about the sister of Saint Martha, nor about the sinful woman whose sins the 3.1 During Jesus’ ministry Lord forgave (Luke 7:36–50).”[30] Elsewhere it said of the Roman of 22 July that “it will make mention nei- Luke 8:1-3 4 3 NEW TESTAMENT SOURCES

The four Gospels included in the New Testament have lit- 3.3 After the crucifixion tle to say about Mary Magdalene. With a single exception in the Gospel of Luke, there is no mention of her in the :61, Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:1 Gospels until the crucifixion.[36] In listing witnesses who saw where Jesus was buried by After this, Jesus traveled about from one of Aramathea, :47 and Matthew 27:61 town and village to another. The Twelve were both name only two people: Mary Magdalene and “the with him, and also some women who had been other Mary”, who in Mark is “the mother of James”. cured of evil spirits and diseases: Mary (called :55 describes the witnesses as “the women who Magdalene) from whom seven demons had had come with Jesus from Galilee”. :39-42 men- come out—and many others. These women tions no other witness to Joseph’s except were helping to support them out of their own for . Mark 16:1 says extquotedbl...Mary Mag- means. dalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bought — Luke 8:1-3 spices so that they might go to anoint Jesus’ body”. The connection with the earlier , and his Luke 8:2 and Mark 16:9 say Jesus cleansed her of “seven remarks then, was one of the arguments used in favour of demons extquotedbl. Some interpret this as meaning that the “composite Magdalen”. he healed her from mental or physical illnesses.[37] The statement in Mark is part of the “longer ending” of that Gospel, not found in the earliest manuscripts, and which 3.4 After the resurrection may have been a second-century addition to the original Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:9, Luke 24, John 20:1 text, possibly based on the Gospel of Luke.[38] In Mark, Matthew, and John, Mary Magdalene is first wit- ness to the resurrection. John 20:1 names Mary Magda- lene in describing who discovered the tomb was empty. Mark 16:9 says she was accompanied by Salome and Mary the mother of James, while Matthew 28:1 omits Sa- lome. Luke 24:10 says the group who reported to the dis- ciples the finding of the consisted of “Mary Magdalene, , Mary the mother of James, and the others with them”. In Luke 24 the resurrection is an- nounced to the women at the tomb by “two men in clothes that gleamed like lightning” who suddenly appeared next to them. The final chapter of Mark’s Gospel contains two narra- tives relating to Mary Magdalene: firstly[39] that along Detail of Mary kissing the feet of the crucified Jesus, Italian, early with Mary the mother of James and Salome, she was ad- 14th century vised by “a young man dressed in a white robe” that Jesus had risen, and given instructions to tell Jesus’ disciples — and Peter — that he was going before them into Galilee, 3.2 During the crucifixion but through fear they told no one; and secondly[40] that Jesus appeared “first” to Mary Magdalene (alone), who Main article: Women at the crucifixion then related his appearance to “those who had been with him”, but they did not believe her. The occurrence of these two accounts is one of the factors contributing to Matthew 27:56, Mark 15:40, John 19:25 the theory that Mark 16:9-20 is a later “Longer Ending” addition to the Gospel. It is at the time of the crucifixion and resurrection that Mary Magdalene comes to the fore in the gospels. John 20:16 and Mark 16:9 both say that Jesus’ first post- Uniquely among the followers of Jesus, she is specified resurrection appearance was to Mary Magdalene alone. by name (though not consistently by any one gospel) as a In Matthew 28:9, Mary Magdalene is with the other witness to three key events: Jesus’ crucifixion, his burial, women returning from the empty tomb when they all see and the discovery that his tomb was empty. Mark 15:40, the first appearance of Jesus. Matthew 27:56 and John 19:25 mention Mary Magda- The first actual appearance by Jesus that Luke mentions lene as a witness to crucifixion, along with various other is later that day, when and an unnamed disci- women. Luke does not name any witnesses, but mentions ple walked with a fellow traveler they later realized was “women who had followed him from Galilee extquotedbl Jesus. Mark 16 describes the same appearance as hap- standing at a distance.[Lk. 23:49] pening after the private appearance to Mary Magdalene. 5

ing her importance. The significance of this is further strengthened when one examines the lists of the named apostles. In Luke, the author writes that Jesus “took Pe- ter, John and James.” Ricci[42] writes that because Peter occupies the first position in the list, that place can be con- sidered the position of highest importance. As a result, it can be argued that Mary Magdalene must have held a very central position among the followers of Jesus, whether as disciple or in some other capacity. After her first report to the named apostles that Jesus was risen, Mary Magdalene disappears from the New Testa- ment. She is not mentioned by name in the , although she may be one of the women men- tioned in :14.[43] Her fate remains undocumented.

4 Development of the composite Magdalene

4.1 In art

Noli me tangere by , c. 1512.

The gospels of Mark and Luke record that the rest of the disciples did not believe Mary’s report of what she saw, and neither Mary Magdalene nor any of the other women are mentioned by name in Paul’s catalog of appearances at 1 Cor 15:1. Instead, Paul writes that Jesus “appeared to Peter, and then to the Twelve”. The Gospel of John[11:1-45] [12:1-8] and the Gospel of Luke[10:38-42] also mention extquotedblMary of Bethany extquotedbl, the sister of Lazarus and Martha. Mary and Martha are among the most familiar sets of sisters in . Both Luke and John describe them as friends of Je- sus. Luke’s story, though only four verses long, has been a complex source of inspiration, interpretation, and debate for centuries. John’s account, which says the sisters had a brother named Lazarus, spans seventy verses.[41] Among the women who are specifically named in the New Testament of the Bible, Mary Magdalene’s name is one of the most frequently found. In Matthew 27:56, the author names three women in sequence: “Mary Magda- lene, and Mary the mother of James and , and the mother of ’s children.” In the , the author lists a group of women three times, and each time, Mary Magdalene’s name appears first. Finally, in the Gospel of Luke, as already remarked, the author enu- merates the women who reported the tomb visit, writing that, “It was Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother Mary, in red, gestures at the cross, as the Virgin Mary swoons of James, and the other women with them,” which once and John looks after her, Italian, c. 1320 again places Mary Magdalene at the head of the list. According to Carla Ricci,[42] “The place she [Mary Mag- The early notion of Mary Magdalene as a sinner and adul- dalene] occupied in the list cannot be considered fortu- teress was reflected in Western medieval Christian art, itous,” because over and over Mary Magdalene’s name is where she was the most commonly depicted female fig- placed at the head of specifically named women, indicat- ure after the Virgin Mary. She may be shown either as 6 4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPOSITE MAGDALENE

very extravagantly and fashionably dressed, unlike other female figures wearing contemporary styles of clothes, or alternatively as completely naked but covered by very long blonde or reddish-blonde hair. The latter depictions represent the Penitent Magdalen, who according to me- dieval legend (details in next section) had spent a period of as a desert hermit after leaving her life as a follower of Jesus. Her story became conflated in the West with that of Saint , a 4th-century prostitute turned hermit, whose clothes wore out and fell off in the desert.[44] In medieval depictions Mary’s long hair entirely covers her body and preserves her modesty (supplemented in some German versions such as one by Tilman Riemenschneider by thick body hair), but from the 16th century some depictions, like those by Titian, show part of her naked body, the amount of nudity tend- ing to increase in successive periods. Even if covered, she often wears only a drape pulled around her, or an un- dergarment. In particular, Mary is often shown naked in the legendary scene of her “Elevation”, where she is sus- tained in the desert by who raise her up and feed her heavenly manna, as recounted in the (quoted below).[45] Mary Magdalene at the foot of the cross during the Cru- cifixion appears in an 11th-century English manuscript “as an expressional device rather than a historical mo- tif”, intended as “the expression of an emotional assim- ilation of the event, that leads the spectator to identify himself with the mourners”.[46] Other isolated depictions occur, but from the 13th century additions to the Virgin Mary and John as the spectators at the Crucifixion be- come more common, with Mary Magdalene as the most frequently found, either kneeling at the foot of the cross clutching the shaft, sometimes kissing Christ’s feet, or standing, usually at the left and behind Mary and John, with her arms stretched upwards towards Christ in a ges- ture of grief, as in a damaged painting by in the upper church at Assisi of c.1290. A kneeling Mag- dalene by in the (c. 1305) was especially influential.[47] As Gothic painted crucifixions became crowded compositions the Magdalene became a prominent figure, with a halo and identifiable by her long unbound blonde hair, and usually a bright red dress. As the swooning Virgin Mary became more common, gen- erally occupying the attention of John, the unrestrained gestures of Magdalene increasingly represented the main display of the grief of the spectators.[48]

Mary Magdalene is usually shown with long flowing hair, “Mary Magdalene” (1480), altarpiece in International Gothic which she wears down over her shoulders, and may use ei- style by ther to cover her nakedness in the desert, or to dry Jesus’s feet after washing them. The other women of the New Testament in these same depictions ordinarily have dark expected to keep their hair covered or at least bound up, hair beneath a scarf, following contemporary standards with exceptions for festive occasions, in particular brides of propriety by hiding their hair beneath headdresses or on their wedding day. kerchiefs. Long hair was only worn loose in public by ei- ther prostitutes or (by the end of the Middle Ages) noble- According to Robert Kiely, “No figure in the Christian women; working and middle-class women were normally Pantheon except Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and has inspired, provoked, or confounded the imag- 4.2 Medieval legends 7

ination of painters more than the Magdalene”.[49] Apart from the Crucifixion, Mary was often shown in scenes of the , when mentioned in the Gospels, such as the Crucifixion, Christ Carrying the Cross and , but usually omitted in other scenes showing the Twelve Apostles, such as the . As Mary of Bethany, she is shown as present at the Resurrection of Lazarus, her brother, and in the scene with Jesus and her sister Martha, which began to be depicted often in the 17th century, as in Christ in the House of Martha and Mary by Velázquez.[50]

4.2 Medieval legends

Mary Magdalene reading by Piero di Cosimo

she submitted her body to delight, and there- fore she lost her right name, and was called cus- tomably a sinner.[52]

International Gothic Elevation of Mary Magdalene with angels raising her

Between the time of Pope Gregory I (590-604 AD), un- til Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend and Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (Concerning Mary Magdalene) in 1519 AD, various versions of the Legend of Mary Magdalene circulated in the south of and Germany. wrote a version in the 900s AD that described Mary’s family as nobility,[51] and in the Golden Legend they are magnates of , lords of Bethany and owning much property in . Her sinning is en- tirely non-commercial:

...Magdalene abounded in riches, and be- The Magdalene by cause delight is fellow to riches and abundance of things; and for so much as she shone in Most of the later legends speak of a Mary who after beauty greatly, and in riches, so much the more the lived as a hermit in a cave for 8 5 NEW TESTAMENT AND

thirty years, communicating with angels.[53] Single “por- 5.1 trait” figures of the Magdalene typically depicted her as the “Penitent Magdalene” in this period of her life (see Main article: Gospel of Mary above). In the words of William Caxton's English trans- lation of the Golden Legend: In her introduction in The Complete Gospels, Karen King names the manuscripts available for the Gospel ...the blessed Mary Magdalene, desirous of of Mary. She writes that only three fragmentary sovereign contemplation, sought a right sharp manuscripts are known to have survived into the mod- desert, and took a place which was ordained by ern period, two 3rd-century fragments (P. Rylands 463 the of God, and abode there by the space and P. Oxyrhynchus 3525) published in 1938 and 1983, of thirty years without knowledge of anybody. and a longer 5th-century Coptic (Berolinensis In which place she had no comfort of running Gnosticus 8052,1) published in 1955.[56] water, ne solace of trees, ne of herbs. And that was because our did do show it First discovered in 1896, the Gospel of Mary exalts Mary openly, that he had ordained for her refection Magdalene over the male disciples of Jesus. The Gospel celestial, and no bodily meats. And every day of Mary provides important information about the role of at every hour canonical she was lifted up in the women in the early church,[56] although it is missing six air of angels, and heard the glorious song of the pages from the beginning, and four from the middle.[57] heavenly companies with her bodily ears. Of It is usually dated to about the same period as that of the which she was fed and filled with right sweet . meats, and then was brought again by the an- The identity of “Mary” appearing as the main character gels unto her proper place, in such wise as she in this Gospel is sometimes disputed, but she is gener- [54] had no need of corporal nourishing. ally believed to be Mary Magdalene. The Gospel of Mary presents her as one of the disciples, says she has seen a The elaborately detailed (and conflicting) legends that private vision from the resurrected Jesus[58] and describes brought Mary to Western Europe after Jesus’s life it to other disciples: on earth were very widely accepted in the Western church,[44] though not at all by Eastern Orthodoxy, which had her retiring with the Virgin Mary, and dying in Peter said to Mary, “Sister we know that . In the Golden Legend the “right sharp desert” the Savior loved you more than the rest of where Mary retires to repent is located near Aix-en- woman. Tell us the words of the Savior which in the South of France.[54] These legends are you remember which you know, but we do not, covered in the section below on the Roman Catholic tra- nor have we heard them”. Mary answered and dition. said, “What is hidden from you I will proclaim to you”. And she began to speak to them these words: “I”, she said, “I saw the Lord in a vision 5 and and I said to Him, Lord I saw you today in a vision”.[57] Gnostic texts Almost all of Mary’s vision is within the lost pages. Main article: New Testament Apocrypha When Mary had said these things, she fell In apocryphal texts, she is portrayed as a visionary and silent, since it was up to this point that the Sav- [59] leader of the early movement whom Jesus loved more ior had spoken to her. than he loved the other disciples.[55] Several Gnostic gospels, such as the Gospel of Mary, written in the early Mary is then confronted by Andrew and Peter, who do not 2nd century, see Mary as the special disciple of Jesus who take for granted what she says, because she is a woman: has a deeper understanding of his teachings and is asked to impart this to the other disciples. “Did he then speak secretly with a woman, Several Gnostic writings, usually dated to 2nd and 3rd in preference to us, and not openly? Are we to centuries, paint a drastically different picture of Mary turn back and all listen to her? Did he prefer Magdalene from that of the canonical Gospels. In Gnos- her to us? extquotedbl Then Mary grieved and tic writings Mary Magdalene is seen as one of the most said to Peter, “My brother Peter, what do you important of Jesus’ disciples whom he loved more than think? Do you think that I thought this up my- the others. The Gnostic Gospel of Philip names Mary self in my heart or that lying concerning [57] Magdalene as Jesus’ companion. Gnostic writings de- the Savior? extquotedbl scribe tensions and jealousy between Mary Magdalene and other disciples, especially Peter. Mary is defended by Levi: 5.3 9

“But if the Savior made her worthy, who Gospel of Philip. The text is badly fragmented, and spec- are you to reject her? Surely the Savior knew ulated but unreliable additions are shown in brackets: her very well. For this reason he loved her more than us”.[57] And the companion of the saviour was Mary Magdalene. Christ loved Mary more The repeated reference in the Gnostic texts of Mary as than all the disciples, and used to kiss her of- being loved by Jesus more than the others has been seen ten. The rest of the disciples were offended as supporting the theory that the Beloved Disciple in the by it and expressed disapproval. They said to canonical Gospel of John was originally Mary Magdalene, him, “Why do you love her more than all of before being later redacted in the Gospel. us? extquotedbl The Saviour answered and said to them, “Why do I not love you like her? extquotedbl[60] 5.2 Gospel of Philip

5.3 Gospel of Thomas

Main article: Gospel of Thomas

Gospel of Thomas, usually dated to the late 1st or early 2nd century, was also among the finds in the Nag Ham- madi library in 1945.[63] It has two short references to a “Mary”, generally regarded as Mary Magdalene. The latter of the two describes the sentiment towards female members of the early Gnostics:

Simon Peter said to them: Let Mary go forth from among us, for women are not wor- thy of the life. Jesus said: Behold, I shall lead her, that I may make her male, in order that she also may become a living spirit like you males. For every woman who makes herself male shall enter into of heaven.[63]

When the Gospel of Thomas was written, people com- monly assumed that men were superior to women, an at- titude consistent with the historical context.[64][64] Domenico Tintoretto, The Penitent Magdalene, c. 1598 The manuscript gives 114 “secret teachings” of Jesus. Main article: Gospel of Philip Mary is mentioned briefly in saying 21. Here, Mary asks Jesus, “Whom are your disciples like? extquotedbl Jesus responds, “They are like children who have settled in a Gospel of Philip, dating from the 2nd or 3rd century, sur- field which is not theirs. When the owners of the field vives in part among the texts found in Nag Hammadi in come, they will say, 'Let us have back our field.' They [60] 1945. In a manner very similar to John 19:25-26, the (will) undress in their presence in order to let them have Gospel of Philip presents Mary Magdalene among Je- back their field and to give it back to them”. Following sus’ female entourage, adding that she was his koinônos, this, Jesus continues his explanation with a parable about a Greek word variously translated in contemporary ver- the owner of a house and a thief, ending with the common [61] sions as partner, associate, comrade, companion. rhetoric, “Whoever has ears to hear let him hear”.

There were three who always walked with the Lord: Mary, his mother, and her sister, and 5.4 Magdalene, the one who was called his com- panion. His sister,[62] his mother and his com- Main article: Pistis Sophia panion were each a Mary.[60] Pistis Sophia, possibly dating as early as the 2nd cen- Others’ irritation from the love and affection presented tury, is the best surviving of the Gnostic writings.[65] Pistis by Jesus to Mary Magdalene is claimed in the apocryphal Sophia presents a long dialog with Jesus in the form of his 10 6 RELIGIOUS VIEWS

answers to questions from his disciples. Of the 64 ques- tions, 39 are presented by a woman who is referred to as Mary or Mary Magdalene. Jesus says of Mary:

“Mary, thou blessed one, whom I will per- fect in all mysteries of those of the height, dis- course in openness, thou, whose heart is raised to the kingdom of heaven more than all thy brethren”.[65]

There is also a short reference to a person named extquotedblMartha extquotedbl among the disciples, pos- sibly the same person who is named as the sister of Mary of Bethany.

5.5 In historical fiction

Edgar Saltus's historical fiction novel Mary Magdalene: A Chronicle (1891) depicts her as a heroine living in a cas- tle at Magdala, who moves to becoming the “toast of the tetrarchy”, telling John the Baptist she will “drink pearls... sup on peacock’s tongues”.[66][67] 's novel The Secret Magdalene (2005) draws on the Gnostic gospels and other sources to por- Eastern Orthodox of Mary Magdalene as a Myrrhbearer tray Mary as a brilliant and dynamic woman who studies at the fabled library at Alexandria, and shares her knowl- she died. Her were transferred to in edge with Jesus.[68] 886 and are preserved there.

6 Religious views 6.2 Roman Catholic traditions

6.1 Eastern Orthodox tradition 6.2.1 Connection with Gaul

The maintains that Mary Mag- , writing in Tours in the 6th century,[69] dalene, distinguished from Mary of Bethany and the “sin- supported the tradition of the eastern Church that she ful woman” who anoints Jesus in Luke,[Lk 7:36–50] had retired to Ephesus, with no mention of any connection been a virtuous woman all her life, even before her con- to Gaul. But for most of the Middle Ages the Western version. They have never celebrated her as a penitent. church believed that after her period as a disciple of Je- This view finds expression both in her written life (βίος sus Mary Magdalene had travelled to the south of France, or vita) and in the liturgical service in her honor that is and died there. included in the and performed on her annual How a cult of St. Mary Magdalene first arose in Provence feast-day. There is a tradition that Mary Magdalene led has been summed up by Victor Saxer[70] in the collection so chaste a life that the devil thought she might be the one of essays in La Magdaleine, VIIIe – XIIIe siècle[71] and by who was to bear Christ into the world, and for that reason Katherine Ludwig Jansen, drawing on popular devotions, he sent the seven demons to trouble her. sermon literature and iconology.[72] In Provence, Mary is Mary Magdalene is honored as one of the first wit- said to have spent her last years alone in the wilderness, nesses of the Resurrection of Jesus, and received a spe- fasting and engaging in acts of penitential self-discipline, cial commission from him to tell the Apostles of his behavior that was rewarded with experiences of ecstatic resurrection.[Jn 20:11–18] She is often depicted on union with the divine. Depictions of the Penitent Mag- bearing a vessel of ointment, not because of the anointing dalen became enormously popular in preaching and art by the “sinful woman”, but because she was among those (see above).[73] women who brought ointments to the . For The French tradition of Saint Lazarus of Bethany is this reason, she is called a Myrrhbearer. that Mary, her brother Lazarus, and Maximinus, one According to Eastern traditions, she retired to Ephesus of the and some companions, ex- with the (Mary, the Mother of God) and there pelled by persecutions from the , traversed the 6.2 Roman Catholic traditions 11

had been hidden.[77] Charles II commissioned the build- ing of a new Gothic on the site and, in return for providing accommodation for , the town’s residents were exempt from taxes.[78] Saint-Maximin-la- Sainte-Baume gradually displaced Vézelay in popularity and acceptance.[77] The competition between the Cluniac of Vézelay and the Dominicans of Saint-Maxime occa- sioned a rash of miraculous literature supporting the one or the other site. Jacobus de Voragine, compiling his Golden Legend before the competition arose, character- ized Mary Magdalene as the emblem of penitence, wash- ing the feet of Jesus with her copious tears following the “composite” figure, protectress of pilgrims to Jerusalem, daily lifting by angels at the meal hour in her fasting re- treat and many other miraculous happenings in the genre of Romance, ending with her death in the of Saint Maximin, all disingenuously claimed to have been drawn from the histories of Hegesippus and of Josephus. According to another legend, on the way they were ship- wrecked on the island of Malta, where Dingli, Rabat, Madliena (Maltese for Magdalene), and Valletta all have chapels or other dedications. Madliena in Gozo also had a chapel dedicated to St. Mary Magdalene, but this was Magdalen with the Smoking Flame, by demolished. (c.1640)

Mediterranean in a frail boat with neither rudder nor mast and landed at the place called Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer near . Mary Magdalene came to and con- verted the whole of Provence. Magdalene is said to have retired to a cave on a hill by Marseille, La Sainte-Baume (“holy cave” baumo in Provençal), where she gave her- self up to a life of penance for thirty years. When the time of her death arrived she was carried by angels to Aix and into the oratory of Maximinus, where she re- ceived the viaticum; her body was then laid in an oratory constructed by St. Maximinus at Villa Lata, afterwards called St. Maximin. St. Mary Magdalene’s relics were first venerated at the Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay in from about 1050.[74] Jacobus de Voragine gives the common account of the transfer of the relics of Mary Magdalene from her sepulchre in the oratory of Saint Maximin at Aix- en-Provence to the newly founded Vézelay;[75] the trans- Mary Magdalene attributed to Gregor Erhart (d. 1525) portation of the relics is entered as undertaken in 771 by the founder of the abbey, identified as Gerard, Duke [54] of Burgundy. The earliest mention of this episode is 6.2.2 Penitent the notice of the chronicler Sigebert of Gembloux (died 1112), who asserts that the relics were removed to Véze- During the Counter Reformation and periods lay through fear of the Saracens. (late 16th and 17th centuries), the cult of Mary Magda- On December 9, 1279, an excavation ordered by Charles lene saw a great, new popularity as the II, King of Naples at Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume, publicized her as an attractive, persuasive model of repen- Provence, led to the discovery of another purported burial tance and reform, in keeping with the goals of the reform of Mary Magdalene.[76] The was found intact, (1545–63). Numerous works of art and with an explanatory inscription stating why the relics theater featuring the tearful penitent Magdalene appeared 12 6 RELIGIOUS VIEWS in the 17th century.[79] As part of this new attention to the self to the (male) apostles and said to them: ... 'It is I who cult of the Magdalene, in 1600, her relics were placed in appeared to these women and I who wanted to send them a sarcophagus commissioned by Pope Clement VIII, the to you as apostles.' extquotedbl[84][85] head being placed in a separate . The relics and Use of the actual term “apostle to the apostles” or “apos- free-standing images were scattered and destroyed at the tle of the apostles” is first attested much later than the Revolution. In 1814, the church of La Sainte-Baume, time of Hippolytus. According to Darrell Bock, it first also wrecked during the Revolution, was restored. In appears in the 10th century,[85] but Katherine Ludwig 1822, the grotto was consecrated afresh. The head of the Jansen says she found no reference to it earlier than the saint now lies there and has been the centre of many pil- 12th, by which time it was already commonplace.[86] She grimages. mentions in particular (1024–1109), Peter The traditional Roman Catholic feast day dedicated to Abelard (1079–1142), and (1090– St. Mary Magdalene celebrated her position as a “pen- 1153) among those who gave Mary Magdalene the title of itent”. The Magdalene became a symbol of repentance apostolorum apostola (apostle of the apostles). Jane Sch- for the vanities of the world to various sects. In 1969, aberg adds Geoffrey of Vendôme (c. 1065/70–1132).[87] the Catholic Church removed the description “penitent” In fact, the equivalent of the phrase apostolorum apostola from the title of the July 22 feast of Saint Mary Mag- appears already in the 9th century. Chapter XXVII of the dalene in the General Roman Calendar,[80] and replaced [81] Life of Mary Magdalene written by (c. Luke 7:36-50 (the penitent woman) of the Tridentine 780 – 4 February 856) is headed: Ubi Magdalenam Chris- Mass with John 20:1-2, 11-8 (meeting of Mary Mag- tus ad apostolos mittit apostolam (Wherein Christ sends dalene with Jesus after his resurrection) as the Gospel [88] [82][83] Magdalene as an apostle to the apostles). The same reading at Mass. St. Mary Magdalene was the pa- chapter she did not delay in exercising the office of apos- tron of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Magdalene Col- tolate with which he had been honoured (apostolatus of- lege, Cambridge (both colleges pronounce her name as ficio quo honorata fuerat fungi non distulit).[89] Raymond “maudlin”). In contrast, her name was also used for the E. Brown, commenting on this fact, remarks that Rabanus Magdalen Asylum, institutions for “fallen women”. Maurus frequently applies the word “apostle”[90] to Mary Magdalene in this work.[91] 6.2.3 Apostle to the apostles Because of Mary Magdalene’s position as an apostle, though not one of those who became official witnesses to the resurrection, the Catholic Church honoured her by reciting the Creed on her feast day, the only woman to be so honoured apart from Mary, the mother of Jesus.[92] In his apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem (“On the dignity and vocation of women”, part 67-69) dated 15 August 1988, Pope John Paul II dealt with the events in relation to the women being present at the tomb after the Resurrection, in a section entitled 'First Witnesses of the Resurrection':

The women are the first at the tomb. They are the first to find it empty. They are the first to hear 'He is not here. He has risen, as he said.'[Mt 28:6] They are the first to embrace his feet.[cf. Mt 28:9] The women are also the first to be called to announce this truth to the at the Tomb by , with Mary Apostles.[Mt 28:1-10] [Lk 24:8-11] The Gospel of Magdalene in red John (cf. also Mk 16:9 emphasizes the special role of Mary Magdalene. She is the first to Mary Magdalene, who according to John 20:17–18 and meet the Risen Christ. [...] Hence she came Mark 16:9-11 was commissioned by the risen Jesus to in- to be called “the apostle of the Apostles”. form the disciples of his resurrection, is called “the apos- Mary Magdalene was the first eyewitness of tle to the apostles”. the Risen Christ, and for this reason she was Matthew 28:1-8 and Luke 24:10 speak of women (in also the first to bear witness to him before the the plural), including Mary Magdalene, carrying out this Apostles. This event, in a sense, crowns all function. An early Christian commentary on the Song that has been said previously about Christ of Songs, perhaps by (170–235), entrusting divine truths to women as well as has Christ speak of two women, whom it calls Mary and men. Martha, as apostles to the apostles: “Christ showed him- —John Paul II[93] 6.4 tradition 13

to pray for them.[99] The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America honors Mary Magdalene on July 22 as a Lesser .[100] 6.3 Protestant tradition

6.4 Easter Egg tradition

For centuries, it has been the custom of many Christians to share dyed and painted eggs, particularly on Easter Sunday. The eggs represent new life, and Christ bursting forth from the tomb. Among Eastern Orthodox Chris- tians this sharing is accompanied by the proclamation “Christ is risen! extquotedbl One tradition concerning Mary Magdalene says that, fol- lowing the death and resurrection of Jesus, she used her position to gain an invitation to a banquet given by the . When she met him, she held a plain egg in her hand and exclaimed, “Christ is risen! extquotedbl The Emperor laughed, and said that Christ rising from the dead was as likely as the egg in her hand turning red while she held it. Before he finished speaking, the egg in her hand turned a bright red, and she continued proclaiming the Gospel to the entire imperial house.[101] Another version of this story can be found in popular be- lief, mostly in Greece. It is believed that after the Cruci- fixion, Mary Magdalene and the Virgin Mary put a basket full of eggs at the foot of the cross. There, the eggs were painted red by the blood of the Christ. Then, Mary Mag- dalene brought them to Tiberius Caesar. Icon of St. Mary Magdalene depicted as one of the Myrrhbearers with the words Christ is Risen in Greek at the top, depicting her discovery of the empty tomb 6.5 Bahá'í tradition

The 1549 had on July 22 a feast There are many references to Mary Magdalene in the of Saint Mary Magdalene, with the same Scripture read- sacred writings of the Bahá'í Faith, where she enjoys ings as in the and with a newly composed an exalted status as a heroine of faith and the “archety- : “Merciful father geue us grace, that we neuer pre- pal woman of all cycles”.[102] `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of sume to synne through the example of anye creature, but the founder of the religion, said that she was “the chan- if it shall chaunce vs at any tyme to offende thy dyuine nel of confirmation” to Jesus’ disciples, a “heroine” who maiestie: that then we maye truly repent, and lament the “re-established the faith of the apostles” and was “a same, after the example of Mary Magdalene, and by lyue- light of nearness in his kingdom”.[103] `Abdu'l-Bahá also lye faythe obtayne remission of all oure sinnes: throughe wrote that “her reality is ever shining from the hori- the onely merites of thy sonne oure sauiour Christ.” The zon of Christ”, “her face is shining and beaming forth 1552 edition omitted the feast of Saint Mary Magdalene, on the horizon of the universe forevermore” and that which was restored to the Book of Common Prayer only [94] “her candle is, in the assemblage of the world, lighted after some 400 years. till eternity”.[104] `Abdu'l-Bahá considered her to be the Among the leaders of the Protestant Reformation, for supreme example of how women are completely equal Luther and Zwingli, Mary Magdalene is the compos- with men in the sight of God and can at times even exceed ite Magdalene of medieval tradition, but Calvin distin- men in holiness and greatness.[105] Indeed he claimed guishes between her, Mary of Bethany, and the sinful that she surpassed all the men of her time,[106] and that woman.[95] “crowns studded with the brilliant jewels of guidance” [107] Modern Protestants honor her as a disciple and friend of were upon her head. Jesus.[96] Anglican Christians revere her as a saint and The Bahá'í writings also expand upon the scarce refer- may follow her example of repentance;[97] While some ences to her life in the canonical Gospels, with a wide ar- interpret the Thirty-Nine Articles as forbidding them to ray of extra-canonical stories about her and sayings which call upon her for intercession,[98] other Anglicans, citing are not recorded in any other extant historical sources. the Episcopal burial service, say they can ask the saint `Abdu'l-Bahá claimed that Mary traveled to Rome and 14 7 SPECULATIONS

spoke before the Emperor Tiberius, which is presumably different times in history, Mary Magdalene has been con- why Pilate was later recalled to Rome for his cruel treat- fused or misidentified with almost every woman in the ment of the (a tradition also attested to in the East- four Gospels, except the mother of Jesus. ern Orthodox Church).[108] According to the memoirs of Juliet Thompson, `Abdu'l-Bahá also compared Mary to Juliet, one of his most devoted followers, claiming that 7.2 “Beloved Disciple” in the Gospel of she even physically resembled her and that Mary Magda- John lene was Juliet Thompson’s “correspondence in heaven”. Bahá'ís have noted parallels between Mary Magdalene Main article: Beloved Disciple and the Babí heroine-poetess Tahirih. The two are sim- ilar in many respects, with Mary Magdalene often be- A group of scholars, the most familiar of whom is ing viewed as a Christian antecedent of the latter, while Elaine Pagels, have suggested that Mary Magdalene was Tahirih in her own right could be described as the spiritual a leader of the early Church. These scholars have return of the Magdalene; especially given their common, even suggested that Mary might even be the unidenti- shared attributes of “knowledge, steadfastness, courage, fied extquotedblBeloved Disciple extquotedbl to whom virtue and will power”, in addition to their importance the Gospel of John is ascribed.[10] within the religious movements of Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith as female leaders.[109] Raymond E. Brown suggests that to make this claim and maintain consistency with scriptures, Mary’s sep- arate existence in the two common scenes with the Beloved Disciple[Jn 19:25-27] [20:1-11] were modifications 7 Speculations hastily added later to give validity to the gospel in the late 2nd century. Both scenarios contain internal incon- sistencies, possibly stemming from rough editing to make Mary Magdalene and the Beloved Disciple appear as dif- ferent persons.[110] In his later work, The Death of the ,[111] Brown makes no mention of this idea and consistently speaks of the Beloved Disciple as male.[112]

7.3 Conflation with Mary of Bethany

Main article: Mary of Bethany

In the Western “composite” tradition, Mary of Bethany was identified with Mary Magdalene.[113] In the Eastern Orthodox traditions, they always were considered sepa- rate persons.[114] Mary of Bethany is referred to simply as “Mary” both in Luke 10:38-42 and the Gospel of John. Jesus seems to know her family well[Jn 11:3] and is described as visit- ing them several times.[Jn 11:17] [12:1] In :3-8, Mary anoints Jesus with expensive perfume and wipes his feet with her hair, at which Jesus says that it was intended that “she should save this perfume for the day of my burial”.[115] Following this, Mary of Bethany disappears from the narrative, while Mary Magdalene, already de- extquotedblBeloved Disciple extquotedbl in the Gospel of John, scribed not as receiving Jesus on his visits to Bethany in Mary Magdalene; by ca. 1580 , but as travelling about in Galilee with Jesus and the Twelve and with many other women, two of whom are named,[Luke 8:2–4] emerges at Jesus’ crucifixion, find- 7.1 Name ing later his tomb empty and being the first to see him after the Resurrection. In the Gospels, Mary Magdalene The name Mary occurs numerous times in the New Tes- is referred to simply as “Mary” only in John 20:11 and tament. There are several people named Mary in the 20:16. Gospels. There also are several unnamed women who The Gnostic texts commonly refer to Mary Magdalene as seem to share characteristics with Mary Magdalene. At Mary.[116] 8.2 Medieval dualism 15

7.4 Betrothed to Jesus. (...) Nor is it true that the marriage of Mary and Jesus is repeatedly discussed in the Gospels that didn't The monk and historian (c. 1270- make it into the New Testament. In fact, it is never dis- 1342), citing , suggested that Mary Magdalene cussed at all—never even mentioned, not even once. (...) was betrothed to St John the Evangelist: “I like to think It is not true that the Gospel of Philip calls Mary Jesus’ that the Magdalene was the spouse of John, not affirm- spouse”.[122] ing it... I am glad and blythe that St Jerome should say [117] The extquotedblGospel of Jesus’ Wife extquotedbl, a so”. They were sometimes thought to be the cou- Coptic papyrus fragment unveiled in 2012, presents Je- ple at the Wedding at , though the Gospel accounts sus as speaking of his wife: “My wife ... she will be say nothing of the ceremony being abandoned. The able to be my disciple.” If genuine, it appears to date Dominican friar Jacobus de Voragine (c. 1230–1298) in to around the 6th to 9th centuries AD, and would sug- his Golden Legend dismisses talk of John and Mary being gest that some Christians of that period believed betrothed and that John had left his bride at the altar to [54] that Jesus was married. Although it does not contain the follow Jesus. name of Mary Magdalene, there has been speculation that In 1449 King René d' gave to she is the woman referred to.[123] However, there is sub- the amphora from Cana in which Jesus changed water to stantial scholarly concern about the fragment’s authentic- wine, acquiring it from the nuns of , who told ity, with a number of scholars regarding it as a modern him that Mary Magdalene had brought it with her from forgery.[124][125][126] Judea, relating to the legend where she was the jilted bride at the wedding following John the Evangelist received his calling from Jesus.[118] 8.2 Medieval dualism

8 Relationship with Jesus

See also:

8.1 Gnostic texts

The Gospel of Philip describes Mary’s relation to Jesus by Coptic variants of the Greek κοινωνός (koinōnos). That work uses cognates of koinōnos and Coptic equiv- alents to refer to the literal pairing of men and women in marriage and sexual intercourse, but also metaphorically, referring to a spiritual partnership, and the reunification of the Gnostic Christian with the divine realm.[119] Mary Magdalene is mentioned as one of three Marys “who al- ways walked with the Lord” and as his companion (Philip 13th century Romanesque capital showing Jesus and Mary Mag- 59.6-11). The work also says that the Lord loved her dalene (Noli me tangere) more than all the disciples, and used to kiss her often (63.34-36).[55] Author John Dickson argues that it was The 13th-century Cistercian monk and chronicler Peter common in early Christianity to kiss a fellow believer by of Vaux de Cernay claimed it was part of Catharist belief way of greeting,[1 Pet. 5:14] thus such kissing would have no that the earthly Jesus Christ had a relationship with Mary romantic connotations.[120] Kripal writes that “the histor- Magdalene, described as his concubine. Quote: “Further, ical sources are simply too contradictory and simultane- in their secret meetings they said that the Christ who was ously too silent” to make absolute declarations regarding born in the earthly and visible and crucified Jesus’ sexuality.[121] Bart Ehrman concludes that histori- at Jerusalem was 'evil', and that Mary Magdalene was his cal evidence tells us nothing at all about Jesus’ sexuality— concubine – and that she was the woman taken in adultery extquotedblcertainly nothing to indicate that Jesus and who is referred to in the Scriptures; the 'good' Christ, they Mary had a sexual relationship of any kind”. Ehrman said, neither ate nor drank nor assumed the true flesh and (a scholar of the Greek New Testament and Early Chris- was never in this world, except spiritually in the body of tianity) says that the question people ask him most often Paul. I have used the term 'the earthly and visible Beth- is whether Mary Magdalene and Jesus of mar- lehem' because the heretics believed there is a different ried each other. His answer: “It is not true that the Dead and invisible earth in which – according to some of them Sea Scrolls contained Gospels that discussed Mary and – the 'good' Christ was born and crucified”.[127] 16 11 REFERENCES

A document, possibly written by Ermengaud of Béziers, [5] “Lyons, Eric. “The Real Mary Magdalene”. Apologetics undated and anonymous and attached to his Treatise Press”. Apologeticspress.org. Retrieved 2013-05-07. against Heretics,[128] makes a similar statement.[129] [6] “Saint Mary Magdalene”. In Encyclopædia Britannica. 2011. Also they [the Cathars] teach in their secret meetings that Mary Magdalene was the wife [7] Thompson, Mary R. Mary of Magdala, Apostle and of Christ. She was the Samaritan woman to Leader. New York: Paulist Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8091- whom He said, “Call thy husband”. She was 3573-6 the woman taken into adultery, whom Christ [8] Doyle, Ken. “Apostle to the apostles: The story of Mary set free lest the Jews stone her, and she was with Magdalene”. Catholictimes, 11 September 2011 Ac- Him in three places, in the temple, at the well, cessed 13 March 2013 and in the garden. After the Resurrection, He appeared first to her.[130] [9] Catholic Encyclopedia Online St Mary Magdalene. Ac- cessed 12 Jan 2013

[10] See Marvin Meyer, with Esther A. de Boer, The Gospels 9 Gallery of Mary: The Secret Traditions of Mary Magdalene the Companion of Jesus (Harper San Francisco) 2004;Esther • Richard Earlom, Mary Magdalene Washing Christ’s de Boer provides an overview of the source texts ex- cerpted in an essay extquotedblShould we all turn and lis- Feet, 1777. Mezzotint on laid paper. Brooklyn Mu- ten to her?': Mary Magdalene in the spotlight”. pp.74-96. seum • [11] “New Testament names - some Jewish notes”. Oz- Mary Magdalene by Juan Bautista Maino .com. Retrieved 2013-05-07. • Mary Magdalene by [12] John 20:11 and John 20:16. • Mary Magdalene by José de Ribera [13] “Maria or Mariam”. Bible Hub. Retrieved 2014-08-06.

• Noli me tangere fresco by [14] “SBL Greek New Testament (SBLGNT) extquotedbl. Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 2014-08-06.

[15] Mariam, The Magdalen, and The Mother, Deirdre Good, 10 See also editor, Indiana University Press,Bloomington, IN 47404- 3797. Pages 9-10. • Magdalene asylum [16] “Schenk, Christine CSJ. “Mary of Magdala—Apostle to • New Testament people named Mary the Apostles extquotedbl extquotedbl. Futurechurch.org. Retrieved 2013-05-07. • Saint [17] Hufstader, Anselm, “Lefèvre d'Étaples and the Mag- • Sainte-Baume dalen”, p. 32, Studies in the Renaissance, Vol. 16, (1969), pp. 31-60, JSTOR • St. Mary Magdalene’s flood [18] “The Penitent Magdalene”. The Walters Art Museum.

[19] “Richard J. Hooper, ''The Crucifixion of Mary Mag- 11 References dalene'' (Sanctuary Publications 2008 ISBN 978-0- 97469954-7), p. 81”. Books.google.com. Retrieved [1] “Saint Mary Magdalen”. New Catholic Dictionary. 1910. 2014-08-06. Retrieved 2007-02-28. [20] “Marcella Althaus-Reid, ''Liberation Theology and Sex- [2] Μαρία η Μαγδαληνή in Matt 27:56; 27:61; 28:1; uality'' (Hymns Ancient and Modern 2009 ISBN 978- Mark 15:40; 15:47; 16:1; 16:9 replaces extquotedblη ex- 0-33404185-6), p. 86”. Books.google.com. Retrieved tquotedbl with extquotedblτη extquotedbl because of the 2014-08-06. case change). Luke 8:1 says extquotedblΜαρία ... η Μαγδαληνή extquotedbl and 24:10 says extquotedblη [21] “Richard J. Hooper, ''The Crucifixion of Mary Mag- Μαγδαληνή Μαρία extquotedbl. John 19:25, 20:1 and dalene'' (Sanctuary Publications 2008 ISBN 978-0- 20:18 all say extquotedblΜαρία η Μαγδαληνή extquot- 97469954-7), p. 81”. Books.google.com. Retrieved edbl. 2014-08-06.

[3] Morrow, Carol Ann. “St. Mary Magdalene: Redeeming [22] “Who Was Mary Magdalene? extquotedbl. Smithsonian- Her Gospel Reputation”. Liguori Publications mag.com. Retrieved 2013-05-07.

[4] “Mary Magdalene, the clichés”. BBC, Religions, 2011- [23] Haskins, Susan. Mary Magdalene: Myth and Metaphor. 07-20. Konecky (1993) ISBN 978-1568524962 17

[24] Johnston, 64; the accounts are the Life in the Golden Leg- [49] Robert Kiely, “Picturing the Magdalene: how artists end, French Passion Plays, and her main subject, the Vie imagine the apostle to the apostles”. de La Magdaleine by François Demoulins de Rochefort, written 1516-17 (see p. 11) [50] Schiller, Gertud, of Christian Art, Vol. I, pp. 158-159, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund [25] “SS Mary, Martha and Lazarus”. Ibenedictines.org. Re- Humphries, , ISBN 0853312702 trieved 2014-08-06. [51] Ingrid Maisch, Th.D. (1998). Mary Magdalene: The [26] Hufstader, 32-40, and throughout the rest of the article Image of a Woman Through the Centuries. Liturgical Press. pp. 49–. ISBN 978-0-8146-2471-5. Retrieved [27] Haskins, 250 15 November 2012.

[28] Henderson (2004), pp. 8-14 [52] Golden Legend: “Mary Magdalene had her surname of Magdalo, a castle, and was born of right noble lineage [29] Jane Schaberg, The Resurrection of Mary Magdalene: and parents, which were descended of the lineage of Legends, Apocrypha and The Christian Testament, page kings. And her father was named Cyrus, and her mother 88 (New York: The Continuum International Publishing Eucharis. She with her brother Lazarus, and her sister Group, Inc., 2002). ISBN 0-8264-1645-4 Martha, possessed the castle of Magdalo, which is two [30] Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, miles from Nazareth, and Bethany, the castle which is nigh 1969), p. 131 to Jerusalem, and also a great part of Jerusalem, which, all these things they departed among them. In such wise [31] Calendarium Romanum (1969), p. 98 that Mary had the castle Magdalo, whereof she had her name Magdalene. And Lazarus had the part of the city [32] Martyrologium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, of Jerusalem, and Martha had to her part Bethany. And 2001, ISBN 978-88-209-7210-3), p. 398 when Mary gave herself to all delights of the body, and Lazarus entended all to knighthood, Martha, which was [33] Filteau, Jerry “Scholars seek to correct Christian tradi- wise, governed nobly her brother’s part and also her sis- tion on Mary Magdalene,” Catholic News Service May 1, ter’s, and also her own, and administered to knights, and 2006. her servants, and to poor men, such necessities as they [34] John Trigilio, Jr., Kenneth Brighenti, For Dummies, needed. Nevertheless, after the ascension of our Lord, pages 52-53 (Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2010). ISBN 978-0- they sold all these things, and brought the value thereof, 470-53358-1 and laid it at the feet of the apostles. Then when Magda- lene abounded in riches, and because delight is fellow to [35] Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in riches and abundance of things; and for so much as she Earliest Christianity. 260. shone in beauty greatly, and in riches, so much the more she submitted her body to delight, and therefore she lost [36] Bart D. Ehrman, Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The her right name, and was called customably a sinner.” Followers of Jesus In History and Legend (Oxford Univer- sity Press, 2006). ISBN 0-19-530013-0 [53] Thomas F. Head (2001). Medieval Hagiography: An An- thology. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 659–. ISBN 978- [37] Jackson, Wayne. “Demons: Ancient Superstition or His- 0-415-93753-5. Retrieved 16 November 2012. torical Reality? extquotedbl Apologetics Press: Reason & Revelation. April 1998 - 18[4]:25-31. Web. 26 March [54] Golden Legend 2010. [55] King, Karen L. “Women In Ancient Christianity: The [38] May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford New Discoveries”. Frontline: The First Christians. Web: Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. 2 November 2009.

[39] Mark 16:1-8 [56] “Gospel of Mary”. Earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 2013-05-07. [40] Mark 16:9-11 [57] De Boer, Esther A., The Gospel of Mary Listening to the [41] “Mary & Martha: Friends of Jesus”. Beloved Disciple. London: Continuum, 2006 (2005).

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[99] Ian S. Markham, Liturgical Life Principles (Church Pub- [120] The Christ Files: How Historians Know What They Know lishing 2009 ISBN 978-0-81922324-1) About Jesus, John Dickson, p. 95 (Sydney South: Blue Bottle Books, 2006). ISBN 1-921137-54-1 [100] Evangelical Lutheran , Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, 2006, p. 57 [121] Jeffrey John Kripal, The Serpent’s Gift: Gnostic Reflections on the Study of Religion, p. 52 (Chicago: The University [101] Abernethy and Beaty, The Folklore of Texan Cultures, of Chicago Press, 2007). ISBN 0-226-45380-4 ISBN 0- Denton University of North Texas Press, 2000, p. 261. 226-45381-2

[102] Juliet Thompson, I, Mary Magdalene, Foreword [122] B. D. Ehrman, Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. New York: Ox- [103] `Abdu'l-Bahá, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. ford, 2006. p. 248. 420 [123] Sam Masters (2014-04-11). “Jesus had a wife, say sci- [104] `Abdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'í World Faith - `Abdu'l-Bahá Section, entists, as ancient papyrus scroll verified - Americas - p. 385 World”. The Independent. Retrieved 2014-08-06.

[105] `Abdu'l-Bahá in London, p. 105 [124] Andrew Brown. “Gospel of Jesus’s Wife is fake, claims expert | World news”. theguardian.com. Retrieved 2014- [106] `Abdu'l-Bahá, Divine Philosophy, p. 50 08-06.

[107] `Abdu'l-Bahá, Tablets of the Divine Plan, pp. 39-40 [125] http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/05/us/ fresh-doubts-raised-about-papyrus-scrap-known-as-gospel-of-jesuss-wife. [108] `Abdu'l-Bahá, Tablets of `Abdu'l-Bahá Vol.2, p. 467 html [109] Mazal, Peter (2003-10-21). “Selected Topics of Com- [126] “NT Blog: More evidence of forgery in the Jesus’ Wife parison in Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith”. bahai- Sister Fragment”. Ntweblog.blogspot.com.au. 2014-05- library.org. Retrieved 2006-06-25. 01. Retrieved 2014-08-06. [110] Brown, Raymond E. 1970. “The Gospel According to [127] W.A. Sibly, M.D. Sibly, The History of the Albigensian John (xiii-xxi) extquotedbl. New York: Doubleday & Co. Crusade: Peter of les Vaux-de-Cernay’s “Historia Albigen- Pages 922, 955. sis” (Boydell, 1998). ISBN 0-85115-658-4 extquotedbl. [111] Doubleday 1991 ISBN 978-0-38519396-2; Geoffrey [128] Christian Churches of God. “The Treatise of Ermen- Chapman 1994 ISBN 0-225-66748-7 gaudus (No. B8) extquotedbl. Ccg.org. Retrieved 2012- 08-13. [112] The mentions of the Beloved Disciple in the work are listed in the Index of Subjects, p. 1557) [129] Anne Bradford Townsend, The Cathars of Languedoc as heretics: From the Perspectives of Five Contemporary [113] St. Mary Magdalen, New Advent. Scholars, page 147 (UMI Microform, ProQuest, 2008). [114] Pope, H. (1910). St. Mary Magdalen, in The Catholic PhD Dissertation Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. [130] Walter L. Wakefield, Austin P. Evans, Heresies of the High [115] The evangelist knew that there would not have been Middle Ages: Translated with Notes, page 234 (New York: enough time to anoint the body of Jesus after his death Columbia University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-231-02743-5. for burial (The Anointing at Bethany). Note also that it The authors speculate on page 230 that this could have is to anoint the body that in Mark 16:1 Mary Magdalene, been the source used by Peter of Vaux de Cernay. among with other women, goes to Jesus’ tomb. Sources [116] “The Gospel According to Mary Magdalene”. Gnostic Scriptures and Fragments; The Gnostic Society of Amer- ica. • “Life of Mary Magdalen”, William Caxton's English version of the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Vor- [117] Katherine Ludwig Jansen, The Making of The Magdalen: agine Preaching and Popular Devotion In The Later Middle Ages, page 151, footnote 20 (Princeton University Press, • Johnston, Barbara, “Sacred Kingship and Royal Pa- 2000). ISBN 0-691-08987-6. Citing Cavalca, Vita, 329; tronage in the La Vie de la Magdalene: - Life, 2-3. age, Politics, Passion Plays, and the Life of Louise [118] Katherine Ludwig Jansen, citing Jacques Levron, Le bon of Savoy” (Florida State), R. Neuman, Dissertation, roi René (Paris: Arthaud, 1972). PDF, 88-93 • [119] Marjanen, Antti (1996). The Woman Jesus Loved: Mary Witcombe, Christopher L. C. E., The Chapel of the Magdalene in the and Related Doc- Courtesan and the Quarrel of the Magdalens, The Art uments. Leiden: Brill. pp. 151–60 et passim. ISBN Bulletin, Vol. 84, No. 2 (Jun., 2002), pp. 273–292, 9004106588. JSTOR 20 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

12 Further reading 13 External links

• Acocella, Joan. “The Saintly Sinner: The Two- • La Sainte Baume (France) : where she spent the last Thousand-Year Obsession with Mary Magdalene”. 30 years of her life The New Yorker, February 13 & 20, 2006, p. 140– • 49. Prompted by controversy surrounding Dan St. Mary Magdalene (pdf) from Fr. Alban Butler's Brown’s The Da Vinci Code. Lives of the Saints

• Brock, Ann Graham. Mary Magdalene, The First • “Saint Mary Magdalene”. Encyclopædia Britannica Apostle: The Struggle for Authority. Cambridge, Online. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-674-00966-5. Discusses issues of apostolic • The Life of St. Mary Magdalene: Saint of the Chris- authority in the gospels and the the tian Church competition between Peter and Mary, especially in • St Mary Magdalene, Catholic Encyclopaedia 1911 chapter 7, “The Replacement of Mary Magdalene: A Strategy for Eliminating the Competition”. • Convent of Saint Mary Magdalene • Burstein, Dan, and Arne J. De Keijzer. Secrets of • Legends of Mary Magdalene Mary Magdalene. New York: CDS Books, 2006. ISBN 1-59315-205-1. • Miriam/Myriam M'Gadola: Mary Magdalene

• De Boer Esther A., Mary Magdalene, beyond the • Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mary Myth (SCM Press London, 1997). • Gospel of Mary Magdalene • Jurgen Moltmann and E. Moltmann-Wendel, Hu- • Saint Mary Magdalene at DMOZ manity in God (London: SCM, 1984). • Showing inaccuracy of The Da Vinci Code in respect • Jansen, Katherine Ludwig. The Making of the Mag- to Mary Magdalene dalen: Preaching and Popular Devotion in the Later Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University • and legends of Mary Magdalene Press, 2000. ISBN 0-691-05850-4. • The Skull and Bones of Mary Magdalene • Kripal, Jeffrey John. (2007). The Serpent’s Gift: Gnostic Reflections on the Study of Religion. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45380-4 ISBN 0-226-45381-2.

• Pearson, Birger A. “Did Jesus Marry? extquotedbl. Bible Review, Spring 2005, pp 32–39 & 47. Discus- sion of complete texts.

• Picknett, Lynn, and Clive Prince. The Templar Rev- elation. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. ISBN 0-593-03870-3. Presents a hypothesis that Mary Magdalene was a priestess who was Jesus’ partner in a sacred marriage.

• Shoemaker, Stephen J. “Rethinking the ‘Gnostic Mary’: Mary of Nazareth and Mary of Magdala in Early ”. in Journal of Early Christian Studies, 9 (2001) pp 555–595.

• Thiering, Barbara. : Decoding the Real Story of Jesus and Mary Magdalene. New York: Simon & Schulster (Atria Books), 2006. ISBN 1- 4165-4138-1.

• Wellborn, Amy. De-coding Mary Magdalene: Truth, Legend, and Lies. Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor, 2006. ISBN 1-59276-209-3.A straightforward accounting of what is well-known of Mary Magdalene. 21

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text

• Mary Magdalene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Magdalene?oldid=627798575 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, BF, Wesley, Alex, Grouse, Ortolan88, SimonP, Panairjdde, Rcingham, Isis, Montrealais, Sfdan, Olivier, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Freckle- foot, Patrick, Hardy, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Tgeorgescu, Paul A, BrianHoltz, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Typhoon, Andrewa, Julesd, Andres, Jeandré du Toit, Raven in Orbit, Vargenau, Disdero, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Selket, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Lkesteloot, MiLo28, Joy, Mksmith, Hawstom, Wetman, Jerzy, Owen, SD6-Agent, Sjorford, Branddobbe, Robbot, Misterrick, Fredrik, Seneschal, Donreed, Moncrief, Sam Spade, Lowellian, Mirv, Postdlf, Merovingian, Rholton, 75th Trombone, Hadal, Saforrest, Patcat88, Wereon, Robinh, Mandel, Adam78, Alan Liefting, Connelly, DocWatson42, Jyril, Barbara Shack, Nunh-huh, Wiglaf, Tom harrison, Ev- eryking, Tendo, Allstar86, Gyrofrog, Wmahan, Infinitysnake, Neilc, Chowbok, Andycjp, Jonel, Quadell, Antandrus, JoJan, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Kevin B12, Necrothesp, Asbestos, Gary D, Mschlindwein, Avihu, Syvanen, Jvedral, Kevin Rector, DMG413, Cwoyte, Mike Rosoft, Night- Monkey, AliveFreeHappy, O'Dea, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Avriette, Guanabot, Pmsyyz, Dpm64, LeeHunter, Mani1, Stereotek, Oren Shatz, Nabla, Redegg, DS1953, Summer Song, Conwiktion, Lima, Nrbelex, Just zis Guy, you know?, John Vandenberg, KitHutch, Rockhopper10r, Acjelen, Aleph1, Physicistjedi, Polylerus, Jakew, Shirimasen, Alansohn, Bathrobe, AzaToth, Calton, Stephen Turner, Samaritan, Katefan0, Wtmitchell, Dabbler, Hattrem, Evil Monkey, Cheyinka, Ghirlandajo, Blaxthos, Spartacus007, Mcsee, Siafu, Angr, OwenX, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, Robwingfield, Pol098, JeremyA, Jeff3000, Kelisi, Hailey C. 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