CULTURA 2013_264973_VOL_10_No2_GR_A5Br.indd 1 CULTURA judged tomake anovelandimportantcontributiontounderstan- the submissionofmanuscriptsbasedonoriginalresearchthatare regional andinternationalcontexts. The editorialboardencourages mote theexplorationofdifferentvalues andculturalphenomenain ted tophilosophyofcultureandthestudyvalue. Itaimstopro Founded in2004, Culture and Axiology and Culture www.peterlang.com ding thevalues andculturalphenomenainthecontempo ISBN 978-3-631-64973-2 Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy of Journal International Cultura. isasemiannualpeer-reviewed journaldevo- rary world. ­ - 2013

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF 2 CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY CULTURA CULTURA 2013 AND AXIOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHYCULTURE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Vol X Vol 10.01.14 KW 0215:23 No 2 No CULTURA 2013_264973_VOL_10_No2_GR_A5Br.indd 1 CULTURA judged tomake anovelandimportantcontributiontounderstan- the submissionofmanuscriptsbasedonoriginalresearchthatare regional andinternationalcontexts. The editorialboardencourages mote theexplorationofdifferentvalues andculturalphenomenain ted tophilosophyofcultureandthestudyvalue. Itaimstopro- Founded in2004, Culture and Axiology and Culture www.peterlang.com ding thevalues andculturalphenomenainthecontempo Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Philosophy of Journal International Cultura. isasemiannualpeer-reviewed journaldevo-

rary world. ­ 2013

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF 2 CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY CULTURA CULTURA 2013 AND AXIOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHYCULTURE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Vol X Vol 10.01.14 KW 0215:23 No 2 No CULTURA

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY OF CULTURE AND AXIOLOGY Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology E-ISSN (Online): 2065-5002 ISSN (Print): 1584-1057

Advisory Board Prof. Dr. David Altman, Instituto de Ciencia Política, Universidad Catolica de Chile, Chile Prof. Emeritus Dr. Horst Baier, University of Konstanz, Germany Prof. Dr. David Cornberg, University Ming Chuan, Taiwan Prof. Dr. Paul Cruysberghs, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Prof. Dr. Nic Gianan, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines Prof. Dr. Marco Ivaldo, Department of Philosophy “A. Aliotta”, University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy Prof. Dr. Michael Jennings, Princeton University, USA Prof. Dr. Maximiliano E. Korstanje, University of Palermo, Argentina Prof. Dr. Richard L. Lanigan, Southern Illinois University, USA Prof. Dr. Christian Lazzeri, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, France Prof. Dr. Massimo Leone, University of Torino, Italy Prof. Dr. Asunción López-Varela Azcárate, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain Prof. Dr. Christian Möckel, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany Prof. Dr. Devendra Nath Tiwari, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Prof. Dr. José María Paz Gago, University of Coruña, Spain Prof. Dr. Mario Perniola, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy Prof. Dr. Traian D. Stănciulescu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iassy, Romania Prof. Dr. Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, Purdue University & Ghent University

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief: Co-Editors: Prof. dr. Nicolae Râmbu Prof. dr. Aldo Marroni Faculty of Philosophy and Social- Dipartimento di Lettere, Arti e Scienze Sociali Political Sciences Università degli Studi G. d’Annunzio Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100 Chieti Scalo, Italy B-dul Carol I, nr. 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania [email protected] [email protected] PD Dr. Till Kinzel Executive Editor: Englisches Seminar Dr. Simona Mitroiu Technische Universität Braunschweig, Human Sciences Research Department Bienroder Weg 80, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University 38106 Braunschweig, Germany Lascar Catargi, nr. 54, 700107 Iasi, Romania [email protected] [email protected]

Editorial Assistant: Dr. Marius Sidoriuc Designer: Aritia Poenaru Cultura International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology Vol. 10, No. 2 (2013)

Editor-in-Chief Nicolae Râmbu Guest Editor: Prof. Aldo Marroni Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Umschlagabbildung: © Aritia Poenaru

ISSN 2065-5002 ISBN 978-3-631-64973-2

© Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Frankfurt am Main 2014 All rights reserved. Peter Lang Edition is an Imprint of Peter Lang GmbH. Peter Lang – Frankfurt am Main · Bern · Bruxelles · New York · Oxford · Warszawa · Wien All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. www.peterlang.com

CONTENTS

AESTHETICS VALUES AND THE PROCESS OF CIVILIZATION

Aldo Marroni 7 The Aesthetic Crisis of Society

Evan Osborne 23 Art as a Capital Asset

Mario Perniola 41 Knowledge, Power and Politic-Cultural Civilization

Geoffrey Skoll 49 The Art of Living Together: How Artistic Work Makes the Moral Bonds of a Community

Paolo Bartoloni 71 The Aesthetics of Renunciation, and the Irregularities of the 20th Century

Montserrat Martínez García 93 A Panoramic Overview of British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

Pedro Sargento 113 New Materialism and Neutralized Subjectivity. A Cultural Renewal?

VARIA

Lingling Peng & Yang Geng 127 Cultural Semiosis in Artistic Chinese Calligraphy

Janez Strehovec 141 Algorithmic Culture and E-Literary Text Semiotics

A.A. Gede Rai Remawa & Imam Santosa & Biranul Anas Zaman 157 Aesthetic and Space Concept of Visual Composition in Interior and Architecture of Bali Madya Dwelling

Joseph S. Fulda 173 Value-Sensitive Design as an Ongoing Process of Market Discovery

10.5840/cultura201310215 Paolo Bartoloni / The Aesthetics of Renunciation Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

possible, through which synchrony is introduced, and it is on the foundation of syn- chrony that the essential dialect is then erected, that in which the Other may discov- A Panoramic Overview of British Eighteenth-Century er itself as the Other of the Other.” The Ethics. 66). Aesthetics 29 Ibidem. “(…) das Ding est justement au centre au sens qu’il est exclu.” 87. (“(...) das Ding is at the center only in the sense that it is excluded.” 71. Montserrat Martínez García Facultad de Filología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid Avd. Séneca 2, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040, Madrid, Spain [email protected]

Abstract. The aim of this paper is not to focus on a particular thematic issue of Aes- thetics, offering an exhaustive approach of it, but to display a broader map allowing to capture the essence of this topic from an overall perspective. To achieve it, I have paid attention to a number of points that will help to place Aesthetics in historical terms in the context of 18th century Great Britain. In this vein, I have addressed cer- tain pillars deemed crucial in understanding Aesthetics, such as the socio-historical background in which it emerged, the meaning of this field of study, its main theore- ticians and its three most important aesthetic categories. Finally, I close the paper by drawing some brief conclusions. Keywords: Aesthetics, 18th century, sublime, picturesque, taste.

CONTEXTUALIZATION OF THE SUBJECT MATTER

The eighteenth century was par excellence the century of taste, an age in which Aesthetics and consequently the theory of taste reached its apex in Britain; the period in which we witness the transition from objective to subjective and relative notions of beauty and taste. The seed of this pro- cess was rooted in the emergence of a fresh anthropological paradigm, provoked by multiple factors of diverse nature. The up-to-then 17th century predominantly religious culture was cor- nered by an epistemology pushing man to find within himself the sources of knowledge, to ponder over the immanent consciousness of one´s own existence against an outward reality. This new conception and construction of the self was fostered by a reunderstanding and rethinking of human knowledge triggered by the scientific revolution and discover- ies of Galileo (1564�1642) and Newton (1642�1727), alongside Des- cartes (1596�1650), Hobbes (1588�1679) and Locke’s (1632�1704) philosophical and psychological deliberations. Rationalism and Empiri- cism brought with it a schism between the arts and the sciences, the divi- sion of the European republic of letters between supporters of the An- cients and the Moderns, and the disjuncture of metaphysics and religious

92 93

Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

cosmology prevalent since classical times (Townsend, 2006: xxv). As ad- verted, the normative model of human self-perception changed beyond all recognition at the beginning of the 18th century. This ontological up- heaval had its origin in the changeover from a dualistic to an integrated concept of the brotherhood between body and mind. As it happens with all important processes, this reassessment had to face detractors who were still reluctant to abandon the old paradigm; one of these, Timothy Nourse (1636�1699), insisted on regarding man as composed of two parts in his opening lines of A Discourse Upon the Nature and Faculties of Man (1686) (Schlaeger, 1999: 77�80). The reconsideration of the relevance of psycho-somatic processes in all ethical and existential dimensions of human life galvanized gradually and consistently the rebuilding and exploration of the interiority of man and of his responsibility and duties concerning society. The previous 17th-century dichotomous and traditional model, centred around two separate domains of being, was replaced by a focalization on inner states, estimated as primordial objects of self-analysis owing to their essentiality in understanding and regulating human conduct. In this light, Aesthetics as a branch of philosophy involved with the beautiful and the sublime was an attempt to provide culturally acceptable answers to the portrayal of emotions. Theories of taste were embedded in a socially timely course of action to enquire into and control human senses and their deployment in the ambitious project of civilization. The germination of Aesthetics was heralded by abrupt changes in epis- temology. This reinterpretation of the senses as vehicles of cognition was pioneered by Francis Bacon (1591�1626) who in Advancement of Learning (1605) had questioned the firm conviction that the senses were sources of error, supporting instead that they were sufficient to report and certify truth, culminating with Locke’s empiricist theory of knowledge. Again, Locke re-evaluated the senses and the emotional side of the inner human world, reinterpreting them as valuable agents in knowledge. Of outmost importance was the decentralization of the arts which during the 18th century ceased being the monopoly and preserve of kings, aristocrats and clerics in order to form part of the general public. In the late 17th century, As John Brewer’s crystal-clear words state, high culture “slipped out of palaces and into coffee houses, reading societies, debating clubs, assembly rooms, galleries and concert halls; ceasing to be the handmaiden of royal politics, it became the partner of commerce”

94 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

cosmology prevalent since classical times (Townsend, 2006: xxv). As ad- (1997: 15). In the 18th century, due to the thriving of a commercial and verted, the normative model of human self-perception changed beyond metropolitan society, the rise of a middle class inclined to intellectual all recognition at the beginning of the 18th century. This ontological up- pursuits and the ensuing decrease of a courtly culture, the arts urbanized heaval had its origin in the changeover from a dualistic to an integrated and intertwined with the notion of taste, namely, social refinement, cour- concept of the brotherhood between body and mind. As it happens with tesy or cultivation. Therefore, taste conditioned the behaviour of the all important processes, this reassessment had to face detractors who brandnew kind of person that flourished, a man immersed in the civiliz- were still reluctant to abandon the old paradigm; one of these, Timothy ing process of “sociability” and morality, according to Addison and Nourse (1636�1699), insisted on regarding man as composed of two Steele’s Spectator or Voltaire’s Le Mondain. Being an hônnete homme involved parts in his opening lines of A Discourse Upon the Nature and Faculties of literacy, politeness, as well as keeping enjoyable conversations about ab- Man (1686) (Schlaeger, 1999: 77�80). solutely everything having to do with culture. A key place in which these The reconsideration of the relevance of psycho-somatic processes in attributes were to be particularly showed off was coffee houses, in charge all ethical and existential dimensions of human life galvanized gradually of shaping social and cultural life, apart from being, together with tav- and consistently the rebuilding and exploration of the interiority of man erns, cores of antagonism to the crown where debates on politics, reli- and of his responsibility and duties concerning society. The previous gion and literature were habitually held. Coffee houses, clubs and associ- 17th-century dichotomous and traditional model, centred around two ations became the leading cultural patrons of the day from the moment separate domains of being, was replaced by a focalization on inner states, they welcomed the theorizations of Scottish philosophers and political estimated as primordial objects of self-analysis owing to their essentiality economists like David Hume (1711�1776), John Millar (1735�1801) or in understanding and regulating human conduct. In this light, Aesthetics Adam Smith (1723�1790), who explained how society had moved from as a branch of philosophy involved with the beautiful and the sublime barbarism and primitivism to civilization and sophistication, in the wake was an attempt to provide culturally acceptable answers to the portrayal of the blooming of trade and economy, responsible for spreading refined of emotions. Theories of taste were embedded in a socially timely course manners and a better taste. of action to enquire into and control human senses and their deployment In sum, during the century between Charles II´s restoration in 1660 to in the ambitious project of civilization. George III’s accession to the throne in 1760, literature, art, music, thea- The germination of Aesthetics was heralded by abrupt changes in epis- tre and the like were crucially transformed into successful commercial temology. This reinterpretation of the senses as vehicles of cognition was enterprises. These achievements would have been impossible in the 18th pioneered by Francis Bacon (1591�1626) who in Advancement of Learning century without the cultural expansion of the Renaissance, the advent of (1605) had questioned the firm conviction that the senses were sources the printing press, the growth of literacy and the birth of a reading public of error, supporting instead that they were sufficient to report and certify at the end of the 17th century, catalysts behind the spurt in publishing truth, culminating with Locke’s empiricist theory of knowledge. Again, (Brewer, 1997). Locke re-evaluated the senses and the emotional side of the inner human world, reinterpreting them as valuable agents in knowledge. DEFINING AESTHETICS AND LEADING AESTHETIC THEO- Of outmost importance was the decentralization of the arts which RIZATIONS IN BRITAIN during the 18th century ceased being the monopoly and preserve of kings, aristocrats and clerics in order to form part of the general public. It was during this time that disconnected branches of knowledge such as In the late 17th century, As John Brewer’s crystal-clear words state, high psychology, economics, sociology, linguistics or geology started to com- culture “slipped out of palaces and into coffee houses, reading societies, pete for authority, laying the ground for the convergence of simple con- debating clubs, assembly rooms, galleries and concert halls; ceasing to be cepts into complex and interdependent disciplines; among them, the the handmaiden of royal politics, it became the partner of commerce” Aesthetic (Ashfield and De Bolla, 1996: 3).

94 95 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

To evoke Aesthetics in the 18th century is to some extent an anachro- nism. However, the lack of a label was not a hindrance in the representa- tion of those aesthetic experiences linked with it. Although the name was coined by Alexander Baumgarten (1714�1762) in his Aesthetica (1750) and subsequently adopted by Immanuel Kant (1724�1804) in his Critique of Judgment (1790), it was not widely used as the term for a definite ap- proach to the philosophy of art in Britain until the 1830s (Friday, 2004: 1; Axelsson, 2007: 1). Moreover, Aesthetics has gone through diverse stages, sometimes difficult to distinguish. As Townsend argues, review- ing the history of Aesthetics embraces shifts in its ontological and epis- temological basis. For instance, classical Aesthetics addressed primarily beauty, metaphysically understood; and if in handling this word, the abovementioned philosophers designated a vast area of perception cov- ering feelings and senses, in Romanticism its usage was narrowed to a special feeling provoked by beauty, intimately tied to the contemplation of what was beautiful in art (Townsend, 2006: xvii, 18). Needless to say, the absence of such designation before the 18th century was not tanta- mount to non-existent discussions on the epistemology of artworks. On the contrary, miscellaneous theories were produced to account for them (Ashfield and De Bolla, 1996: 1). Derived from the ancient Greek word aesthesis, it meant feeling, per- ception or that pertaining to sense perception, and in some contexts, just experience and intellectual or moral perception. Actually, Baumgarten’s coinage of the term “aesthetic” was founded on that, and when he em- ployed it in Aesthetica, it referred to the power of perceiving or under- standing, denoting the outer and bodily sense against the inner one of consciousness. Baumgarten’s ultimate reason for giving importance to feelings and sense perceptions makes sense when confronted with the 18th-century prevailing rational scheme according to which emotions were unreliable grounds for knowledge as opposed to reason (Marshall, 2005: 2). Generally speaking, Aesthetics tackled a broad category of hu- man experience purposing to capture the worth of art by reflecting on how people came to terms with it. Here the gist of the issue lay in some subjective qualities like beauty, sublimity, novelty and wit, since art was concerned with appreciation and evaluation and its experience with an 18th-century mental faculty called taste. The departure point was that some objects awakened in the individual some sentiments and that espe- cially art and nature were considered to own such features. But what

96 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

To evoke Aesthetics in the 18th century is to some extent an anachro- started being restricted to the purview of art and nature, ended up being nism. However, the lack of a label was not a hindrance in the representa- an omnipresent force in the everyday life of cultivated men. tion of those aesthetic experiences linked with it. Although the name was British philosophers succeeded in making of Great Britain a fertile ge- coined by Alexander Baumgarten (1714�1762) in his Aesthetica (1750) ography in the development of Aesthetics and, particularly, in putting and subsequently adopted by Immanuel Kant (1724�1804) in his Critique Scotland in a privileged position in the history of Aesthetics, since most of Judgment (1790), it was not widely used as the term for a definite ap- of the writers on this subject were Scots. proach to the philosophy of art in Britain until the 1830s (Friday, 2004: Scottish philosophical innovation was founded in Locke’s account of 1; Axelsson, 2007: 1). Moreover, Aesthetics has gone through diverse the mind in his Essay on Human Understanding (1690), the classic empiricist stages, sometimes difficult to distinguish. As Townsend argues, review- description of the operations of the human mind together with the basis ing the history of Aesthetics embraces shifts in its ontological and epis- of human knowledge in metamorphosing sense experience into temological basis. For instance, classical Aesthetics addressed primarily knowledge. This essay was the backbone of the aesthetic inquiry. beauty, metaphysically understood; and if in handling this word, the For Locke, mental experience or thoughts consisted of a string of ide- abovementioned philosophers designated a vast area of perception cov- as of diverse kind, constituents subjected to be divided into ideas of sen- ering feelings and senses, in Romanticism its usage was narrowed to a sation and ideas of reflection. The former are ideas conveyed to the special feeling provoked by beauty, intimately tied to the contemplation mind through the senses and they occur each time we see, touch, hear or of what was beautiful in art (Townsend, 2006: xvii, 18). Needless to say, smell something, giving way to sensations or impressions of objects ex- the absence of such designation before the 18th century was not tanta- ternal to the mind. Ideas of reflection, in turn, are those produced by our mount to non-existent discussions on the epistemology of artworks. On mental workings, such as thinking, believing, doubting and so forth. In- the contrary, miscellaneous theories were produced to account for them ternal and external senses alike are the substance of thoughts and mental (Ashfield and De Bolla, 1996: 1). experience. Side by side with his notion of the association of ideas, Derived from the ancient Greek word aesthesis, it meant feeling, per- Locke drew a metaphysical distinction between two groups of properties ception or that pertaining to sense perception, and in some contexts, just possessed by outside objects: objective or primary qualities, that is, those experience and intellectual or moral perception. Actually, Baumgarten’s independent of the human mind as size, weight or shape, and secondary coinage of the term “aesthetic” was founded on that, and when he em- or more subjective qualities as colours. This differentiation was of ex- ployed it in Aesthetica, it referred to the power of perceiving or under- treme importance for countless discussions of beauty in 18th-century standing, denoting the outer and bodily sense against the inner one of Scotland (Friday, 2004: 5�7). consciousness. Baumgarten’s ultimate reason for giving importance to A propitious environment for philosophical speculations was stimulat- feelings and sense perceptions makes sense when confronted with the ed by Scotland´s four universities, with their progressive curricula and 18th-century prevailing rational scheme according to which emotions freedom of speech and dissension, by the revival of commercial life after were unreliable grounds for knowledge as opposed to reason (Marshall, the Act of Union of 1707 and by the appearance of a middle class inter- 2005: 2). Generally speaking, Aesthetics tackled a broad category of hu- ested in culture. Although Francis Hutcheson (1694�1746), one of the man experience purposing to capture the worth of art by reflecting on most outstanding figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, was not the first how people came to terms with it. Here the gist of the issue lay in some thinker in writing about taste, he has been credited with inaugurating the subjective qualities like beauty, sublimity, novelty and wit, since art was aesthetic heritage in Scotland since he provided the first detailed, system- concerned with appreciation and evaluation and its experience with an atic and sophisticated theory of the internal senses of virtue and beauty. 18th-century mental faculty called taste. The departure point was that Hutcheson’s theory on taste was posited and deployed in the first of some objects awakened in the individual some sentiments and that espe- the two essays compiling An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty cially art and nature were considered to own such features. But what and Virtue (1725) entitled “An Inquiry Concerning Beauty, Order, Har-

96 97 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

mony, Design,” and it behaved as a source for subsequent intellectuals. In it, he aspired to prove the existence of an internal sense of beauty, harmony and proportion which apart from being universal was the cause of pleasure, a feeling unchained by certain characteristics of apprehended objects. Such sense of beauty was only produced by uniformity amidst variety in nature, by nonrepresentational and representational aspects of art and by theorems. As an heir of Locke, Hutcheson held that ideas gave form and content to our mind and that such ideas could be tracked down to sense impressions causally related to the external world. Con- currently, we do have an internal sense examining the ideas of sensation in the mind which result in pleasure or displeasure. His aim was to speci- fy what attributes of objects and landscapes illuminated this internal sense, provoking the pleasurable notion of beauty. This study of beauty and the way internal senses operated was the doorway to 18th-century discourses on the Aesthetic (Friday, 2004). According to Hutcheson, this explanatory account could be applied both to moral good or virtue as well as to aesthetic good or beauty. At this stage the interconnections between aesthetic judgments and ethical conduct came afloat (Dickie, 1996). A core principle in aesthetic matters was that of disinterestedness, inaugurated by Shaftesbury (1671�1713) and culminated in Kant (1724�1804), alluding to the ability to perceive the work of art as an object in itself. Historically speaking, this denomi- nation, whose origin can be traceable to ethics and religion, has been crucial in the creation of Aesthetics as a philosophical discipline and in our modern conception of art. Shaftesbury, who published a three- volume collection of essays on the arts, morality and taste entitled Char- acteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (1711), highlighted the inherent value of beauty and virtue, free from any aspiration of reward, purpose or utility, believing in the probability of an absolute and objective judg- ment, anchored in moral and aesthetic knowledge. Whereas Kant’s Cri- tique of Judgment (1790) offered a solution in the disinterestedness of the aesthetic judgment, the British tradition from Hutcheson on usually ad- vocated for an alliance between Aesthetics and morality. For example, in his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), Adam Smith (1723�1790) reflected upon the intimate relationship between ethics and Aesthetics while George Turnbull (1698�1748), not concerned with the study of art for its own sake but as an instrument for moral education and betterment, had already argued in his A Treatise on Ancient Painting (1740) that the

98 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

mony, Design,” and it behaved as a source for subsequent intellectuals. artworks encountered by young men on the Grand Tour had a vital in- In it, he aspired to prove the existence of an internal sense of beauty, fluence in shaping their moral character and sensibility; that pointed to a harmony and proportion which apart from being universal was the cause recurrent theme in the Scottish Enlightenment, that between the growth of pleasure, a feeling unchained by certain characteristics of apprehended of morality and the development of the faculty of taste. objects. Such sense of beauty was only produced by uniformity amidst What disinterestedness denoted was the perception of something for variety in nature, by nonrepresentational and representational aspects of its own sake, pitting a conceptualization based on an object against that art and by theorems. As an heir of Locke, Hutcheson held that ideas one revolving around the self. As Abrams expresses: “What defines a gave form and content to our mind and that such ideas could be tracked work of art is its status as an object to be ‘contemplated,’ and contem- down to sense impressions causally related to the external world. Con- plated ‘disinterestedly’ – that is, attended to ‘as such,’ for its own sake, currently, we do have an internal sense examining the ideas of sensation without regard to the personal interests or possessiveness or the desires in the mind which result in pleasure or displeasure. His aim was to speci- of the perceiver, and without reference to its truth or its utility or its mo- fy what attributes of objects and landscapes illuminated this internal rality” (quoted in Marshall, 2005: 3). According to Jerome Stolnitz, the sense, provoking the pleasurable notion of beauty. This study of beauty chief 20th-century supporter of the traditional theory of disinterest, when and the way internal senses operated was the doorway to 18th-century Shaftesbury developed such notion he was determining the aesthetic ex- discourses on the Aesthetic (Friday, 2004). perience as a unique one and introducing a completely new idea in West- According to Hutcheson, this explanatory account could be applied ern mentality (Marshall, 2005: 3). Shaftesbury´s philosophy was inter- both to moral good or virtue as well as to aesthetic good or beauty. At preted by Stolnitz in a series of essays in the 1960s; for him, Shaftesbury this stage the interconnections between aesthetic judgments and ethical did not employ the word only in connection with art, but as an initial conduct came afloat (Dickie, 1996). A core principle in aesthetic matters constituent of an ethical argument against the thought that interest was was that of disinterestedness, inaugurated by Shaftesbury (1671�1713) governing the world (Mortensen, 1997: 108). and culminated in Kant (1724�1804), alluding to the ability to perceive More importantly, Aesthetics did not confine the realm of art to an the work of art as an object in itself. Historically speaking, this denomi- isolated isle, but it prompted its merging with real life. 18th-century works nation, whose origin can be traceable to ethics and religion, has been by Diderot (1713�1784), Fielding (1707�1754) or Frances Burney crucial in the creation of Aesthetics as a philosophical discipline and in (1752�1840) as well as epistolary novels showed how the boundaries our modern conception of art. Shaftesbury, who published a three- between fiction and everyday life were becoming increasingly blurred volume collection of essays on the arts, morality and taste entitled Char- through the portrayal of naïve readers, incapable of coping with theatri- acteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (1711), highlighted the inherent cal illusion. value of beauty and virtue, free from any aspiration of reward, purpose Within this framework of what was right or wrong in art, extrapolable or utility, believing in the probability of an absolute and objective judg- to morality, since the established standard of taste could be applicable to ment, anchored in moral and aesthetic knowledge. Whereas Kant’s Cri- personal conduct and consequently to the construction of civilization, tique of Judgment (1790) offered a solution in the disinterestedness of the the term sensus communis stood out as part and parcel of the inquiry into aesthetic judgment, the British tradition from Hutcheson on usually ad- Aesthetics and of the education of the public relish. In the same manner vocated for an alliance between Aesthetics and morality. For example, in that there was a social agreement regarding taste and that that fact tend- his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), Adam Smith (1723�1790) reflected ed to dictate how people had to grasp the world, drawing a line between upon the intimate relationship between ethics and Aesthetics while particular and general perceptions, sensus communis emphasized the con- George Turnbull (1698�1748), not concerned with the study of art for tinuum between individual and communal interests grounded in shared its own sake but as an instrument for moral education and betterment, feelings and judgments. In classical antiquity this concept had praised the had already argued in his A Treatise on Ancient Painting (1740) that the common, that which was shared, what identified justice and rightness,

98 99 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

harmony and proportion, what designated unity and order, those values behind a charming whole. As a criterion for judging, sensus communis was intended to order and regulate personal feelings and observations. Those norms, valid for the aesthetic held likewise for morality, meaning that moral discriminations had aesthetic implications and vice versa. For Shaftesbury, social manners were firmly linked to moral goals and their scope transcended the codes of social politeness (Valihora, 2010: 36�38). Also famous for his theory on the sublime (which will be touched up- on later), David Hume (1711�1776) deserves special mention within the Scottish background. In 1757, he published the essay “Of the Standard of Taste” which “provided the best expression that the theory of taste was ever to achieve.” (Dickie, 1996: 3) Needless to say, the question of the standard of taste was a frequent subject matter for 18th-century phi- losophers. In this essay, Hume brought to the fore not only the possibil- ity of bridging moral criticism and art, but also he wondered if there ex- isted any foundation allowing to differentiate between correct and incor- rect judgments of taste, between better and worse taste. If on one side, Hume discarded any rational basis for either distinction, on the other, he admitted both that some facts gave evidence of the prevailing consensus in reaching aesthetic judgments and that certain people, because of their training and natural bent, were susceptible of enjoying a more refined taste. The consequence was that educated people tended to realign and support those judgments coming from cultivated tastes, and that when the aesthetic opinions between those acknowledged as true judges and the educated converged, we could definitely speak about the birth of a standard of better and worse taste (Friday, 2004: 11). For Hume, a true judge in the finer arts had to possess a “strong sense, united to delicate sentiment, improved by practice, perfected by comparison, and cleared of all prejudice” and that, and only that, could be the true standard of taste and beauty (Hume, http://www.csulb.edu). Other significant contributors to the theme of Aesthetics found at the heart of the Scottish culture were Lord Kames (1696�1782) with The Elements of Criticism (1762), Thomas Reid (1710�1796) with An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764), Archibald Ali- son (1757�1839) with Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790), Dugald Stewart (1753�1828) with Philosophical Essays (1810) including an

100 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

harmony and proportion, what designated unity and order, those values essay called “On the Beautiful,” and James Beattie (1735�1803) with Il- behind a charming whole. As a criterion for judging, sensus communis was lustrations of Sublimity (1783). intended to order and regulate personal feelings and observations. Those Thereby, the focus on art and on Aesthetics during the Enlighten- norms, valid for the aesthetic held likewise for morality, meaning that ment, an age in which the beginning of modern criticism came afloat, moral discriminations had aesthetic implications and vice versa. For ended up not only in the delimitation of Aesthetics as a philosophical Shaftesbury, social manners were firmly linked to moral goals and their domain detached from rhetoric and poetics, but also in its professionali- scope transcended the codes of social politeness (Valihora, 2010: zation. This process was carried out by two English authors, exemplary 36�38). in the definition and demarcation of the role of the critic and in the re- Also famous for his theory on the sublime (which will be touched up- form, improvement and cultivation of public taste, namely, Anthony on later), David Hume (1711�1776) deserves special mention within the Ashley Cooper, the third Earl of Shaftesbury (1671�1713) and Joseph Scottish background. In 1757, he published the essay “Of the Standard Addison (1672�1719). Both theoreticians furnished Britain with the of Taste” which “provided the best expression that the theory of taste physiological and mental conditions required for the thriving of taste, the was ever to achieve.” (Dickie, 1996: 3) Needless to say, the question of beautiful and the sublime, suggesting simultaneously a radical reappraisal the standard of taste was a frequent subject matter for 18th-century phi- between the senses and nature. Accordingly, new aesthetic appreciations losophers. In this essay, Hume brought to the fore not only the possibil- and art theories encouraged the solidification of a new ideal of man and ity of bridging moral criticism and art, but also he wondered if there ex- of society, in expansion since the Renaissance. The invigoration of criti- isted any foundation allowing to differentiate between correct and incor- cism, firmly joined with the rise of taste and aesthetic judgment, began rect judgments of taste, between better and worse taste. If on one side, by relinquishing the rules of classical rhetoric and poetics, promoting af- Hume discarded any rational basis for either distinction, on the other, he fective and evaluative responses to artworks. admitted both that some facts gave evidence of the prevailing consensus This social endeavour to reshape the public relish and define the func- in reaching aesthetic judgments and that certain people, because of their tion of the critic in describing such standard of taste was mutually shared training and natural bent, were susceptible of enjoying a more refined by Shaftesbury and Addison, and if they acknowledged a “certain una- taste. The consequence was that educated people tended to realign and nimity of taste and judgment,” The Spectator abounded in references to support those judgments coming from cultivated tastes, and that when “the corrupt taste the age is run into,” “the depravity or poverty of taste the aesthetic opinions between those acknowledged as true judges and the town is fallen into,” and “the vicious taste which prevails so much the educated converged, we could definitely speak about the birth of a among modern writers” (quoted in Marshall, 1997: 637). However, the standard of better and worse taste (Friday, 2004: 11). For Hume, a true addressees of their messages were located in the two poles of the social judge in the finer arts had to possess a “strong sense, united to delicate ladder. Whereas Shaftesbury used to address himself to that gentleman sentiment, improved by practice, perfected by comparison, and cleared skilled in the fine arts, the virtuoso, Addison delivered his writings, com- of all prejudice” and that, and only that, could be the true standard of piled in The Tatler and The Spectator, to a larger and popular audience such taste and beauty (Hume, http://www.csulb.edu). as merchants and the fastest-growing middle class, that one gathered in Other significant contributors to the theme of Aesthetics found at the coffee houses, clubs, assemblies and tea-tables, and that was the outcome heart of the Scottish culture were Lord Kames (1696�1782) with The of the invention of the public by socio-economic forces involved in the Elements of Criticism (1762), Thomas Reid (1710�1796) with An Inquiry massive publication of books and newspapers (Marshall, 1997: 633, 637). into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764), Archibald Ali- To build that community of readers, both consecrated their efforts to son (1757�1839) with Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790), call into question and review the morals, manners, opinions and social Dugald Stewart (1753�1828) with Philosophical Essays (1810) including an codes of their time, leaving aside the up-to-then literal adherence to clas- sical norms in the assessment of works of art. In The Tatler, Addison re-

100 101 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

pudiated the critic who “without entering into the soul of an author, has a few general rules, which, like mechanical instruments, he applies to the works of every writer” (quoted in Marshall, 1997: 634). In the essay un- der the title of “On Taste,” published in The Spectator 409, Addison de- fined taste as “that faculty of the soul, which discerns the beauties of an author with pleasure, and the imperfections with dislike” and enumerat- ed three methods for “cultivating and improving it,” that is, “to be con- versant among the writings of the most polite authors,” “conversation with men of a polite genius,” and “to be well versed in the works of the best critics both ancient and modern” (quoted in Marshall, 1997: 638).

THE SUBLIME, THE BEAUTIFUL AND THE PICTURESQUE

The problematic of the Aesthetic was most fully investigated under the shadow of the sublime. In fact, in the 18th century, the sublime became an outstanding category of aesthetic experience, even more weighty than beauty. Coupled with denominations such as grandeur, magnificence or elevation, the sublime usually involved awe-inspiring, powerful, amazing and astonishing happenings and settings, as well as those terrifying oc- currences in art and nature. As Ann Radcliffe masterly expressed in The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794): “This landscape with the surrounding Alps did, indeed, present a perfect picture of the lovely and the sublime, of ‘beauty sleeping in the lap of horror’ ” (Radcliffe, 2001: 55). The sublime underwent a revival at the end of the 17th century in France and entered Britain on account of the pioneer work of the prom- inent critic John Dennis (1658�1754), who conceived the sublime as an aesthetic quality. In its early stages, the sublime was primarily associated with literature and was circumscribed to the context of rhetorical speech and poetic drama. After enjoying the Grand Tour of the Alps, he pub- lished Miscellanies in Verse and Prose (1693), where he related his experi- ence of the journey, describing it as “a pleasure to the eye, much as mu- sic is to the ear, but mingled with Horrours, and sometimes almost with despair” (Szabo et al., 2010: 4). His account is of paramount importance because in it he used the concept of the sublime, in his day a rhetoric term confined to literary criticism, as an evaluation for horror and terror in the Aesthetic. This very itinerary, initiated by Dennis, was taken after- wards by David Hume, who in Treatise of Human Nature (1740) extended for the first time the sublime beyond the limits of literature. For Hume

102 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

pudiated the critic who “without entering into the soul of an author, has the feeling of grandeur was inextricably linked to great quantities of time a few general rules, which, like mechanical instruments, he applies to the or space, and it was something free from those restrictions imposed by works of every writer” (quoted in Marshall, 1997: 634). In the essay un- literature and rhetoric, sharing qualities with nature, art and human activ- der the title of “On Taste,” published in The Spectator 409, Addison de- ity. Successive philosophers embraced Hume’s development of the sub- fined taste as “that faculty of the soul, which discerns the beauties of an lime, pinpointing nature as the source of it. author with pleasure, and the imperfections with dislike” and enumerat- The transference of the sublime from literature to nature and to other ed three methods for “cultivating and improving it,” that is, “to be con- arts imitating the latter was drawing upon Longinus’ 3rd-century essay versant among the writings of the most polite authors,” “conversation Peri Hypsus or “On the Sublime,” that appeared to approve the displace- with men of a polite genius,” and “to be well versed in the works of the ment of the sublime beyond the literary realm. Taking as a basis Longi- best critics both ancient and modern” (quoted in Marshall, 1997: 638). nus’ suggestions, 18th-century readers adopted a vision of the natural world as an emblem of the more elevated harmonies of morality. It is THE SUBLIME, THE BEAUTIFUL AND THE PICTURESQUE interesting to note that it was the French poet and critic, Nicolas Despréaux Boileau (1636�1711), who initiated the theorization and de- The problematic of the Aesthetic was most fully investigated under the bate on the sublime through his translation of Longinus’ text, Traité du shadow of the sublime. In fact, in the 18th century, the sublime became sublime ou du merveilleux dans le discours. Traduit du grec de Longin (1674), iden- an outstanding category of aesthetic experience, even more weighty than tifying the sublime as “the extraordinary and the marvellous quality that beauty. Coupled with denominations such as grandeur, magnificence or strikes in speech, the quality that carries away in a work, that ravishes and elevation, the sublime usually involved awe-inspiring, powerful, amazing transports the reader” (quoted in Axelsson, 2007: 32). and astonishing happenings and settings, as well as those terrifying oc- In A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), Samuel Johnson (1709- currences in art and nature. As Ann Radcliffe masterly expressed in The 1794) offered five definitions of the adjective “sublime”: “1. High in Mysteries of Udolpho (1794): “This landscape with the surrounding Alps place; exalted aloft.” 2. “High in excellence; exalted by nature.” 3. “High did, indeed, present a perfect picture of the lovely and the sublime, of in stile or sentiment; lofty; grand.” 4. “Elevated by joy.” 5. “Haughty; ‘beauty sleeping in the lap of horror’ ” (Radcliffe, 2001: 55). proud” (Ashfield and De Bolla, 1996: 111�112). The comments of Jona- The sublime underwent a revival at the end of the 17th century in than Richardson (1665�1745), the elder, in An Essay on the Theory of Paint- France and entered Britain on account of the pioneer work of the prom- ing (1725) and of James Usher (1720�1772) in Clio; or a Discourse on Taste inent critic John Dennis (1658�1754), who conceived the sublime as an (1769) were, respectively, a bit more explicit: aesthetic quality. In its early stages, the sublime was primarily associated with literature and was circumscribed to the context of rhetorical speech By the sublime in general I mean the most excellent of what is excellent (…) the and poetic drama. After enjoying the Grand Tour of the Alps, he pub- greatest, and most noble thoughts, images, or sentiments, conveyed to us in the best chosen words lished Miscellanies in Verse and Prose (1693), where he related his experi- […]”; “The passion it inspires us with is evidently a mixture of terror, curiosity, and exultation […] In the sublime we feel ourselves alarmed, our motions are suspend- ence of the journey, describing it as “a pleasure to the eye, much as mu- ed, and we remain for some time until the emotion wears off, wrapped in silence sic is to the ear, but mingled with Horrours, and sometimes almost with and inquisitive horror. (quoted in Ahsfield and De Bolla, 1996: 45, 147) despair” (Szabo et al., 2010: 4). His account is of paramount importance because in it he used the concept of the sublime, in his day a rhetoric One of the greatest theorists of the sublime was Edmund Burke term confined to literary criticism, as an evaluation for horror and terror (1729�1797) who in 1756 published his Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin in the Aesthetic. This very itinerary, initiated by Dennis, was taken after- of Our Ideas on the Sublime and the Beautiful, an attack on Rationalism and on wards by David Hume, who in Treatise of Human Nature (1740) extended classical formalism in the arts, as well as an outline of what subsequently for the first time the sublime beyond the limits of literature. For Hume would thrive as the Romantic Aesthetics. His criticism to Classicism was

102 103 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

founded on the refutation of clarity as an essential quality in art, and on his postulation that the noblest and the most grandiose belonged to the infinite, this one being, by its very essence, neither clear nor precise (Cranston, 1994: 48). Burke’s posture made manifest the dominant mid- eighteenth-century boredom with respect to previous poetical forms and the willingness to substitute them for others:

Deep and fruitful reflection on aesthetics characterized the eighteenth century in England. It crystallized progressively around the three concepts of the beautiful, the sublime and the picturesque, and provided for a harmonious transition between the neo-classical tradition, on the one hand, with its deep attachment to rules, and to the notions of order, balance and harmony associated with beauty, and Romanticism, on the other, fascinated by the sublime, and giving prime importance to emotions. (Halimi, 1992: 269)

Before coming to terms with the picturesque, we will mention in pass- ing the prominent position the concept of beauty occupied during the 18th century in a wide spectrum of fields: from debates about taste, through texts focused on art criticism, to moral philosophy and social deliberations. However, the term was specifically applied to the role and significance of women within the social and cultural arena. Such word was particularly used to denote visual appearance, to what extent an ob- ject or a person was able of satisfying the eye of the observer. More im- portantly, beauty was an indication of the morality and social conduct of a woman and hence of her place and reputation in social circles. It is worthy to make clear that debates around beauty surpassed the horizon of Aesthetics to become the aim of study of a larger domain, that of taste, in an attempt to cover art, ethics and nature (Jones, 1998: 1�11). Within the 18th-century discussion on the sublime, landscape Aesthet- ics, concerned with the pleasures of the eye, not only played a major role, but it opened the path for the consolidation of another key term, the pic- turesque, engaged in elaborating more subtly the distinction between the sublime and the beautiful. By the end of the 18th century, a major chal- lenge in the history of Aesthetics sprouted: the conception of a cultivat- ed landscape dominated by artifice was replaced by the contemplation and the appreciation of wild rural scenery. This reappraisal brought with it the re-evaluation of the British countryside and thereby, the promotion of local and national tourism at the cost of the grandeur of the European continent. If aristocrats had embarked on the “Grand Tour” so as to

104 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

founded on the refutation of clarity as an essential quality in art, and on complete their education, and had entered the great courts and admired his postulation that the noblest and the most grandiose belonged to the the European art collections, the climbing middle class proposed a bour- infinite, this one being, by its very essence, neither clear nor precise geois substitute through a national tour allowing to admire picturesque (Cranston, 1994: 48). Burke’s posture made manifest the dominant mid- surroundings (Townsend, 2006: 244). The main function of the pictures- eighteenth-century boredom with respect to previous poetical forms and que was to educate the taste and to form a national market for a specific the willingness to substitute them for others: sort of artwork. According to Robert Southey’s words (1774�1843), the picturesque was already a prevailing force in 1807: Deep and fruitful reflection on aesthetics characterized the eighteenth century in England. It crystallized progressively around the three concepts of the beautiful, the Within the last thirty years, a taste for the picturesque has sprung up; and a course sublime and the picturesque, and provided for a harmonious transition between the of summer travelling is now looked upon to be… essential… While one of the neo-classical tradition, on the one hand, with its deep attachment to rules, and to the flocks of fashion migrates to the sea-coast, another flies off to the mountains of notions of order, balance and harmony associated with beauty, and Romanticism, Wales, to the lakes in the northern provinces, or to Scotland; some to mineralogize, on the other, fascinated by the sublime, and giving prime importance to emotions. some to botanize, some to take views of the country, �all to study the picturesque, a (Halimi, 1992: 269) new science for which a new language has been formed, and for which the English have discovered a new sense in themselves, which assuredly was not possessed by Before coming to terms with the picturesque, we will mention in pass- their fathers. (quoted in Nicholas, 1836: 285) ing the prominent position the concept of beauty occupied during the 18th century in a wide spectrum of fields: from debates about taste, In turn, this wavering movement was implemented by socio-political through texts focused on art criticism, to moral philosophy and social changes coming from the predominant middle class, whose priorities deliberations. However, the term was specifically applied to the role and started to confront the cultural aspirations and preferences of the elite. significance of women within the social and cultural arena. Such word Therefore, two stages in the evolution of the picturesque can be dis- was particularly used to denote visual appearance, to what extent an ob- cerned: on the one hand, one ruled by the upper class; on the other, that ject or a person was able of satisfying the eye of the observer. More im- governed by the middle class. During the first generation of picturesque portantly, beauty was an indication of the morality and social conduct of tourism, such tourist was a connoisseur, cultivated in classical literature, a woman and hence of her place and reputation in social circles. It is trained in the works of 17th-century French and Italian traditions of land- worthy to make clear that debates around beauty surpassed the horizon scape painting, and he was usually referred to as a “man of taste,” a dis- of Aesthetics to become the aim of study of a larger domain, that of tinctive expression marking the elitism of this aesthetic trend. As the taste, in an attempt to cover art, ethics and nature (Jones, 1998: 1�11). century advanced, classical models and Greek and Roman poets, a cul- Within the 18th-century discussion on the sublime, landscape Aesthet- tural authority until then, were repudiated at the same time that British ics, concerned with the pleasures of the eye, not only played a major role, poets were extolled and experiments in alternative and native traditions but it opened the path for the consolidation of another key term, the pic- were carried out (Andrews, 1989: 4). This struggle to dismantle the pow- turesque, engaged in elaborating more subtly the distinction between the er and monopoly of land ownership was furthermore the product of a sublime and the beautiful. By the end of the 18th century, a major chal- shift in the intersection between art and its audience, since the invention lenge in the history of Aesthetics sprouted: the conception of a cultivat- of this aesthetic branch embodied an intricate juncture in the progression ed landscape dominated by artifice was replaced by the contemplation of the 18th-century disposition toward art in general. and the appreciation of wild rural scenery. This reappraisal brought with Even though, literally speaking, the picturesque is a scene appropriate it the re-evaluation of the British countryside and thereby, the promotion for a picture, it is an aesthetic category resisting definition. The term and of local and national tourism at the cost of the grandeur of the European its ideological implications were presented as a third aesthetic category continent. If aristocrats had embarked on the “Grand Tour” so as to set against the sublime and the beautiful, being determinant in defining

104 105 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

the gothic and the romantic. In his Essay on the Picturesque (1794), Uvedale Price (1747�1829) wrote: “There are few words, whose meaning has been less accurately determined than that of the word picturesque,” as- serting that the term “is applied to every object, and every kind of scen- ery, which has been, or might be represented with good effect in paint- ing” (quoted in Marshall, 2005: 18). The proponents of this word had to cope with sharp disagreements over its meaning, application and theori- zation; as a matter of fact, the picturesque stood at the crossroads of the history of painting, subgenres as the gothic and descriptive poetry and what James Dallaway described in 1827 as “the literary history of garden- ing” (Marshall, 2005: 17). It was precisely that continuous process of put- ting boundaries around it in order to delimit its essence what deprived the picturesque of a precise definition, making of it something virtually meaningless. Contrary to expectations, “this lack of precise definition is not an indication of its cultural or ideological insignificance (…) it can be argued that the cultural importance of the picturesque stands in direct proportion to the theoretical imprecision of its vocabulary” (Copley and Garside, 1994: 1). Such inaccuracy can be ascribed to the fact that when the term was introduced as an anglicisation of the French “Pittoresque” or the Italian “Pittoresco” in the early 18th century, it was not restricted to landscape, but applied to all class of subjects adequate for painting. Neither did William Gilpin (1724�1804), who set the vogue for pictur- esque tourism, employ the term strictly to landscape Aesthetics in his 1791 letter to Joshua Reynolds (1723�1792): “With regard to the term picturesque, I have always myself used it merely to denote such objects, as are proper subjects for painting: so that according to my definition, one of the car- toons [of Raphael], and a flower piece are equally picturesque” (quoted in Andrews, 1989: viii). Additionally, picturesque theorists sometimes privileged irregularity, decay and wildness over system and self-conscious compositions. Taking as an inspirational source the works of Claude Lorraine (1605�1682), Jacob Ruisdael (1628�1682), Nicolas Poussin (1594�1665), Gaspard Dughet (1616�1675) and Salvator Rosa (1615�1673), the most celebrated landscape painters who had captured wild sceneries dominating human figures to induce feelings of fear and greatness, picturesque supporters turned nature into a series of living tableaux and people into figures in their paintings. At heart, the theme of disputing the prevalent manner of conceiving and making works of art led to a clash between the old and the modern

106 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

the gothic and the romantic. In his Essay on the Picturesque (1794), Uvedale and to the need to reconcile both poles. That was the main concern of Price (1747�1829) wrote: “There are few words, whose meaning has the period and consequently of the three most outspoken exponents and been less accurately determined than that of the word picturesque,” as- pioneers of the picturesque movement: Uvedale Price (1747�1829), serting that the term “is applied to every object, and every kind of scen- Richard Payne Knight (1750�1824) and William Gilpin (1724�1804). ery, which has been, or might be represented with good effect in paint- What would have been a simple anecdote under other circumstances ing” (quoted in Marshall, 2005: 18). The proponents of this word had to became a decisive event in Price´s life and in the history of the pictur- cope with sharp disagreements over its meaning, application and theori- esque: he was asked to improve an old-fashioned garden and to achieve zation; as a matter of fact, the picturesque stood at the crossroads of the it, he utterly replaced the old with the new by destroying the former history of painting, subgenres as the gothic and descriptive poetry and structure, something he lamented afterwards in his Essay on the Picturesque what James Dallaway described in 1827 as “the literary history of garden- (1794). For Price, it was not about marginalizing undesired features and ing” (Marshall, 2005: 17). It was precisely that continuous process of put- imposing established models of coherence and a fixed system of rules, ting boundaries around it in order to delimit its essence what deprived but about combining things, putting forward mixture and contrasts as the picturesque of a precise definition, making of it something virtually the bedrock of any composition. Those features were mainly accom- meaningless. Contrary to expectations, “this lack of precise definition is plished through the presence of irregularity, variation, lack of conclusion not an indication of its cultural or ideological insignificance (…) it can be and of a manifest attitude of control in the composition. However, dur- argued that the cultural importance of the picturesque stands in direct ing the latter part of the 18th century, the controversy over aesthetic and proportion to the theoretical imprecision of its vocabulary” (Copley and political works sprang from the objects, the proportion and the degree of Garside, 1994: 1). Such inaccuracy can be ascribed to the fact that when such amalgam, since a relaxation of norms was at times tantamount to the term was introduced as an anglicisation of the French “Pittoresque” chaos and disappearance of inner congruence. This in-betweenness dated or the Italian “Pittoresco” in the early 18th century, it was not restricted back to the early 18th century when a tendency in taste toward English to landscape, but applied to all class of subjects adequate for painting. gardens and parks, not completely organized following geometrical lines, Neither did William Gilpin (1724�1804), who set the vogue for pictur- developed as part of a battle trying to erode the hegemony of French and esque tourism, employ the term strictly to landscape Aesthetics in his Dutch garden designs. The main defenders of this thinking were Joseph 1791 letter to Joshua Reynolds (1723�1792): “With regard to the term Addison (1672�1719), Lord Burlington (1694�1753) and Alexander picturesque, I have always myself used it merely to denote such objects, as are Pope (1688�1744), who proposed naturalness in garden art, although proper subjects for painting: so that according to my definition, one of the car- determining what that concept meant was a bit more complicated. Rob- toons [of Raphael], and a flower piece are equally picturesque” (quoted ert Castell (d. 1729) was also in favour of more natural gardens as he in Andrews, 1989: viii). Additionally, picturesque theorists sometimes made evident in Villas of the Ancients (1728), where he recognized rough- privileged irregularity, decay and wildness over system and self-conscious ness and naiveté, arrangement by rule and line and irregularity as the compositions. Taking as an inspirational source the works of Claude three stages required in the creation of a Roman garden, in the same way Lorraine (1605�1682), Jacob Ruisdael (1628�1682), Nicolas Poussin that Lord Kames (1696�1782) had identified mixture as a fundamental (1594�1665), Gaspard Dughet (1616�1675) and Salvator Rosa aesthetic principle. Roughness, naturalness and at occasions an artificially (1615�1673), the most celebrated landscape painters who had captured cultivated wildness were the preference of Richard Payne Knight, who wild sceneries dominating human figures to induce feelings of fear and opposed his criteria to those of Price and to the leading landscape gar- greatness, picturesque supporters turned nature into a series of living dener of the hour, Lancelot Brown (1716�1783). Neither did he agree tableaux and people into figures in their paintings. with Burke nor with Price on the issue of the sublime as his Analytical At heart, the theme of disputing the prevalent manner of conceiving Inquiry into the Principles of Taste (1806) displayed. His nonconformity arose and making works of art led to a clash between the old and the modern from the role of the senses in the sublime. Knight refuted the existence

106 107 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

of secondary senses of taste and the sublime that behaved as forms of perception. Although Price and Knight supported the picturesque, the former treated it as a combined sense, whereas the latter did not accept that disconnected senses could converge autonomously of experience and education (Townsend, 2006: 187). From the beginning of the 18th century, gardens became the focal point of artists and theoreticians, since dealing with them meant deci- phering the relationship between art and nature. Addison’s 1712 Spectator series on “the pleasures of the imagination” will suffice as an example. He contrasted nature with artificial and manicured gardens, landscapes with verbal and visual representations of them. However, if nature was preferred to art when it came to garden designs, art was privileged over nature in the context of the imagination. The similarity between works of art and works of nature made it much harder to discriminate between originals and copies. The modern sense of the word picturesque reached its peak thanks to William Gilpin who tended to use the term to designate “such objects as are proper subjects for painting” (quoted in Marshall, 2005: 18). Both Gilpin and Price wanted to differentiate the picturesque from the sub- lime and the beautiful, clarify that the picturesque movement was from painting to natural landscape and not the other way around, and to cata- logue it as a third emotional category, although the overlapping between the sublime and the picturesque was quite obvious, since both were emo- tions of awe. As an author of several touring guides such as A Dialogue upon the Gardens of the Right Honourable the Lord Viscount Cobham at Stow in Buckinghamshire (1748) and Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty, on Picturesque Travel, and Sketching Landscape (1791), he focused his attention on those British locations that met beauty and sublimity standards, as popularized by Lorraine, Ruisdael and Constable, in order to build expectations and patterns of aesthetic response. For Gilpin, the key features of a pictur- esque scene were those in which the portrayal was free from the prob- lematic of industry, commerce, economic struggles, that is, from the so- cial agenda of the time. Given that the primordial target of the pictur- esque lay in landscape, picturesque tourists and artists alike were not ab- sorbed in human beings, which explains why human figures were seen from a distance and not portrayed in any utilitarian exchange with the terrain. As Elizabeth Bohls argues, “work is unpicturesque” (Bohls, 1995: 96). The picturesque stressed visual aspects without taking into

108 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

of secondary senses of taste and the sublime that behaved as forms of consideration historical, moral or intellectual issues. From this perspec- perception. Although Price and Knight supported the picturesque, the tive, the picturesque was transformed into a sort of pastoral, a way of former treated it as a combined sense, whereas the latter did not accept hiding from the complexity of urban life, from the pressures of society, that disconnected senses could converge autonomously of experience and a means of living in a simpler entourage. Consequently, the georgic and education (Townsend, 2006: 187). poem, a classical genre celebrating rural and pastoral activities, helped to From the beginning of the 18th century, gardens became the focal invigorate 18th-century landscape poetry and to foster the nationalistic point of artists and theoreticians, since dealing with them meant deci- pride in Britain. This chauvinistic attitude took inspiration from Virgil phering the relationship between art and nature. Addison’s 1712 Spectator (70 BC-19 BC), who in Georgics had praised Italy, its fertile geography, series on “the pleasures of the imagination” will suffice as an example. nice weather, marvellous cities and its brave race of men and women. He contrasted nature with artificial and manicured gardens, landscapes This was one of the first steps Britain took to its cultural emancipation, with verbal and visual representations of them. However, if nature was to become aware of its own strengths and cultural resources, and to im- preferred to art when it came to garden designs, art was privileged over pose its superiority over other countries. Even quotations from Virgil nature in the context of the imagination. The similarity between works of and other Roman and Greek poets were “Englished,” as the first two art and works of nature made it much harder to discriminate between editions of Gilpin’s travel book Observations on the River Wye (1782) originals and copies. showed (Andrews, 1989: 4�12). The modern sense of the word picturesque reached its peak thanks to To close this section, we must recall that the aesthetic legacy entered William Gilpin who tended to use the term to designate “such objects as into a sort of blind alley in 1810 with Dugald Stewart’s Philosophical Es- are proper subjects for painting” (quoted in Marshall, 2005: 18). Both says, which marked the end of the Age of taste. After that, Aesthetics Gilpin and Price wanted to differentiate the picturesque from the sub- moved toward Germany, and more specifically it found refuge in Ger- lime and the beautiful, clarify that the picturesque movement was from man Idealism. However, what superficially might have seemed its demise painting to natural landscape and not the other way around, and to cata- proved to be a rebirth. As Costelloe argues, “the bridge from the Age of logue it as a third emotional category, although the overlapping between Taste to the Age of Romanticism is both more solid and traversable than the sublime and the picturesque was quite obvious, since both were emo- might at first appear: it emerges in the debates over the picturesque” tions of awe. As an author of several touring guides such as A Dialogue (2013: 7). upon the Gardens of the Right Honourable the Lord Viscount Cobham at Stow in Buckinghamshire (1748) and Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty, on Picturesque CONCLUSION Travel, and Sketching Landscape (1791), he focused his attention on those British locations that met beauty and sublimity standards, as popularized Addressing the theme of Aesthetics during the 18th century or any sub- by Lorraine, Ruisdael and Constable, in order to build expectations and ject matter encompassing a century goes hand in hand with cross- patterns of aesthetic response. For Gilpin, the key features of a pictur- currents and contradictions. Certainly, as it has been explained, the very esque scene were those in which the portrayal was free from the prob- topic in itself was a slippery one, since from its inception the aesthetic lematic of industry, commerce, economic struggles, that is, from the so- domain was ill-disposed toward definition as it has happened with so cial agenda of the time. Given that the primordial target of the pictur- many literary labels. If undoubtedly Aesthetics was concerned with re- esque lay in landscape, picturesque tourists and artists alike were not ab- flections upon beauty and the arts, all that related with perception and sorbed in human beings, which explains why human figures were seen visual appraisal reaching back to Plato, Aristotle, Longinus, Plotinus, from a distance and not portrayed in any utilitarian exchange with the Augustine and Aquinas, the development and treatment of Aesthetics terrain. As Elizabeth Bohls argues, “work is unpicturesque” (Bohls, was affected both by the specific perspective of each thinker and by all 1995: 96). The picturesque stressed visual aspects without taking into surrounding circumstances as time wore on. On the one hand, this

108 109 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

meant that each philosophe shaped Aesthetics according to his view of the world, enriching it with fresh paths, while on the other Aesthetics was gradually modified by socio-historical dynamics. In other words, Aes- thetics was sculptured by inner as well as by outward agents, which justi- fies why any attempt to set demarcation lines fractures such resolution. As a concept embedded in the Age of Reason, Aesthetics and taste have to be understood against the background of the collapse of the pri- or social order and of the pressing need to restore values and decorum, especially after the violent upheavals of the 17th century. If the early 18th century was eager to rebuild a solid social fortress, and this includes the art field in which Neoclassicism drew inspiration from ancient Roman and Greek cultures, as the century evolved that rigidness gave way to more flexible and relaxed approaches to the arts: systematization was challenged by freedom, an urge to contravene stylistic formalism and conventions, but without entering into anarchy. Despite this pendular movement, aesthetic trends did not exist in a pure state, but they were at a constant interplay, and in many occasions they brought to the fore in- tellectual conflicts about the meaning and accuracy of the Aesthetic. At times, the tyranny of taste and its requirements were so demanding that satirical poems came as a relief. That was the case of James Bramston’s “The Man of Taste” (1733). In any case, this terminological and conceptual crisis was the driving force behind the 18th-century explosion of the massive interest in the arts: music, painting, printmaking, gardening, architecture, theatres and all kind of artistic artefacts underwent an unprecedented growth and impres- sive expansion. Although extraordinary artworks and writings about beau- ty and sublimity dated back to classical antiquity, in the 18th century they were treated as a whole and the arts were accorded a collective identity.

References Andrews, Malcolm. The Search for the Picturesque: Landscape Aesthetics and Tourism in Britain, 1760-1800. Great Britain: Stanford University Press, 1989. Ashfield, Andrew, and Peter de Bolla. Eds. The Sublime: A Reader in British Eighteenth- Century Aesthetic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Ashfield, Andrew, and Peter de Bolla.“Introduction.”The Sublime: A Reader in British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetic Theory.Eds. Andrew Ashfield and Peter de Bolla. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 1�16. Axelsson, Karl. The Sublime: Precursors and British Eighteenth-Century Conceptions. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. Bohls, Elizabeth A. Women Travel Writers and the Language of Aesthetics: 1716�1818.

110 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology 10(2)/2013: 93–112

meant that each philosophe shaped Aesthetics according to his view of the Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. world, enriching it with fresh paths, while on the other Aesthetics was Brewer, John. The Pleasures of the Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century. gradually modified by socio-historical dynamics. In other words, Aes- New York: Routledge, 1997. Broglio, Ron. Technologies of the Picturesque: British Art, Poetry, and Instruments thetics was sculptured by inner as well as by outward agents, which justi- 1750�1830. New Jersey: Associated University Presses, 2008. fies why any attempt to set demarcation lines fractures such resolution. Copley, Stephen, and Peter Garside. Eds.The Politics of the Picturesque: Literature, Land- As a concept embedded in the Age of Reason, Aesthetics and taste scape and Aesthetics since 1770. Cambridge: Cambridge Universitry Press, 1994. have to be understood against the background of the collapse of the pri- Copley, Stephen, and Peter Garside.“Introduction.”The Politics of the Picturesque: Liter- or social order and of the pressing need to restore values and decorum, ature, Landscape and Aesthetics since 1770.Eds. Stephen Copley and Peter Garside. especially after the violent upheavals of the 17th century. If the early 18th Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 1�12. century was eager to rebuild a solid social fortress, and this includes the Costelloe, Timothy M. The British Aesthetic Tradition: From Shaftesbury to Wittgenstein. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. art field in which Neoclassicism drew inspiration from ancient Roman Cranston, Maurice. The Romantic Movement. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, USA: and Greek cultures, as the century evolved that rigidness gave way to Blackwell, 1994. more flexible and relaxed approaches to the arts: systematization was Dickie, George. The Century of Taste: The Philosophical Odyssey of Taste in the Eighteenth challenged by freedom, an urge to contravene stylistic formalism and Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. conventions, but without entering into anarchy. Despite this pendular Friday, Jonathan. Ed.Art and Enlightenment: Scottish Aesthetics in the 18th Century. U.K.: movement, aesthetic trends did not exist in a pure state, but they were at Imprint Academic, 2004. Halimi, Suzy. “The Sublime.”A Handbook to English Romanticism.Eds. Jean Raimond a constant interplay, and in many occasions they brought to the fore in- and J. R. Watson. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992. 269�271. tellectual conflicts about the meaning and accuracy of the Aesthetic. At Hume, David. “Of the Standard of Taste.” 5 July, 2013. times, the tyranny of taste and its requirements were so demanding that satirical poems came as a relief. That was the case of James Bramston’s Hunt, John D. Gardens and the Picturesque: Studies in the History of Land- “The Man of Taste” (1733). scape.Massachussets: Massachussets Institute of Technology. 1992. In any case, this terminological and conceptual crisis was the driving Jones, Robert W. Gender and the Formation of Taste in Eighteenth-Century Britain: the force behind the 18th-century explosion of the massive interest in the Analysis of Beauty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Marshall, David. “Shaftesbury and Addison: Criticism and the Public Taste.”The arts: music, painting, printmaking, gardening, architecture, theatres and all Cambridge History of Literary Criticism.Vol. IV.The Eighteenth Century.Eds. H. B. kind of artistic artefacts underwent an unprecedented growth and impres- Nisbet and Claude Rawson, 1997.633�657. sive expansion. Although extraordinary artworks and writings about beau- Marshall, David. The Frame of Art: Fictions of Aesthetic Experience, 1750�1815. USA: ty and sublimity dated back to classical antiquity, in the 18th century they The John Hopkins University Press, 2005. were treated as a whole and the arts were accorded a collective identity. Mortensen, Preben. Art in the Social Order: The Making of the Modern Conception of Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Nicholas, A. H. Ed.The Republic of Letters: A Republication of Standard Literature. Vol. References VI. New York: George Dearborn, 1836. Andrews, Malcolm. The Search for the Picturesque: Landscape Aesthetics and Tourism in Nisbet, H. B., and Claude Rawson. Eds.The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism.Vol. Britain, 1760-1800. Great Britain: Stanford University Press, 1989. IV.The Eighteenth Century.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Ashfield, Andrew, and Peter de Bolla. Eds. The Sublime: A Reader in British Eighteenth- Radcliffe, Ann. The Mysteries of Udolpho. 1794. London: Penguin Books, 2001. Century Aesthetic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Raimond, Jean and J. R. Watson. Eds.A Handbook to English Romanticism.New York: Ashfield, Andrew, and Peter de Bolla.“Introduction.”The Sublime: A Reader in British St.Martin’s Press, 1992. Eighteenth-Century Aesthetic Theory.Eds. Andrew Ashfield and Peter de Bolla. Cam- Robinson, Sidney K. Inquiry into the Picturesque. Chicago: The University of Chicago bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 1�16. Press, 1991. Axelsson, Karl. The Sublime: Precursors and British Eighteenth-Century Conceptions. Bern: Schlaeger, Jürgen, and Gesa Stedman.Eds. Representations of Emotions.Tübingen: Narr, Peter Lang, 2007. 1999. Bohls, Elizabeth A. Women Travel Writers and the Language of Aesthetics: 1716�1818.

110 111 Montserrat Martínez García / British Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics

Schlaeger, Jürgen. “The Politics of Taste.”Representations of Emotions.Eds. Jürgen Schlaegerand Gesa Stedman.Tübingen: Narr, 1999. 77�86. Szabo, Lynn R. et al. Through a Glass Darkly: Suffering, the Sacred, and the Sublime in Lit- erature and Theory. Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2010. Townsend, Dabney. The A to Z of Aesthetics. United Kingdom: Scarecrow Press, 2006. Valihora, Karen. Austen’s Oughts: Judgment after Locke and Shaftesbury. New Jersey: As- sociated University Presses, 2010.

112