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The Urban Heat Island Effect and Sustainability Science: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions 275 Chapter 14 The Urban Heat Island Effect and Sustainability Science: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions Darren Ruddell, Anthony Brazel, Winston Chow, Ariane Middel Introduction As Chapter 3 described, urbanization began approximately 10,000 years ago Urbanization The process when people first started organizing into small permanent settlements. whereby native landscapes While people initially used local and organic materials to meet residential are converted to urban land and community needs, advances in science, technology, and transportation uses, such as commercial systems support urban centers that rely on distant resources to produce and residential development. engineered surfaces and synthetic materi- als. This process of urbanization, Urbanization is also defined which manifests in both population and spatial extent, has increased over as rural migration to urban the course of human history. For instance, according to the 2014 US Census, centers. the global population has rapidly increased from 1 billion people in 1804 to 7.1 billion in 2014. During the same period, the global population living in urban centers grew from 3% to over 52% (US Census, 2014). In 1950, there were 86 cities in the world with a population of more than 1 million. This number has grown to 512 cities in 2016 with a projected 662 cities by 2030 (UN, 2016). Megacities (urban agglomerations with populations greater than 10 million) have also become commonplace throughout the world. In Megacities Urban 2016, the UN determined that there are 31 megacities globally and agglomerations, including estimate that this number will increase to 41 by 2030. The highest rates of all of the contiguous urban urbanization and most megacities are in the developing world, area, or built-up area. particularly in South America (i.e., Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro), Asia (i.e., Jakarta, Delhi, Mumbai, Shanghai, Dhaka), and Africa (Cairo, Lagos). Megacities in developed countries include Tokyo, New York, Los Angeles, London, and Paris. One common thread found in all cities, regardless of population size and urban extent, is that urbanization inadvertently alters the local climate system. Although impacts vary at different spatial scales—such as at the scale of an individual building, neighborhood, city, or urban region, clear differences occur in climate between urban and rural areas, as witnessed in patterns of precipitation (rainfall and snowfall), humidity, particulate matter, and wind speed (Landsberg, 1981). Spatial scales The extent or coverage of any given area, such as a county, state, or nation. 273 274 Sustainability for the 21st Century This chapter examines one of the best-known urban-induced climate alterations—the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. By the end of this chapter, Urban Heat Island (UHI) A you will understand: global phenomenon in which surface land and air • The morphology of UHI as well as different UHI types temperature in urban areas is higher than in bordering • Factors causing or modifying UHI intensity areas. The primary causes • UHI tendencies among various climate regimes are related to the structural • The impacts of the UHI on residents and land cover differences of these areas. • Linkages between the UHI effect and urban sustainability Morphology The study of • Various mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the UHI effect the form, structure, process, and transformation of an organism or phenomenon The UHI Effect and/or any of its parts. UHI Intensity Measured The UHI effect was first recognized by the English meteorologist Luke as the differences in land Howard who noted that temperatures within the City of London were surface temperature (LST) different from the surrounding countryside (Howard, 1833). between urban areas and The temperature of the city is not to be considered as that of the climate; surrounding boundary area. it partakes too much of an artificial warmth, induced by its structure, by a This variance is related to crowded population, and the consumption of great quantities of fuel in meteorological elements fires (p. 2). such as cloudiness, wind speed, temperature, and He hypothesized that the conversion of the Earth’s natural surfaces into absolute humidity. urban surfaces (e.g., asphalt, concrete, glass) for human socio-economic Mitigation Strategies activities, now referred to as land use and land cover change (LULCC), used to reduce ing climate and the generation of heat from factories and/or transportation systems, of the countryside:ties. among other sources, now referred to as anthropogenic waste heat, rature (LST) between urban were key factors in causing the UHI. It turns out Howard was not far off! areas and surrounding Cities are comprised of structures of different heights, providing a greenhouse gas emissions “rough” surface as opposed to relatively cohesive heights in outlying areas. (GHG) and increase carbon They also tend to be warmer due to the impervious nature of the materials sequestration in order to used (i.e., concrete, asphalt, metal, etc.), which inhibit moisture absorption slow the rate of climate and limits the cooling effect, and anthropogenic waste heat, which stems change. from human activities. For example, many manufacturing processes use Adaptation Adjustment heat (i.e., coal and nuclear plants, cement kilns, or steel furnaces). Waste strategies to increase a heat is heat that escapes or is released from these processes. Household system’s ability to adjust and appliances, lawn maintenance equipment, and combustion engines, among reduce vulnerability to the other machines release heat into the environment when used as well. effects of climate change. These topographical and structural differences as well as the Land Use and land cover concentration of human activities combine to increase the temperature in (LULC) Land use refers to urban regions; thereby, contributing to the UHI effect. the syndromes of human The UHI effect quantifies the temperature gradient between urban and activities (e.g., agriculture, nearby rural areas, which often depicts a given urban area as an island of urbanization) on lands. heat amid the native landscape. This pattern is similar to the geomorphic Land cover refers to the land/sea interface of an island, with a notable “cliff ” separating the urban physical and biological and rural temperature fields. This is illustrated in Figure 1, which depicts cover of the surface of land the UHI effect in Phoenix, Arizona. There are four distinct UHI subtypes: (i.e., bare soil, vegetation, 1) subsurface, 2) surface, 3) urban canopy layer, and 4) urban boundary water). Land Use and land layer (Oke, 1995). Observing and measuring temperatures within the cover change (LULCC) refers different UHI subtypes requires distinct methodological platforms. For to the changes forced by example, urban canopy layer studies use data either obtained from human activities on both land use and land cover. Anthropogenic waste heat Heat energy released into the atmosphere from human activities such as industry and transportation. Chapter 14 The Urban Heat Island Effect and Sustainability Science: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions 275 Figure 1 The spatial form of the Phoenix, Arizona Metropolitan UHI in June 2000, as measured by minimum temperatures (Tmin) taken from several weather stations Source: Author, Winston Chow Urban heat island (UHI) subtypes: 1. Subsurface: below the point measurements taken at weather stations or during mobile surveys surface of the earth (Brazel et al., 2000). Surface and subsurface UHI studies often use data 2. Surface: the skin of the from handheld, infrared thermometers or from remote-sensing instruments surface of the earth mounted on airplanes, helicopters, or satellites. The urban boundary layer 3. Urban canopy layer: the UHI can be investigated through radiosonde data collected by weather atmospheric air layer between the ground balloons that travel up to the top of the lower atmosphere. surface and average Stewart and Oke (2012) introduced a more inclusive approach that building roof height uses the concept of Local Climate Zones (LCZs). The LCZ system classifies 4. Urban boundary layer: study sites based on the urban structure, land cover, materials, and the lowest portion of a anthropogenic activity. The LCZ scheme relies on 17 standardized classes planetary atmospheric to assess differences between urban and rural landscapes within the given boundary layer that is study area (Figure 2). directly influenced by an Parks, lakes, and open areas within cities generally observe lower underlying urban area temperatures than the surrounding urban area and can disrupt urban temperature peaks; these are sometimes called park cool islands (PCI) Radiosonde A miniature (Figure 3). Dense urban areas can also be cooler during the day than radio transmitter with sprawled urban areas due to reduced incoming solar radiation and more instruments for sensing and shading (Middel et al., 2014). If daytime temperatures in the urban area broadcasting atmospheric are lower than in the surrounding areas, this is called an oasis effect. The conditions oasis effect is mainly driven by moisture availability and shading. Park cool island Knowledge about the cooling influence of PCIs within cities is important in (PCI) Zones in the urban dis- cussing ways to sustainably mitigate the UHI, as we shall see later in landscape reporting this chapter. Typically, scientists measure the UHI effect based on weather relatively cooler temperature station data either by the
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