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LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE IN THE JAPANESE ACADEMIC SCENE

Tetsuo NISHIO*

1. Arabic linguistics Arabic scholarship in Japan In the Japanese language, we find many Arabic loanwords, most of which were introduced indirectly by way of in early modern times, or by way of new European artifacts with Portuguese or Spanish names in medieval times. It is, however, not until recent times that academic attention was paid to the Arabic language. Scholastic interest in the Arabic language developed as a subsidiary discipline to Islamic study, especially before and during World War Two, because so many were found in the Japanese occupied areas. Most publications during this time, like the textbook written by a Japanese leading scholar, Toshihiko Izutsu, did not aim so much at developing linguistic discussion, as at supplying a practical method for reading such as al-Qur 'an (the Koran). In 1958, an influential linguistic work by N. Chomsky was published. Using the theoretical basis of structural linguistics or generative grammar, many studies on Arabic appeared in America, most of which made little contribution to the linguistic understanding of the Arabic language, as in the case of work by the generative grammarians, who were satisfied with re-molding traditional Arabic grammatical rules into the new transformational framework, sometimes showing their similarities in grammatical analysis with the traditional Arabic grammatical theory developed by medieval Arabic grammarians. Turning to the situation in Japan, Arabic study has had relatively little interest in general linguistics, partly because it is not so sensitive to current theoretical trends in America, and partly because Arabic study has been led by the staff of two universities for teaching foreign languages (Osaka University of Foreign Studies and Tokyo University of Foreign Studies). But this situation has changed as the general linguistic concerns have moved from a rigidly formal

* Associate Professor , National Museum of Ethnology

Vol.XXXVII 2002 65 approach to a functional descriptive one, with particular interest in linguistic typology, functional grammar and discourse analysis. An increasing numbers of studies currently done in Japan are done not only with reference to theoretical frameworks, but also from wider social or cultural perspectives. One can get a concise view on the state of Arabic linguistics in Japan through the Sanseido Encyclopedia of Linguistics, which is regarded as a monumental work in linguistic scholarship in Japan. Regrettably, however, its description of the Arabic language fails to give us a comprehensive picture of recent developments in Arabic linguistics. Only the atlas of modern Arabic dialects and the of Arabic letters (prepared by Y. Takashina) are very useful.

Diachronic studies Traditional developed as a discipline by which to understand the correct meanings of al-Qur'an, and was systematized as a method by which to read and write texts. It has been already pointed out that the methodological attitude of the traditional Arabic grammarians to search for as concise grammatical rules as possible for the purpose of aiding Arabic students to memorize them gave rise to similar analytical notions in modern transformational grammatical theory. As for the study of the traditional Arabic grammatical theory, we find Naiki (1968), which clarifies the meaning of the grammatical terms. Okazaki (1991) and Nakae (1997) discuss it from a modern linguistic viewpoint. After the 1 1 th century, when the traditional Arabic grammarians had established and standardized Classical Arabic, the Arabic language underwent structural change with increasing influence of regional dialects. Ikeda (1968, 1970ab, 1973ab) aimed to clarify pre-classical Arabic, such as Qur'anic Arabic, by analyzing the grammatical descriptions given by those grammarians who had worked before dogmatic Arabic became standardized. His studies have a common attitude with recent Arabic studies that aim to clarify the detailed relationship among early grammarians with respect to the historical development of the two so-called major grammatical schools and . Very few studies have been made in Japan on the theoretical characteristics of the traditional Arabic grammar in relation to the general history of grammatical theories. We find only the general discussion in the Sanseido Encyclopedia of Linguistics (given by F. Yajima). Much progress has been made in the study of the linguistic situation in the

66 ORIENT ARABIC LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE IN THE JAPANESE ACADEMIC SCENE

pre-Islamic era. Recent archaeological discoveries of new pre-Islamic inscriptions and the computer-aided study of the enormous number of inscriptions using a systematic database will shed new light on the history of the Arabic language. Takashina (1984) proposes linguistic criteria for gleaning Dedanite inscriptions. Shitomi (1988) discusses the origin and early development of the , with special reference to its historical relation with Southern Arabian scripts. Kawatoko (1992) gives new material for the usage of Coptic numerals in early Arabic commercial documents. Very few studies have been made in the field of the historical linguistics, mainly owing to the paucity of written materials showing the actual state of contemporary spoken Arabic dialects. Fukuhara (1974) discusses the diachronic change of Arabic sibilants from the viewpoint of comparative Semitic linguistics. Nishio (1991 a) is a study of medieval , based on the material found in the so-called Genizah documents. Nishio (2000), also using Cairo Genizah materials, tries to reconstruct the vowel system of medieval Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. Yoda (2000) also analyzes the diachronic change of vowel systems found in various modern Maghribi Arabic dialects. As for the diachronic syntax, Nishio (1996b) focuses on the syntactic change in wh- questions in Egyptian Arabic. We must admit that quite a few studies have been made on syntactic changes in Classical Arabic. An important contribution by Moriguchi (2001) traces the early usage of conditionals.

Synchronic studies As for synchronic study, morphological issues, such as the vowel alternation in the derivation of weak verbs or the syllabic structure in the formation of broken plurals, have been a main concern. With a new stream in general linguistics, we find also in the field of Arabic linguistics much theoretical discussion about syntactic, semantic and discourse structures. Ban (1986) gives us new materials for the semantic analysis of negative particles. Nishio (1989) and Kondo (1999) discuss the verbal tense-aspect system in connection with syntactic environments. Nishio (1988) is a semantic analysis of Arabic modal particles. The above-mentioned two studies by Nishio, based on the analysis of the Qur'anic Arabic usage, propose that pre-Classical Arabic, as exemplified by Qur'anic Arabic, has a structurally different verbal (tense-aspect- modal) system than the so-called standardized Classical Arabic. Nakamichi (1999) makes a functional-discourse analysis of the Qur'anic Arabic usage of

Vol. XXXVII 2002 67 conjunctions. As for the study of , Sakaedani (1998, 1999) and Kondo (2001), both of which make textual analyses, give us new understandings about the issues of definiteness and negation respectively. Recent Arabic studies in Japan characteristically handle large amounts of data, sometimes with statistical analysis, and of showing cognitive processes in linguistic representation and its relation to Arabic culture. It is theoretically acknowledged that the human cognitive process is given some structural framework by representing the world phenomena by means of language, and that the semantic and cognitive sturucture of a given language will shed light on the cultural cognition of those who use it. Izusu (1959), a work by a leading Japanese scholar in , is regarded as an epoch-making study, which tries to reconstruct the structure of the Islamic worldview through a semantic analysis of Qur'anic religious terms. When looked at from the viewpoint of modern semantics, his theoretical framework, which is a structural-lexical- semantic approach, has limited plausibility, so we must re-evaluate his work with the help of modern theory concerning linguistic categorization on proto- types or cognitive frames. Nishio (1996a) tries to clarify the metaphorical structure of cognitive space of .

Dialects and the national language The study of Arabic dialects is a very active scene, as can be seen in the activity of the Japanese members of AIDA (L'Association Internationale pour le Dialectologie Arabe). Nakano (1982) and Nishio (1992, 1994a), all of which are based on field research, are important contributions. Nutahara (1982) and Shimizu (1991) are anthropological works. The study of language and its relation to ethnic groups or nation-states is becoming an interdisciplinary field of linguistics, , area studies and so on, because the issues pertain to ethnicity, language nationalism and linguistic policy. linguists Saleh (1998, 1999) discusses the history of language nationalism in in comparison with the formative process of the national language in Japan. It is very regrettable, however, that his study doesn't give enough attention to recent discussions in the West, but it should be regarded as a valuable contribution made by a native Egyptian scholar who has a keen interest in theoretical problems present in Japanese linguistics. Nishio (2001) discusses language nationalism in the with special reference to the history of in an Islamic context.

68 ORIENT ARABIC LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE IN THE JAPANESE ACADEMIC SCENE Recent Arabic studies in Japan have common interest with the academic trends in the world and make important contributions in the various fields of Arabic linguistics. One should note also the many contributions of foreign scholars active in Japan, as shown in Bouslama (1999), Oh (1997), Ratcliffe (1998), Wahba & Miller (1997). It should be noted, though, that there are no comprehensive Arabic dictionaries for Japanese readers. Contrastive linguistic studies of Arabic and Japanese are necessary to develop tools for Japanese scholars. Note: For more comprehensiveinformation, see T. Nishio & Sh. Nakamichi (2002) "Arabic LinguisticStudies in Japan: A BibliographicalSurvey," Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology(in Japanese).

2. Arabic literature The Araban Nights One of the most popular Arabic literary work in Japan is The Thousand and One Nights or The Arabian Nights' Entertainments. It was and remains influential in the formation of Japan's image of the or the Arab- Islamic world. The Arabian Nights was first translated into Japanese in 1875. It was one of the earliest works of foreign literature introduced in the Meiji Era. Sugita (1999) traces the translations of The Arabian Nights and its literary influence in Japan. Japanese versions of The Arabian Nights have long been the translations of English or French versions, such as those of Lane, Burton, or Mardrus. Maejima & Ikeda (1966-92) is the first and only translation from the Arabic original. We have many studies on The Arabian Nights from various angles. Aoyagi (2000) applies modern literary theory, and Kobayashi (2001) discusses the history of illustrations of the work, and Yamanaka (2001 b) treats the literary description of space. As pointed out by Nishio (1994b), what is needed now is to reconstruct the medieval Arabic society by using The Arabian Nights as an historical source and to re-evaluate the Western images of the Middle East and their influence on Japanese culture. Beside The Arabian Nights, we have only a few Japanese translations of Arabic literary works, most of which are translated from European versions. There has been no textual edition of Classical literary works. This situation surely shows that in Japan Middle Eastern studies in general, and Arabic literary studies in particular, developed their basic methodology under the influence of Western scholarship. This fact can be especially appreciated when we contrast

Vol. XXXVII 2002 69 the enormous number of translations of European literature in Japan.

Classical Arabic literature As for the general history of Arabic literature, we have only the very concise history of Shimada (1964). Sekine (1979) makes topical remarks about Arabic literary history. We need a comprehensive work that gives a general history of Arabic literature. Ogasawara (1983) is a concise description of pre- Islamic (al-Jahiliyya) Arabic . Ban (1970) makes a linguistic analysis of the works of Imru' al-. Yamamoto (2001) tries to reconstruct the social activity of the poets called Sa'alik. We have several Japanese translations of Classical , such as Hanawa (1988). While it is usual to discuss rhythmic patterns, the semantic structures of words, or their symbolic meanings, Motoyoshi (1999ab, 2001) tries to find a poetic way of representing the world, applying the inter-arts theory. Her attitude is shared by Sugita (1993), a comparative study of Arabic and . As for Classical literature, we have a translation of Ibn al-Muqaffa"s Kalila wa Dimna by Y. Sasaki. Iwase (1999) traces the literary origin of a certain story in Kalila and Dimna, comparing it with ancient Indian tales. We have a translation of Ibn azm's Tawq al-Hamdma by T. Kuroda. An annotated translation of Ibn Hal- Battata's Rillla is now under publication by Y. Hikoichi. T. Nishio's translation of al-Jahiz's Kitab al-Bukhala' will be published soon. Hamada (1999) discusses the rhetorical terminology used by al-B.44.

Modern Arabic literature The literary themes found in do not fail to influence literary studies in Japan, most of which, such as Ikeda (1986), Oka (1992, 1993) and Yagi (1995ab), discuss the issues concerning the relation of literature with its society, ethnic groups and nations. Special attention should be paid to the eminent studies of Nutahara (1985, 1999), in which speculates about the regional characteristics pertaining to modern Arabic literature in literary media and universality in literary themes. A similar attitude is found in Okazaki (1995), which rather focuses on the internal world of a writer in relation to his literary and social background. Fukuda (1997, 1999) discusses the relation between reality and narrative construction in the literary world. As for modern Arabic poetry, Mori (1998) is an eminent study, elucidating Jubran's poetic idea in relation to his actual literary activities.

70 ORIENT ARABIC LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE IN THE JAPANESE ACADEMIC SCENE Arabic folk literature As for Arabic folk literature, we have several translations from the works written in European languages. Imoto (1987) and Nishio (1991b) are comparative folkloric studies. Horiuchi (1985) discusses the origin and development of poetic rhythm in Arabic folk songs, with special reference to cultural and natural environments of the Arabs. Takeda (1986) classifies the folk stories of Juhei and traces their historical development as a literary genre. As the Arabian Nights has long been looked down in the Arab world, so no appropriate academic concern was given to the study of folk literature in general. Now we find many folk literatures disappearing from the cultural scene in every region in the world, so it is a urgent task to record oral folk tales as part of the human cultural heritage. Oda (2001) is a study on the theory for accomplishing this purpose. Note: For more comprehensiveinformation, see T. Nishio "A bibliographyfor the studies of Arabic literaturein Japan."In T. Nishio & H. Sugita (eds.) Introductionto the Study of Arabic literature.Kyoto: Sekaishisosha(in Japanese,forthcoming).

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Vol. XXXVII 2002 71 Fukuhara, N. 1974: "The Phonetic Shift of Sibilants in Arabic," Journal of Osaka University of Foreign Studies 30, 15-28. Hamada, S.1999:濱 田 聖 子 「ジ ャ ー ヒ ズ と ア ラ ブ 修 辞 学 の 形 成 過 程 」 『日 本 中 東 学 会 年 報 』 14, 219-247. Hamada, S., "al-Jahiz and the Formative Process of Arabic Rhetoric." AJAMES 14(1999), 219-247. Hanawa, H.1988:塙 治 夫(編 訳)ア ブ ー ・ヌ ワ ー ス 『ア ラ ブ 飲 酒 詩 選 』 岩 波 書 店.[Hanawa, H. (tr.), Selection of the Arabic Poetry of , Iwanami Shoten, 1988.] Horiuchi, M.1985:堀 内 勝 「ア ラ ブ の リ ズ ム 観 一 西 ア ジ ア 遊 牧 生 活 か ら の 発 想 」 『口 頭 伝 承 の 比 較 研 究2』 弘 文 堂,26-58.[Horiuchi, M.,"Arabic Rhythm and Nomadic Way of Life," Comparative Studies of Oral Traditions 2, Kobundo , 1985, 26-58.]

Ikeda,0.1968:池 田 修 「'ABU L-'ASWAD D-DU'ALIを め ぐ っ て 」 『大 阪 外 国 語 大 学 学 報 』19, 61-69. Ikeda, O., "'Abu l-'Aswad d-Du' and Arabic grammar," Journal of Osaka University of Foreign Studies 19 (1968), 61-69. Ikeda, O. 1970a:池 田 修 「9世 紀 以 前 の ア ラ ビ ア 語 の 研 究 」 『オ リ エ ン ト』11/3,121-160. Ikeda, O., "Arabic Studies before the 9th Century," BSNESJ 11/3(1970), 121-160. Ikeda, O. 1970b:池 田 修 「10世 紀 以 降 の ア ラ ビ ア 語 研 究 の 歴 史 」 『大 阪 外 国 語 大 学 学 報 』22, 35-49. Ikeda, O., "The History of Arabic Philology from the 10th Century up to the 19th Century," Journal of Osaka University of Foreign Studies, 22 (1970), 35-49.

Ikeda, O. 1973a:池 田 修 「ア ラ ブ 文 法 学 に お け る`Amil論 」 『大 阪 外 国 語 大 学 学 報 』29,25-33. Ikeda, O., "The Theory of `Amil Conceived by the Arab Grammarians," Journal of Osaka University of Foreign Studies 29(1973), 25-33.

Ikeda, O. 1973b:池 田 修 「ア イ ン の 書 に つ い て 」 『オ リ エ ン ト 』16/1,75-95. Ikeda, O.,"On the Kitab al-'ain," BSNESJ 16/1(1973), 75-95. Ikeda, O. 1976:池 田 修 『ア ラ ビ ア 語 入 門 』 岩 波 書 店.[Ikeda, O., Introduction to Arabic Grammar, Iwanami Shoten, 1976.] Ikeda, O. 1986:池 田 修 「エ ジ プ ト社 会 を 描 く ナ ギ ー ブ ・マ ハ フ ー ズ 」 『オ リ エ ン ト史 講 座6 ア ラ ブ と イ ス ラ エ ル 』 学 生 社,106-130.[Ikeda, O.,"Naguib Mahfuz and Egyptian Society," in The History of the Orient 6: Arab and Israel, Gakuseisha,1986, 106-130.] Imoto, E. 1987:井 本 英 一 「中 近 東 の 羽 衣 説 話 」 『民 間 説 話 の 研 究 一 日 本 と世 界 』 同 朋 社.289一 305. [Imoto, E., "Hagoromo Tales in the Middle East," in Studies in Folk Tales in Japan and the World, Dohosha, 1987, 289-305.] Iwase, Y. 1999: "The Development of Selected Stories from the Pancatantra - 'Crows and ', 'Heron and Crab' and 'Heron, Serpent and Mongoose (Weasel)," AJAMES 14 (1999), 121-146. Izutsu, T.1950:井 筒 俊 彦 『ア ラ ビ ア 語 入 門 』 慶 応 出 版 社.[Izutsu, T., Introduction to Arabic Grammar, Keio Shuppansha, 1950.] Izutsu, T. 1959: The Structure of the Ethical Terms in the Koran, The Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies. Kawasaki, T.1969:川 崎 寅 雄 『ア ラ ブ 近 代 文 学 の 群 像 』 潮 出 版 社.[Kawasaki, T., Modern Arabic Literature, Ushio Shuppansha, 1969.] Kawatoko, M.1992: "On the use of Coptic numerals in Egypt in the 16th Century." Orient 28, 58- 74. Kobayashi, K. 2001: "The Illustration of the Old Man of the Sea and the Story of Sindbad the Sailor: Its Iconography and Legendary Background," in T. Nishio (ed.), Cultural Change in the Arab World, National Museum of Ethnology, 101-119.

72 ORIENT ARABIC LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE IN THE JAPANESE ACADEMIC SCENE

Kondo, T.1999:近 藤 智 子 「ア ラ ビ ア 語 の 条 件 文 に お け る 時 制 を 表 す 動 詞 複 合 形 に つ い て 」 『言 語 研 究 』115,109-140.Kondo, T.,"On the Time-Marking Compound Verbal Forms in Conditional Sentences of Arabic," Gengo Kenkyu: Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan 115 (1999), 109-140. Kondo, T. 2001: "On the Interpretation of ma Perfect / lam Jussive - hatta Perfect Construction," Zeitschrift fur Arabische Linguistik 39, 36-52.

Maejima, S. & O. Ikeda 1966-92:前 嶋 信 次 ・池 田 修(訳)『 ア ラ ビ ア ン ・ナ イ ト』 平 凡 社. [Maejima, S. & O. Ikeda (tr.), The Arabian Nights, Heibonsha, 1966-92.] Makino, S. 1963: Zum semantischen Aufbau der neuarabischen Verben, The Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies.

Mori, S. 1998:森 晋 太 郎 「ジ ュ ブ ラ ー ン ・ハ リ ー ル ・ジ ュ ブ ラ ー ン に お け る ア ラ ブ 詩 変 革 と 伝 統 主 義 批 判 」 『日 本 中 東 学 会 年 報 』13,305-336. Mori, S., "Jubran Khalil Jubran's Revolution of Arabic Poetry and His Criticism of Traditionalism," AJAMES 13(1998), 305- 336.

Mori, S. 1999:森 晋 太 郎 「ア ラ ブ 近 代 文 学 に お け る ア ラ ビ ア 語 と ジ ュ ブ ラ ー ン ・ハ リ ー ル ・ ジ ュ ブ ラ ー ン の ア ラ ビ ア 語 観 」 『日 本 中 東 学 会 年 報 』14,1-20. Mori, S., "The Arabic Language in Modern Arabic Literature and Jubran Khalil Jubran's View of Arabic," AJAMES 14 (1999), 1-20. Moriguchi, A. 2001:森 口 明 美 「古 典 ア ラ ビ ア 語 に お け る 条 件 文 の 通 時 的 変 化 に 関 す る 試 論 」

『日 本 中 東 学 会 年 報 』16,155-174.Moriguchi, A., "A Tentative Analysis on the Diachronic Changes of Conditional Sentences in Prosaic Literature in Classical Arabic," AJAMES 16 (2001), 155-174. Moritaka, K.1992:森 高 久 美 子 「ア ラ ビ ア ン ナ イ ト に 見 ら れ る イ ン ド説 話 文 学 の 影 響 」 『日 本 中 東 学 会 年 報 』7,457-473.Moritaka, K., "The Influence of Indian Folktales on the Arabian Nights," AJAMES 7(1992), 457-473. Motoyoshi, A. 1999a: "Reality and Reverie: Wine and Ekphrasis in the 'Abbasid Poetry of Abu Nuwds and al-," AJAMES 14(1999), 85-120. Motoyoshi, A. 1999b: "Poetry and Portraiture: A Double Portrait in an Arabic by ," Journal of Arabic Literature 30/3(1999), 199-239. Motoyoshi, A. 2001: "Sensibility and Synaesthesia: Ibn al-'s Singing Slave-Girl," Journal of Arabic Literature 32/1(2001), 1-29. Naiki, R. 1968:内 記 良 一 「ク ー フ ァ 文 法 学 の 格 概 念 に つ い て 」 『東 京 外 国 語 大 学 論 集 』13, 9- 26. Naiki, R., "On the Grammatical Cases of School," Area and Culture Studies (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) 13(1968), 9-26. Nakae, K. 1997:中 江 加 津 彦 「ア ラ ビ ア 語 に お け る 原 因 構 文fa al-sababiyyaの 実 現 条 件 に つ

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Vol. XXXVII 2002 73 Nishio, T. 1989: "On the Non-Causative Usage of the Causative Form in Arabic," AJAMES 4/2, 1- 45. Nishio, T. 1991a:西 尾 哲 夫 「16～17世 紀 の ア ラ ビ ア 語 エ ジ プ ト方 言 一 大 英 図 書 館 蔵 ゲ ニ ザ 文 書Or.7768を 資 料 と し て 一 」 『オ リ エ ン ト』34/2,54-73. Nishio, T., "Egyptian Arabic in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: A Study of the British Library Or. 7768 from the Cairo Geniza," BSNESJ 34/2(1991), 54-73. Nishio, T. 1991b: "A Shylock in Sinai: A Middle Eastern Contribution to Shakespearean ," Journal of Asian and African Studies 42, 143-157. Nishio, T. 1992: A Basic Vocabulary of the Bedouin Arabic Dialect of the Jbali Tribe (Southern Sinai), Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Nishio, T. 1994a: The Arabic Dialect of Qift (Upper Egypt), Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.

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