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Dr. Keith Lloyd Associate Professor of English Kent State University © January 4, 2014

A center of pluralistic beliefs and tolerance becomes the center of two significant Christian controversies related to its history.

“/ Selҫuk” Biblical Sites in http://www.tourguideinturkey.com/index.php/ephesusselcuk.html

Asia Minor, Modern Turkey

Ephesus

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Oldest places of settlement in the area 5th-3rd millennia Ἔφεσος around Ephesus. King Mursilis II. of the beat Apasa, 2nd half of 14th century Myceanaean findings on the Ayasuluk Hill. Greeks came to and called 11th century themselves Ionian. Androclus settled in Ephesus where the local peple Carian lived. Certain existence of the Sanctuary of 9th century . 8th century Cimmerian invasion. 7th century Lydians captured Ephesus. Lydian gained influence in Ephesus : building of the archaic shrine of around 560 Artemis, new layout of the city in the surrounding area. Democracy introduced to Ephesians by around 550 Aristarchus of Athens. The Median general Harpagus took the 546 conrol of this region and Persian supremacy Ephesus joined the Attaic sea alliance. Herostratus burned the Artemis Temple on 466 the very night when was born. Ephesus Ancient City, House of Virgin Mary, Artemis Temple of St John and around http://www.ephesus.us/ephesus/ephesus_chronology.htm

Έφεσο

Alexander the Great liberated all Greek cities and gave privileges to 334 Ephesians building the new temple Ephesus changed its rulers several times during the Diadochian wars. 319-281 The city was renamed as Arsinoeia by King Lysimachus and moved its new side between two mountains. 281 Death of Lysimachus. Ephesus under the rule of the Seleucids. Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to Romans. Establishment of the 133 Province of . The Ephesians welcomed the king of , Mithridates VI Eupathor, as 89/88 savior. 80,000 Romans were killed. 84 L. Cornelius Sulla held a trial of the people guilty in 88 BC. 74 First visit of M. Tullius Cicero to Ephesus. 73 L. Licinius Lucullus governor of Ephesus. Mark Antony entered Ephesus with Cleopatra of Egypt. Arsinoe IV, 41 Cleopatra’s sister, was murdered. Ephesus Ancient City, House of Virgin Mary, Artemis Temple Basilica of St John and around http://www.ephesus.us/ephesus/ephesus_chronology.htm 29 The geographer Strabo came in Ephesus.

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Ephesus  Ephesus itself was a large, multi-ethnic center of trade, commerce and culture. In the Greco Roman world of the first century, Ephesus was exceeded in population only by Rome and Alexandria. Capital city of the of Asia, Ephesus had approximately a quarter of a million people and was an important seaport. In addition to having a significant Jewish community,  Ephesus was home to many Greeks, Romans and other settlers from throughout the entire Mediterranean world.  Travelers and pilgrims … from all over the Roman world visited Ephesus in large numbers. Being on a main trade route and having a key harbor added to the picture of Ephesus as a bustling, multi- cultural city of trade and entertainment.  There was a medical college, renowned doctors, and a large public library in Ephesus, as well as numerous shrines and statues, an underground sewer system, and an outdoor amphitheater which seated more people than the Hollywood Bowl seats today.  Affluent homes in Ephesus boasted amazing opulence and split level construction, with floor space often exceeding 10,000 square feet.  Ephesians : Introduction & Background http://cutpaste.typepad.com/understanding/2012/08/ephesians-introduction- background.html

Reconstruction of Ancient Ephesus

Background: Ephesus Photos: http://www.livius.org/ei-er/ephesus/ephesus_photos2.html Inset: http://www.deeperstudy.com/link/ephesus.html

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Artemis  Artemis was also called Cynthia, from her birth place, Mount Cynthus in Delos. She was Apollo's twin sister, daughter of Zeus and Leto. She was one of the three maiden goddesses of Olympus: the pure maiden Vesta, gray-eyed Athena who cares but for war and the arts of the craftsmen, and Artemis, lover of woods and the wild chase over the mountain. She was the Lady of Wild Things, Huntsman-in-chief to the gods, …  As a huntress her favorite animal was the stag, because its swiftness gave the best opportunity for her method of capture, which was by her silver bow and arrows and speed of foot.  At Ephesus, where her great temple was one of the seven wonders of the world, Artemis was represented with  a mural crown, with a disc behind the crown;  on her breast, a garland of flowers, as a sign of her influence in spring time.  Lions cling to her arms;  as mother of wild beasts, she has many breasts;  her legs are closely bandaged and ornamented with figures of bulls, stags, lions, and griffins;  at the sides are flowers and bees.

"To the Healer of diseases, to Apollo, Giver of Light to mortals, Eutyches has set up in votive offering [a statue of] the Cretan Lady of Ephesus, the Light- Bearer.“ (Votive Inscription, 3rd century Artemis BC)  The Christian approach was at variance with the tolerant syncretistic approach of pagans to gods who were not theirs. A Christian inscription at Ephesus[39] suggests why so little remains at the site:  "Destroying the delusive image of the demon Artemis, Demeas has erected this symbol of Truth, the God that drives away idols, and the Cross of priests, deathless and victorious sign of Christ."  The assertion that the Ephesians thought that their cult image had fallen from the sky, though it was a familiar origin-myth at other sites, is only known at Ephesus from Acts 19:35:  "What man is there that knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and of the [image] which fell down from Jupiter?“  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis

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Ephesus Summary

 ‘Ephesus was pluralistic in every way. Many ethnic and cultural backgrounds were represented, and religious pluralism was entrenched and embraced. Moral beliefs, like religious ones, were diverse, and considerable moral [variance] was accepted, perhaps considerably more so than in our modern American culture.  The wide-ranging social acceptance was maintained in the name of tolerance and syncretism. As a result, anyone claiming to have “the” right religion, “the” only god, and “the” ultimate truth was bound to face acute rejection and social pressure…”

Ephesians : Introduction & Background 08/23/2012 http://cutpaste.typepad.com/understanding/2012/08/ephesians-introduction-background.html

The Church at Ephesus  Ephesus was a significant city in the first decades of the Church. The Ephesians appear several times in the New Testament, over a roughly 40-year period.

A Case Study of Ephesus: 40 Years, 3 Authors, 7 Documents, 7 Leaders The Ephesians: Called to Love and Truth (1) Pete Hammond https://urbana.org/go-and-do/bible-studies/case-study-ephesus-40-years-3- authors-7-documents-7-leaders

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Ephesus: Christian Period

An earthquake shook the city and caused much damage; 23 reconstruction partly with imperial help. Paul came to Ephesus two times and gave daily talks in the 52-55 school [auditorium] of Ty·ran´nus for two years. 1st temple guardianship (Neokoros), the Imperial Temple of the 82 Flavian dynasty erected. 96 The Temple of Domitian was rededicated to Vespasian. 113-114 Emperor Trajan visited Ephesus. 124, Aug. 29th Emperor Hadrian’s first visit to Ephesus. A major earthquake hit Ephesus.The Artemis Temple was 262 destroyed by Goths. The Fourth Ecumenical Council took place in Ephesus. Mary 431 was declared as Theotokos (Mother of God) The pilgrims guide of Theodosius mentioned the Seven around 530 Sleepers sanctuary. Mid 6th century Justinian built the great basilica of St. John

654/655 Arab attacked. Ephesus Ancient City, House of Virgin Mary, Artemis Temple Basilica of St John and around http://www.ephesus.us/ephesus/ephesus_chronology.htm

Ephesus Eventually Destroyed

 During the early centuries of Christian era, Ephesus continued as a center of Christianity second only to Antioch in Asia Minor. The Council of Nicea conferred on Ephesus ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the diocese of Asia Minor that included eleven provinces.  Ephesus was the site of the Third Ecumenical Council where Cyril of Alexandria led the condemnation of Nestorianism. Justinian the Great built a large church adjacent to Ephesus that was dedicated to John the Theologian.  In the following years the city suffered from the deprecations of the Arabs and later the Turks, while during the iconoclastic period the defenders of images were martyred. After being destroyed by Turks in 1090, the community was rebuilt on the hills surrounding the church of St. John and was commonly called Hagios Theologos ("Holy Theologian"), referring to St. John the Theologian.  After the succession of attacks during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Christian community was greatly reduced such that when Mark of Ephesus attended the Council of Florence in 1439, he represented a community that had become a village.  Wiki Ephesus http://orthodoxwiki.org/Ephesus

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The “House of the Mary and Ephesus Virgin Mary” is located on the top [According to Catholic tradition] the … "Assumption" (instant resurrection and Mt. Koressos, 9 ascension to Heaven following death) of Mary km from Ephesus took place in Ephesus. The story of the "Assumption" alleges that Mary went to Ephesus with John. … there is no record of this idea among the Early Church Fathers until the Fourth Century. … there is good reason, although unfortunately this can't be proven at present, to believe that Mary actually died in Jerusalem before John left. There is, in fact, an ancient structure in Jerusalem known as the "Tomb of Mary”… But the actual "veneration" of Mary definitely began in Ephesus, which had been the center of a very powerful pagan cult. The Cult of "Mary“. The Message of Bread Upon The Waters Ministry. http://www.be- ready.org/cult.html

Ephesus, Paul, Timothy, and John  “The apostle Paul found there a group that had already believed in Jesus but knew only John the Baptist's baptism (Acts 19:1-7). For three years Paul made Ephesus his home (Acts 20:31), as well as his base for evangelizing the entire Asian province (Acts 19:10).  Paul wrote a letter designated in some ancient manuscripts as a letter to "the saints in Ephesus" (Eph 1:2) and in others without reference to a specific location (Eph 1:2, NIV margin).  Possibly this letter, called "Ephesians," was actually a circular letter to several of the same congregations that were recipients of the book of Revelation….  Ephesus was … the sphere of Timothy's ministry, according to 1 Timothy (1:3; compare 2 Tim 1:18).  [It was also traditionally] the sphere of the apostle John's ministry, according to later Christian tradition (for example, Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.22.5; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.31.3; 3.39.1-7).”

 The Message to Ephesus. Bible Gateway. https://www.biblegateway.com/resources/commentaries/IVP- NT/Rev/Message-Ephesus

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Paul in Ephesus: Acts 19  Acts 19 8 Paul entered the synagogue and spoke boldly there for three months, arguing persuasively about the kingdom of God. 9 But some of them became obstinate; they refused to believe and publicly maligned the Way. So Paul left them. He took the disciples with him and had discussions daily in the lecture hall of Tyrannus. 10 This went on for two years, so that all the Jews and Greeks who lived in the province of Asia heard the word of the Lord.  11 God did extraordinary miracles through Paul, 12 so that even handkerchiefs and aprons that had touched him were taken to the sick, and their illnesses were cured and the evil spirits left them.  13 … Some Jews who went around driving out evil spirits tried to invoke the name of the Lord Jesus over those who were demon-possessed. They would say, “In the name of the Jesus whom Paul preaches, I command you to come out.” 14 Seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish chief priest, were doing this. 15 One day the evil spirit answered them, “Jesus I know, and Paul I know about, but who are you?” 16 Then the man who had the evil spirit jumped on them and overpowered them all. He gave them such a beating that they ran out of the house naked and bleeding.  17 When this became known to the Jews and Greeks living in Ephesus, they were all seized with fear, and the name of the Lord Jesus was held in high honor. 18 Many of those who believed now came and openly confessed what they had done. 19 A number who had practiced sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them publicly. When they calculated the value of the scrolls, the total came to fifty thousand drachmas.[c]20In this way the word of the Lord spread widely and grew in power.

ACTS 19 23 About that time there arose a great disturbance about the Way. 24 A silversmith named Demetrius, who made silver shrines of Artemis, brought in a lot of business for the craftsmen there. 25 He called them together, along with the workers in related trades, and said: “You know, my friends, that we receive a good income from this business.  26 And you see and hear how this fellow Paul has convinced and led astray large numbers of people here in Ephesus and in practically the whole province of Asia.  He says that gods made by human hands are no gods at all. 27 There is danger not only that our trade will lose its good name, but also that the temple of the great goddess Artemis will be discredited; and the goddess herself, who is worshiped throughout the province of Asia and the world, will be robbed of her divine majesty.”  28 When they heard this, they were furious and began shouting: “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” 29 Soon the whole city was in an uproar. The people seized Gaius and Aristarchus, Paul’s traveling companions from Macedonia, and all of them rushed into the theater together. 30 Paul wanted to appear before the crowd, but the disciples would not let him. 31 Even some of the officials of the province, friends of Paul, sent him a message begging him not to venture into the theater.

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 32 The assembly was in confusion: Some were shouting one thing, some another. Most of the people did not even know why they were there. 33 The Jews in the crowd pushed Alexander to the front, and they shouted instructions to him. He motioned for silence in order to make a defense before the people. 34 But when they realized he was a Jew, they all shouted in unison for about two hours: “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!”  35 The city clerk quieted the crowd and said: “Fellow Ephesians, doesn’t all the world know that the city of Ephesus is the guardian of the temple of the great Artemis and of her image, which fell from heaven? 36 Therefore, since these facts are undeniable, you ought to calm down and not do anything rash. 37 You have brought these men here, though they have neither robbed temples nor blasphemed our goddess.  38 If, then, Demetrius and his fellow craftsmen have a grievance against anybody, the courts are open and there are proconsuls. They can press charges. 39 If there is anything further you want to bring up, it must be settled in a legal assembly.  40 As it is, we are in danger of being charged with rioting because of what happened today. In that case we would not be able to account for this commotion, since there is no reason for it.” 41 After he had said this, he dismissed the assembly.  Paul leaves Ephesus…

Paul wrote from his imprisonment in Rome to the network of house churches in Western Asia Minor, in and near Ephesus. “Ephesians : Introduction & Background.” Paul’s Epistle http://cutpaste.typepad.com/understanding/2012/08/ephesians-introduction-background.html  4 As a prisoner for the Lord, then, I urge you to live a life worthy of the calling you have received. 2 Be completely humble and Themes: gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love.  3 Make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through Love one the bond of peace. 4 There is one body and one Spirit, just as you were called to one hope when you were called; 5 one Lord, another one faith, one baptism; 6 one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all. 7 But to each one of us grace has been given as Christ apportioned it. Unity in  11 So Christ himself gave the apostles, the prophets, the diversity evangelists, the pastors and teachers, 12 to equip his people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may be built up 13 until we all reach unity in the faith and in the knowledge of Distinguish the Son of God … .  14 Then we will no longer be infants, tossed back and forth by the True from waves, and blown here and there by every wind of teaching False and by the cunning and craftiness of people in their Teaching deceitful scheming. 15 Instead, speaking the truth in love, we will grow to become in every respect the mature body of him who is the head, that is, Christ.

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I Timothy: truth and love  3 As I urged you when I went into Macedonia, stay there in Ephesus so that you may command certain people not to teach false doctrines any longer 4 or to devote themselves to myths and endless genealogies. Such things promote controversial speculations rather than advancing God’s work—which is by faith.  5 The goal of this command is love, which comes from a pure heart and a good conscience and a sincere faith. 6 Some have departed from these and have turned to meaningless talk. 7 They want to be teachers of the law, but they do not know what they are talking about or what they so confidently affirm.

Revelation: truth and love  2 “To the angel[a] of the church in Ephesus write:  These are the words of him who holds the seven stars in his right hand and walks among the seven golden lampstands. 2 I know your deeds, your hard work and your perseverance. I know that you cannot tolerate wicked people, that you have tested those who claim to be apostles but are not, and have found them false. 3 You have persevered and have endured hardships for my name, and have not grown weary.  4 Yet I hold this against you: You have forsaken the love you had at first. 5 Consider how far you have fallen! Repent and do the things you did at first. If you do not repent, I will come to you and remove your lampstand from its place. 6 But you have this in your favor: You hate the practices of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate.  7 Whoever has ears, let them hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To the one who is victorious, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God.

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Controversy I: Nicolaitans  The exact origin of the Nicolaitans is unclear. Some Bible commentators believe they were a heretical sect who followed the teachings of Nicolas—whose name means “one who conquers the people”—who was possibly one of the deacons of the early church mentioned in Acts 6:5. It is possible that Nicolas became an apostate, denying the true faith and became part of a group holding "the doctrine of Balaam," who taught Israel "to sin by eating food sacrificed to idols and by committing sexual immorality." Clement of Alexandria says, “They abandoned themselves to pleasure like goats, leading a life of self-indulgence.”  Other commentators believe that these Nicolaitans were not so called from any man, but from the Greek word Nicolah, meaning "let us eat," as they often encouraged each other to eat things offered to idols.

Who are the Nicolaitans mentioned in Revelation 2:6, 14-15? Got Questions.org http://www.gotquestions.org/Nicolaitans.html

Ignatius writes of Ephesus  Ignatius of Antioch (AD c. 35 or 50 – 98 to 117) wrote to the Ephesians that “their bishop, Onesimus, had praised them because "you all live according to truth, and no heresy dwells among you; in fact you will not even listen to anyone who does not speak about Jesus Christ in truth" (Ignatius, To the Ephesians 6.2).  "I have learned," Ignatius added, "that some from elsewhere who have evil teaching stayed with you, but you did not allow them to sow it among you, and stopped your ears, so that you might not receive what they sow" (To the Ephesians 9.1).

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Controversy II: The Nestorians

 The Third Ecumenical Council … June 22, 431[was held] in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor. It was called to resolve a dogmatic controversy that had divided the church into two main camps.  Theodore of Mopsuestia, supported by Nestorius, Archbishop of , held to what has become known as the Nestorian heresy.  The opposite camp was represented by Cyril, Archbishop of Alexandria, the pope, and emperor Theodosius the Younger. Theodosius, who called the Council, believed that the strength of his empire depended upon true worship of God without the intermingling of falsehood.  Two hundred fathers attended.

 Dan Graves, MSL . “Painful Council Met at Ephesus .” Christianity.com  http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/301-600/painful-council-met-at-ephesus-11629696.html

Nestorianism (5th Century)

 This heresy about the person of Christ was initiated by Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who denied Mary the title of Theotokos (Greek: "God- bearer" or, less literally, "Mother of God"). Nestorius claimed that she only bore Christ’s human nature in her womb, and proposed the alternative title Christotokos ("Christ-bearer" or "Mother of Christ"). [emphasis mine].  Orthodox Catholic theologians [believed] that Nestorius’s theory would fracture Christ into two separate persons (one human and one divine, joined in a sort of loose unity), only one of whom was in her womb.  The Church reacted in 431 with the Council of Ephesus, defining that Mary can be properly referred to as the Mother of God, not in the sense that she is older than God or the source of God, but in the sense that the person she carried in her womb was, in fact, God incarnate ("in the flesh").

 There is some doubt whether Nestorius himself held the heresy his statements imply, and in this century, the Assyrian Church of the East, historically regarded as a Nestorian church, has signed a fully orthodox joint declaration on Christology with the Catholic Church and rejects Nestorianism. It is now in the process of coming into full ecclesial communion with the Catholic Church.

“The Great Heresies” Catholic.com http://www.catholic.com/tracts/the-great-heresies

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Controversy III:  Chalcedonian View: the humanity and divinity [of Jesus Monophysitism of Nazareth] are exemplified as two natures and that the one (c. 482 – 14 November 565), sometimes hypostasis of the Logos known as Justinian the Great, was a Byzantine perfectly subsists in these two (East Roman) emperor from 527 to 565. natures. Justinian sought to revive the empire's greatness  Monophysitistic view: in the and reconquer the lost western half of the one person of Jesus Christ, historical . (Justinian I wiki http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I) divinity and humanity are united in one nature, the two [O]ne of the main objects [Justin the Great’s] being united without policy was the consolidation of Eastern separation, without confusion, Christianity as a bulwark against the Zoroastrian and without alteration. power of Persia, through persecution of all the remaining pagans of the empire. [John of Ephesus] enjoyed the emperor's favor  Justinian I and John of until the death of the latter in 565 and (as he Ephesus were both himself tells us) was entrusted with the Monophysitists. administration of the entire revenues of the Monophysite Church.

John of Ephesus (or of Asia) (c. 507 – c. 588) a leader of the non-Chalcedonian Syriac-speaking Church in the sixth century, and one of the earliest John of Ephesus and most important of historians who wrote in Syriac. (wiki)  [John of Ephesus] was sent by Justinian on a mission for the conversion of such pagans as remained in Asia Minor in 542, and informs us that the number of those whom he baptized amounted to 70,000. … He was ordained bishop of Ephesus (Asia) for the anti- Chalcedonians in 558 by Jacob Baradaeus.  In 546 the emperor entrusted him with the task of rooting out the secret practice of idolatry in Constantinople and its neighborhood. He carried out this task faithfully, torturing all suspected of the "wicked heathenish error", as John himself calls it, and finding much worship of the ancestral gods amongst the Empire aristocracy.  But his fortunes changed soon after the accession of Justin II. About 571 John III the Scholasicus, the orthodox or Chalcedonian patriarch, began (with the sanction of the emperor) a rigorous persecution of the Monophysite Church leaders, and John was among those who, ironically, suffered most.

John of Ephesus wiki http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Ephesus

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Conclusions: Mary and the Goddess

 Ephesus was the center of the worship of Artemis.  The traditional association of Mary with Ephesus mirrors her historical associations with sites sacred to “pagan” goddesses.  This association is further reiterated in the Third Ecumenical Council’s decision in that location to affirm the title Theotokos (Greek: "God- bearer" or, less literally, "Mother of God") over Nestorius’ alternative Christotokos ("Christ- bearer" or "Mother of Christ").  The veneration of Mary can be partially attributed to the ancient need for a goddess/mother figure.  This controversy also illustrates the recurring theme of Ephesus as a site of sifting truth from falsity.

Conclusions: Love and Truth  Ephesus was a center of metropolitan culture in the time of the New Testament known for its syncretism and tolerance. You have forsaken the  Paul’s letter centers on themes related to this context: love you had at first.  He commends them on their sense of truth. 5 Consider how far you  He emphasizes unity in diversity. have fallen! Revelation 2:4-5  He calls them to love.  I Timothy reiterates the themes of love and ability to identify truth.  Revelation commends also their ability to assess truth, but notes that they have forgotten to love.  Ignatius commends only the church’s ability to sift truth from untruth.  The Third Ecumenical Council again identifies Ephesus as a site of reasoning about truth and falsity.  The appointment of John of Ephesus as remover of heresy in Constantinople confirms that over time Paul’s message of love is overshadowed by a drive within the Ephesian church to confront and root out heresy. The need for unity becomes a weapon rather than a strength.

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