1. Nucleotides a. Pentose sugars – 5-Carbon sugar 1) Deoxyribose – in DNA 2) Ribose – in RNA b. Phosphate group c. Nitrogenous bases 1) Purines a) Adenine b) Guanine 2) Pyrimidines a) Cytosine b) Thymine 2. Types of Nucleic Acids a. DNA 1) Locations 2) Functions b. RNA 1) Locations 2) Functions E. High Energy Biomolecules 1. Adenosine triphosphate a. Uses 1) Active transport 2) Movement 3) Biosynthesis reactions b. Regeneration

1) ADP + Pi + Energy → ATP 4. Classes of proteins a. Structural – ex. Collagen, keratin b. Transport – Hemoglobin, many β-globulins c. Contractile – Actin and Myosin of muscle tissue d. Regulatory - Hormones e. Immunologic - Antibodies f. Clotting – Thrombin and Fibrin g. Osmotic - Albumin h. Catalytic – Enzymes 1) Characteristics of enzymes • Proteins (most); ribonucleoproteins (few/ribozymes) • Act as organic catalysts • Lower the activation energy of reactions • Not changed by the reaction • Bind to their substrates o Lock-and-key model of enzyme activity o Induced-fit model • Highly specific • Named by adding -ase to substrate name; e.g., maltose/maltase • May require cofactors which may be: o Nonprotein metal ions such as copper, manganese, potassium, sodium o Small organic molecules known as coenzymes. The B vitamins like thiamine (B1) riboflavin (B2) and nicotinamide are precursors of coenzymes. • May require activation; e.g., pepsinogen  pepsin in stomach chief cells 4. Factors Affecting Enzyme Action • pH o pepsin (stomach) @ pH = 2; trypsin (small int.) @ pH = 8 • Temperature o Denatured by high temp’s. • Enzyme inhibitors o Competitive inhibitors o Noncompetitive inhibitors • Effect of substrate concentration and reversible reactions and the Law of Mass D. Nucleic acids – store, transmit, and express genetic information XV. Functional groups found in organic compounds A. Types 1. Hydroxyl groups 2. Carboxyl group 3. Amino group 4. Phosphate group

XVI. Organic Compounds A. Carbohydrates 1. Chemical properties 2. Categories of carbohydrates a. Monosaccharides: ex: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose b. Disaccharides – ex. Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose c. Polysaccharides – ex. Glycogen, Starch B. Lipids 1. Chemical properties 2. Types a. Simple lipids 1) Fatty acids – chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group 2) Triglycerides (Triacylglycerol) b. Complex lipids 1) Phospholipids 2) Sterols 3) Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, Leukotrenes c. Conjugated lipids: Lipoproteins (HDL, LDL), Glycolipids (cell membranes) C. Proteins – polymers of amino acids 1. Amino acids – all have an amino group and a carboxyl group 2. Peptide bonds – formed by joining of amino group of one a.a. to the carboxyl group of another 3. Structural levels a. Primary structure – sequence of a.a.’s b. Secondary – alpha-helix or beta-pleated sheath c. Tertiary – folding of the chain on itself d. Quaternary – interaction of 2 or more proteins F. Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions 1. Temperature 2. Particle size 3. Concentration 4. Catalysts or Enzymes

XII. Inorganic Compounds A. Water 1. Properties a. A polar molecule – makes it a great solvent for a wide variety of substances 1) Solubility in aqueous solutions a) Hydrophilic molecules b) Hydrophobic molecules b. Excellent conductor of energy – prevents concentration of heat in one area 1) Spreads heat produced in one part of body out to all other regions c. High Heat Capacity – capable of absorbing large amts of heat w/o a large change in temperature d. High Heat of Vaporization – capable of removing large amts of heat when it evaporates off surface of body 1) absorbs 540 cal/gram of water that evaporates e. Reactivity – able to take part in anabolic and catabolic reactions 1) Anabolic – dehydration synthesis reaction; synthesis of major organic cpds. 2) Catabolic – hydrolysis reactions; decomposition of major organic compounds f. Stable compound

XIII. Solutions A. Solvent B. Solute

XIV. Acidity A. Acids - proton (H+) donors B. Bases - proton (H+) acceptors C. pH scale - Acid = 0 – 7 reading Basic or Alkaline = 7 –14 reading VIII. Solutions – homogeneous mixtures of components A. Solvent – substance in greatest amount B. Solute – substance in smaller amount

IX. Concentration of Solutions A. Percent or parts per 100 parts B. Molarity or moles per liter (M) 1. A mole of an element or compound is equal to its atomic or molecular weight in grams

X. Chemical Bonds A. Primary Bonds 1. Ionic bonds – gain or loss of electrons 2. Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons a. Nonpolar covalent – electrons are shared equally between the atoms b. Polar covalent – one atom has a greater attraction for the electrons than another 3. Hydrogen bonds – between the hydrogen atom in one polar bond and an oxygen or nitrogen atom

XI. Chemical Reactions A. Chemical reactions are a means of energy transfer. 1. One substance becomes a different substance by making/breaking bonds B. Reactants (substrates): molecules at beginning of reaction C. Products: molecules at end of reaction D. Types of reactions 1. Synthesis reactions: A + B → AB a. Anabolic reactions: dehydration synthesis reactions 2. Decomposition reactions: AB → A + B a. Catabolic reactions: hydrolysis reactions 3. Exchange or displacement reactions: AB + C → AC + B a. Phosphorylation reactions b. Oxidation reduction reactions E. Energy Flow in Chemical Reactions 1. Exergonic reactions – release energy 2. Endergonic reactions – products contain more energy than reactants Introduction to Human Physiology—AP 151 Lecture Outline #2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY

I. Atomic Composition of the Body A. Major elements (96.1% of body mass) 1. Oxygen (65% of body weight) 2. Carbon (18.5% of body weight) 3. Hydrogen (9.5% of body weight) 4. Nitrogen (3.2% of body weight) B. Mineral elements (3.9% of body mass) 1. Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium, Iron C. Trace elements (less than 0.01% of body mass 1. Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Fluorine, Iodine, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, Silicon, Tin, Vanadium, Zinc

II. Atomic Structure A. Nucleus – with protons and neutrons B. Electron shells – with electrons

III. Isotopes – elements with same number of protons but different number of neutrons

IV. Ions – charged particles in which there is no longer an equal number of protons and neutrons A. Anions – negatively charged; more electrons than protons B Cations – positively charged; more protons than electrons

V. Electrolytes – molecules that ionize in water and form a solution capable of conduction electricity

+ + ++ ++ - 3- - A. Salts of Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cl , PO4 , and HCO3

- VI. Free Radicals – particle with an odd number of electrons; eg. Superoxide anion = O2 • A. Antioxidants – substance that reacts with and neutralizes free radicals of oxygen; Superoxide dismutase (SOD) converts superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Selenium and Vitamin E also act as antioxidants.

VII. Molecules and Compounds

A. Molecules - formed by union of 2 or more atoms; O2, N2

B. Compounds – molecules composed of two or more different elements; CO2, Glucose (C6H12O6)