Economic Geography

of

India

T.C. Sharma

H RAWAT PUBLICATIONS Jaipur • New • • Hyderabad • Guwahati • Kolkata Contents

Preface xvn Acknowledgements xviii

1 INDIAN AGRICULTURE: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS 1 Problems / 1 Small Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings • Tardy Progress in Land Reforms • Outdated Implements and Machinery • Lack of Irrigation • Inadequate Power Supply • Agricultural Credit Problem • Poor Agricultural Marketing • Non-Availability of Improved Seeds • Inadequate Consumption of Manures and Fertilizers • Lack of Plant Protection Measures Green Revolution / 19 Achievements of the New Technology • Lacunas in the New Technology • Misuse of Input Subsidies Food Security / 22 Drive for Self-Sufficiency / 22 Increase in Food Production / 22 Future Prospects/Challenges / 23 Nutritional Security / 24

2 LAND AND WATER RESOURCES 26 Land Resources / 26 Area Reporting for Land Utilization / 26 Land-use Classification / 26 Trends in Land Utilization • Forests • Forests and Forest Products • National Forest Policy • Afforestation • Area not Available for Cultivation • Other Uncultivated Lands Excluding Fallow Lands • Fallow Lands • Net Area Sown Cropping Intensity / 45 Water Resources / 47 Per Capita Availability of Water / 47 Surface Water Resources / 47 River Water Disputes / 49 Mechanism for Resolving River Water Disputes / 51 • Contents Some Important River Water Disputes / 51 Groundwater Resources / 54 Utilizationof Water Resources / 57 Irrigation • Drinking Water Supply • Industrial Use • Hydropower and Other Energy Needs • Other Uses The National Water Policy 1987 / 59 The National Water Policy 2002 / 60 National Water Grid / 60 The KL Rao Scheme / 61 Power Required for the National Water Grid / 63 The National Perspective Plan 1980 / 63 The Master Plan for Artificial Recharge of Groundwater / 64

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT The Need for Irrigation / 67 Growth of Irrigation during the Flanning Period / 68 Lacunae in the Growth Sources of Irrigation / 71 Canals • State-wise Development of Canal Irrigation • Tanks • Tubewells • Other Wells • Other Sources Irrigated Area / 92 State-wise Distribution • Irrigated Area Cropwise Major Irrigation Projects / 98 The Bhakra-Nangal Multipurpose Project • The Beas Project • The Thein Dam • The Kajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana) • The Sarda Sahayak Pariyojana • The Gandak Irrigation Project • The Ramganga Multipurpose Project • The Matatilla Multipurpose Project • The Kosi Multipurpose Project • The Chambal Valley Multipurpose Project • The Bargi Project • The Mahanadi Reservoir • The Tawa Irrigation Project • The Hasdeo Bango Project • The Hirakud Multipurpose Project • The Mahanadi Delta Irrigation Project • The Ukai Project • The Kadana Project • The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) • The Jayakwadi Project • The Damodar Valley Corporation Multipurpose Project • The Nagarjunasagar Multipurpose Project • The Pochampad Irrigation Project, Stage I • The Tungabhadra Multipurpose Project » The Malaprabha Irrigation Project • The Ghataprabha Irrigation Project • The Upper Krishna Irrigation Project (Stage I)

FOODGRAINS Rice / 113 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Yield • Area and Production • Trade Wheat / 120 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Yield • Area and Production • Trade Barley / 125 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation and Yield • Area and Production • Trade Contents • vii

Coarse Cereals / 127 Jowar • Bajra • Maize • Ragi Pulses / 138 Gram • Tur • Other Pulses

5 COMMERCIAL CROPS 145 Sugarcane / 145 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Yield • Area and Production • Processing Cotton / 149 Conditions of Growth • Bt Cotton • Yield • Area and Production • Trade Jute / 155 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Yield • Area and Production • Marketing Tobacco / 157 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Curing and Fermentation • Yield • Area and Production • Exports Oilseeds / 159 Groundnut • Rapeseed and Mustard • Soyabean • Sunflower • Castorseed • Sesamum • Linseed

6 PLANTATION AND GARDEN CROPS 171 Tea / 171 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Varieties and Yield • Plucking and Processing • Area and Production • Domestic Consumption • Exports Coffee / 174 Conditions of Growth » Yield • Plucking and Processing • Area and Production • Domestic Consumption • Exports Rubber / 176 Conditions of Growth • Propagation • Tapping and Yield • Processing • Area and Production • Domestic Consumption Coconut / 178 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Yield • Preparation of Copra and Coir • Area and Production • Trade • Consumption Arecanut / 180 Conditions of Growth • Cultivation • Curing and Processing • Area and Production Spices / 182 Pepper • Cardamom • Chillies • Ginger • Turmeric Fruits / 188 Mango * Banana • Citrus • Orange • Apple • Grape • Cashew

7 LIVESTOCK, SERICULTURE AND FISHERIES 200 Livestock / 200 Poor State of Indian Livestock • Cattle • Important Cattle Breeds of • Development Programmes • Buffaloes • Sheep • Goats • Pigs • Mörses and Ponies • Donkeys and Mules • Cameis viii • Contents Livestock Products / 209 Milk and Milk Products • Dairy Industry • Private Sector Participation • Meat • Hides and Skins • Wool Sericulture / 216 Silk-Reeling Fisheries / 218 Fish Production • Marine Fisheries • Inland Fisheries • Fish Production, State-wise • Preservation and Processing of Fish • Consumption * Exports

8 AGRICULTURAL REGIONS 229 Crop Combination Regions / 229 Data and Methodology Crop Combination Regions oflndia 1990-92 / 230 Rice Combinations • Wheat Combinations • Jowar Combinations • Maize Combinations • Bajra Combinations • Ragi Combinations • Other Cereals Combinations • Gram Combinations • Tur Combination • Other Pulses Combinations • Sugarcane Combinations • Groundnut Combinations • Rapeseed and Mustard Combinations • Other Oilseeds Combinations • Cotton Combinations • Coconut Combinations • Other Crops Combinations Agro-Climatic Regions / 240 Primary Objectives » Zonal Flanning Teams • Strategies for Enhancing Agricultural Production « Maintenance of the Ecosystem • Land and Livestock Resources • Agricultural Production • Productivity Level and Input Use • Demographic Features

9 SURVEY OF MINERAL RESOURCES 245 The Indian Mining Industry / 245 The National Mineral Policy / 246 Trends in Mineral Production / 247 Foreign Trade in Minerals / 248 Spatial Distribution of Mineral Resources / 248 Problems of the Mineral Industry / 249 Delay in Exploration • Uneven Distribution of Mineral Resources • Lack of Infrastructure • Low Manpower Productivity • Policy for Conservation of Minerals • Environmental Pollution

10 FUEL MINERALS Coal / 254 UsesofCoal • Occurrence . Resources/Reserves • Production Trend • Resources and Production State-wise • Consumption • Imports • Problems of Coal Industry Lignite / 267 Reserves • Reserves and Production State-wise Petroleum and Natural Gas / 270 Origin • Occurrence • Reserves • Exploration and Production Trends • Producing Areas . The New Exploration and Licensing Policy . Coal Bed Methane Policy . Contents • ix

The National Gas Hydrate Programme • The Hydrocarbon Vision 2025 • Equity Oil frorn Abroad • Consumption • Imports • Crude Oil and Product-Pipelines • Refineries • Natural Gas: Uses, Reserves, New Discoveries, Production, Consumption, Imports, Gas Pipelines • Marketing of Petroleum Products Nuclear Energy Minerals / 297 Uranium • Thorium • Zirconium • Beryl • Lithium • Graphite

11 METALLIC MINERALS: FERROUS AND ALLOYS GROUP 303 Iron Ores / 303 Types of Ore and Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves/Resources and Production, State-wise • Mining and Processing of Ores • Domestic Consumption • Exports Manganese Ores / 313 Occurrence • Reserves/Resources and Ore Types • Mining * Production • Reserves/Resources and Production, State-wise • Domestic Consumption • Exports Chromite / 319 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Exports

12 METALLIC MINERALS: NON-FERROUS GROUP 322 Bauxite / 322 Occurrence • Reserves/Resources • Production • Reserves/Resources and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Exports Copper Ore / 328 Occurrence • Reserves/Resources • Production • Reserves/Resources and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Foreign Trade Lead and Zinc Ores / 333 Occurrence • Res6rves/Resources • Production « Reserves and Production, State-wise • Consumption and Import Gold / 337 Occurrence • Reserves/Resources • Reserves, State-wise • Production • Demand and Consumption Silver Ore / 342 Occurrences • Reserves/Resources • Production • Import

13 NON-METALLIC MINERALS 346 Limestone and Dolomite / 346 Formation and Occurrence • Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise Apatite and Rock Phosphate / 355 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Imports • Outlook Gypsum / 358 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • By-Product Gypsum • Consumption • Foreign Trade x • Contents Pyrite and Sulphur / 362 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production of Pyrite, State-wise Sulphur / 363 Consumption • Imports Magnesite / 364 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Foreign Trade Kyanite and Sillimanite / 367 Kyanite / 367 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Exports Sillimanite / 369 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Exports Steatite / 371 Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves/Resources and Production, State-wise • Consumption • Exports Mica v / 373 Occurrence • Resources/Reserves • Production • Reserves and Production, State-wise • Mining and Dressing • Domestic Consumption • Exports Salt / 377 Sources of Salt in India • Production • State-wise Production • Iodization • Exports

14 POWER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 380 Advantages/Uses of Electrical Power / 380 Progress in Power Resources Development / 381 Pre-Independence Phase • Post-Independence State-Monopoly Phase, 1948-1975 • Entry of Central PS Companies, 1975-90 • Reforms Phase, 1991-2003 Reforms in Power Sector / 385 Electricity Act 2003 • Accelerated Power Development Reforms Programme • Rural Electrification • Private Sector Participation Sourcewise Development / 387 Hydro-power / 387 Types of Hydropower Scheines • Advantages of Hydropower Schemes • Hydropower Potential • Growth in Hydropower Thermal Power / 390 Coal-based Thermal (Steam) Power • Growth in Steam Power Capacity • Advantages of Steam Power • Problems of Steam Power Plants • Natural Gas-based Thermal Power Atomic Power / 394 TheProcess • Advantages of Nuclear Power • Development of Nuclear Power Sector • The Nuclear Power Programme • Atomic Research and Development Programme • The International Nuclear Regimes and India Contents • xi

Renewable Energy Sources / 401 Importance ofRenewable Sources of Energy • Wind Power • Small Hydro Projects • Solar Energy • Biomass Energy Regional Patterns of Power Development / 409 Power Grids • State-wise Development

15 DEVELOPMENT OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 418 History of Development / 418 Arrival of the Modern Machine Industry • Achievements since Independence • Planwise Review • Role of Public Sector Industrial Policy / 424 Structural Reforms in Licensing Policy • Foreign Direct Investment Location of Industries / 427 Factors AfFecting Industries' Locations / 428 Raw Material • Power • Transport • Market • Labour • Capital • Land • Government Policy State-wise Development / 437 Major Industrial Regions / 440 Major Industrial Clusters / 449 Industrial Problems / 451

16 TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 459 Cotton Textiles / 459 History of Development Mills / 459 Locational Factors » Production • Production State-wise Handlooms / 469 Powerlooms / 471 Hosiery and Garments / 472 Man-Made Fibres / 474 Development • Raw Material • Production Exports in Textiles / 477 Textile Industry: Problems and Prospects / 478 Jute Industry / 480 History of Development • Location of Jute Industry in West Bengal • Other Areas • Production • Exports Silk Textiles / 483 History of Development • Distribution • Production • Exports Woollen Textiles / 487 History of Development • Distribution • Production • Carpets and Namdahs • Exports • Imports • Problems of Woollen Textile Industry xii • Contents

17 METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIES 4yi Iron and Steel Industry / 491 History of Development • Location of Iron and Steel Industry • Process of Iron Ore Smelting • Primary Producers of Steel • Trends in Steel Production • Problems of Steel Industry • Secondary Producers Aluminium Smelting Industry / 511 Uses of Aluminium • Process of Aluminium Production • History of Development • Primary Producers • Production • Foreign Trade Copper Smelting Industry / 519 Process of Copper Smelting • History of Development • Private Sector Participation • Production • Domestic Consumption and Foreign Trade • Future Outlook Lead and Zinc Smelting Industries / 523 Lead Smelting • Primary Lead Producers • Zinc Smelting • Primary Zinc Producers • Secondary Producers • Production • Consumption and-Foreign Trade

18 ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES 528 History and Development / 528 Heavy Mechanical Engineering / 528 The Heavy Engineering Corporation Ltd. • The Bharat Bhari Udyog Nigam Ltd. • Steel Forging • Steel Structurals • Mining Machinery • Earth Moving Equipment Machine Tools / 533 Railway Equipment / 534 Locomotives • Rails, Wagons and Coaches Industrial Machinery / 536 Textile Machinery • Sugar Mill Machinery • Cement Mill Machinery • Food Processing Machinery • Dairy Machinery • Pulp and Paper Mill Machinery . Jute Mill Machinery • Goods Containers • Other Types of Machinery Automotive Industry / 539 Commercial Vehicles • Passenger Cars • Two- and Three-Wheelers • Auto-Components Agricultural Machinery / 544 Agricultural Tractors • Power Tillers • Agricultural Implements • Power Driven Pumps and Diesel Engines Ship Building / 546 The Hindustan Shipyard Ltd • The Cochin Shipyard Ltd . The Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Ltd • The Central Inland Water Transport Corporation Ltd • Private Sector Shipyards • Defence Undertakings Aircraft Industry / 549 Ordnance Factories / 549 Light Mechanical Engineering Goods / 549 Heavy Electrical Engineering / 550 The Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL) • Other Producers Electrical Appliances and Consumer Durables / 552 Contents • xiii

Electronics / 553 Semiconductors • Consumer Electronics • Industrial Electronics • Computers • Communication and Broadcasting Equipment • Strategie Electronics • Electronic Components • Electronics Exports

19 CHEMICALS AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES 566 History of Development / 566 Heavy Inorganic Chemicals / 566 Soda Ash • Caustic Soda • Calcium Carbide • Sulphuric Acid • Other Allied Chemicals Heavy Organic Chemicals / 570 Petrochemicals / 571 Plastics / 573 Raw Materials • Conversion Industry • Exports Rubber Goods Industry / 576 Raw Materials • Production of Rubber Goods • Exports Pharmaceuticals / 578 Pesticides / 582 Dyestuffs / 582 Paints and Varnishes / 584 Soaps and Detergents / 584 Fertilizer / 585 Development • Feedstock and Raw Materials • Production Trends • Producers • Joint Ventures Abroad • Distribution, State-wise • Problems • Imports

20 FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES 596 Sugar Industry / 596 History of Development • Factors of Localization • Production • Distribution • Internal Trade • Exports • Problems of Sugar Industry • By-products Foodgrain Milling / 603 Wheat Flour Mills • Rice Mills Vegetable Oils and Vanaspati Industry / 604 Decentralized Sector • Organized Sector • Problems Consumer Food Industries / 607 Fruits and Vegetable Processing / 607 Dairy Industry / 607 Meat and Poultry Processing / 608 Fish and Fish Processing / 608 Alcohol Industry / 609 Tobacco Manufacturing / 609 xiv » Contents

21 OTHER RAW MATERIAL-BASED INDUSTRIES Cement / 611 Development History • Raw Material • Manufacturing Process • Production • Regional Distribution • Exports • Problems Glass / 621 Raw Materials • Distribution • Production • Exports Ceramics / 623 Leather and Leather Products / 623 Tanning • Leather Products • Exports Paper and Paper Board Industry / 627 Development • Raw Material • Manufacturing Processes • Production • Distribution • New Capacity • Newsprint • Problems of Paper Industry Match Industry / 635 Lac Industry / 636 Production • Exports Sports Goods / 636 Exports Coir Industry / 637

22 TRANSPORT 638 The / 638 Progress of the Indian Railways • Gauges and Traction • Volume ofTraffic • Railway Zones • The Konkan Railway (KR) • Problems of the Indian Railways Roads / 652 Progress Since Independence • National Highways • The National Highway Development Programme • State Highways • Other PWD Roads • District Roads • Village Roads • Border Roads • International Highways • Disparity in Road Development • Motor Vehicles Inland Waterways / 669 Areas of Inland Water Transport • Problems of Inland Water Transport Shipping / 674 Progress in Merchant Shipping Fleet • Stimulus from Tonnage Tax Regime • Shipping Companies • Coastal Shipping • Containerization Ports / 678 Major Ports • Cargo Handled at Major Ports • Portwise Development • Minor/Intermediate Ports • Problems of Shipping Industry and Sea Ports Air Transport / 691 Progress of • Air Services/Airlines • Airports • Problems of Civil Aviation

23 FOREIGN TRADE Export-Import Policy / 697 The Export-Import Policy 1992-97 • The Exim Policy 1997-2002 . The Export-Import (Exim) Policy 2002-07 • The Special Economic Zones • Export-Oriented Units Scheme Contents • xv

Volume of Foreign Trade / 701 International Trade and India • Balance of Payments • Invisible Exports Composition of Exports / 704 Agricultural and Allied Products • Ores and Minerals • Manufactured Goods • Mineral Fuels and Lubricants Services Exports / 714 Growth in Merchandise Exports / 714 Destination of India's Exports / 715 Composition of Imports / 715 Food and Live Animals for Food • Raw Materials and Intermediate Manufactures • Capital Goods • Major Sources of Imports Direction of India's Foreign Trade / 722 Asia and Oceania • West Europe • East Europe • The CIS and Baltic States * North America • Latin America • Africa Trade Related Agencies / 733 The STC • TheMMTC • The Commodity Boards • The Indian Institute of Foreign Trade • The Marine Products Export Development Authority • The Indian Institute of Packaging • The Export Promotion Councils * The Federation of Indian Export Organisations • The Indian Diamond Institute • The WTO and India

Bibliography 737