All's Well That Ends Well

Dating Shakespeare’s Plays: All’s Well that Ends Well

All’s Well that Ends Well

here is no mention of All’s Well before Performance Date 1623. Possible dates of composition range widely between 1567, the publication There is no recorded performance of a play entitled Tof William Painter’s Palace of Pleasure, and the All’s Well that Ends Well before 1741. appearance of the play in the First Folio (F1) in 1623. Sources

Publication Date Bullough states that the main plot – the love story of Helena and Bertram – is derived from All’s Well that Ends Well was entered in the the ninth novella of the third day in Boccaccio’s Stationers’ Register on 8 November 1623 as one Decameron (written around 1350, first published of eighteen plays which had not been published in 1470). William Painter’s English translation previously: of the Italian story was published in 1566, and again in 1569. The revised third edition (1575) Mr Blounte Isaak Jaggard. Entered for is considered to be Shakespeare’s direct source, their Copie vnder the hands of Mr Doctor although some details in the play demonstrate Worral and Mr Cole – warden, Mr William knowledge of the original Italian version as well. Shakspeers Comedyes Histories, and Bullough, following the argument of Wright Tragedyes soe manie of the said Copies as (1955), suggests that Shakespeare must also are not formerly entered to other men. vizt. Comedyes. The Tempest. The two gentlemen have read Antoine le Maçon’s French version of Verona. Measure for Measure. The Comedy (originally published in 1545 and reprinted many of Errors. As you Like it. All’s well that ends times) of the Italian novella since, according to well. Twelft night. The winters tale. Histories. Bullough, the name Bertram and that of Helena’s The thirde parte of Henry the sixt. Henry the father (Gerard de Narbon) are closer in form to eight. Coriolanus. Timon of Athens. Julius those given in Maçon than to the ones given in Caesar. Tragedies. Mackbeth. Anthonie & Boccaccio or Painter. Wright even implies that, as Cleopatra. Cymbeline. Shakespeare must have had Maçon’s translation, he did not need to read Painter.1 It occupies the twelfth position in the comedies, Some allusions to the history of contemporary after The Taming of the Shrewand before Twelfth France (the religious and civil wars), to Italian Night. Chambers states that the text is not States and to the relationship between these satisfactory, requiring considerable emendation. countries and Austria have not been clarified. But There is much variation in the nomenclature, historical details mentioned in the play, though especially for the Countess and for Bertram, identified only in part, reveal that the playwright which suggests to Chambers that the copy text had an accurate knowledge of the political affairs was close to the author’s copy. of the time.

Orthodox Date “no good grounds for seeing All’s Well as an early play incompletely revised” (1998: 22). Chambers and Riverside favour 1602–3; Halliday, more precisely, opts for 1603. Chambers notes that Oxfordian Date the play is not (apparently) mentioned by Meres in 1598, which he sees as decisive evidence that it Clark’s proposal of 1579 is supported by Ogburn had not been written by then (see the Introduction Jr. On stylistic grounds, Hess et al. suggest 1591 for further discussion). Chambers also identifies as the likeliest date for the play’s composition. the play as part of a group of ‘problem comedies’ Nevertheless, the sources, historical allusions at which no-one laughs, but there appears to be and geographical details of Florence in the 1570s a happy ending. Hunter’s “tentative dating” is strongly support the case for a date c. 1580. 1603–4 (1967: xxv). Snyder, “with no reliable guides to further pinpointing”, chooses 1604–5 Internal Oxfordian Evidence (1998: 24). Wells & Taylor offer 1604–5.2 Fraser & Leggatt date the play to 1604. Wiggins defines the limits as 1601–8, with a best guess of 1605 In the play, Bertram is deceived by a ‘bed-trick’, Measure for Measure. as by default it “fills what would otherwise be an similar to the one staged in exceptional long gap in Shakespeare’s output” Anderson (145) points to the fact that Oxford between Othello and King Lear (V: 194). was reportedly reunited with his estranged wife in 1583 by just such a stratagem. There are two Internal Orthodox Evidence separate accounts (given more fully in the chapter on Measure for Measure) by Francis Osborne (1593–1659) and in Morant and Wright The Fraser & Leggatt, in line with other scholars, are Histories of Essex (1836). persuaded – by similarities of theme, characters, The playwright’s treatment of the source and tone and versification – to relate the play closely of the historical background provides evidence to Measure for Measure and Hamlet, plays which for earlier dating of the play than is commonly are traditionally (though without direct evidence) supposed. Shakespeare transfers Boccaccio’s story dated to the early 1600s. Fraser & Leggatt also to his own time and presents historical events which accept the suggestion that the play has many took place up to 1589. Orthodox commentators interesting themes in common with Venus and find no motivation for these historical additions, Adonis (published in 1593) and with the Sonnets which serve no dramatic function. Allusions (published in 1609). The date of the sonnets has which do not belong to the plot appear to originate not been established with any certainty; most in the dramatist’s experiences and recollections, editors see them as being either part of the vogue which could be easily explained if Oxford were for sonnets in the early 1590s, or as perhaps the author. Historical events are telescoped to inspired by them.3 increase effect, while some allusions may have been added later, during revision. Several points External Orthodox Evidence warrant commentary.

Some early commentators thought this to be the a) Parolles’s scarves. The name of Parolles, play entitled Love’s Labour’s Won, listed as one of not present in the source, is derived from François Shakespeare’s comedies by Francis Meres in 1598 Rabelais’ Gargantua, published in France in 1534.4 as follows: Rabelais’ satirical work mocks the society of the time, the Church and the educational methods of for Comedy, witnes his Gentlemen of Verona, pedantic grammarians. One section is dedicated his Errors, his Love Labors lost, his Loue to the classification of parolles”“ (= words). There is labours wonne, his Midsummers night dream a clear connection between the character’s name & his Merchant of Venice and his speech patterns: “I love not many words” For modern scholars the idea has become “less (3.6.84); “You beg more than one word then” compelling” (Hunter, 1967: xx), and Snyder finds (5.2.40).

This strange character has been described as a of regiments from various foreign armies. In the traitor, coward, braggart, turncoat, opportunist dramatist’s mind, Parolles might have been the or toady. As his name suggests, he is a man who opportunist who followed any political or religious speaks à deux paroles: a double-dealer, not a man trend, no matter if honour were lost. By this of his word. He does not hesitate to betray his lord theatrical means, Shakespeare may have meant and friend Bertram. The old French lord Lafeu to ridicule supporters of the Catholic League, or holds Parolles in contempt and despises his pride a particular member of it, who changed sides as in his dress: “if ever thou beest bound in thy scarf easily as they changed scarves. and beaten thou shall find what it is to be proud The whole business of Parolles’s scarves suggests of thy bondage” (2.3.224–6); and, “The soul of that the play was at least revised, if not written, at this man is in his clothes” (2.5.43–4). Diana, the time when English audiences would recognise the Florentine lady loved by Bertram, describes his part in its satirical allusion to contemporary Parolles as “that jackanapes with scarves” (3.5.87– European politics, probably in 1589–90. 8). When he is later exposed, the French soldier b) Siena and Florence. “The Florentines and dismisses him with these words: “You are undone, Senois were at war” is all that Boccaccio’s novella captain – all but your scarf; that has a knot on’t and Painter’s literal translation say of the historical yet” (4.3.325–6). background. In the source there is no further Hunter acknowledges that “the latest clothes development of the political relationship between are Parolles’ stock-in-trade” (1967: xlvii), but can France and Florence. offer no explanation for their function in the Shakespeare’s play, meanwhile, presents play. By contrast, Lambin suggests that Parolles’s historical events of the sixteenth century which distinctive attire derives its significance from are far more complex than the simple piece historical events in the late sixteenth century: of information found in Boccaccio. Since the namely the religious civil wars in France between thirteenth century, the two Tuscan cities had Catholics and Huguenots, between Holy Leaguers been at war, at long intervals. Florence and Siena and Royalists, between the powerful Dukes of were fighting in Boccaccio’s time and they were Guise and any opposing party. Historically, the again at variance three centuries later. The King members of the Catholic League wore a scarf of France tells his court: “The Florentines and over the shoulder, across the back and breast, Senois are by th’ears” (1.2.1). He adds that he has and knotted on one side. In the play the French been informed that Florence will ask him for help, Lord mockingly introduces Parolles to the other but that he intends to refuse. Yet, he is ready to lords and soldiers in the Florentine camp as “the let his gentlemen leave for Tuscany and “stand on ‘gallant militarist’ ... that had the whole theoric either part” (1.2.14): they may choose which city of war in the knot of his scarf” (4.3.145–7). The to support. Leaguers – often at variance with each other – Shakespeare does not make the king take sides. changed the colour of their scarves more than Yet, in the sixteenth century, France’s intervention once, as political events changed and with regard in the Siena–Florence conflict had become a matter to the ensuing advantages to them. At first the of serious and wide-ranging political implications, scarf was red, like the one worn by the Spaniards; involving the most important European states. then white, as the Leaguers became supporters Shakespeare expands the source, and thus is of King Henri III; black, after the murder of the closer to history. Times had changed: France Duke of Guise in 1588; and, finally, green, after had become the enemy of Florence and the ally Henri’s assassination in 1589, as a sign of renewal of Siena. In letting the gentlemen support which and political stability. ever side they wished in the conflict, Shakespeare It was the wearing of all these scarves is faithful both to Boccaccio’s text and to history. simultaneously that created the comical element Historically, it was not Florence but Siena which of the ‘Parolles’ scenes. That Parolles did so is asked the help of the French king, who sent a evident in Lafeu’s comment: “yet the scarves and small army to defend the town. the bannerets about thee did manifoldly dissuade The Siena–Florence conflict of 1552–59 was me from believing thee a vessel of too great a only one of many episodes in the sixteenth- burden” (2.3.204–6). These bannerets would be century wars fought between France and Spain

© De Vere Society 3 Dating Shakespeare’s Plays: All’s Well that Ends Well over their rights, claimed on the grounds of belonging to the Lord Admiral’s men. An entry, previous marriages and inheritance, to the Duchy dated 13th March 1598, refers to “Perowes sewt, of Naples (which had fallen to Spanish rule in which Wm Sley were”. Greg and Foakes & Rickert 1504) and to the Duchy of Milan (occupied by leave this unexplained, but ‘Perowes’ is probably the Spaniards in 1535). The Catholic–Protestant Henslowe’s spelling of ‘Parolles’, Bertram’s conflict was another cause of the hostilities follower and a character whose distinctive clothes between the European states. (as we have seen) may be a key to historical events In Shakespeare’s version, there seems to be and to the identification of historical personages. no plausible reason why the French king should Chambers (WS, ii, 55–78) informs us that Sley at first deny his help to Florence (1.2.12) – in belonged to the Lord Admiral’s men from 1590– Boccaccio, Beltramo does not hesitate to go 2, after which he was with the Lord Chamberlain’s to that city. However, from historical details as company. Thus Henslowe’s indication that Sley they are presented in the play, it is evident that wore Parolles’s costume, as one of the Lord the dramatist knew that Florence, an ally of Admiral’s men, is a detail of great relevance in Spain since 1552, had been raised to a dukedom establishing that the play already existed by the by Emperor Charles V in 1559 and, thus, that it early 1590s. had long been an enemy of France. Interestingly, It remains to be explained why Henslowe’s Oxford stayed in Siena in the winter of 1575–76, Diary, an invaluable document for dating writing a letter from there on 3 January 1576, Shakespeare’s works, records no play entitled when the conflict between the two Tuscan cities either All’s Well or The Second Helen. Helena has was still a matter of great concern (Nelson, 132). been considered the heart of the play: everything Siena had lost its liberty only a few years before develops around her. The medical knowledge she Oxford’s visit: it had been occupied by Florentine inherited from her father, a renowned doctor, troops and had fallen under the rule of Cosimo I, leads her to go to Paris to cure the King’s illness Duke of Florence. Such events were still a matter and, at the same time, to join Bertram. This skill of great relevance to the citizens of Siena in 1575– (also attributed to Helena in the Italian source) 6, and echoes of those conflicts are present in the may have been considered unusual in a female play. character by an Elizabethan audience more familiar with love-stricken heroines than with External Oxfordian Evidence young ladies enlightened by scientific expertise. Helena is French, and Lafeu introduces her to the Chambers (ES, iv, 96, 154) reports a Court King as “Doctor She” (2.1.78). On 28 October performance “on twelf daie at night” in January 1594, Henslowe’s Diary mentions a play called 1579 of The historie of the Rape of the second Helene The French Doctor; twelve further performances 5 by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. Nothing is of this play are recorded by November 1596. This known about this play, but Clark is of the opinion may well be All’s Well, leaving the Folio editors that it may be a first version ofAll’s Well. She to take the title that has come down to posterity bases her hypothesis on some passages containing from Helena’s own comment on happy endings allusions to classical mythology: (4.4.35). Leggatt (in his introduction to Fraser’s New Cambridge Shakespeare edition) asserts that in 1.3.65–70 Helen of Troy is mentioned; the play does not contain any allusion to other 1.3. 197–9 is an allusion to Tucia the Vestal plays after 1604 – the year of Oxford’s death.6 Virgin who, falsely accused of breaking her vow, thus proved her chastity (the sieve is a Conclusion symbol of virginity in classical iconography); and 2.1.159–167 is an elaborate image of the horses of the sun and Hesperus, the evening There is no ostensible reference to All’s Well star. before it appeared in F1 in 1623. Possible dates of composition range widely between 1567, the In his 1790 edition of Shakespeare, Malone publication of William Painter’s Palace of Pleasure, reproduced Henslowe’s inventory (the original is and the appearance of the play in the First Folio now lost) of properties, costumes and playbooks (F1) in 1623.

It is possible that the play was presented at court companion of Pantagruel. under a different name, perhaps as The Rape of the 5. See Foakes & Rickert (1961) for details of the Second Helen, in 1579 and later revised. The play precise dates on which The French Doctorwas seems to have been on the London stage in 1590– played. 6. See Fraser & Leggatt (2003: 10–11): “We do not 92 when William Sley, the actor playing the part have a secure date for All’s Well; but if we place of Parolles, was one of the Lord Admiral’s men. it in 1603, we may not be far wrong.” Henslowe, as we have seen, mentions Parolles’s theatre costume as the property of the Admiral’s company in 1598–9. Other Cited Works

Alexander, Peter, Shakespeare’s Life and Art, London: Notes James Nisbet, 1939 Anderson, Mark, “Shakespeare” by Another Name, 1. Earlier, Wright discussed the relationship of New York: Penguin, 2005 Painter’s English translation with the French Blakemore Evans, G. (ed.), Riverside Shakespeare, New version in a previous article (1951). With regard York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997 to All’s Well, Wright notes various French Bullough, Geoffrey, Narrative and Dramatic Sources names: Helena describes herself as a pilgrim to of Shakespeare, vol. II, London: Routledge and “St Iaques le grand”; Lafeu bestows on Parolles Kegan Paul, 1958 a “cardecue”, i.e. a quart d’écu (Onions), a Chambers, E. K., The Elizabethan Stage, 4 vols, silver coin struck from 1580 and not otherwise Oxford: Clarendon, 1923 known in English before 1704 (OED); the —, William Shakespeare, A Study of Facts and Problems, names Lavanche and Parolles are also French. 2 vols, Oxford: Clarendon, 1930 2. In their second edition of William Shakespeare: Clark, Eva Turner, Hidden Allusions in Shakespeare’s The Complete Works (2005), Wells & Taylor Plays, New York: Kennikat, 1931 rptd 1974 re-date All’s Well to c. 1608 so as to follow Foakes, R. A. & R. T. Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, Antony and Cleopatra, thus demonstrating how Cambridge: CUP, 1961 difficult it is to fix a date with any certainty. Fraser, R. & Leggatt, A. (eds), All’s Well that Ends 3. Fraser & Leggatt refer to Roger Warren’s article, Well, Cambridge: CUP, 2003 “Why does it end well? Helena, Bertram and Greg, W. W. (ed.), Henslowe’s Diary. 2 vols, London: the sonnets”, SS 22 (1969), 79–92. If the play A. H. Bullen, 1904 is close in style to the sonnets, then it would Halliday, F. E., A Shakespeare Companion 1550–1950, help to know their date. Unfortunately, there London: Duckworth,1952 is further uncertainty about when these were Hess, W. R. et al., “Shakespeare’s Dates”, The written: Chambers (WS, I, 555–76) has a very Oxfordian, 2, Portland, 1999 detailed discussion on the possible dates of the Hunter, G. K. (ed.), All’s Well that Ends Well, London: sonnets without coming to a definite conclusion, Arden, 1959 intimating that they were composed during the Lake Prescott, Anne, Imagining Rabelais in Renaissance 1590s. Wells & Taylor (1987: 123) place the England, New Haven: Yale University Press, sonnets only between 1593 and 1603. 1998 4. The first translation of Rabelais’ difficult French Lambin, Georges, Voyages de Shakespeare en France et into English was by Sir Thomas Urquhart in en Italie, Geneva: E. Droz, 1962 1653. The name ‘Parolles’ is spelt with a double Nelson, Alan, Monstrous Adversary, Liverpool: LUP, -ll- in the Folio. Wells & Taylor (1986) spell 2003 ‘Paroles’ with a single -l- according to modern Maurois, A., Histoire de la France, Paris: Wapler, 1947 French orthographic practice, stating (1987: Ogburn, Charlton, The Mysterious William Shakespeare, 494) that “Shakespeare clearly intended the Virginia: EPM, 1984 French word and there is no justification for Onions, C. T., A Shakespeare Glossary (3rd edition), disguising it.” Shakespeare’s use of Rabelais is Oxford: Clarendon, 1995 not confined to this play: Lake Prescott (1998) Snyder, S. (ed.), All’s Well that Ends Well Oxford: notes the allusion to “Gargantua’s mouth” in OUP, 1998 As You Like It; the debt of Holofernes in Love’s Valerio, M., Detti e Fatti Memorabili, Torino: UTET, Labour’s Lost to Gargantua’s slow scholastic 1971 tutor, Holoferne, and the allusions of Mercutio Wells, Stanley & Gary Taylor (eds), William (Romeo & Juliet) and Falstaff 1,( 2 Henry IV, Shakespeare: The Complete Works, Oxford: Merry Wives) to Panurge, the wily trickster and OUP, 1986

—, William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion, Oxford: OUP, 1987 Wiggins, Martin (ed.) British Drama 1533–1642: A Catalogue, Volume V: 1603–1608. Oxford, OUP, 2015 Wright, H. G., “How did Shakespeare come to know The Decameron?”, The Modern Language Review, 50, 1955: 45–8 Wright, H. G., “The Indebtedness of Painter’s Translations from Boccaccio in The Palace of Pleasure to the French Version of le Maçon”, The Modern Language Review, 46, 1951: 431–5