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The Photographic Self-Recording...Pdf ROCA-ROSELL, A. (ed.).(2012) The Circulation of Science and Technology: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ESHS, Barcelona, 18-20 November 2010. Barcelona: SCHCT-IEC, p. 462. I. M. PERES, M. E. JARDIM, F. M. COSTA: THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SELF-RECORDING OF NATURAL PHENOMENA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Isabel Marília PERES1, Maria Estela JARDIM2, Fernanda Madalena COSTA1 1Centro de Ciências Moleculares e Materiais da Universidade de Lisboa, PORTUGAL [email protected] 2Centro de Filosofia das Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, PORTUGAL [email protected] Abstract From the time of its discovery, photography participated in the production of evidence in many scientific fields. In the second half of the nineteenth century the quality of the photographic images as well as the discovery of easier and more reliable photographic techniques, transformed photography in a precious tool for scientists; they were now able to register in an indirect way atmospheric and magnetic phenomena. Throughout Europe, Meteorological and Astronomical Observatories had started to be equipped with photographic self-recording instruments in order to be able to register in a continuous way temperature, pressure or atmospheric electricity variations. One of these Institutions was the Kew Observatory, considered one of the best in Europe. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Infante D. Luiz Observatory of Lisbon, the Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory of the University of Coimbra, as well as the Meteorological and Magnetic Station of Oporto, owned photographic self-recording instruments for meteorological and magnetic purposes: barographs, psychrographs, electrographs and some magnetographs. Portuguese scientists established privileged scientific contacts, namely with the Director of the Kew Observatory, Balfour Stewart (1828-1887) and with William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907), among others. In this paper we will present our research on the instruments, photographic processes and photographic data, as well as on the contributions of Portuguese scientists in this field focusing on the international cooperation between Portugal and other European countries. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ESHS, Barcelona 2010 463 Introduction In 1839, the French physicist François Arago (1786-1853), presented to the Academy of Sciences in Paris the works of Louis Daguerre (1787-1851) and Joseph Niépce (1765-1833) relative to Photography. He considered with great forecast the contribution that photography would have for science and art. In his speech, Arago indicated the perspectives of use of this discovery as indispensable to the scientist in the areas of Astronomy, Archeology and Spectroscopy, among others1. Scientists quickly became aware of the capacity and importance of the photographic technique in the production of evidence in many scientific fields. In the second half of the nineteenth century the discovery of easier and more reliable photographic techniques, transformed photography in a precious tool for scientists; they were now able to register directly the image of nature captured with a photographic camera (figure 1), or in an indirect way, through the reading of data for a natural phenomenon in a photographic self-recording instrument. Fig. 1: Stereoscopic map of Peak and great crater of Tenerife (C. Piazzi Smyth; 1858).2 Meteorological Observatories throughout Europe The Royal Observatory of Greenwich in London (figure 2) played a major role in the history of astronomy and navigation, and it is best known as the location of the prime meridian. The observatory was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II. At this time the King also created the position of Royal Astronomer. John Flamsteed (1646-1719) was the first to be appointed as director of the observatory. The earliest known measurement of magnetic declination was made by Flamsteed in 1680. The difficult nature of magnetic and meteorological observations led to the development of automatic recording devices. Between 1846 and 1852, the English surgeon Charles Brooke (1804-1879) invented a series of self-recording instruments which used photography for the automatic registration of meteorological and magnetic data. A coal gas light- source, mirrors and optics to amplify readings and a clockwork drum covered in photographic paper to record the results were used (BROOKE; 1847; 1850; 1852). These instruments included a barometer, a thermometer, a psychrometer, and a magnetometer (figure 3)3. An example of a photographic record using these instruments is shown in figure 4. These type of self-recording instruments were adopted at the Royal Observatories of Kew and Greenwich, Paris, and other meteorological stations around the world. 1 Ŗ(…) À lřinspection de plusieurs des tableaux qui ont passé sous vos yeux, chacun songera à lřimmense parti quřon aurait tiré, pendant lřexpédition dřEgypte. (…) les réactifs découverts par M. Daguerre hâteront les progrès dřune des sciences qui honorent le plus lřesprit humain. Avec leur secours, le physicien comparera les lumières par leurs effets (…), le même tableau donnera des empreintes du soleil, des rayons des étoiles.ŗ (ARAGO; 1858). 2 In Report on the Teneriffe astronomical experiment of 1856, probably the first scientific book with stereoscopic photographs. 3 Charles Brooke's inventions were awarded by the British Government, and the jurors of the Great Exhibition in London (1851). Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ESHS, Barcelona 2010 464 Fig. 2: Royal Observatory of Greenwich (MAUNDER; 1900). Fig. 3: Brooke’s Self-recording barometer and thermometer (GREAT EXHIBITION of the Works of Industry of All Nations London; 1851). Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ESHS, Barcelona 2010 465 Fig. 4: Photographic records (BROOKE; 1847- plate VIII). The Kew Observatory was an astronomical and terrestrial magnetic observatory founded by King George III in Richmond, Surrey. In 1842, the Council of the Royal Society proposed to establish, in connection with the British Association, a Physics Observatory in order to improve the knowledge of meteorology and magnetism. A Committee was created to construct a self-recording meteorological apparatus to be employed at the Kew Observatory (SCOTT; 1885). A purchase order for a set of meteorological and magnetic instruments to be used for the self-registration of atmospheric data was granted to the meteorologist Francis Ronalds (1788-1873). In 1847 Ronalds presented to the Royal Society a description of the photographic self-recording instruments (RONALDS; 1847). These instruments (electrometer, thermometer, barometer, and declination magnetometer), were very similar to the instruments in use at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich. In 1859 Balfour Stewart (1828-1887), a Scottish physicist, was appointed director of the Kew Observatory. He became interested in doing research on meteorology and terrestrial magnetism. These instruments were designed by J. Wesh and constructed by the maker Patrick Adie from London (STEWART; 1859). In the following year Stewart published ―An Account of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew observatory‖ and presented a plate with its description (figure 5). The first report (1867) of the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society imparted a considerable impetus to the manufacture and use of these instruments (HICKS; 1886). In 1885 several Observatories were supplied with Kew Pattern Magnetographs: Batavia, Coimbra, Lisbon, United States, St. Petersburg, Florence, Stonyhurst, Utrecht, Melbourne, Bombay, Mauritius, Vienna, Zi-Ka-Wei, San Fernando, Potsdam, Brussels, and Nice (SCOTT; 1885). The Kew Observatory was in the second half of the 19th century an important center of the internationalization of physics, and more specifically, of geomagnetism (MALAQUIAS; 2005). Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of the ESHS, Barcelona 2010 466 Fig. 5: Self-recording magnetographs (STEWART; 1860).4 Portuguese Meteorological Observatories In the 1850s, the Lisbon Polytechnic School and the University of Coimbra submitted to the Portuguese government proposals to implement their own geomagnetic observatories and to collaborate with the already existing international network. Portugal joined the Magnetic Union in the summer of 1857. Brito Capello (1841-1917), observer from the Observatory of Infante D. Luiz (figure 6), made a scientific trip to the Paris and London Observatories, to become acquainted with the instruments used in these institutions. Following Brito Capello‘s advice the Lisbon Observatory bought some instruments: magnetographs and the Thomson‘s electrograph from the maker Patrick Adie of London, and the baropsychrograph from the maker Jules Salleron of Paris (OBSERVATORIO Infante D. Luiz; 1862). In 1860, with the same purpose, Jacinto António de Sousa (1818 -1880), a physicist professor from the University of Coimbra, visited Madrid, Paris, Brussels, London, Greenwich, and Kew. In a report presented to the respective University authorities he referred the reasons to adopt the Kew model for the magnetographs, a Thomson‘s electrograph and a baro- psychrograph from Patrick Adie. The Coimbra Observatory (figure 7) acquired these instruments in 1866 (SOUZA; 1862; 1875). By the beginning of the 20th century (1903), the Directors of the Observatories of Lisbon, Coimbra, Oporto and Azores (respectively A. Pina Vidal, A. Santos Viega, F. Paula Azeredo and F. Afonso Chaves) decided to
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