Interpretation and Compendium of Historical Fire Accounts in the Northern Great Plains

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fish and Wildlife Service / Resource Publication 161 RESOURCE PUBLICATIONS Interpretation and Compendium of

This publication of the Fish and Wildlife Service is one of a series of semitechnical or instructional materials deal­ Historical Fire Accounts in the ing with investigations related to wildlife and fish. Each is published as a separate paper. The Service distributes Northern Great Plains a limited number of these reports for the use of Federal and State agencies and cooperators. A list of recent issues appears on inside back cover.

By Kenneth F. Higgins

Copies of this publication may be obtained from the Publications Unit, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Matomic Building, Room 148, Washington, D.C. 20240', or may be purchased from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Higgins, Kenneth F. Interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the northern great plains.

(Resource publication ;161) Bibliography: p. 1. Grassland fires-Great Plains-History. 2. Indians of North America-Great Plains-Fire use-History. 3. Fires-Great Plains-History. 4. Great Plains-History. I. Title. IT. Series: Resource publication (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) ; 161. S914.A3 no. 161 333.95'4'0973 s 86-600175 [SD421.5] [574.5'2643]

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Resource Publication 161 Washington, D.C. • 1986 Contents Interpretation and Compendium of Historical Fire Accounts in the Northern Great Plains Page Abstract ...... 1 By Methods ...... ··············· 2 Limitations of Historical Fire Literature ...... 3 Interpretation and Discussion ...... 4 Kenneth F. Higginsl Summary and Conclusions ...... 8 Compendium of Quotations of Historical Fire Accounts ...... 9 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1673-1750 French Exploration Period ...... 9 Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center 1750-1800 Colonial-Revolutionary Period ...... 10 Jamestown, North Dakota 58496 1801-1844 Western Exploration-Fur Trade Period ...... 11 1845-1880 Wagon Trains and Indian Wars Period ...... 22 Abstract 1880-1920 Settlers and Fences ...... 35 Acknowledgments ...... 36 This interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the northern Great References ...... · · : · · · · · · · · · · · · 37 Plains provides resource managers with background information to justify the study or use of fire in management and provides a reference of historic fire accounts for those without ready access to major library collections. Historical accounts of fire are critiqued to aid interpreting the compendium accounts. An interpretation is included by the author. Lightning-set fires were recorded in the literature far less frequently than were Indian­ set fires. The kinds of fire most frequently reported were scattered, single events of short duration and small extent. Although fires occurred in wetlands, wetlands as well as sandy soil sites usually were good areas for escape from the effects of fire. Both Indians and wild animals were reportedly injured or killed during prairie fires. The frequency of historic fires was less evident in the literature than the descriptions of fire distribution in time and space. Indian-set fires were reported in every month except January. Fires occurred mainly in two periods, March through May with a peak in April, and July to early November with a peak in October. Grassland fuels burned readily within a few hours or days after rain and even during light snowfall. I agree with arguments that support the concept that Indians of the northern Great Plains generally did not subscribe to annual wholesale or promiscuous burning practices, but that they did purposely use fire as a tool to aid hunting and gathering of food and materials. Apparently, the northern plains Indians did not pattern their use of fire with the seasonal patterns of lightning fires. More likely they developed seasonal patterns of burning the prairies in harmony with bison (Bison bison) herd movements because the hunter-gatherer economy of these nomadic tribes was centrally focused and largely dependent on bison and bison ecology.

The origin and maintenance of North American acting singly or, more likely, collectively. Climate steppes or grasslands have been a central theme of (Clements 1916; Costello 1969), topography and many ecological studies and reviews. Grassland is wind (Wells 1965, 1970), large ungulate herds (Roe defined as an area of grass or grasslike vegetation; 1970), and fire (Sauer 1950; Stewart 1951, 1953; a key element of the definition is area. How do Wright and Bailey 1980) are often cited as primary natural causative agents affect an area in favor of natural agents favoring grasslands over woodlands. grass or grasslike vegetation? Undoubtedly, grass­ Native ungulates are not known to be responsible lands evolved in response to several natural agents, for the conversion of large areas of woodlands into grasslands in North America, even though herbi­ vores can affect smaller local areas and plant species 1Present address: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, South Dakota Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, composition. From a review of historical documents Department of Wildlife and Fishery Sciences, South concerning the effects of native grazing animals on Dakota State University, Brookings, S.Dak. 57007-1696. pristine grasslands of western Canada, England and 1 11 2 3

De Vos (1968) concluded that overgrazing by bison ble. Except for the use of bison in grassland manage­ (Bison bison) was probably significant locally, prob­ ment trials on the Samuel H. Ordway, Jr., Memorial ably encouraged the growth of forbs and, along with Prairie near Leola, South Dakota, fire is the only wallowing and rubbing, may also have produced con­ natural agent presently being used to maintain ditions favorable for the invasion of grasslands by native grassland areas in the northern Great Plains. woody vegetation. They also concluded that the in­ Although several researchers have been studying crease in forbs would have been amenable to a large the effects of fire on plants and wildlife in northern antelope (Antilocapra americana) population, and grasslands (Dix 1960; Kirsch and Kruse 1973; Gart­ an increase in woody plants would provide cover and ner et al. 1978; Wright and Bailey 1982; Engle and browse for elk (Cervus canadensis), mule deer Bultsma 1984; Forde et al. 1984), they have usually (Odocoileus hemionus), and moose (Alces alces). cited only a few select references on the historic role Fig. 1. The principal geographic area Costello's (1969) general description of the associa­ of fire in this area. Moore (1972) made the only major used in the present study of historical accounts of fire in the northern Great tion of mammals to the prairies corroborates the attempt to compile historic fire accounts of the Plains grasslands. findings of England and De Vos (1968), and Edwards grasslands of central North America. Studies like (1978) provides recent evidence that bison and elk Moore's are few, resulting in a lack of consensus on affected some woody plant species during periods the ecological role of fire in grasslands. Resource of selective grazing. managers, such as National Wildlife Refuge In contrast, fire is known to be a useful tool for managers, are frequently called on to make state­ converting large areas of woodlands into grasslands ments about the historic role of fire to justify their (Kozlowski and Ahlgren 1974; Pyne 1982, 1984; planning. Field offices are usually isolated from Wright and Bailey 1982), but fires cannot start or major library collections and resource managers burn a large area unless the fuel is continuous and often make such statements without the benefit of dry. Dry and windy weather also favors grasslike historic and scientific literature. vegetation over woody vegetation. Therefore, The objectives of this paper are to (1) provide sum­ the general area of study were also included in the tions or interpretations of these records need climate seems to be the major single factor respon­ mation of the limitations associated with the inter­ compendium either because they were from very qualification. Few methodologies are available for sible for the origin of grasslands (Clements 1916; pretation of some of the historical references in the early detailed accounts or because they were from documenting the fire histories of grasslands. In Costello 1969). compendium, (2) present my interpretation of the fragmented accounts in which the author traveled woodlands, however, scars on tree rings, patterns Grasslands originate and are maintained by their historic role of fires set by American Indians in the not only within the geographic boundaries of the of age structure among trees, and other techniques environment and the interaction of several causa­ northern Great Plains region, and (3) present a com­ study area, but in a bordering region. can be used to aid the interpretation of fire history. tive agents. Once established, grasslands can be pendium of historical accounts of fires in the north­ All of the fire accounts in the compendium are The Great Plains are nearly treeless; therefore, most maintained by repeated drought, fire, desiccation ern Great Plains grasslands. direct quotes and are arranged chronologically. of the interpretation of fire structure in grasslands (hot and cold), and intensive or selective foraging Whenever possible, the date or location of each fire must be based on historical written records. by animals. In addition, other biotic (disease) and Methods event appear in.parentheses following the account. Historical fire records are difficult to obtain. Inter­ abiotic (greater pH) factors can possibly act to main­ Locations and dates were traced with reasonable ac­ pretation of records in non-English languages was tain grassland condition (Vogl 1974). However, A search was made for major published journals, curacy but, in a few instances, a best estimate was .not always possible, and access was limited to many natural events in North American grasslands were diaries, narratives, and accounts of explorers, trap­ made deductively. A clear-cut interpretation of the original journals and records. Likewise, much of the disrupted by settlement and expansion of European pers, traders, early settlers, native American In­ historical role of fire from old documents was dif­ information in this paper was taken from "reprints" immigrants. In the northern Great Plains, the large dians, military personnel, and religious missionaries ficult to obtain because some written accounts were of original works, many of which were subjected to herds of bison, elk, and antelope were decimated who traveled the northern Great Plains or nearby contradictory and others lacked good descriptive varying degrees of editing. The rest were obtained during the 1800's and mostly replaced with domestic areas before A.D. 1900. The search included any detail. from references and quotations cited in other livestock. Native peoples were also largely displaced relevant and prospective references, and bibliogra­ The references section is arranged alphabetically publications. Furthermore, some references to fire or eliminated from their traditional homelands by phies and indexes of other literary works of that by author. Citations that are not a part of the com­ were undoubtedly missed in literature searches European immigrants. Subsequently, natural grass­ time. About 300 references pertaining to fire were pendium are preceded by an asterisk. because of deceptive or inadequate title descriptors. lands were segmented by roads and eliminated by scanned or read. Readers should also be aware that there may well cultivated yroplands. Fires were suppressed because The area of study (Fig. 1) generally included the be more than one edition or translation of any par­ of .fear of injury to life and property. geographic region bounded by the North Saskatche­ Limitations of ticular historical account and thus pagination and Most of the remaining native grassland in the wan River on the north; the Rocky Mountains on the Historical Fire Literature text may not be duplicative among references. northern Great Plains is managed for production of west; the North Platte River on the south; and by Other investigators have had difficulties with domestic livestock. However, some public lands and the Red River (North Dakota), the Minnesota River, Descriptive accounts of historical fires in northern interpreting historic fire records. Nelson and privately-owned prairie preserves are managed the Little Sioux River of Iowa, and the Missouri grasslands of North America are extremely variable England (1971) surmised that historical accounts of toward as natural a condition as is presently possi- River on the east. A few fire records from outside in detail and language and, therefore, any summa- information on fire frequency in the norther11 grass-

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-97 FIRES lands area of Canada were difficult to assess because Table 1. Records offire events lasting longer than 20 - ..,...... ,. 37 FIRES (Henry & Thompson; Chardon) these and other similar questions are complex and some observers were more interested in the fire than 1 day. 18 - maybe even impossible. With this in mind, I submit others, observations were made during unequal Cl) some arguments to support the concept that Indians Estimated ~16 - periods of time, and continuous records of the same w of the northern Great Plains generally did not sub­ duration [u 14 - type and quality were not obtainable for the entire of fire scribe to annual wholesale or promiscuous burning Canadian plains region or even a large part of it. Reference Month and year (days) ~ 12 - practices, but that they did use fire as a tool to aid These problems were also prevalent for historical ii: 10 hunting and gathering of food and materials. u.. - Boller 1972:307 May 1859 2 or 3 ~ fire records in my study. 0 8 - Fires can change woodlands into grasslands, but Another consideration of early fire records in the Chardon 1932:187 March 1839 2 0: ' there is no direct evidence that Indians intentionally Henry and Thompson ~ 6 - northern Great Plains is the pattern of documenta­ ~ set prairie fires with the purpose of burning large Vol. 1, 1965:158-159 December 1800 5 ::i: tion. Because of the modes and seasonality of travel ~ 4 - woodland areas in the northern plains. Indians did, Larocque 1934:75 October 1805 3 and recurrent hostility by native American Indians Macoun 1882:652 October 1879 3 2 - however, burn within wooded areas along rivers and during much of the 1700-1800's, a disproportionate I s s 1 I L streams and in the forest-grassland and parkland­ Palliser 1968:158 October 1857 2 0 I I I I number of the early fire records were made by Palliser 1968:182 October 1857 2 J F M A M J J A S O N D grassland ecotones. Fires within wooded areas were authors whose travels were largely restricted to Trobriand 1951:51, 59 August- MONTHS most often associated with Indian campsites. Wood passage lanes along rivers and streams (Moore gathering for campfires during winter months September 1867 9 Fig. 2. Monthly distribution of Indian-set fires from 1972), and to short or rapid excursions into or across Trobriand historical accounts. The accounts of Henry and Char­ seemed to be a frequent activity and, undoubtedly, the prairies and plains. Despite these difficulties, 1951:275, 276 April 1868 3 don were mainly stationary whereas the other accounts a very important one in the northern latitudes. Thus, much useful information can be gathered from Trobriand 1951:343 November 1868 2 were mostly from transitory travelers. it seems reasonable that annual fires of large mag­ records of historical fire occurrences in northern nitude in wooded areas would have caused more grasslands. These historical documentations contain hardships than benefits for Indians of the plains. the most complete information presently available. lands. However, records of lightning-set fires were occasionally injured or killed during prairie fires Furthermore, recurrent fires of large magnitude rare occurrences in the literature (Brock 1925; Tan­ (Allis 1887; Kilgore 1949; Lewis 1961). would have eventually reduced all woodlands to Interpretation and Discussion ner 1975), compared with Indian-set fires. 9. Relative accounts of the frequency of historical shrublands or grasslands. Most of the historic docu­ 2. According to the authors, the majority of the fire fires varied in description from "annual fires in dif­ ments, even some of the earliest accounts (Henry One of the major gaps in contemporary fire and smoke events were explicitly or presumably ferent locations" (Denig 1961) to "every spring" in and Thompson 1965; La Potherie 1969; Tanner ecology is the lack of data concerning the historic attributed to Indians, although a small number were the same locality (Lewis 1961). 1975), mentioned some wooded areas, especially occurrence of fire in grassland ecosystems. Difficult attributed to whites-usually by parties of which the 10. Indian-set fires occurred during every month ex­ along river systems and along forest-grassland eco­ questions to answer are raised about historic fire author was a member (Chardon 1932). cept January. There were two main periods of fire tones on the eastern and northern borders of the patterns and their uses by the native peoples, fre­ 3. The kinds of fires most frequently reported were occurrence (Fig. 2); one from March through May northern plains. quency, seasonality, causative agents, effects, and scattered, single events of short duration and small with a peak in April, and the other from July through Fires of large magnitude undoubtedly occurred in extent. The desire to develop sound fire manage­ extent. Only 10 of 97 accounts (Table 1) of fires were early November with a peak in October. open grassland landscapes, but there is no strong ment plans has often circumvented the real state of reported to burn longer than 1 day. 11. Grassland fuels burned readily within a few evidence that Indians tried to purposely set large the art and this presents another problem. Too often, 4. Authors differed considerably in their individual hours or days after rain and even during light snow­ grassland conflagrations, unless perhaps as infre­ fire management plans have been formulated from accounts of fire or smoke use by Indians. They stated fall (Table 2). quent malicious acts. More likely, large fires were data derived under modern conditions alone, with that Indians purposely used fires for hunting, signal­ The preceding deductions seem straightforward set either accidentally or by lightning. Large recur­ inadequate attention to historical fire regimes. ing and communicating, threats, warnings, warfare, and fundamentally reasonable, but several.broader rent fires probably would have created substantial Ideally, contemporary fire studies should follow aiding theft, improving pasturage, attracting and questions arise: Were natural fires widespread an­ difficulties for Indians during spring and fall, be­ after study of historic fires, and then the interpreta­ herding wild animals, enhancing travel, masking and nual events? What is considered a natural fire? Do cause these were the seasons used primarily to hunt, tions merged into conceptual guidelines to develop eliminating personal sign at camps and along trails, we include only those fires not set by humans as gather, and prepare stores of food for winter and future fire management and research plans. ceremonies, and pleasure. natural or do we include only those fires reported for trade products. Thomas (1977) reported an in­ The following outline and discussion portrays what 5. Accidental fires set by Indians were common, before the advent of horses into the northern plains stance in Canada in which some Indians set a large I believe are some reasonable deductions on the especially near campsites in spring and fall (Henry (ca. 1700-1740), or do we include only the fires re­ fire on the plains in 1781 to divert buffalo from near ecological role of fire in grasslands of the northern and Thompson 1965). ported before the major demise of the large ungulate the Hudson House trading post in hopes of obtain­ Great Plains and nearby areas. These deductions 6. Fires occasionally occurred in wetlands. One herds in the north (ca. 1850-1875)? Were some of ing a higher price for provisions needed by the were derived from the compendium of historical ac­ reference (Denig 1961) warned that fires in dense, the descriptions of prairie fires exaggerated to at­ traders. But the area was burned so completely that counts reported in this paper and the points of tall swamp grass in frozen swamps were dangerous. tract more attention to an author's written product? the buffalo moved much further away than antici­ discussion are supplemented with results of recent 7. Wetlands, marshes, streams, and sandy soil sites Did Indians purposely set fires to sustain or expand pated so that by autumn 1781 food was in short studies: were good areas of escape from fire (Macoun 1882; the area of grasslands or were these features ac­ supply in the area. Although not a truly "natural" 1. There are firsthand historical accounts and sight­ Harmon 1922; Laroque 1934; Hambley 1952). tually circumstantial artifacts of other intentional situation, this example supports the view that In­ ings of lightning-set and Indian-set fires in grass- 8. Indians and wild animals, including bison, were uses of fire? Direct answers and explanations to dians probably would not have frequently set such 7 6

fires because of similar consequences. Thomas (1977) INDIAN AND EXPLORER FIRES (N =97) Table 2. Date of last precipitation before recorded fire events. 50 also reported that "in particularly dry years such LIGHTNING FIRES (N = 293) Date since last precipitation Reference Date of fire event as 1812, 1828, and 1836, fire caused widespread 40 I\ Chardon 1932:38 August 3, 1835 July 25, rain starvation among Indians of the plains and con­ I \ July 4, 1836 July 1, sprinkle; June 28, slight rain; siderably impeded the operations of the Hudson's I \ Chardon 1932:71 l ( \ June 19, rain Bay Company. C/J 30 I I I I Chardon 1932:77 August 22, 1836 August 20, rain Some authors of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries ~ I I August 20, rain w I I Chardon 1932:79 September 5, 1836 (Christy 1885, 1892; Thompson 1916; Dodge 1965) i;j I \ October 12, 1836 October 3, light snow; October 1, rain 20 I \ Chardon 1932:84 purported that recurrent fires expanded the geo- ~ I \ Chardon 1932:87 November 10, 1836 November 5, sprinkle; October 23, rain I shower; October 18, 4 in. of snow graphic area of the northern Great Plains at the ex- u:: pense of the woodlands. A few even contended that 10 / Chardon 1932:104 March 19, 1837 March 18, light snow fall; March 17, tremendous snow fall the plains and prairies were caused by fires (Christy Chardon 1932:108 April 21, 1837 April 15, snow storm last evening, 1892). Undoubtedly fires-especially those in dry, prairies covered with snow hot seasons and years-increased the area of grass­ J FMAMJ JASON D MONTHS Chardon 1932:112 May 17, 1837 May 13, rain in evening lands and thinned or eliminated woody plants from Chardon 1932:155 April 2, 1838 March 31, rain for 1st time this year much of the interior plains region. However, there Fig. 3. A comparison of the monthly distribution of recent Chardon 1932:187 March 4-5, 1839 February 28, light snow is no direct evidence to support the contention that · lightning-set fires (Higgins 1984) to historical fire Chardon 1932:190 March 31-April 1, 1839 March 11, prairies are again covered the northern Great Plains grassland originated as accounts. with snow a result of fires, especially Indian-set fires. More Early in March the snow was entirely Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:4 March 24, 1800 likely, the frequency per year of Indian-set fires was gone greater than that of lightning and other types of migrational patterns in response to strong differ­ September 22, 1800 September 7, rained hard Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:101 natural ignition. Lightning is a product of climate ences between seasonal weather patterns, forage Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:158-159 December 1, 1800 November 20, 6 in. of snow and there is strong evidence that climatic patterns phenology and availability, and winter shelter (Ray Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:159 December 1, 1800 We had a light fall of snow but it had no effect on the fire have been fairly similar in the northern plains for 1974). These bison migrational patterns possibly Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:176 April 26, 1801 April 18, rain at least the past few centuries (McAndrews et al. became cyclic because of a somewhat constant ii Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:180 May 14, 1801 May 6, rain 1967; Bryson and Murray 1977; Bluemle and climate over hundreds of years. Likewise, northern Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:190 October 22, 1801 October 6, heavy snow fall Clayton 1982); therefore, it seems reasonable to plains Indians would have followed the cyclic migra­ Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:196 April 30, 1802 April 19, snow all melted on the plains; assume that present lightning-fire patterns would tions of bison to sustain their hunter-gatherer life­ March 27, the plains are covered with be similar to those of the past. Higgins (1984) and styles and, in all likelihood, developed a pattern of water from the melting of snow so Rowe (1969) found that most of the recent light­ burning the prairies and plains to better ensure their suddenly ning-set fires in northern grasslands occurred dur­ bison hunting success in harmony with the animals' April 8, 1803 March 25, heavy rain Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:210 ing summer and early fall. The pattern of season­ annual migrations. If so, the northern plains Indians April 26, 1803 March 25, heavy rain Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:211 ality of lightning-set fires reported by Higgins (1984) would probably have burned the central area (mixed­ Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:231 November 15, 1803 A great fire to the SW, although the ground is covered with snow showed that 73% of the lightning-set fires occurred grass prairie) of the northern plains in late summer Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:239 March 24, 1804 March 21, snow entirely melted; in July and August. This pattern was different from and fall to help force some bison toward winter en­ February 26, heavy snow the two seasonal periods of Indian-set fires reported campment sites in the prairie-woodland ecotone and Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:240 April 2, 1804 (The grass March 21, snow entirely melted here-March through May with a peak in April, and they would probably have burned the peripheral area begins to point out of July through November with a peak in October (tallgrass prairie) in spring after the bison had left the ground in the (Fig. 3). Therefore, it seems that the northern plains the wintering grounds. This pattern of burning burned prairies.) Indians did not pattern their use of fire according would have produced early green growth on parts Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:250 September 18, 1804 August 18, torrents of rain to lightning-fire patterns, but for some other reason. of the central portion of the northern plains in early August 18, torrents of rain Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:252 October 27, 1804 I submit that during early historic times they may spring and later growth near the periphery of the August 18, torrents of rain Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:252 November 1, 1804 have recognized some of the benefits resulting from northern plains in summer. Henry & Thompson, Vol. 1. 1965:253 November 19, 1804 August 18, torrents or rain fires set by lightning, but later the northern plains It is unlikely that the American Indians of the Luttig 1964:92 November 12, 1812 November 9-10, snow Indians developed patterns of burning the prairies northern plains and adjacent areas had a holistic fire II Maximilian, Vol. 1. 1966:281 May 9, 1833 May 9, torrents of rain Ross 1957:269 July 25, 1840 July 24, possibly a rain storm more in accordance with the phenology of plants and management plan as such; nevertheless, fire was Tanner 1975:207 Late fall 2 days after a violent rain and snow animals important to nomadic living. A possible used annually as a major part of their hunter­ storm scenario of the development pattern of the annual gatherer economies. Moreover, most of the northern Trobriand 1951:51, 59 August 26-September 3, September 1, drops of rain cyclic relation between the northern plains Indians plains Indians purposely set grassland fires to aid 1867 and bison follows: hunting and to procure food, shelter, clothing, and I October 22, snow 'I Trobriand 1951:343 November 3, 1868 Bison are mostly grassland consociates. In the other materials. In contrast, most current uses of :111 northern plains, bison probably developed local fire in the northern plains are for purposes specific

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to wildlife habitat management, range management, tern of fire. Three major changes affecting the In­ gatherer economy of the nomadic tribes of northern Hennepin. 1972(1):146 and prairie preservation efforts. Furthermore, Ar­ dians were (1) the reduction of the large populations plains Indians was centrally focused and largely ... the great Fires we saw in the Plain. (at the thur (1975) described how the Indians of the plains of wildlife and bison in particular, (2) the introduc­ dependent on bison and bison ecology. head of the Illinois River, December 1679) exercised some control over the local and seasonal tion of foreign diseases such as smallpox that killed Early historians often emphasized the devastating Hennepin. 1972(1):245-246 movements of bison herds with the use of fire so that thousands of Indians in epidemics during 1780-1781 effects of fire on the environment but neglected to Then he took a piece of Cedar, which was full of they would know in what general geographical areas and 1837-1838 (Ray 197 4), and (3) the introduction address similar effects caused by the large popula­ little round Holes, into one of which he thrust a bison could be expected in the spring. He also of horses into the northern plains (ca. 1700-1740) tion of native wildlife. This neglect is understandable Stick of a harder Substance than the (p. 246) showed that fire was used to force bison movement (Ewers 1955). Horses greatly altered the Indians' because prairie fires produce dramatic and spectac­ Cedar, and began to rub it about pretty fast be­ toward Indian winter encampments in the prairie­ mobility and facilitated food gathering, hunting, and ularly visible experiences, attracting the attention tween the Palms of his Hands, till at length it took fire. (near Minneapolis, Minnesota, about forest and prairie-parkland ecotones during fall and very likely the distribution of fires. Thus, the truer of reader audiences and prospective adventurers April 1680) winter seasons. Arthur (1975) reported that the an­ "natural" role of historic fires is probably best ex­ alike. However, a few early historians reported that Hennepin. 1972(1):248 nual travel patterns of the nomadic plains tribes plained from evidence and records in the time period the ''herd effects'' of bison on grasslands resembled the aftereffects of a prairie fire in the northern However, to hasten us, they sometimes set fire were coordinated with the seasonal movements of preceding about A.D. 1740. Unfortunately, ther~ is to the dry Grass in the Meadows through which bison, within the larger context of a slowly chang­ a paucity of written records of fire in the northern plains. I suggest that it is probable that the demise we pass'd; so that our Choice was march or burn. ing plains . environment, until the introduction of plains for this period. Between about 1750-1850, of the large herds of ungulates from the northern I had a Hat which I had taken with me, to fence horses and European culture. Thus, the nearly pre­ descriptions were derived from relatively "natural" Great Plains may have altered the grassland en­ me from the Sun during the Heats of the Sum­ dictable seasonal migrations of bison within the conditions, but after about 1850 fire's role was in­ vironment before 1880 more than did changes in the mer. This would often fall from my Head into the northern plains, followed by fire first and herd graz­ terminably mixed with disturbance by progressive historic role of fire after that time, even though the Fire, because it was not over-fit, and the Fire so ing second, seem to have been a common event of settlement and cultivation of the northern grass­ two agents were not totally independent. very near. The Barbarians would snatch it out past years. Any attempt to model contemporary lands. Prairie fires frequently injured and killed native again, and lend me a hand to save me from the burning practices according to historical grassland peoples and wildlife, according to historical docu­ Flames, which they had kindled, as well as to conditions in the absence of grazing would be Summary and Conclusions ments. Accidental fires or wildfires occurred at any hasten our March .... (near Minneapolis, Minne­ unwise. time during dry, hot weather, but were more fre­ sota, April 1680) Unfortunately, nearly all recent studies of fire Historic fires in the northern Great Plains were quent in late summer and in fall. Even wetland Hennepin. 1972(2):526-527 have been conducted in the absence of grazing periodically started by lightning and by American · habitats sometimes burned, but at other times pro­ For to make Fire in a new manner, new, and animals, particularly large herds of wild ungulates. Indians. Indian-set fires were mentioned much more vided refuge from fires. There was no evidence that quite unknown to us, they take a Triangle of Too often, the historic accounts of grassland fires often in historic documents than lightning-set fires. Indians of the plains had the provisions to control Cedar Wood, of a foot and half, in which they make some Holes of a small depth: After they seldom mention the compensatory relations and im­ There were two seasonal periods of Indian-set fires, fires, except in localized instances near campsites take a Switch of little Stick of hard Wood; they portance of the "herd effects" of native wildlife on March through May with a peak in April, and July and even these attempts were not always successful. twirl it between both their Hands in the Hole, the grassland environment and to the native through early November with a peak in October. Fire was a significant natural force of past years and by the quick Motion, produce a kind of Duft American Indians. But, when noted (Larocque 1934; These documents provided no evidence that Indians and is also an important tool for present contem­ or Meal, which is converted into Fire; after they Henry and Thompson 1965; Palliser 1968), the buf­ of the plains purposely burned large areas of adja­ porary use in habitat management; I strongly urge pour out this white Pouder (p. 527) upon a Bunch falo were said to have completely denuded the cent woodlands to increase the size of grasslands, the future study and use of fire in combination with of dried Herbs, and rubbing altogether, and blow­ prairies of grass, at times resembling the after­ or burned large areas of grasslands to enhance their herd grazing. Future studies of the historical role ing upon this Pouder, which is upon the Herbs, effects of a fire. It is probable that before the ad­ subsistence. The accounts suggest that most Indian­ of fire would also benefit from an interdisciplinary the Fire blazes in a moment. ; I vent of the plow, the demise of large herds of set fires were scattered events of short duration, · approach involving climatologists, archaeologists, When they would make Platters, or wooden ungulates may have had a more pronounced effect small to moderate in size, and of fairly high fre­ historians, zoologists, and botanists. Spoons, or Porringers, they drill their Wood with on the northern plains environment than did fire. quency, especially near Indian campsites. I found no their Stone Hatchets, and hollow it with Fire .... ,I The reduction of the large herds of ungulates (ca. strong evidence that large fires, regardless of origin, La Potherie. 1969(2):16-17 I ·· Compendium of Quotations of 1850-1875) not only affected the Indians' means of were annual occurrences in the same area. It is more ... he traveled sixty leagues on the plains, with­ livelihood, but probably resulted in an increase in the likely that large fires were variable but periodically Historical Fire Accounts out other guide than the fires and the (p. 17) clouds of smoke that he saw. amount of fuel loads and, likewise, an increase in the recurring events. Therefore, I propose that recur­ 1673-1750 frequency, intensity, and patterns of fires. rent large fires would have caused Indians of the La Potherie. 1969(2):124 Indian-set fires were definitely an important part plains more difficulties than provided benefits, French Exploration Period The Miamis, who numbered five villages, desir­ ing to break camp, sent out some men from each of the overall role of fire in the northern plains (Ar­ especially during the period immediately following Hennepin. 1972(1):145 thur 1975). Archaeological studies (MacNeish 1956) a fire, and more so in autumn than in spring. group to kindle fires, which was the signal of Having passed through great Marshes, we found departure; they built five of these, abreast, the reveal that Indian cultures have been consociated Apparently, the northern plains Indians did not a vast Plain, on which nothing grows but only Outagamis two, and the Kikabous one. When with northern grasslands and wildlife for several pattern their use of fire with the seasonal patterns some Herbs, which were dry at that time, and these fires were kindled the call to break camp hundred years. Therefore, one can surmise that any of lightning fires. More likely, they developed sea­ burnt, because the Miami's set them on fire every was uttered; all the women folded up the bag­ major changes in Indian populations or their life­ sonal patterns of burning the prairies in harmony Year, in their hunting wild Bulls .... (at the head gage, and gathered at the fires of their respec­ styles would also indirectly affect the historic pat- with bison herd movements because the hunter- of the Illinois River, December 1679) · tive tribes, at which the men also assembled. 10 11

La Potherie. 1969(1):366 Hendry. 1907:336 in length and breadth, and the deer give place 1801-1844 ... as soon as the latter perceived great fires on Saw the Archithinue smoke. (near the Red Deer to the Bison. But the mercy of Providence has those plains they might be assured that a tribe River and Knee Hills. Creek, near Three Hills, given a productive power to the roots of the grass Western Exploration-Fur Trade Period had been found; and this signal was to be used Alberta, 7 October 1754) of the Plains and of the Meadows, on which the Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):176 by both parties. It is the custom of the peoples Carver. 1956:287 fire has no effect. The fire passes in flame and Smoke is rising in every direction; this is caused who inhabit this continent that, when they go smoke, what was a lovely green is now a deep The Indian method of hunting ... having taken by the Indians returning from their beaver hunts. hunting in spring and autumn, they light fires on black; the Rains descend, and this odious colour their different stations, they set the grass, which (Pembina River Post, North Dakota, 26 April disappears, and is replaced by a still brighter those prairies, so that they can ascertain each at this time of year is rank and dry, on fire .... 1801) other's location. The fire becomes so strong, green; if these grasses had not this wonderful (1768) Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):180 especially when the wind rises, and when the productive power on which fire has no effects, nights are dark, that it is visible forty leagues Cocking. 1908:104 these Great Plains would, many centuries ago, The plains on fire in every direction, and smoke away. A smoke seen the way we intended going; As· have been without Man, Bird, or Beast. (from a darkens the air. (Pembina River Post, North they are uncertain whether it is made by Friends Dakota, 14 May 1801) La Potherie. 1969(1):367 journal entry from the Red River near the or Foes .... very short grass .... (near Saska­ Canada-United States boundary, 11 March 1798) Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):190 ... they shut them in with a ring of their fires, toon, Saskatchewan, at 52°37', 27 August 1772) Terrible fires all over the plains. (Pembina River which burn the trees, and from which the animals Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):4 Cocking. 1908:110 Post, North Dakota, 22 October 1801) cannot escape .... At the end of thirty days they The meadows on fire. (near Portage la Prairie, Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):196 described fires, which were far away; and they Saw a smoke to Southward, supposed to be the Manitoba, 24 March 1800) also lighted fires, [by which] the Puans knew that Snake Natives. (north of Swift Current, Sas­ Fire on the plains in every direction. (Pembina the French had established their post. (in the katchewan, 12-20 November 1772) Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):101 River Post, North Dakota, 30 April 1802) plains of Minnesota, spring of 1683) Thompson. 1916:188 Maymiutch informed me this morning of a great Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):196 Perrot. 1969(1):121-122 The Bow River flows through the most pleasant smoke E.S.E. from us toward Red lake, which I set fire to the East side of the river. (Pembina They commence at-once by setting fire to the of the Plains ... but for the most part is bare of he supposed was occasioned by Indians. (Park River Post, North Dakota, 1 May 1802) River Post, North Dakota, 22 September 1800) dried herbage which is abundant in those prairies. Woods, and those that remain are fast diminish­ Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):210 · ... (p. 122) ... so that the fires can be lighted on ing by fire. Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):158-159 Plains on fire in every direction. (Pembina River all four sides at once and gradually communicate Thompson. 1916:220 At sunset I saw a thick smoke rising at the foot Post, North Dakota, 8 April 1803) the flames from one another .... when the The Woods are of Oak, Ash, Elm and some other of the mountain toward the Indians' camp, and Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):211 savages see that the animals [buffalos] are try­ hard woods, mixed with Poplar and Aspin [sic] soon after perceived the plains on fire. The Fire raging all over the plains, causing a great ing to get outside of it, in order to escape the fires but no Pines: When the grass is set on fire in sum­ weather was cloudy at dusk, and the wind blew smoke .... (Pembina River Post, North Dakota, which surround on all sides (and this is the one mer, which is too often the case, all of the above strong from the N., causing the flame to make 26 April 1803) thing in the world which t~ey most fear) .... rapid progress; at ten o'clock it had extended as woods, except Aspin, have a thick coat of Bark Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):225 Perrot. 1969(1):123 around them, to which the grass does little, or far as Salt river, presenting a dismal and lurid Fire in the plains in every direction. (Pembina The elk and the deer are quite often caught in no injury; but the thin bark of the Aspin however appearance. We could plainly distinguish the River Post, North Dakota, 1 October 1803) these circles of fire, but make their escape .... slightly scorched prevents the growth of the flames, which at intervals rose to an extraor­ tree .... (entry in journal near the loop of the dinary height, as they passed through low spots Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):228 Perrot. 1969(1):126 Mouse River, 20 December 1797) of long grass or reeds. They then would cease Fire is raging at every point of the compass; thick In their winter hunts they follow the same rules; clouds of smoke nearly deprive us of the sight Thompson. 1916:241 their ravages for a few moments, soon afterward but the snow with which the ground is entirely rise again with redoubled fury, and then die away of the sun, and at night the view from the top The grass of these plains is so often on fire, by covered prevents them from making the fires to their usual height. The sight was awful, indeed, of my house is awful indeed. In every direction accident or design, and the bark of the Trees so spread .... (in Illinois[?], late 1600's) but as the wind was from us, and the fire was are flames, some leaping to a prodigious height often scorched, that their growth is contracted, on the S. side of Park river, we had nothing to as the fire rushed through willows and long grass, or they become dry: and the whole of the great 1750-1800 dread. If this fire spreads all over the country, or low places covered with reeds and rushes. We Plains are subject to these fires during the Sum­ we shall be hard up for provisions, as there will apprehended no danger, as the fire had already Colonial-Revolutionary Period mer and Autumn before the Snow lies on the be no buffalo; (p. 159) nothing can stop its fury passed near the fort. (Pembina River Post, North ground. (entry in journal referring to the plains Hendry. 1907:331 but snow or rain. This morning we had a light Dakota, 4 October 1803) between the Missouri River and the Turtle Moun­ fall of snow, but it had no effect on the fire. In­ Hillocks and Dales & small ledges of woods all tains and beyond, February 1798) Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):229 burnt. (near Battleford, Saskatchewan, 6 Sep­ dians came in from the camp below, and even The plains are burned almost everywhere; only Thompson. 1916:248 tember 1754) from the upper part of Two Rivers, to inquire into a few small spots have escaped the fury of the In the more northern parts, where Pine Woods Hendry. 1907:334 the cause of the conflagration. They supposed flames. (Pembina River Post, North Dakota, 24 have been destroyed by fire, Aspins, Poplars and that the Sioux had destroyed this fort, and set Level land and ledges of burnt woods. Several October 1803) Alders have sprung up, and taken place of the fire to the grass, as is their custom when they ponds of sweet water .... (near Sounding Creek pines .... Along the Great Plains, there are many return from war. I was uneasy for some time, Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):229 in vicinity of Coronation, Alberta, 19 September places where large groves of Aspins have been fearing the Indians' camp at the hills was Great fires appear to the S.W. and W., at some 1754) burnt, the charred stumps remaining; and no fur­ destroyed. But the Crees came in with a few distance. (Pembina River Post, North Dakota, 31 Hendry. 1907:335 ther production of Trees have taken place, the skins, and informed us the fire had been lighted October 1803). Saw a large smoke which we think are the Archi­ grass of the Plains covers them: and from this at their tents by accident. (near Park River, Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):231 thinue Natives. (27 September 1754) cause the Great Plains are constantly increasing North Dakota, 1 December 1800) A great fire to the S. W., although the ground 12 13

is covered with snow. (Pembina River Post, Tabeau. 1939:187 Lewis. 1961(1):66 ing .... (near Stanton, North Dakota, 29 March North Dakota, 15 November 1803) ... judging by the great fires built along the route ... all around the country had been recently 1805) Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):238 that our warriors should take that they are re­ burnt, and a young green grass about four inches Lewis. 1961(1):272-273 turning victorious .... (spring of 1804) high covered the ground, which was enlivened The grass has been burned here the same as all Up this valley about seven miles we discovered by herds of antelopes and buffaloe .... (near over the plains of Red river .... Riding is out of Lewis. 1961(1):9 a great smoke, as if the whole country had been Chamberlain, South Dakota, 16 September 1804) the question in the burned plains. (near Lake ... two French traders were descending, from set on fire; but were at a loss to decide whether Winnipeg, Manitoba, 6 February 1804) eighty leagues up the river Kanzas [sic], where Lewis. 1961(1):70 it had been done accidentally by captain Clarke's Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):239 they had wintered, and caught great quantities ... called by the party Smoke creek, as we ob­ party, or by the Indians as a signal on their ob­ Plains on fire toward the W. (Pembina River of beaver, but had lost much of their game by served a great smoke to the southwest on ap­ serving us. We afterwards learnt that this last Post, North Dakota, 24 March 1804) fires from the prairies. (on the lower Missouri proaching it. (near Ft. Thompson, South Dakota, was the fact; for they had heard a gun fired by Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):240 River, 5 June 1804) 23 September 1804) one of captain Clarke's men, and believing that their enemies were approaching had fled into the The grass begins to point out of the ground in Lewis. 1961(1):26 Lewis. 1961(1):99 mountains, first setting fire to the (p. 273) plains II the burned prairies. Fire in the S.W. (2 April The party, who walked on the shore to-day, found ... it is a large oak tree, standing alone in the as a warning to their countrymen. (near Newton, 1804) the plains to the south, rich, but much parched open prairie, and as it alone has withstood the North Dakota, 20 July 1805) Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):250 with frequent fires, and with no timber, except fire which has consumed every thing around, the Fire appears Southward .... (Pembina River the scattering trees about the sources of the runs, Indians naturally ascribe to it extraordinary Lewis. 1961(2):364 Post, North Dakota, 18 September 1804) which are numerous and fine. (near Nebraska powers. (near Ft. Rice, North Dakota, 21 Octo­ The part of the cove on the northeast side of the City, Nebraska, 20 July 1804) ber 1804) creek has lately been burnt, most probably as a Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):252 Lewis. 1961(1):106 signal on some occasion. (in Montana, 25 August Fire in the plains in every direction. (Pembina Lewis. 1961(1):29 1805) River Post, North Dakota, 27 October 1804) ... and observed the plains on fire in the direc­ In the evening the prairie took fire, either by ac­ Lewis. 1961(2):383 Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):252 tion of their villages .... (near the mouth of the cident or design, and burned with great fury, the whole plain being enveloped in flames: so rapid ... as we passed along, the vallies and prairies Fire running all over the country. Platte River, 23 July 1804) was its progress that a man and a woman were were on fire in several places, in order to collect Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):253 Lewis. 1961(1):40 burnt to death before they could reach a place the bands of the Shoshonees and the Flatheads, Fire raging all over the plains. (Pembina River In the morning 15th, some men were sent to ex­ of safety; another man with his wife and child for their journey to the Missouri. (in Montana, Post, North Dakota, 19 November 1804) amine the cause of a large smoke from the north­ were much burnt, and several other persons nar­ 31 August 1805) east, which seemed to indicate that some Indians Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):265 rowly escaped destruction. Among the rest a boy Lewis. 1961(3):7 43 were near; but they found that a small party, who Fire set to the grass in the plains toward the S., of the half white breed escaped unhurt in the had lately passed that way, had left some trees ... we came to Glade creek, down which we pro­ we suspect by the war party. (Pembina River midst of the flames; his safety was ascribed to burning, and that the wind from that quarter ceeded, crossing it frequently into the glades on Post, North Dakota, 21 September 1805) the great medicine spirit, who had preserved him blew the smoke directly towards us .... (15 Aug­ each side, where the timber is small, and in many on account of his being white. But a much more places destroyed by fire; where are great quan­ 'I Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):266 ust 1804) natural cause was the presence of mind of his tities of quamash now in bloom. (in Montana, 6 Fire in the plains in every direction; burned our mother, who seeing no hopes of carrying off her horses' feet passing through the smoldering turf. Lewis. 1961(1):41 July 1806) : II This nation having left their village, that desir­ son, threw him on the ground, and covering him (Pembina River Post, North Dakota, 2 October with the fresh hide of a buffalo, escaped herself Lewis. 1961(3):753 1805) able purpose cannot be effected; but in order to About eleven o'clock a smoke was described to bring in any neighbouring tribes, we set the sur­ from the flames; as soon as the fire had passed, 111 Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):425 the S. S. E. towards the termination of the Rocky rounding prairies on fire. This is the customary she returned and found him untouched, the skin Fire all over the country. (Pembina River Post, having prevented the flame from reaching the mountains, intended most probably, as a signal Ill signal made by traders to apprize the Indians of by the Crow Indians, who have mistaken us for North Dakota, 1 October 1807) their arrival: it is also used between different na­ grass on which he lay. (near Mandan, North Henry and Thompson. 1965(1):425 Dakota, 29 October 1804) their enemies, or as friends to trade with them. tions as an indication of any event which they (in Montana, 18 July 1806) Buffalo in abundance, although the plains were have previously agreed to announce in that way; Lewis. 1961(1):146 lately burned. (Pembina River Post, North and as soon as it is seen collects the neighbour­ The day was cloudy and smoky in consequence Lewis. 1961(3):754 Dakota, 31 October 1807) ing tribes, unless they apprehend that it is made of the burning of the plains by the Minnetarees; The smoke which had been seen on the 17th, was Henry and Thompson. 1965(2):519 by their enemies. (near the northeast corner of they have set all the neighbouring country on fire again distinguished this afternoon .... (in Mon­ tana, 19 July 1806) Young men are usually sent out to collect and Nebraska, 17 August 1804) in order to obtain an early crop of grass which bring in the buffalo-a tedious task which re­ Lewis. 1961(1):60 may answer for the consumption of their horses, Lewis. 1961(3):876 and also as an inducement for the buffalo and quires great patience, for the herd must be The party on the north represent the country A slight thunder storm, the air was turbid in the other game to visit it. (near Stanton, North started by slow degrees. This is done by setting through which they passed, as poor, rugged, and forenoon, and appeared to be filled with smoke; Dakota, 6 March 1805) fire to dung or grass. hilly, with the appearance of having been lately we supposed it to proceed from the burning of Henry and Thompson. 1965(2):577 burnt by the Indians; the broken hills, indeed, ap­ Lewis. 1961(1):152 the plains, which we are informed are frequently We could plainly discern the young men driving proach the river on both sides, though each is Every spring as the river is breaking up the sur­ set on fire by the Snake Indians to compel the whole herds from different directions, until these bordered by a strip of woodland near the water. rounding plains are set on fire, and the buffalo antelopes .... (28 May 1805) came within scent of the smoke, when they (near Chamberlain, South Dakota, 8 September tempted to cross the river in search of the fresh Harmon. 1922:90 dispersed. 1804) grass which immediately succeeds to the burn- The weather is extremely mild, for the season.

! I 14 15

The surrounding country is all on fire; but happily grass of this spring has sprung up unencumbered (probably on the Red River near Pembina, North The burning region is usually not very wide. One for us, we are encamped in a swampy place. by the old. (p. 53) ... I found the soil of the up­ Dakota) rides against the wind to cross the fire. I rode When the fire passes over the plains, which cir­ land of an excellent quality, and, notwithstand­ a gentle horse that was accustomed to this kind cumstance happens almost yearly, but generally ing the ravages of the fire, the marks of which Tanner. 1975:207 of thing. It galloped at a dead run thru the fire, later than this, great numbers of horses and buf­ are every where to been seen .... (below Ft. ... One of the Assinniboines, who had turned without suffering the least injury. My compan­ falos are destroyed; for those animals when sur­ Osage, on the Missouri River in Jackson County, back, purposely set fire to the prairie .... (be­ ions, however, could not all boast of the same rounded by fire, will stand perfectly still, until Missouri, 21 April 1811) tween the Turtle Mountains and Pembina, North good luck. One of the soldiers who rode a mule Dakota, late fall before 1820) they are burned to death. (near Watrous, Sas­ Brackenridge. 1966:56-57 was a poor rider. He was thrown into the burn­ katchewan, 17 March 1804) With the exception of a few spots where the Beckwourth. 1972:257 ing grass, but escaped with only his hair and Harmon. 1922:94 ravages of fire (p. 57) had destroyed the woods, Evidently the savages had set fire to the grass clothing singed. The country all around us is on fire. (at Ft. Alex­ we passed through a continued forest .... (Refer­ all around, thinking to burn them out .... (prob­ The Indians know how to fire the prairie with andra, Saskatchewan, 9 April 1804) ring to the Missouri River between St. Louis and ably in Montana, late 1820's) great skill. They take advantage of a favorable Kansas City, Missouri, 1811) wind. In spite of the fact that all around the Harmon. 1922:145 Wilhelm. 1938:340 Brackenridge. 1966:76 village the grass was burned, the corn fields near The surrounding plains are all on fire. (Peace ... for in the autumn the Indians set the prairie the village were unharmed. I saw women and River area, Dunvegan, Alberta, 6 May 1809) Traversed the prairie which had been burnt .... on fire and incidentally lay whole forests in ashes. (near the mouth of the Platte River, Nebraska, children gather corn. (along the Platte River in Larocque. 1934:73 The wind drives the fire on till it reaches the Nebraska near the mouth of Loup Fork River, 11 May 1811) river. Of course the scattered trees in the prairie ... and the wind which was against us carried 21 September 1823) Brackenridge. 1966:156 are not consumed by the fire. The bark is dried abundant smoke. (Powder River in eastern Mon­ Wilhelm. 1938:432 A great portion of the country watered by the up near the roots, and the life of the trees is tana, 26 September 1805) The way led over a prairie which was for the most Missouri and its tributary streams, appears to ended. In the forest the fire seizes the lower part burnt over. (near the mouth of the Loup Larocque. 1934:75 have undergone some wonderful change, from branches, as also the bushes and climbing plants. ... the plains which are on fire on the west. Fork River, Nebraska, 23 September 1823) causes not 'easy to ascertain; the influence of fire Like a sea of fire the flames, driven by 1the wind, (northwestern North Dakota, 12 October 1805) is however evident. surge high in the air and consume the finest Wilhelm. 1938:443-444 ,, forest for miles around. (just south of the mouth I had reason to be in a hurry, for the autumnal I, Laroque. 1934:75 Pritchett. 1970:81 i of the Platte River, 26 July 1823) storms, fog, the smoke of the burning prairie .... I We crossed the place where the fire was at sunset ... a fire had recently run and destroyed the and we camped near a little lake whose banks had wood, there being only burnt wood and weeds Wilhelm. 1938:388 In the neighborhood of the Nandawa, however, escaped the conflagration. (13 October 1805) left. (quote from a letter, by Miles Macdonell, Red To the east, that is toward the Missouri great the burning prairie set the forest on the right bank on fire. Now an almost impenetrable smoke Laroque. 1934:75 River (Point Douglas) south of Winnipeg, 17 July clouds of smoke were seen rising. It was a prairie filled the air. The fire moved forward with giant ... we reached the Mouse River where we spent 1813) fire, which even in this season began to consume strides and consumed the timber with terrible the rest of the day. Here the grass on the banks the prairie grass. These fires gradually extend Simpson. 1931:156 crackling, sending sparks for miles over tlie coun­ of the river has not been burned, but from both over the entire boundless prairie country, and ... lighting a fire to smoke the muschetoes .... try. The Indians living to the east also set the sides we see the fire in the distance. (14 October sweep away the season's growth of grass in a sea (near Quill Lakes, Saskatchewan, 15 May 1825) prairie on fire. Since the country between the 1805) of flames. Simpson. 1931:180 Missouri and the Mississippi produced tall grass, Wilhelm. 1938:413 Bradbury. 1966:71-72 ... Indians ... by keeping the Buffalo in Summer weeds and great stretches of forest, both banks ... and observed in the night the reflection of im­ and Fall was easily effected ... setting fire to the A great prairie fire, driven quickly by a strong of the Missouri soon became the scene of an enor­ mense fires, occasioned by burning the prairies. Plains ....(Ft. Garry, Manitoba, May 1822) wind, spread like a giant sea of fire over the mous struggle of the elements, which man had At this late season, (p. 72) the fires are not made prairie to the west and approached the Missouri loosened for the destruction of organic matter. by the hunters to facilitate their hunting, but by Tanner. 1975:128 with great speed. This magnificent sight lasted It was truly horrifying but at the same time a war parties; and more particularly when return­ To avoid burning the grass, we kindled our little till late in the night, and did not stop till the river magnificent sight, as we drifted along in the mid­ ing unsuccessful, or after a defeat, to prevent fire in the bottom of the deep path ....(near the set a barrier against the fire. (near Cedar Island dle of the river, and watched the (p. 444) banks their enemies from tracing their steps. (Sarpy Red River west of Lake of the Woods, late fall at the mouth of the James River in South Dakota, of the giant Missouri as it appeared for miles a County, Nebraska, 28 April 1810) after frost) 31 August 1823) sea of flames. At night the spectacle defied Luttig. 1964:92 description. The boldest imagination would seek Bradbury. 1966:74 Wilhelm. 1938:426-427 ... Rees ... set the Prairie around us a fire .... in vain to depict it in true and vivid colors. Burn­ As the old grass had been burned in the autumn, On all sides the Indians had burned off the (near Morton County, North Dakota, 12 Novem­ ing the prairie and forests is practiced more and it was now covered with the most beautiful prairie. Such fires run over great stretches with ber 1812) more by the Indians and also by the white verdure, intermixed with flowers. It was also unbelievable speed. They cause dense smoke settlers. It is true that prairie fires make the adorned with clumps of trees, sufficient for orna­ Luttig. 1964:126 which darkens the sky. Especially pretty was the grass more luxuriant in the following spring. The I , ment, but too few to intercept the sight .... (two ... passed a tranquil night, but saw some run­ fire in the tall grass in the valley of the Platte. forests, however, are in part wholly destroyed. I days up the Missouri River near Sarpy County, ning fires, the Signal of Indians after Battle .... Here the surging flames advanced amid crackling In many places in the western territory one now Nebraska, 30 April 1810) (near Ft. Yates, North Dakota, 24 February noise (p. 427). 1813) sees only stunted bushes and the charred stumps Brackenridge. 1966:52-53 Since the prairie fire surged all around the great of former forest giants, where earlier virgin I remarked a curious contrast of the yellow Tanner. 1975:137 village of the Otoes, we were obliged to ride thru forest stood. (north of the Kansas River on the sward, which has remained unburnt, and the ex­ ... we found in the morning an elm tree still the fire in a manner employed by the Indians. Missouri River in northeastern Kansas, 8 Octo­ tensive tracts of deep green, where the young burning, which had been set on fire by lightning. This can not be called a dangerous undertaking. ber 1823)

,,1 I 16 17

Keating. 1959(2):36-37 then they would rise again. We observed by high, as is often the case for many miles together, Chardon. 1932:104 It is probable, that the fires, which annually over­ watching their motions, that they lit in great on the Missouri bottoms; and the flames are Discovered the Prairies on fire, supposed to have run these prairies destroy all the vegetable mat­ numbers in every solitary tree; and we placed driven forward by the hurricanes, which often been done by a War Party of Y anctons .... (Ft. ter, and tend to keep the ground in an impover­ ourselves near each of these trees in turn, and sweep over the vast prairies of this denuded Clark, North Dakota, 19 March 1837) ished state. We observed a very great difference shot them down as they settled in them; some­ country. There are many of these meadows on Chardon. 1932:108 the Missouri, the Platte, and the Arkansas, of in the soil of those parts of the prairie from which times killing five or six at a shot, by getting a : .. saw the Prairies on fire, in the direction of many miles in breadth, which are perfectly level, the grass had not been burnt off the preceding range upon them [prairie chickens]. the Ree Camp .... (Ft. Clark, North Dakota, 21 with a waving grass, so high, that we are obliged year. April 1837) In this way we retreated for miles before the to stand erect in our stirrups, in order to look The causes of these conflagrations are numerous. flames, in the midst of the flocks, and keeping over its waving tops, as we are riding through Chardon. 1932:112 The Indian frequently sets the prairies on fire in company with them where they were carried it. The fire in these, before such a wind, travels Prairies are all on fire on the North side, lit by order to distract the pursuit of his enemies by along in advance of the fire, in accumulating at an immense and frightful rate, and often the War Parties of Assiniboines and Gros Ven­ the smoke, or to destroy all trace of his passage; numbers; many of which had been driven along destroys, on their fleetest horses, parties of In­ tres .... (Ft. Clark, North Dakota, 17 May 1837) to keep the country open, and thus invite the buf­ for many miles. We murdered the poor birds in dians, who are so unlucky as to be overtaken by Chardon. 1932:155 falo to it; to be able to see and chase his game this way, until we had as many as we could well it; not that it travels as fast as a horse at full Smokey Weather, the Prairies are on fire below with more facility; as a means of communicating carry, and laid our course back to the Fort, where speed, but that the high grass is filled with wild -Wind from the South East .... (Ft. Clark, intelligence to a distance with a view to give we got much credit for our great shooting, and pea-vines and other impediments, which render North Dakota, 2 April 1838) notice to his friends of his approach, or to warn where we were mutually pledged to keep the it necessary for the rider to guide his horse in Chardon. 1932:187 them of the presence of an enemy. The traders secret. the zig-zag paths of the deers and buffalos, often burn the prairies with the same view. In­ retarding his progress, until he is overtaken by The Prairies are all on fire since Yesterday, in The prairies burning form some of the most dependent of these, the fires of encampments fre­ the dense column of smoke that is swept before the direction of the Ree Camp .... having beautiful scenes that are to be witnessed in this quently spread in dry weather, and burn away the fire-alarming the horse, which stops and nothing else to do, I set fire to the Prairies. (Ft. country, and also some of the most sublime. Clark, North Dakota, 5 March 1839) ,i the grass to a great distance. We may therefore stands terrified and immutable, till the burning consider fire (p. 37) as the cause 'of the contin­ Every acre of these vast prairies (being covered Chardon. 1932:190 for hundreds and hundreds of miles, with a crop grass which is wafted in the wind, falls about him, : 11 uance, if not of the original existence, of prairies, kindling up in a moment a thousand new fires, The Prairies are all on fire on the north side, the of grass, which dies and dries in the fall) burns ! at least over much of our country; but there are which are instantly wrapped in the swelling flood work of the Horrid tribe .... (Ft. Clark, North ,, some parts, and in this class we would be induced over during the fall or early in the spring, leav­ I of smoke that is ,moving on like a black thunder­ Dakota, 31 March 1839) to include the country on Red River, where the ing the ground of a black and doleful colour. 1,1f cloud, rolling on the earth, with its lightning's Chardon. 1932:190 ii great drought, the want of streams to moisten There are many modes by which the fire is com­ glare, and its thunder rumbing as it goes. ... the Prairies on the north side opposite the the soil, and perhaps some other causes, unite in II( municated to them, both (p. 17) by white man and Fort are all burnt-the fire haveing [sic] reached preventing the growth of trees. (near Pembina, Chardon. 1932:38 ii by Indians-JIB!' accident; and yet many more North Dakota, 26 July 1823) The prairies are on fire below. (Ft. Clark, North the timber last Night .... (Ft. Clark, North l!i where it is voluntarily done for the purpose of Dakota, 1 April 1839) · I getting a fresh crop of grass, for the grazing of Dakota, 3 August 1835) Allis. 1887(2):137 Irving. 1955:115 their horses, and also for easier travelling dur­ Chardon. 1932:71 I was awakened about three o'clock in the morn­ Far to the south, a faint red light was reflected l'I: ing the next summer, when there will be no old Prairie a fire at the point of timber .... (near Ft. ing ... the prairies were on fire. (near the Elk­ in the heaven; which one of the hunters attrib­ i' grass to lie upon the prairies, entangling the feet Clark, North Dakota, 4 July 1836) horn River near Bellevue, Nebraska, in the late of man and horse, as they are passing over them. uted to the burning of a prairie, some twenty summer or fall of 1834) Chardon. 1932:71 miles off. (on the Platte River in Nebraska, 1833) Over the elevated lands and prairie bluffs, where Allis. 1887(2):137 ... this Morning the prairies are all on fire, made Irving. 1955:203 the grass is thin and short, the fire slowly creeps by the war party last night .... (near Ft. Clark, On that same trip, another party camped on the ... all hurried after the Indian guide, over the with a feeble flame, which one can easily step North Dakota, 6 July 1836) Platte bottoms; the fire surrounded them, and prairie which had been burnt before us. i over (Plate 127); where the wild animals often I, burned to death four Indians and several horses. rest in their lairs until the flames almost burn Chardon. 1932:77 Irving. 1955:208 I have several times been exposed to prairie their noses, when they will reluctantly rise, and ... the prairies are on fire both sides of the river. The cinders from my fire, caught in a small patch fires .... leap over it, and trot off amongst the cinders, (Ft. Clark, North Dakota, 22 August 1836) of dry grass, :which had escaped the general burn­ where the fire has past and left the ground as Chardon. 1932:79 ing of the prairie; and in a moment it was in a Catlin. 1965(2):16-17 blaze-filling the air with a cloud of black smoke. black as jet. These scenes at night become in­ The Prairies are all on fire, impossible to see the We had a fine pointer, and had legitimately describably beautiful, when their flames are seen (along the Platte River, Nebraska, 1833) followed the sportsman's style for a part of the hills, on account of the thick smoke. (Ft. Clark, at many miles distance, creeping over the sides Irving. 1955:209 afternoon; but seeing the prairies on fire several North Dakota, 5 September 1836) and tops of the bluffs, appearing to be sparkling ... through the night air, or turning to point out miles ahead of us, and the wind driving the fire and brilliant chains of liquid fire (the hills being Chardon. 1932:84 gradually towards us, we found these poor birds the light of a prairie on fire at a distance. (along lost to the view), hanging suspended in graceful The Prairies are all on fire on the North side of the Platte River, Nebraska, 1833) driven before its long line, which seemed to ex­ festoons from the skies. the River .... (Ft. Clark, North Dakota, 12 Octo­ tend from horizon to horizon, and they· were fly­ ber 1836) Irving. 1955:213 ing in swarms or flocks that would at times But there is yet another character of burning The Pawnee .... The heavy hoofs of his horse, almost fill the air. They generally flew half a mile prairies (Plate 128), that requires another Letter, Chardon. 1932:87 struck with a jarring sound upon the burnt or so, and lit down again in the grass, where they and a different pen to describe-the war, or hell The Prairies are on fire on the North side .... prairie; and a whirl of black ashes was raised in would sit until the fire was close upon them, and of fires! where 'the grass is seven or eight feet (Ft. Clark, North Dakota, 10 November 1836) a light cloud around him. (Nebraska, 1833) ,l, 18 19

Irving. 1955:221-223 every hill seemed to burn its own funeral pyre, Maximilian. 1966(1):281 dian. (near the Republican Fork on the Kansas ... before a huge fire, which I built ... suddenly, and the scorching heat licked up every blade in As soon as it was dark, the young men set fire River, Kansas, 18 May [1835]) a swift gust swept through the (p. 222) grove, the hollows. A dark cloud of gray smoke, filled to the dry grass of the prairie, to give us the Murray. 1974(2):126-128 and whirled off sparks and cinders in every direc­ with burning embers, spread over the course of pleasure of seeing how the fire spread, but the tion. In an instant, fifty little fires, shot their the flames, occasionally forming not ungraceful attempt did not fully succeed, because there was The Indians now set fire to the prairies and forked tongues in the air, and seemed to flicker columns, which were almost instantly shattered no wind. (near the mouth of Vermillion Creek in woods all around us, and the chance of good sport with a momentary struggle for existence. There by the wind, and driven in a thousand different South Dakota, 9 May 1833) daily diminished. These malicious neighbors were was scarcely time to note their birth, before they directions. determined to drive us from the district; they Maximilian. 1966(1):289-290 evidently watched our every motion; and when­ were creeping up in a tall, tapering blaze and For several hours the blaze continued to rage, A little further up we witnessed a great prairie ever we entered a wood or grove to hunt, they leaping lightly along the tops of the scattering and the whole horizon became girdled with a belt fire (p. 290), on the left bank. The flames rose were sure to set the dry grass on fire. Half a mile clumps of dry grass. In another moment they of living fire. As the circle extended, the flames from the forest to the height of 100 feet-fiery to the windward they pursued this plan so effec­ leaped forward into the prairie, and a waving line appeared smaller and smaller: until they looked smoke filled the air: it was a splendid sight! A tually, as not only to spoil our hunting, but on of brilliant flame, quivered high up in the dark like a slight golden thread drawn around the hills. whirlwind had formed a remarkable towering two occasions to oblige me to provide hastily for atmosphere. They then must have been nearly ten miles dis­ column of smoke, which rose, in a most singular my personal safety: on the (p. 127) first of these, tant. At length the blaze disappeared, although manner, in graceful undulations, to the zenith. they set fire to a wood where I was passing, and Another gust came rushing along the ravine. It the purple light, that for hours illumined the night (near Bon Homme County, South Dakota, 12 compelled me to cross a creek for fear of being was announced by a distant moan; as it came sky, told that the element was extending into May 1833) overtaken by the flames; on the second, having nearer a cloud of dry leaves filled the air; the other regions of the prairie. Maximilian. 1966(1):313 watched me as I crossed a large dry prairie, slender shrubs and saplings bent like weeds­ It was sunrise when I rose from my resting place Here we ascended the lofty, steep hills, which beyond which was some timber that I wished to dry branches snapped and crackled. The lofty and resumed my journey. What a change! All was were partly bare, and burnt black, and from try for deer, they set fire to the grass in two or forest trees writhed, and creaked, and groaned. waste. The sun had set upon a prairie still clothed which we had a view of the whole bend of the three places to the windward; and as it was blow­ The next instant the furious blast reached the in its natural garb of herbage. It rose upon a river. (Lyman County, South Dakota, 29 May ing fresh at the time, I saw that I should not have flaming prairie. Myriads and myriads of bright scene of desolation. Not a single weed-not a 1833) . time to escape by flight; so I resorted to the sim­ embers were flung wildly up in the air: flakes of blade of grass, was left. The tall grove, which at Maximilian. 1966(1):328 ple expedient, in which lies the only chance of blazing grass, whirled like meteors through the sunset was covered with withered foliage, now safety on such occasions: I set the prairie on fire I ... ascended the steep eminences, of which the sky. The flame spread into a vast sheet, that spread a labyrinth of scorched and naked where I myself was walking, and then placed lower were covered with bright green, partly swept over the prairie, bending forward, il­ branches-the very type of ruin. A thin cover­ myself in the middle of the black barren space with dry, yellow grass, and the higher ones bare, luminating the black waste which it had passed, ing of gray ashes was sprinkled upon the ground which I thus created, and which covered many with the surface frequently blackened by fire. (in and shedding a red light far down the deep vistas beneath, and several large, dead trees, whose acres before the advancing flames reached its North Dakota, 4 June 1833) of the forest; though all beyond the blaze was of dried branches had caught and nourished the border; when they did so they naturally expired a pitchy blackness. The roaring flames, drowned flame, were still blazing or sending up long spires Maximilian. 1966(1):341 for want of fuel, but they continued their leap­ even the howling of the wind. At each succeed­ of smoke. In every direction, barrenness marked The oaks and ashes, at the edge of the thickets, ing, smoking, and crackling way on each side of ing blast, they threw long pyramidal streams up­ the track of the flames. It had even worked its were but just beginning to unfold their buds. It me to the right and to the left. It was altogether wards in the black sky, then flared horizontally, course against the blast, hugging to the roots of is probable, however, that they had suffered by a disagreeable sensation, and I was half choked and seemed to bound forward, lighting at each the tall grass. a fire in the prairie. (Mandan Villages, Oliver with hot dust and smoke. bound, a new conflagration. Leap succeeded leap; County, North Dakota, June 1833) The wind was still raging; cinders and ashes were On the following afternoon, I went out again in 111 the flames rushed onward with a race-horse Maximilian. 1966(2):34 drifting, and whirling about, in almost suffo­ a direction that we had not tried, where the speed. The noise sounded like the roar of a cating clouds, sometimes rendering it impossible Many isolated trees were quite dry, and of a prairie was not yet burnt. I could find no deer, stormy ocean, and the wild, tumultuous billows to see for more than one or two hundred yards. silver-grey colour, doubtless through a prairie and the shades of night began to close round me, of flame, were tossed about like a sea of fire. (Nebraska, 1833) fire .... (upstream from the mouth of the Yellow­ when, on the opposite hills to those on which I Directly in their course, and some distance out stone River, near the border of Montana and stood, I observed two or three slender pillars of in the prairie, stood a large grove of oaks-the Maximilian. 1966(1):271 North Dakota) curling smoke arising out of the wood, which was dry leaves still clinging to their branches. There ... the fires caused by the Indians in the forest Murray. 1974(2):35 evidently now fired on purpose by the Indians. was a red glare thrown upon them, the blazing and prairie. (near Council Bluffs, Iowa, 4 May 1833) ... we reached an elevated district of tableland, I sat down to watch the effect; for, although I flood. A moment passed, and a black smoke oozed which had been burned so close that I very often (p. 128) had seen many prairie fires, I had never from the nearest tree-the blaze roared among Maximilian. 1966(1):276 lost the track altogether for fifty yards. If a fire enjoyed so good an opportunity as the present; their branches, and shot up for a hundred feet At two in the afternoon we landed on the prairie, takes place on a prairie where there is already for the ground rose in a kind of amphitheater, jn the air-waving as if in triumph. The effect which was covered with tall trees, and forty or a distinct trail, it is as easy to follow it, if not more of which I had a full and commanding view. Now was transient. In a moment had the fire swept fifty of our men immediately began to hew down so than before; because the short and beaten the flames crept slowly along the ground, then, through a grove covering several acres. It sank wood for fuel; there was abundance of grass, but grass offering no food to the fire, partly escapes as the wind rose, they burst forth with increas­ again into the prairie, leaving (p. 223) the limbs not a single flower, which was caused by the its fury, and remains a green line upon a sea of ing might, fed by the dry and decayed elders of of every tree scathed and scorched to an inky prairie having been set on fire; black burnt wood black; but if the party making the trail pass over the forest, which crackled, tottered, and fell blackness; and shining with a bright crimson was scattered about, and the ground itself was a prairie which is already burnt, on the succeed­ beneath their burning power; they now rose aloft light, between their branches. In this way the discoloured in places by the effects of the fire. ing season when the new grass has grown, it can in a thousand fantastic and picturesque forms, light conflagration swept over the landscape: (near Sergeal!t Bluff, Iowa, 7 May 1833) scarcely be traced by an eye but that of an In- lighting up the whole landscape to a lurid hue; 20 21

while the dense clouds of smoke which rolled cessful and our young man arrived in camp at vegetation. Wooded districts suffer greatly on dry and withered, alarming and destructive fires gloomily over the hill, mixed with the crash of 4:00 in the afternoon. But he told us that he had these occasions. Whole forests are often dead­ break out; the wad of a gun, or a spark from a the falling timber, gave a dreadful splendor to come across traces of several buffalo which he ened which require centuries to replace by young tobacco-pipe, being sufficient to ignite the long the scene. I sat for some time enjoying it; and was pursuing when he saw our fires. Judging that sprouts. In fact the old trees must first fall then grass and reeds which extend as far as eye can when I rose to pursue my course towards home, the animals had fled the country at the sight of be again buried before others can grow to reach. On these occasions, self-preservation calls I had much difficulty in finding it. The night the fire, he thought it useless to pursue them far­ perfection. forth the frightened inhabitants en masse, to relapsed into its natural darkness; the prairie at ther. We regretted that our measures of pre­ Firing the prairie is not a custom resorted to by watch and guard, in anxious forebodings, their my feet was black, burnt, and trackless, and I caution in favor of the Indian had had such the Indians to facilitate hunting, as is generally little all. These conflagrations, once kindled, could see neither stream nor outline of hill by results. (Lincoln County, Minnesota, 4 July 1838) supposed. Nothing they desire less and their laws march before the winds, it may be for weeks which to direct my steps. (in northeastern Iowa, to prevent it are severe in the extreme. It effec­ together, encircling at last the whole colony in Nicollet. 1976:92 an ocean of flame. The natives frequently relate late September 1835) So many beautiful lakes, so many lovely sites, and tually destroys their hunting by driving away all game and renders the country unfit for pasturage that whole families have been overtaken by these Arese. 1934:76 such a charming country give rise to melancholy irresistible fires while travelling through the I I during the winter, especially if burnt late in fall. ... we noticed smoke far away. (on the reflections. It is evident that the destruction of These fires mostly originate in the carelessness plains, and burnt to death. Indeed, we have seen Nebraska-Iowa border, 1837) the woods by the nations who burn the prairies of hunters, travelers or from the petty malice of a fatal instance of the kind ourselves, even on the is the very cause of the destruction of those same colonized lands, and within three miles of the set­ Arese. 1934:80 nations. I will have time later to develop this individuals. Occasionally it is done by passing war ... and the fire we lighted began to set fire to parties. Sometimes the flames are very destruc­ tlement. In this instance, three whites and two thesis. (near Lake Poinsett, South Dakota, 9 July Indians lost their lives, besides seventeen horses, the prairie. The half-breed said: "Hurry up. Let's 1838) tive and sweep over districts several hundred put it out." But as we were to leeward and the miles in all directions until extinguished by rain, and numbers of horned cattle, while many others wind was strong, I begged him to do nothing. Nicollet. 1976:131 snow or contrary winds. Both men and animals had a very narrow escape. The only chance for Although it was not the proper season, this ... smoke from the burning prairie obscured the run great risk of being consumed if caught the traveller, unless some lake or river is at hand, prairie had taken fire easily because of not having sky. (near Big Cobb River in Minnesota, 9 Octo­ (p. 108) by the fire among the tall and thick grass is to burn the grass around him, and occupy the burned the year before. The dry straw caught ber 1838), growing on swamps when the water in them is centre of the little clearing thus formed; in which first and spread the flames to the grass just Nicollet. 1976:209 frozen. (Assiniboine River country of Manitoba case he will have only the smoke and ashes to con­ tend with. At times, however, the fire advances beginning to grow. It was beautiful to see: at the The sky is obscured by the smoke from a prairie and Saskatchewan) with such fearful rapidity, as to baffle any at­ beginning you might have said an immense line fire all day .... (in Grant County, South Dakota, Denig. 1961:116 tempt of this kind; it has been known to over­ of battle keeping up well-sustained firing. It was 22 August 1839) From this village an Indian eloped with the wife a sea of flame. (near the Missouri by Woodbury take and destroy the fleetest horse. Nicollet. 1976:274 of one of his friends. The husband pursued, which County, Iowa, 1837) the other perceiving set fire to the long grass and No sooner has the devouring element of fire been (They) signal with mirrors, by going up and down arrested, but the keen and piercing frosts of Arese. 1934:110 the wind blowing in the direction of the pursuer in a certain place on foot or on horseback with winter set in. ... toward noon the Indian set the prairie behind a blanket, etc., (and) by burning the prairies. he was soon overtaken by the flames and with his horse burned to death. The fire continuing Ross. 1957:266 us on fire-a fine idea: it wiped out our traces Denig. 1961:67 .... (near St. Peter, Minnesota, August 1837) soon reached and surrounded the camp, which ... the Sioux have their telegraphic communica­ The short summer season allows vegetation but being but lately planted among thick dry brush, tions and signals .... The nature of their intelli­ Arese. 1934:118 little time to decay, and the firing of the prairies, nearly all the occupants perished. Some, taking gence is explained by the number of fires raised . . . . I and my two guides reproached ourselves for which happens more or less every year in differ­ time by the forelock, seeing the volume of flame (near Ft. Union, North Dakota, mid-July 1840) having set fire to the prairie every evening for ent parts, burns up all old grass, fallen timber coming in the direction of the village, absconded Ross. 1957:269 our diversion and the enjoyment of a fine spec­ and underbrush in the points. (near Ft. Union, on fleet horses and saved themselves by plung­ tacle .... (at the junction of the [River St. Pierre] North Dakota) ing into the river. (Assiniboine River) ... three smokes were seen to rise as a signal to St. Peters River and the Mississippi River, Min­ Denig. 1961:107-108 the Sioux camp .... (near the Sheyenne River, nesota, August 1837) Kane. 1968:93-94 North Dakota, 25 July 1840) In most places where the country is thickly tim­ On the night of our arrival at Edmonton, the Nicollet. 1976:67 bered, the undergrowth is a kind of moss and wind increased to a perfect hurricane ... the con­ Ross. 1957:271 Summing up, wherever the annual fires have not bushes, but little or no grass, and it is only in such flagration of the prairie through which we had The Sioux had set the plains on fire in various reached, there remains the evidence of forests places the soil sustains any damage from the passed but a few hours before. The scene was ter­ directions, the animals were scared off .... (near which existed in another time. (Stayton Murray action of fire. The moss forming the sod is re­ rific in the extreme; the night being intensely the Sheyenne River, 26 July 1840) County, Minnesota, 28 June 1838) duced to cinders, the roots destroyed and many dark gave increased effect to the brilliancy of the Simpson. 1847(1):68 years are required to replace its coat of green, Nicollet. 1976:86 flames .... The mode resorted to by the Indians, ... we observed some fires in the plains around which, like the preceding, is destined to be burned . when in the immediate vicinity of a prairie on us, while a solitary savage was seen firing The sides of the ravines are covered with wood whenever the fire passes in that direction. The that the fire of the prairies and the hand of the fire, is to set fire to a long patch in front of them, ·signals. (near Wolverine Knoll near Ft. Ellice, soil of the prairie, however, receives no such in­ Indian have not yet destroyed. (Lincoln County, which they (p. 94) follow up, and thus depriving Manitoba, 3-11 July 1841) jury. Being covered with grass deeply rooted, the fire in the rear of fuel, escape all but the Minnesota, July 1838) only the stalk burns, the heat is swept away by Simpson. 1847(1):71 smoke, which, however, nearly suffocates them. The lodges of these people occupied a small knoll, Nicollet. 1976:87 the wind, the roots retain the living principle and (Ft. Edmonton, Alberta, 26 September 1846) In order to get word to him as soon as possible soon after another crop springs up, more lively in the middle of a dried swamp, round which the we set fire to all the prairies on our route which and thick than the former owing to its having Ross. 1957:14-15 plains were on fire. (near Broken-Arm River, were still covered with dry grass. We were sue- been freed by the fire from all briars and decayed In autumn, when every species of vegetation is Saskatchewan, 11-17 July 1841) 22 23

1845-1880 Boller. 1972:282 over his head and covering my powder-horn with From beyond the South Branch of the Saskatche­ Wagon Trains A spark from one of the fires, wafted by the air, the skirt of my hunting-shirt, crossed the flames. wan to Red River all the prairies were burned kindled the dry grass into a flame, and fanned The burning would facilitate the sprouting of the last autumn, a vast conflagration extended for and Indian Wars Period by the wind it blazed furiously on every side. green grass, and had the excellent effect of caus­ one thousand miles in length and several hun­ dreds in breadth. The dry season had so withered Kilgore. 1949:19 Quick as though the alarm was given, and every­ ing several copious showers. the grass that the whole country of the Sas­ Here are a great many Buffalo and a great many one rushed forth to fight the fire with whatever Boller. 1972:320 katchewan was in flames. The Rev. Henry Budd, of them are Burned to Death, by the Burning of happened to be at hand. One picked up a robe, It was now the middle of May .... Grass was a native missionary at the Nepowewin, on the the Planes [sic]. (near Ft. Kearney, Nebraska, 11 another a blanket, a third an apishamore. Others springing up everywhere and the burnt prairie North Branch of the Saskatchewan, told me that May 1850) trampled it out with their feet, while several was covered with a beautiful carpet of velvet­ in whatever direction he turned in September squaws used large pieces of dry meat, which they green. (Ft. Atkinson, North Dakota, mid-May Kilgore. 1949:20 last, the country seemed to be in a blaze; we were preparing for the kettles, with excellent ef­ [1859]) Roads, good, we See Deer, Woolves [sic] & Buf­ fect. The flames were soon extinguished by these traced the fire from the 49th parallel to the 53rd, falo laying [sic] on the plains Burned to Death. combined and vigorous exertions. In a few sec­ Domeneck. 1860(1):288 and from the 98th to the 108th degree of longi­ (near Ft. Kearney, Nebraska, 13 May 1850) onds more the fire would have spread beyond The absence of high trees is caused partly by the tude. It extended, no doubt, to the Rocky Moun­ terrible winds ... ; and partly by the habit the Kurz. 1937:331 control and the whole camp would have been laid tains. (southwestern Manitoba, 27 June 1858) savages have of annually setting fire to the We rowed about 25 miles farther downstream, in ashes. The grass was as dry and inflammable Hind. 1969:294 as tinder, and when once under headway would prairies, to obtain new grass. The cedar, the pine, passing by great numbers of prairie fires. At this and the oak are the trees that best resist this The annual fires prevent the willows and aspens season of the year Indians set the prairie on fire have burnt furiously. (near Blue Water Creek, from covering the country, which they would un­ not far from Ft. Berthold, North Dakota, late double action of the wind and fire .... A few hills in order to remove the old, dried grass and pro­ blackened by subterraneous fire ... . doubtedly do until replaced by other species, if vide room for the young, tender growth. (be­ March [1859]) not destroyed to within a few inches of the root Hind. 1969:135 tween Ft. Clarke and the Cannon Ball River, Boller. 1972:293 every time the fire sweeps over them. (near Plum North Dakota, 26 April 1852) Finally, it must be seen at night, when the dis­ Creek and the Souris Sand Hills of Manitoba, 30 The prairie ,had been set on fire by the Sioux .... 'I tant prairies are in a blaze, thirty, fifty, or June 1858) I Bandel. 1932:91 Gust below mouth of Yellowstone River, North seventy miles away; when the fire reaches clumps The Indians kept well out of our way but every­ Dakota, early spring, probably April [1859]) of aspen, and the forked tips of the flames, mag­ Hind. 1969:295 where set fire to the prairies in front of us, so in fact the buffalo were very numerous during Boller. 1972:307-308 nified by refraction, flash and quiver in the that our horses and mules should not find any­ horizon, and the reflected lights from rolling the whole of the winter of 1856 and spring of The dry rushes in the prairie bottom had been thing to eat. However, there were places where clouds of smoke above tell of the havoc which is 1857 on the banks of the Souris, but the great the grass was not dry enough to burn well, so set on fire and were burning steadily, threaten­ fires during the autumn of last year, have driven ing to spread far and wide. This was a fresh cause raging below. (near Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, that we always managed to find a place to camp. late summer 1857) them south and north-west, and between the two (west of the badlands in South Dakota, October of alarm, for by the destruction of their pastur­ branches of the Saskatchewan. (southwestern i' I 1855) age the Indians would be compelled to drive their Hind. 1969:256 Manitoba[?], 1 July 1858) horses to a great distance, thereby increasing the The following day was clear, beautiful and warm, Bandel. 1932:96 risk of their capture. The fire burned on, some­ but as night approached, the sky in the north­ Hind. 1969:305 Their fire is very small, and they always burn times feebly struggling for existence in the short, west began to assume a ruddy tinge, and finally On the afternoon of the 5th we arrived at the short pieces of dry wood to keep the smoke down, crisp grass of the prairie, but blazing furiously a lurid red, produced by the fires in the rich northern limit of the burnt prairie, as far as we which more or less always fills the wakea, tepee, in the dry rushes around the lakes and streams. prairies beyond the Assiniboine, at least ninety could judge; south of our point of view, the aspect or tent. They say the whites are fools, since they In the course of two or three days the whole coun­ miles in an air line from Pine River. (near Pine of the vast level tract was of dark green hue, with i make a big fire of green wood and are then try seemed wrapped in flames on both sides of River [Tamarac], Minnesota, 14 October 1857) short grass of this year's growth; northwards the unable to approach the fire because of the ex­ colour of the prairie was brown, from the old the river and its appearance at night, viewed Hind. 1969:259 treme heat and smoke. (in South Dakota, 1855) from the bastion, was beautiful in the extreme. grass of last year which had not been consumed In the afternoon we arrived at a part of the by the fires. (southwestern Manitoba near the Bandel. 1932:204 A high wind prevailed and the flames climbed prairie where the fire.had run; as far as the eye Saskatchewan border[?], 5 July 1858) They are Osage ... and I suppose it was they also over the buttes and rushed through the long could see westward the country looked brown, who set the prairie on fire across the river to spite grass bottoms with lightning speed, leaving or black, and desolate. The strong north-westerly Hind. 1969:308 us. Although the grass is still rather green, it behind them in the black and smoking prairie a wind which had been blowing' during the day . Small "hummocks" of aspens, and clumps of par­ burns lustily. We had frost last night for the first sad scene of desolation. The whole atmosphere drove the smoke from the burning prairies tially burnt willows, were the only remaining time this season, but the day was fine. (near was filled with smoke, at times so dense that it beyond Red River, in the form of a massive wall representatives of an extensive aspen forest Woods County, Oklahoma, 16 October 1857) was impossible to see any distance, although the towards us .... (Polk County, Minnesota, 16 Octo­ which formerly covered the country between Boller. 1972:194 fire was by that time many miles away. ber 1857) Boss Creek and the Assiniboine .... He had not visited it for twenty years, and during that inter­ ... the sparks from our campfire, scattered by While the prairies were burning close to us I rode Hind. 1969:292 val the timber, which formerly consisted of the wind, fell among the grass (which at this out to look up a couple of horses that had strayed The prairie had been burnt last autumn, and the aspens and ·willows, had nearly all disappeared. season is as dry as tinder) causing it to blaze so off from the band and in the course of my (p. 308) Buffalo had not arrived from south or west to ... the aspen forest had been burnt .... (near furiously that it required our utmost exertions hunt was obliged to cross the line of fire. For­ people this beautiful level waste. What a magni­ Boss Hill Creek, Saskatchewan, 7 July 1858) to prevent a conflagration. (on Rising Water tunately the grass on the hills was short and ficient spectacle this vast prairie must have fur­ Creek near the Knife River and Ft. Atkinson, burned slowly and after several unsuccessful at­ nished when the fire ran over it before the strong Hind. 1969:317 North Dakota, November [1858]) tempts to force my horse over I threw my blanket west wind! There can be little doubt that the sterility of the I , I 25 'I' 24

Great Prairie between the Qu'appelle and the establishes a prairie once more. The reclamation and over four degrees of latitude. The Rev. Hind. 1969:437 49th parallel is owing to the small quantity of dew of immense areas is not beyond human power; Henry Budd states that in the autumn of 1857, Fires here as elsewhere have damaged the forest and rain, and the occurrence of fires. (south- the extension of the prairies is evidently due to north, south-east, and west of the Nepowewin which once covered the country. Vast numbers eastern Saskatchewan, 15 July 1858) ry fires, and the fires are caused by Indians, chief­ Mission the country appeared to be in a blaze. of young oak and aspen are springing up in all Hind. 1969:336 ly for the purpose of telegraphic communication, The immediate banks of Long Creek, with the directions on the prairie fringing the river near This afternoon we saw three fires spring up or to divert the buffalo from the course they may exception of a narrow strip in the prairie south the trail. (near Riding Mountains in Manitoba, 28 between us and the Grand Coteau. They were In­ be taking. These operations will cease as the In­ of the Qu' appelle, is the only part of the country August 1858) dian signs .... In a few days we ascertained that dians and buffalo diminish, events which are in which we have not yet recognized traces of last Palliser. 1968:9 the fire had been put out [set] by Crees, to in­ taking place with great rapidity. year's fire. The annual extension of the prairie The northern forests ... pushed backwards to the form their friends that they had found buffalo. Hind. 1969:340 from this cause is very remarkable. The limits north through the effect of frequent fires. of the wooded country are becoming less year by (near Regina, Saskatchewan, 25 July 1858) ... the Touchwood Hills .... The prairies there year, and from the almost universal prevalence Palliser. 1968:22 too are not so often burned as south of the Qu'ap­ Hind. 1969:336-337 of small aspen woods it appears that in former The frequent fires which continually traverse the pelle, the valley of that river serving as a great The grandeur of the prairie Dn fire belongs to times the wooded country extended beyond the prairie have denuded the territory of large forest barrier to prevent the onward progress of the itself. It is like a volcano in full activity, you can­ Qu'appelle, or three or four degrees of latitude trees, indeed so much so as in some places to devastating fires. (south-central Saskatchewan, not imitate it, because it is impossible to obtain south of its present limit. It must however, be render their absence deplorable, and the result 25 July 1858) those gigantic elements from which it derives its borne in mind that the term wooded country of these fires is that the agriculturist may at once awful splendour. Fortunately, in the present in­ Hind. 1969:348 south of the Saskatchewan is applied to a region commence with his plough without any more stance the wind was from the west, and drove The destruction of "woods" by fires has con­ in which prairie or grassy areas predominate over preliminary labour. (valley of the Saskatchewan) the fires in the opposite direction, and being verted into sterile areas an immense tract of the parts occupied by young aspen woods. The Palliser. 1968:157 south of us we could contemplate the magnificent country which does not appear necessarily sterile southern limit of the wooded country is some From our camp we saw the prairie on fire spectacle without anxiety. One object in burning from aridity, or poverty of soil. (south-central distance north of the Touchwood Hills range, but towards the north and east. In autumn these fires the prairie at this time, was to turn the buffalo; Saskatchewan, 28 July 1858) there are areas north and south of the Qu' appelle are very common, when the grass is like tinder, they had crossed the Saskatchewan in great where the remains of aspen forests of large and a spark from a pipe may be sufficient to set numbers near the Elbow, and were advancing Hind. 1969:350 dimensions exist, and young forests are in rapid 200 square miles of prairie in a blaze. The Indians towards us, and crossing the Qu'appelle not far ... the Grand Coteau de Missouri. The country process of formation perhaps soon to be are very careless about the consequences of such from the Height of Land; by burning the prairie east of that natural boundary may be classified destroyed by fire. This lamentable destruction of an occurrence, and frequently fire the prairie for east of their course, they would be diverted to as Prairie Country, over the greater portion of forests is a great drawback to the country, and the most trivial reasons; frequently for signals the south, and feed for a time on the Grand which forests of aspen would grow if annual fires a serious obstacle to its future progress. It ap­ to telegraph to one another concerning a success­ Coteau before they pursued their way to the Lit­ did not arrest their progress. (south-central pears to be beyond human power to arrest the ful horse-stealing exploit, or in order to proclaim tle Souris, in the country of the Sioux, south of Saskatchewan, 28 July 1858) annual conflagrations as long as the Indians hold the safe return of a war party. The disastrous the 49th parallel. Hind. 1969:372 the prairies and plains as their hunting grounds. effects of these fires consist principally in de­ Putting out fire in the prairies is a telegraphic ... only in the ravines and the deep hollows are Their pretext of "putting out fire" are so num­ nuding the land of all useful trees, such as spruce, mode of communication frequently resorted to seen patches of young aspens and straggling oaks erous, and their characteristic indifference to the pine, larch, fir, and all soft-wood timber, which which have escaped the devastating fires. I I by the Indians. Its consequences are seen in the results which may follow a conflagration in are among the most valuable for settlement, but destruction of the forests which once covered an For some time I could not understand why one driving away or destroying the wild animals, so not reproductive. Another serious misfortune immense area south of the Qu'appelle and Assini­ side should be covered with trees and the other thoroughly a part of their nature, that the likewise frequently results from these wanton boine. The aridity of those vast prairies is partly quite bare, the soil on both being exactly similar, (p. 406) annual burning of the prairie may be fires, and from which the authors are themselves ill due to this cause. The soil, though light, derives until I discovered unmistakeable [sic] evidences looked for as a matter of couse as long as wild frequently punished, viz., they cut off the buffalo much of its apparent sterility from the (p. 337) of fire, which may be the cause of it. On inquiry Indians live in the country. A fire lit on the South sometimes from a whole district of country, and , I", annual fires. In low places and in shallow depres­ afterwards I found that Indians often travel ·Branch of the Saskatchewan may extend in a few thus often are the cause of great privation and sions where marshes are formed in spring, the along the valley on the north of the river, which weeks, or even days, to Red River, according to distress. (near Outlook, Saskatchewan, 3 October soil is rich, much mixed with vegetable matter, accounts for the fires being on that side. (near the season and the direction and force of the 1857) and supports a very luxurient growth of grass. wind. (in Saskatchewan, 12 April 1858) Crooked Lake south of Melville, Saskatchewan, Palliser. 1968:158 If willows and aspens were permitted to grow 23 July 1858) Hind. 1969:413 over the prairies, they would soon be converted Our fire ran after breakfast, but we quickly ex­ Hind. 1969:394 There is no timber visible on the west side of the into humid tracts in which vegetable matter tinguished it, beating it back with blankets and range, with the exception of small aspen and would accumulate and a soil adapted to forest Once or twice "smokes," which, from their being saddle-cloths. (near Dundurn, Saskatchewan, 4 burnt willow bushes. (Touchwood Hills, Sas­ trees be formed. If a portion of prairie escapes soon answered in another quarter, we presumed October 1857) katchewan, 15 August 1858) fire for two or three years the result is seen in to be signals, and might be raised by Blackfeet Palliser. 1968:158 the growth of willows and aspens, first in in the distant prairies .... (near Saskatoon, Sas­ Hind. 1969:415 ... dense smoke to the north and east from the patches, and then in large areas, which in a short katchewan, 6 August 1858) The timber on the Touchwood Hills is nearly all fire we observed yesterday; camped in a swamp, time become united and cover the country, thus Hind. 1969:404-406 small and of recent growth, fires years ago a favorable situation in case the fire may ap­ retarding evaporation and permitting the accum­ "The fire" was here last year (p. 405), and we having destroyed the valuable forest of aspen proach in our direction .... at 10 [p.m.] a storm ulation of vegetable matter in the soil. A fire have now traced the extent of that vast con­ which once covered it. (Touchwood Hills, Sas­ came on blowing successively, from all points of comes, destroys the young forest growth and flagration from ;Red River to the South Branch, katchewan, 16 August 1858) the compass. This is frequently the case in the 26 27

vicinity of a prairie fire sufficiently large to Palliser. 1968:523· camp. We were in a corner, as it were, on the lighting up the sides of the hills and the little disturb the equilibrium of the atmosphere. The The northern part of the Saskatchewan is a par­ bank of the stream, with (p. 91) a good deal of groves of wood far away. The two lines in the extent of this fire was very great, and the whole tially wooded country, having at one time been brushwood running up on our left, and the rear were not so much connected, and seemed atmosphere glowed from north to east. (near Sas­ covered by an extension of the great pine forest ground sloping up gradually from the creek to rather licking up any little spots of grass which katoon, Saskatchewan, 5 October 1857) of the north, which have been removed by the top of the hill. Our guides, on looking at the had escaped at first. Every (p. 93) now and then Palliser. 1968:159 successive fires. fire, said that it would not harm us-'ce n'est a prairie hen would flirr past, flying in a wild ... and had not long to travel before we came Palliser. 1968:538 rien-le vent change.' In short, they would do uncertain manner, as if fear had almost deprived into burned ground, the result of the magnificent ... an extension of the northern forests, but nothing. In about twenty minutes, however, it it of the use of its wings; while all the songsters fire we had been contemplating last night; we approached so near, that there was no time to of the grove were wheeling about among the traveled ... over about 10 miles of rolling ground which has been gradually cleared by successive fires. be lost, and all hands were immediately employed trees, uttering the most expressive cries of ... and halted for breakfast at a stagnant marsh, in burning a road across the face of the hill, so alarm, and the melancholy hooting of several the only spot in the neighborhood where the Palliser. 1969:89 as to stop the fire at that part. A more pic­ owls, and wailing yells of the wolves, together ground was not burned, and where we could find One night we were considerably alarmed at see­ turesque scene could hardly be imagined. The with the shouts and cries of the men almost a little grass for our horses .... In the afternoon ing to windward of us a lurid glare of red light, night was very dark, but as far as the eye could drowned occasionally by the roaring of the flames continued our course over burned ground .... by which we soon knew that the prairie was on reach, all across the horizon, about four miles in added to the savage grandeur of the scene, and (6 October 1857) fire. We instantly started up and kindled the front of us, was a broad, bright lurid glare of fire, one could have fancied the end of all things was Palliser. 1968:159 grass between our position and the approaching with a thick canopy of smoke hanging over it, at hand. On returning to the camp, I found all The recent fire had completely destroyed the conflagration, so as to burn away the interven­ whose fantastic wreaths, as they curled in the hands cutting the lassoes and halters of the trees, and grass, save in the swamps, was totally ing material, and cut off the progress of the breeze, were tinged with the red reflection of the mules, some of which galloped off instantly into burnt up. (near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 7 Oc­ flames by depriving them of food, carefully ex­ flames. Even at that distance we could hear the the river,where they remained standing till the tober 1857) tinguishing our own fire at the same time of crackling and rushing of the fire, which, as it ad­ hurricane of flame had passed over; the others, Palliser. 1968:163 course. It was a splendid and terrible sight! The vanced, caused a strong wind, and every now and seemingly trusting themselves instinctively more Country ... would have been well wooded, but for fire did not, in fact, come within several miles then a brighter flame would shoot high up into to man than to their own energies in such an the fires. (west of Yorkton, Saskatchewan, 13 Oc­ of where we stood, but at night it always appears the black cloud of smoke over the top of the hill, emergency, followed us up the space which we tober 1857) much nearer and the danger more imminent than illuminating for an instant our tents and wagons had burned, and remained quietly there, trem­ is really the case. (near Ft. Vermillion, South Palliser. 1968:163 in the dark hollow, and giving a momentary bling indeed, but without an effort to escape. By Dakota, September 1847) glimpse of the horses which were picketed on the the time the animals were collected in this spot, ... crossed burned ground ... the grass having side of the rise, on the crest of which the figures the fire was blazing on the top of the hill, and been burned off the dry ground; had no wood for Palliser. 1969:90-95 of the men engaged in lighting the opposition fire we all rushed away with blankets to arrest its our fire, save a little brush .... (near Y orkton, I never, in all my experience of life in the prairies, progress, if possible, at the part which we had Saskatchewan, 14 October 1857) witnessed the awful wonders of a prairie on fire; (which, as it became too extended, they beat down with blankets, only suffering it to burn a left unguarded; all our efforts would have been Palliser. 1968:182 but a brother-sportsman of mine, who was very near losing both horses and mules from a space (p. 92) about twelve feet broad, right across in vain, however, and our tents and everything The fort hunters on their way to buffalo have set frightful event of the kind, gave me the follow­ the line of the advancing conflagration), stood out else must have been consumed, but that, just at fire to the plains .... (Ft. Carlton, Saskatchewan, ing description of his experience of on~, shortly in strong relief against the glowing wall of light that weak point, the grass suddenly became thin 30 October 1857) after my return, which I here transcribe: "We beyond them; and as they ran about tossing their and scanty, with much (p. 94) stony ground, and Palliser. 1968:182 had seen, during the latter part of our day's arms and waving the blankets and little torches we had the satisfaction of seeing the flames Fire is still running, but has turned off more to journey, a remarkable appearance in the eastern of lighted grass, they looked in the distance like stopped there and turned off to the northward the south, as the wind is changed .... (near Ft. horizon; and during supper observed a smell of demons rather than men. We had not time to look along the edge of the brushwood. It was really Carlton, Saskatchewan, 31 October 1857) burning, and a few light cinders fell about the at the picturesque, however, for every moment terrific to be, as we were, trying to break it down Palliser. 1968:186 camp, and presently we remarked that the lumi­ (owing to their previous obstinacy in neglecting in the very middle of the blaze (which, after all, The plain is all burnt here .... (near Ft. Carlton, nous appearance in the east had very much to take precautions in time) became more preg­ was so narrow that where the flames were not Saskatechewan, 14 December 1857) augmented. There being a little hill in front of nant with danger, and by the time they had high, you could jump across it); we were, indeed, us, we could not see distinctly what caused it; but nearly suffocated by the smoke and heat. As soon Palliser. 1968:186, 204 burned as much as would only about half cover having consulted together, we agreed that it pro­ the camp, the fire was raging in the bottom at as we perceived the fire turned off we returned The morning was very bright, and although the ceeded from a prairie on fire, which, however, the other side of the hill. I ran up for an instant to the camp and horses; and all danger was over, thermometer stood at 11 °, (p. 204) ... we set fire was a long way off. About eight o'clock the smell to the top, and shall never forget the scene. but the sight of the three lines of fire stretching to the grass, just to say we had done so, on the of burning and the glare having materially in­ Although still half a mile off, the fire seemed up the rising grounds behind the camp, just like 10th of January. (near Pigeon Lake, Alberta, 10 creased, we walked up to the top of the hill, when January 1858) close to me, and the heat and smoke almost in­ the advance of a vast army, was magnificent; and a spectacle presented itself to us the most grand tolerable, while the dazzling brightness of the it was still more extraordinary to watch the man­ Palliser. 1968:391 that can well be conceived. The whole horizon, flames made it painful to look at them; they were ner in which the fire passed itself on, as it were, Places where fire had consumed the grass in the from north to south, was one wall of fire, blazing in three lines nearly parallel, the first of which over the tops of the highest trees, to the height previous autumn, after that season's growth had up in some places to a great height, at others was just below me, burning with a rushing noise, of at least forty or fifty feet. The whole scene ceased, now became green in the course of a few merely smouldering in the grass. It was, how­ and cracking as it caught the dry grass, that gave lasted altogether about two hours, and nothing days, as the snow always disappears from these ever, at least, eight miles off; but the wind an idea of total destruction which it is impossible could be conceived more awfully grand. The ex­ spots first. (near Edmonton, Alberta, late April seemed to set in our direction, so we instantly to convey, and stretching away over hill and dale traordinary rushing and crackling sound of the 1859) returned, and took measures to preserve the for twelve or fourteen miles on each side of me, flames was one of the most terrific parts of it, 28 29

and when one considers that the grass is no inches high, moves over the ground slower or Setting fire to the grass in the vicinity of the Dodge. 1978:458 where more than five or six feet high, it is dif­ faster, according to the wind, but not with vitality camp at night is one of the Indian modes of ... trying to burn us out every night .... (Loup ficult to imagine how the flame blazes up to such or heat enough to seriously injure a bush of a few annoying a party too strong for attack and too River, Nebraska, 1867) a vast height as it did. The contrast presented, inches in diameter. Yet the high prairie is bare. vigilant for a successful attempt at (p. 80) theft. two hours afterwards, was most striking. Instead In the canons the grass is often five to ten feet Unless proper precautions are taken, horses are Larpenteur. 1933:286 of the brilliant glare of the fire, and lurid ap­ high, and dried leaves, shrubs, bushes, vines, fur­ almost sure to be lost, for nothing frightens Buffalo were so plentiful here last summer that pearance of the sky, there reigned an impene­ nish a storehouse of fuel, sufficient to make a animals so thoroughly as fire. they ate up all the grass; it looked as though fire trable darkness, earth and sky being alike (p. 95) roaring vortex of twenty feet of flame. And yet had burned the prairies. In consequence of this I have been followed for several days in succes­ shrouded in a black gloom, which could almost the canons are full of vegetation. The only occa­ and the hard winter [of 1861-62] I lost all my I sion by a party of Indians, who fired the grass cattle-20 head. (at Ft. Stewart, North Dakota, i be felt; not a star was to be seen, and the air re­ sion where fire acts a prominent part as a cause to windward of my camp every night, forcing me tained a suffocating, sulphureous [sic] smell, as of the treelessness is at the lower ends of the early spring 1862) to burn all round the camp every evening before if Satan himself had passed over the earth. We canons, where the bottoms widen out, and the posting sentinels, and not only to double the Trobriand. 1951:51-52 could not distinguish objects at ten paces hills, becoming lower, are more remote, and af­ ropes securing the animals, but _even to keep on For three days there has been fire on the prairies distance, and were right glad when a fresh breeze ford less protection from the wind. Trees will side lines to prevent their plunging at the picket about twenty miles away in the direction of came gently breathing over the prairie, grow in such positions, but not so stubbornly as line. Berthold. During the day, the only evidence of dissipating the murky vapours still hanging in the in the canons. The fire in the long grass about its advance are the columns of smoke drifting in atmosphere; and a fine starlit sky with a sharp­ their trunks, fanned by the winds to which they Dodge. 1965:63 the air in the distance far above the horizon; but are exposed, will destroy the smaller, and so burn ish frost at length relieved us from the close The "park" country already spoken of is almost when night comes, a flaming line casts its ruddy the trunks and branches of the larger trees as choking feeling we had experienced for hours wholly due to fires. A forest is destroyed. In a reflection on that part of the sky. The fire is ap­ frequently to kill them. In many such places the before. This prairie fire had travelled at the rate few years another fire destroys the young growth proaching us, and fanning out wider and wider. islands in the stream which fire cannot reach will of five miles an hour, bringing with it a strong which may have sprung up. This happening When it first appeared, it was nothing more than gale wind; for otherwise the night was quite calm, be covered with fine trees and thick vegetation, several times at intervals of a few years, effec­ a distant glimmer showing up against the both before and after it had passed over." while the contiguous banks are as bare as any tually destroys both roots and seeds, and con­ silhouette of the badlands; the following night, portion of the high prairie. On many streams, Waheenee. 1981:157 verts pine forests into parks. (at the edge of the it was already a gleam of light shining at the edge particularly on the North Platte, some of the nar­ My father sat with his cronies at the right of the Black Hills in South Dakota, 1875) of the sky (p. 52) and gradually losing itself in row bottoms of the canons are covered with ' fireplace, at our feast. We women ate apart, for space. Yesterday the flames began to run along I splendid trees, large and old, without any small Dodge. 1978:288 i,; men and women do not sit together at an Indian the crest of far away hills, driven southward by young trees, or a particle of underbush. This is ... a few of the most sagacious hunters were sent feast. I heard my father taking with his friend, a north wind. Apparently the blaze is on the right undoubtedly the effect of fire, and proves, I think, out, who, taking advantage of winds or streams, Lean Wolf: "Every spring, when I was young, bank of the river. we fired the prairie grass around the Five that prairie fires were not so frequent a hundred set fire to the grass in such a way as to denude Vallages [sic]. Green grass than [sic] sprang up; years ago as now. As the settlements creep up the prairies, except within an area of fifteen or These fires are not uncommon. When the high buffalos came to graze on it, and we killed many." the stream, and care is taken to prevent fires, twenty miles contiguous to the camp. A Prairie grass is dried out by the sun, it takes very little (Hidatsas Indian village near New Town, North the young trees spring up, and, as the growth fire on the middle or northern plains is not, as to start the fire accidentally, and no matter how Dakota, [1859]) of the cotton-wood is extremely rapid, all the a rule, violent enough to be dangerous to animal little the wind is blowing, the blaze spreads and ground suited to their propagation is soon life. The game does not stampede before it, as fans out very rapidly. Quite often, too, the In­ Dodge. 1878:15 covered. would appear from the pictures in the geogra­ dians themselves deliberately set the fires, be­ One huge trunk of a pine-tree was about six feet phies, but gets out of the way, and collects on cause they believe that the cinders are a fertilizer in diameter and ten or twelve feet long. It was Dodge. 1878:31 the unburned ground .... which will stimulate the growth of grass next hollow, and a portion of the hollow part had been The treelessness of the high plains is caused by season and will thus make better pasture for the burned away. The bark, the wood, the hollow, the the lack of water, and high winds; of the lower Dodge. 1978:432 horses and buffalo. Since these animals form a marks of fire, were all perfectly natural, yet the plains, by wind, fire, and beaver. As the third When the signal is complete, the fire is extin­ great part of their food supply, they hope to at­ log was solid stone. (in Two Butte Creek, plain gradually blends with the great alluvial guished. tract them into their region by the lure of thick [Wyoming]) deposit of the Mississippi Valley, the timber in­ With almost all Indians, a single smoke, ascend­ pasture, but I do not think the buffalo are very Dodge. 1878:29-30 creases in variety, size, and vigor of growth. ing naturally, is a warning to all Indians within aware of this. They are as wandering and The Indians burn portions of the prairie every Dodge. 1878:60 range of vision that there are strangers in the nomadic a beast as the Indians who hunt them. It is not unusual for them to disappear for two fall, setting the fires so as to burn as vast an ex­ Indians use smoke for signals; white men fire. country; and such is their habitual caution that tent of country as possible, and yet preserve un­ they make these signals even when in a state of or three years from a certain region where they burned a good section in the vicinity where they Dodge. 1878:79-80 profound peace. Every military command pass­ were plentiful before. They return or do not purpose to make their fall hunt. The buffalo, find­ The prairie fire of the high plains is a very insig­ ing through an Indian country, will be preceded return according to whether or not they are ing nothing to eat on the burnt ground collect on nificant affair; but in the canons, or rich alluvial and flanked by these signal-smokes. To prevent disturbed. In any case, the sight of fire hasn't that unburnt-reducing greatly the labor of the deposits of the great valleys, where the grass is its being mistaken for the smoke of a camp-fire, brought them back. They do not have a highly hunt. These prairie fires, which were formerly high and vegetation of all kinds is abundant, to it is made on the side or top of a high hill, or on enough developed feeling for the beautiful to ad­ (p. 30) supposed to account for the treelessness be caught in one is a most serious misadventure, the plain, or a divide away from water. At night, mire as we do that long band of fire lighting up of the plains, have really comparatively little to from which it may require the utmost coolness fires are used as signals somewhat in the same the night, although it certainly is a wonderful do with it. On the high prairie the grass is very and presence of mind to extricate oneself without way, not however, so extensively, or with such spectacle. (near Ft. Berthold, North Dakota, 28 short. When on fire, the blaze, from six to fifteen injury. effect, as smoke. August 1867) 30 31

Trobriand. 1951:59-60 with anxiety. It first showed up in the afternoon worried us more than the fort were the four huge threatening the stacks of hay. The other band The fire still burns on the prairie to the west and a drifting mass of smoke, which formed an eno/ stacks of hay amounting to three hundred tons, with most of the officers rushed to the side where south. When it seems about to die out, the wind mous fawn-colored cloud blown along by a north­ the corral, and the stables and the wood yard, the traders' houses, their wood, and their fod­ fans it up again, and drives it in some new direc­ west wind. As the wind increased from one all of which were nearer to the fire (two hundred der were in the most immediate danger. tion. At nine o'clock in the evening, it was minute to the next, it was very difficult to esti­ to three hundred meters) than our buildings. One can imagine that the sixty or eighty men who stronger in the southeast, with another blaze on mate how far away the fire was. Nevertheless were working under my eyes and under my per­ a hillside to the south which was farther away But just at that time we thought we were get­ I .it was evident even at the distance separating u~ sonal direction did not spare any pains; but it is and weaker. The flames do not seem to be coming ting off with only a harmless alert, a new con­ from the fire that the extent of the blaze ap­ a hard job to put out a dry-grass fire when a (p. 60) toward us very much. They are still in­ flagration was whipped up by the wind into a p~are~ to be considerable. In fact, when a strong strong wind is blowing. Everyone beat down the visible beyond the horizon, which in that direc­ great red flame, the nucleus of which grew in in­ wmd lifted or parted the vast curtain of smoke flames, stamped on the burning cinders, raked tion is lighted up every night. (near Ft. Berthold, tensity with every moment. Everyone had his which began to darken the sun, red, white, and the flaming grass with these long willows shaped North Dakota, 3 September 1867) brown columns could be clearly seen spiralling eyes on this new danger which was advancing as rapidly as the first. But the general opinion was like a broom, or went at it with empty sacks, but Trobriand. 1951:270 up on the horizon beyond the bluffs. This was the in vain. The fire beaten out at one point imme­ situation when at sunset the paymaster and his that this second fire, or rather, this second ... the Indians for having set fire to the prairie diately sprang up at another. When the wind died escort, commanded by Bvt. Major [William] column of the fire, would burn itself out on the a few days ago and in this way driving away the down a second, or changed its direction a little Nelson of the 22nd infantry, started out. He was edge of the ground already devastated where game .... (near Ft. Stevenson, North Dakota, 14 so that the flames were thrown back on the ashes, ret~rni~g to.Fort Rice; that is, going in the op­ there wasn't a blade of grass left. This forecast April 1868) seemed doubtful to me, for this time the fire was the whole line advanced, and the scourge was ros1te d1rect10n from the fire, and he was count­ mastered for a moment. But then came a new Trobriand. 1951:275 mg on a start of two or (p. 344) three hours running at us; it could get to the top of the bluffs . ' on this side of the burned land, come down onto gust which drove the flames toward us, and During the past two days, the wind has spread campmg on the other side of Snake Creek ten the plateau, and then! In any case, I gave the blinded, suffocated, and burned, we were routed. the fire on the prairies around Stevenson. In this miles away, in order to be protected in' any necessary commands so everyone (p. 345) would We charge again as soon as we got a deep breath season of the year, the long, dry grasses of last eventuality by the stream of water. But he had be ready to leave at the first order. All the men of air, especially when the fire got to the places season are very inflammable, and when it is acci­ scarcely left when the first tongues of fire ap­ were ordered to their quarters, although it was where (p. 346) the grass was shorter, because it dentally or purposely set on fire the flames peared on the top of the bluffs. Almost imme­ not yet the hour of taps, and all the officers were had either been trampled underfoot or eaten off dri"."e~ by t~e wind, sweep alon~ with great diately, with a rapidity that no one can imagine by the animals. In spite of all our efforts, the fire rap1d1t~. This morning, a column of smoke ap­ unless he has seen a fire on the prairies the on the alert. It is a good thing I took these precautions. gained on us more and more and forced us to beat peared m the west on the other side of the river flames driven by a strong wind ran acros~ the retreat for a hundred yards or more. Wishing to from where a strong breeze was blowing. The fir~ crest of the hill, and the whole line of the height Scarcely a quarter of an hour had gone by when give an example to the men, I stood my ground, ~pr~ad out, and running all along the hills, plung- was crowned by a brilliant light, so much the the fire came down the hills like a torrent of lava inhaling burning and suffocating smoke, which 1~g _mto the ravines, climbing the escarpments, more brilliant since it was already night. The from a row of craters. It enveloped the pasture for a moment made me so dizzy that I saw all red hckmg up the dry lands, and devouring the brush flaming line reached Snake Creek much more and ran crackling toward the houses of the or not at all. What more could we accomplish by it passed in front of us, and went out at the bank quickly than any harnessed horse could walk, and traders on one side and toward our stacks of hay battling this way? We got to a road made by the of the river below the bend where it turns south. so we began to feel quite worried about the pay­ on the other. carts used to get stones from the bluffs for the Th~s evening, the whole line of the bluffs facing master and his escort whom we were expecting My servant was the first to warn me. I went out massonry of the fort. I knew that this was our us 1s blackened, a bed of burnt cinders, while the to see come back at great speed at any moment. immediately, and a glance was enough to show best chance, and calling to me all the men who columns of smoke indicate that in the distance When the flames had come down the hills and me clearly the extent of the danger. I sprang onto were fighting the fire on the flanks, I placed them the fire is still running on the prairies far away. crossing the prairie, had reached the bank of th~ the parade ground and shouted in a loud voice: across the line along which the flames were (near Ft. Stevenson, North Dakota 26 April Missouri east of Fort Stevenson, and the detach­ racing. This first line fought the fire as it died 1868) , me~t had not showed up, the impossibility of "Everybody out!" The officer of the day, who came out of the guardhouse, ran to his company out at the edge of the beaten road, and a second their back-tracking certainly did not reassure us, line put out in the rear all the flakes of fire or Trobriand. 1951:276 and we knew that their only chance was to get immediately. I ran to the other, and opening the Yesterday the fire was still running here and door abruptly, repeated my command to the men sparks which, lashed by the wind, rekindled the to the ford of the little river as quickly as they fire in the dry grass on the other side. Once the there on the prairie, driven by a strong wind from could, or if they hadn't time for this, to throw who were grouped around the stoves talking and the S.W. In the evening, a thunderstorm ex­ who had not heard at first. At this moment, all vanguard was stopped, we worked back: and themselves on the sands which on that side since the ground was in the most favorable con­ ~inguished the glow which reflected ruddy lights border the course of the Missouri in places. the officers were coming out of their quarters, m the clouded sky. Today, only good results of and the sergeants were forming their men into dition there, we finally stopped and put out the However, it wasn't long before we had enough fire on this side. the storm can be seen, for it has laid the dust and worries of our own to occupy us. squads. First they ran to a pile of willows that brou~ht the first touches of green to the prairie, I had the prisoners cut below the fort and pile What we had done at this point, the other detach­ especially on the blackened lands which the fire The first flames appearing on the bluffs were by the guardhouse when the fire first appeared. ment was doing on the side of the traders' passed. Nowhere is there more new growth. directly north, about a mile from the fort. As the Everyone took a handful of them to fight the fire. houses. But since the grass was shorter and thin­ (near Ft. Stevenson, North Dakota 29 April wind was blowing in an east-southeast direction Those who could not get any equipped themselves ner on their side, their task was less difficult. In 1868) ' they had not come down onto our pastures antl with anything they could find: old sacks, old spite of everything, they were unable to stop the while their vanguard was devouring everything Trobriand. 1951:343-347 brooms, switches, etc., and on my orders, they fire until it got to the cemetery, about two hun­ toward Snake Creek, the rear guard was dying ran out to the fire to fight it as well as they could. dred yards from the first building. Farther on, The event I ~lluded to yesterday [3 November] o~t for lack of fuel, and the center, driven by the Naturally, the men divided into two bands to face the fire crossed two beaten roads and did not stop was a great fire on the prairies, which was blown wmd, was going down the hills obliquely about the two advances of the enemy. I myself led one until it got to the edge of the embankment, below toward us by the wind and which we watched two miles away. So the fort was safe, and what of them where the encroachment of the fire was which are the willow thickets. There it went out, 32 33

and what had been our danger became our pro­ from both sides of the Missouri, and the glare of Hambley. 1952:28 tain in its physical features and like that district 1:.·11 tection. In fact, from this time on, the fort was fire signals lent their aid to multiply the horrors ! Fires were not very frequent ... a long siege of would no doubt be thickly wooded but for the completely surrounded on three sides by a large of the night. (Ft. Berthold, North Dakota, early i dry weather, or in the fall when the grass was prairie fires, which have sometimes run hundreds zone of ashes and burnt earth. Since the Missouri spring 1869) dried and long, the danger of fire was a real of miles in the dry weather of autumn. (Sas­ and its banks of sand formed the fourth side, Taylor. 1932:91 threat .... In the summer of 1879 .... Wind was katchewan) from then on the fire could run in any direction ... the burning of forests of timber and the wide from the west and south ... both of the home- on the prairies. No matter which direction the Macoun. 1882:68 ranges of dry grass upon the plains .... (near steaders were badly burned .... The fire swept wind was blowing, it could not get to us, and had These hills-like all sand hills-are flanked by Painted Woods Creek, Washburn, North Dakota, on and did not stop until it reached the lake and to go out at the edge of that black sea of burnt marshes and hence protected from fire by water. autumn 1872) marsh ....(Swan Lake [Hague's Lake], Manitoba, ground, in the middle of which Fort Stevenson (Brandon Hills in southern Manitoba) Taylor. 1932:173 100 miles southwest of Winnipeg) and the surrounding lands for a radius of about Macoun. 1882:83 Upper Strawberry Lake was reached. Its green a hundred yards rose like an island. From then Kelsey. 1951:15 These showed that, if fires could only be stopped, waters in strange contrast with the blackened on, our isolation was our security. I stayed on In autumn, fire, wind-fanned and ravenous, fell bushes suitable to shelter stock would soon grow plain-for though but summer days, a dense blue with several men to put out the little fires which on the drying grass. Flames leaped to prodigious up. (near the head of Little Arm Creek near smoke that hung low in air told the story of the still smoldered under the ashes for an hour or heights. (referring to the Red River Valley) Davidson, Saskatchewan) fires' destructive work among the cured grasses two, either in the roots or tufts of grass, or in Kelsey. 1951:200 of the plains. The sun as it hung in the western Macoun. 1882:84 dried dung. At the hour of taps (eight o'clock), That summer of 1872 was so hot and dry that everything had returned to normal. Everyone sky-the intervening blue smoke made the day ... but the stony tract referred to with numer­ giver seem a big fire ball to the optics. Saffron by August the prairies were burned a dingy ous [sic] marshes, ponds and long narrow lakes, could go to bed with no worry and in perfect brown, the soil baked to granite. September security. colored shadows, lengthening with the setting lying south of the woods, stops the fires and saves sun, and awful stillness about, had permeated the prairie fires turned the brown to dingier black the wood. (near Wolverine Creek in Saskatche­ The paymaster and his escort were safe, too, on spirits of both horses and men. as they grouped and everywhere uncovered bleaching buffalo wan, 11 September 1881) the other side of the mouth of Snake Creek on bones. (referring to the Red River Valley on the along the dim trail in silence. A neck of land to Macoun. 1882:87 the sands of the river. Two Indians sent out on the left of the trail was reached that divided the Minnesota side) ... the Touchwood Hills and File Hills ... are reconnaissance brought back this satisfactory two lakes. Here a small wagon was discovered Robinson. 1972:154 news. merely elevated plateaux ... protected from fire but nothing moving about it. A patch of grass Oftentimes the trail passes over immense tracts by innumerable ponds and marshes .... (Sas­ (p. 347) Since the wind had shifted to the north, that had escaped·the general conflagration en­ ravaged by prairie-fires, where the earth, pre­ katchewan) we still had a few hours to admire the wonderful circled the abandoned vehicle. At the burned line sents naught save the dense coating of black sight of the flames running like infernal squad­ the soldiers were horrified to see the dead body ashes. Macoun. 1882:105 rons on the crest of the bluffs, on· the prairie, on of an old man lying face down, scalped, and his Shields. 1883:285 The rich soil with its abundance of grass affords, when dry, fuel for the flame which destroys any all the undulations of ground on the other side hands and feet dismembered. The wagon bed had ... where years ago fire had, during a dry season, seedling that may spring up; at the same time of Douglas Creek. There it did not lack fuel. It been hacked and splintered as if in wanton sport. passed through and killed all the timber. Sub­ the sand hills, being unable to carry fire through was a splendid and many-colored illumination, The fire had burned every trace of sign. (upper sequently other fires had followed and burned up their e:Xtreme poverty, keep it alive. (referring something like a distant city going up in flames. Strawberry Lake near Velva, North Dakota, in every vestige of dead timber, reducing the coun­ to the area west of Swift Current, Saskatchewan) But no, any comparison is inaccurate because of early summer 1868) try to the condition of a natural prairie. (near the speed of the fire's course, which can be seen Taylor. 1932:186 Petoskey or Elmira, Michigan, 4 September Macoun. 1882:107 only on the plains in this season of the year. The A fire had lately passed through the strip with 1878) The Neutral Hills lie northwest of Sounding night was still glowing when I went to bed. The such intensity, that many of the trees had been Macoun. 1882:27 Lake .... with clumps of small aspen scattered next day when I got up, the whole countryside totally destroyed; while in some cases parts of over their surface where protected from fire by was in mourning, and from east to west and over Although at present without wood or even a bush the tree trunks were still standing-fantastic, for more than one hundred miles at a stretch, yet either water or sand. (Alberta) to the north, as far as the eye could see, there silent figures in a weird, lonely locality. (near was nothing but black ashes and burnt earth. the only cause of this absence of trees is the ever Macoun. 1882:232 Lake of the Painted Woods, Washburn, North recurring fires which burn off the grass and All the prairie is pasture land .... The pasture There is nothing more dreary, but the country­ Dakota, autumn 187 4) side will not be saddened long. It won't be long shrubby plants almost every season .... All fires on burnt prairie is good all summer. But this can­ before the snow with its white mantle will cover McDougall. 1898:35 cease when they touch those hills. (referring to not be said of tha[t] which is unburnt. the traces of the fire. (near Ft. Stevenson, North Big fires and wonderful growth had changed the southern Saskatchewan) Macoun. 1882:238-239 Dakota, 3-4 November 1868) scene. (Pigeon Lake, southwest of ·Edmonton, Macoun. 1882:57 By burning the grass, good pasture for the Alberta, March 1865) Taylor. 1932:10 Fire passes over the country every year, and, in (p. 239) season is assured, but this should always McDougall. 1903:267-268 1879, in many places, burned the life so com­ be done in spring after the cattle have roamed ... withering and scorching blasts of the annual pletely out of the roots of the various grasses fires from the prairies .... (possibly in western ... about dark a fire ... to the south-westward. over it all winter. Should the grass not be burned which have a tendency to grow in clumps, that Iowa) ... It was a dark night, but this wild rushing the young shoots grow up amongst the old grass, flame with its clouds of reflecting smoke rolling the following year, scarcely a blade was seen. and cattle and horses wander off to where there Taylor. 1932:45 down upon us was a gorgeous sight .... (p. 268) . . . I speak of the region east of the Qu' appelle is less of this mixture . Signal glasses, rock and smoke signs, were ... the big fire swept past us-the creek was but trail, which we crossed in lat. 50°03'. Macoun. 1882:246 · observed in ominous frequency by the allied a tiny check-and on westward it rolled .... (Miry Macoun. 1882:63 It is not true of our Buffalo grass that the seed watchers from their house towers during the day Creek, near Minnedosa, Manitoba, October 1871) The Coteau [Missouri] resembled Turtle Moun- is among the leaves as it is in Kansas. Owing to 34 35

the annual fires, it matures little seed but a pro­ time I have noticed that the forest was only kept patch of sandy ground where the grass was quite as the eye can see, and destroying feed which fusion of leaves .... in check by the annual fires. Until the willow and thin and waited for the enemy. The lurid glare would keep many thousand head of stock during aspen roots had lost their vitality, they persisted in the heavens kept increasing as the shadows winter. Macoun. 1882:284 in sending up crop after crop of stems ever in­ of evening fell, and darkness had not settled over I am aware it has been said that the frequent fires Roosevelt. 1981:49 creasing in number, until death by exhaustion the prairie before we saw long tongues of flame burning the vegetation, and the rains washing ... but the Indians have at different times proved took place and permanent prairie was formed. thrown up against the sky from a distant ridge; the liberated salts into the hollows, cause these more or less troublesome, burning the grass .... It has been frequently stated that aspen seed re­ these disappeared and the bright glare only re­ accumulations of saline matter. (in western North Dakota, 1883) main in the soil, but this is not so. The reason mained. A few minutes pass and a nearer ridge Macoun. 1882:286-287 it reclothes the ground so many times after be­ is reached and a long line of fire is seen to cross Roosevelt. 1981:61 Let the sward be taken off by fire, or any other ing swept off by fire, is the fact that it throws it and disappear. Horses and men are now The prairie had been burned the fall before, and means, and instead of rain penetrating into the up shoots from every root after a fire (p. 316) has aroused, and I try if the grass where we are will was a mere bleak waste of blackened earth .... soil, it will run off into the hollows, and the land killed the stem. carry fire and find it will not. We at once move (north of Dickinson, North Dakota, early spring to its outer edge and securely fasten our horses, 1886) without grass will become drier .... but it is just Macoun. 1882:651-652 so that they may not break loose and leave us. as true that fire passing over the country, where Prairie fires are dangerous both to settlers and Selwyn. 187 4:58-59 the rainfall is light, prevent nearly all the.grasses A few minutes more and the fire has passed the I travellers, but especially to the former. During ... the gradual destruction of the forests over I last ridge, and with the speed of a fast horse it from seeding that year, and it is only the second the month of August the grass begins to dry up large areas, by fire .... (p. 59) ... there is no doubt bears down upon us. As it came near us the whirl­ year after a fire that seed in any quantity can owing to the great heat and the dryness of the that at different times almost every square mile ing smoke and leaping flames seemed to take the be obtained. When collecting grasses and carices, atmosphere. September completes what August of the country between Red River and the Rocky forms of living things that were in terrible agony I always obtained my specimens on the unburnt commenced, and by the first week in October all Mountains has been subjected to them [fire]; and and added largely to the sublimity of the spec­ ground. It is quite possible that the plain appears the grass is dry and for hundreds of miles a con­ that hundreds of miles of forest have thus been tacle. When it reached our oasis it swept past on less arid now than when Palliser crossed it, as tinous hay meadow extends without a break. At converted into wide and almost treeless expanses either side, and few gulps of smoke, accompanied owing to the absence of the enormous herds of this time scarcely a shower falls, and in the mid­ of prairie. with a strong hot wind, were the only discom­ buffalo, the grass now remains from year to year, dle of the day it is very warm and often the wind forts it caused us. When it was past we saw that Brock. 1925:225 if not burnt off. The term, "short, crisp grass of is strong. A party of travellers stop for dinner, it kept an even front, and wherever the grass was The lightning would strike the ground and set (p. 287) the prairie," which has become a house­ and without due precaution light a fire, or a long and thick the flame continued for some time the grass on.fire, then the rain would put it out. hold phrase, will not be applicable as soon as the smoker throws down a lighted match. In an in­ after the first rush had passed. (near Julesburg, Colorado, and the Kansas fires cease, and where the water runs off now, stant the grass is in a, blaze, and before a person border, 1884) it will pass into the soil through the old grass (or has time to think the fire is rods away and speed­ A stiff gale had been blowing all day and con­ mulch). Three years without fires would change ing over the prairies as fast as a horse can gallop. tinued through the night, and before the next Christy. 1885:123 the growth of grass so much that many would Numerous fires started as above have been evening, this fire reached the Eagle Hills, and If prairie-fires had been by some means arrested think the rainfall had increased, when it was only known to run over 100 miles without stopping. burnt up all the hay cut by Red Pheasant's band. fifty years since, Manitoba would to-day have retained by nature's own covering. On the prairie Should the fire reach a trail in the night it will Where it burnt the hay, it was fully 130 miles to been a densely-wooded, instead of a prairie, coun­ . east of Long Lake, where the fire had not been, scarcely ever cross it as the ruts stop it most ef­ the northeast of us. try. The fire, too, annually destroys the young the grass was twice as long (4 July) as where it fectually. A fire on our buffalo plains is not the This same fire swept up between the two Sas­ trees that spring up. had been burnt over; but the horses always went formidable affair that novelists and many katchewans the next night, and burnt up the tent Christy. 1892:83 to the new grass, although quite short in com­ travellers make it. The grass is generally short, of a party of the Mounted Police who barely Fires take place in the spring and autumn. When parison to the other. Here, the frequent fires had seldom over a foot high, and on this account the escaped with their lives, as the fire came upon the buffalo existed, prairie fires mainly took place gradually lessened the surface loam and exposed fire never attains much volume. them when they were asleep. Ten days after, I in the autumn, before the winter snows had many of the little pebbles scattered through it, crossed the same tract, and for twenty-four miles Although many times quite close to fires, in only fallen; but the majority (or, at least, many more and had we not dug into the soil we would have our horses never obtained a mouthful of food, as one instance did I have to protect myself from than formerly) now come in the spring. The done as others did before us, classified the soil the fire had licked it all up. as gravelly, whereas it contains little gravel. them. While lying in camp on the plain nearly 100 reason for this is, that the settlers do not like fire miles southwest of Battleford on the first Sab­ Wherever the grass was long the ground was in the fall, because they prefer to keep the bath of October, 1879, my assistant noticed huge 1880-1920 Settlers and Fences soft, but the reverse was the case where the grass pasturage for their cattle until as late a period volumes of smoke rising in the southwest, but a was short from whatever cause. Shields. 1883:63 in the year as possible, and also because there great distance off. He and I were travelling alone, The Crow Indians had burned the grass along the are at that season stacks of corn and hay stand­ Mulching, then, is what the country wants, and and naturally felt some fear of the fire reaching ing about in every direction; but, in the spring­ it can never get this until stringent steps are Rosebud and Little Big Horn rivers .... (Mon­ I us. Without any hesitation he ran for the horses, tana, 2 September 1881) time, none of these reasons has any force, and taken to prevent prairie fires. and besides hobbling them we fastened a long line the settlers then burn the prairie, as soon as the I Shields. 1883:70 Macoun. 1882:296 to each of them and tied them to the carts. We disappearance of the snow has left the dead grass I The pestiferous Crows had burned the valley all Settlement will cause the fires to cease, and the at once took down our tent and packed every­ dry enough to "carry fire." thing up, putting all our stuff in the carts. We over .... (Little Big Horn, Montana, 4 September groves of young wood scattered everywhere over Christy. 1892:84 saw that the fire was coming straight for us, and 1881) the country will soon become of great value for I myself saw a fire which I had reason to believe that a very (p. 652) short time would elapse Roosevelt. 1885(1):24 fuel and fencing. was 40 miles in length .... before it would be upon us. The sun was setting In fall, when the grass is like a mass of dry and Macoun. 1882:315-316 and before dark we harnessed the horses and brittle tinder, the fires do much damage, re­ Christy. 1892:86 Aspen Poplar (Populus tremuloides) ... . Each placed them in the carts and moved to a small ducing the prairies to blackened deserts as far The spectacle presented by a large prairie fire 36 37 11

at night is one of the most terrific sights Dawson. 1897:417 R. D. Ralston, and M. R. Ryan for providing reviews Chardon, F. A. 1932. Chardon's journal at Fort Clark imaginable. . .. the custom of setting fire to the prairie, which and editorial assistance during the development of 1834-1839. A.H. Abel, ed. Athens Press, Iowa City, has been practised [sic] by the Indians from time Iowa. 458 pp. Christy. 1892:88 the manuscript. A special thanks goes to E. K. Christy, R. M. 1885. Notes on the birds of Manitoba. Further, there are, I believe, at the present time, immemorial .... Bartels for obtaining and checking many historical Zoologist 9(100):121-133. very few species of mammal habitually frequent­ Dawson. 1897:417 references, and to T. L. Sharp for typing and photo­ Christy, R. M. 1892. Why are the prairies treeless? Proc. ing the open prairie, except burrowing ones. An ... fires have extended the treeless area very copying several drafts of the manuscript. R. Geogr. Soc. Mon. Rec. 14:78-100. exception to this has to be made on account of considerably. (referring to the Manitoba prairies) *Clements, F. E. 1916. Plant succession. An analysis of one or more species of hare; but these in most the development of vegetation. Carnegie Institute, parts of the prairie are rare, though common in Dawson. 1897:417 1 Washington, D.C. 512 pp. the woods. In times past, of course, the buffalo The object of the Indians usually was to burn up References Cocking, M. 1908. Journal of Matthew Cocking, from York Factory to the Blackfeet Country, 1772-73. and the antelope formed other exceptions. The the old grass to make way for the young growth, Allis, S. 1887. Forty years among the Indians and on the and the early settlers imitated them and used to Pages 89-121 in L. J. Burpee, ed. Proc. Trans. R. Soc. prairie wolf, or coyote (Canis latrans) is essen­ eastern borders of Nebraska. Nebr. State Hist. Soc. Can. Ser. 3, Vol. 2, Sect. 2. tially an inhabitant of the scrub, though it is often set fire to the prairie in late fall or early spring. Publ. 2:133-166. *Costello, D. F. 1969. The prairie world. Thomas Y. driven to seek its food on the open prairie in Humfreville. 1903:160 Arese, Count F. 1934. A trip to the prairies and in the Crowell Co., New York. 242 pp. winter. These facts may, I believe, be most easily interior of North America [1837-1838]. A. Evans, Dawson, S. E. 1897. North America. Vol. 1. Canada and ... one of the Sioux tribes was the Brules .... transl. Harbor Press, New York. 217 pp. explained by supposing that the fires, by con­ They were distinctly a prairie people, and claimed Newfoundland. Edward Standford, London. 719 pp. stantly sweeping over the prairies, have rendered *Arthur, G. W. 1975. An introduction to the ecology of Denig, E. T. 1961. Five Indian tribes of the upper I,, as their hunting ground what is now Western . early communal bison hunting among the northern i' them largely uninhabitable, except by burrowing Missouri. J. C. Ewers, ed. University of Oklahoma '' Kansas and Nebraska. plains Indians. Archaeol. Surv. Can. Pap. 37. 136 pp. animals. Press, Norman. 217 pp. This territory was covered with tall, rank grass. Bandel, E. 1932. Frontier life in the army 1854-1861. *Dix, R. L. 1960. The effects of burning on the mulch To the same cause may, I believe, be attributed In the fall or winter the grass became dry and 0. Bandel and R. Jente, transls.; R. P. Bieber, ed. structure and species composition of grasslands in (at least in a large degree) a still more remarkable very inflammable. Arthur H. Clark Company, Glendale, Calif. 330 pp. western North Dakota. Ecology 41:49-56. circumstance, namely, the entire absence of Beckwourth, J.P. 1972. The life and adventures of James When it caught fire the heat was intense, and the Dodge, R. I. 1878. The hunting grounds of the great earthworms from the prairies of the North-west. P. Beckwourth as told to Thomas D. Bonner. Univer­ West. Chatto and Windus, London. 448 pp. spread of the flames so rapid that scarcely any­ sity of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. 649 pp. Dodge, R. I. 1965. The Black Hills. Ross and Haines, Min­ Christy. 1892:89 thing could get out of its way. *Bird, R. D. 1961. Ecology of the Aspen Parkland of west­ I do not know of any cause which can satisfac­ neapolis, Minn. 151 pp. Prairie fires were often caused by lightning. ern Canada in relation to land use. Can. Dep. Agric. Dodge, R. I. 1978. Our wild Indians: thirty-three years' torily account for the absence of worms from the Publ. 1066. 155 pp. Many of this tribe were caught by prairie fires personal experience among the red men of the great prairies, except fire, which, by burning the grass *Bluemle, J. P., and L. Clayton. 1982. Geologic time in West. Corner House Publishers, Williamstown, Mass. I ' and burnt to the waist. over large areas, would annually deprive the North Dakota. North Dakota Geological Survey, 653 pp. worms of that variety of decaying vegetable mat­ Richtman's Midwest, Fargo. Educ. Ser. 14. 17 pp. Domeneck, E. H. D. 1860. Seven year's residence in the Gleason. 1912:47 Eoller, H. A. 1972. Among the Indians: four years on ter which constitutes their food. Frost, the only They [forbs] die to the ground in summer, before great deserts of North America. Vol. 1. Longman, i I: other possible cause, seems inadmissible, since the upper Missouri, 1858-1862. M. M. Quaife, ed. Green, Longman, and Roberts, London. 288 pp. 11' the season of prairie fires .... (Champaign University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. 370 pp. I I worms occur in Iceland, hundreds of miles to the *Edwards, T. 1978. Buffalo and prairie ecology. D. Glenn­ ; I County, Illinois) Brackenridge, H. M. 1966. Journal of a voyage up the north. river Missouri; performed in eighteen hundred eleven. Lewin and R. Q. Landers, eds. Midwest Prairie Proc. Gleason. 1913:174 Christy. 1892:89 R. G. Thwaites, ed. Early Western Travels, Vol. 6. 5:110-112. Such fires doubtless occurred, but the violent *England, R. E., and A. De Vos. 1969. Influence of animals We come now to the consideration of my asser­ Arthur H. Clark Co., Glendale, Calif. 166 pp. winds necessary for driving them are not com­ Bradbury, J. 1966. Bradbury's travels in the interior of on pristine conditions on the Canadian grasslands. J. tion:-That the fires, by gradually killing and con­ Range Manage. 22:87-94. suming the forests, have caused the treelessness mon in the Middle West in early autumn, when America in the years 1809-1811. R. G. Thwaites, ed. Early Western Travels, Vol. 5. Arthur H. Clark Com­ *Engle, D. M., and P. M. Bultsma. 1984. Burning of north­ of the prairies; or, in other words, that the the fires were most abundant. ern mixed prairie during drought. J. Range Manage. pany, Glendale, Calif. 320 pp. prairies themselves are, largely at least, due to Pittman. 1928:5 Brock, G. W. 1925. When lightning set the grass on fire. 37:398-401. fire. The evidence on this point is, I think, very ... a strip of country about 75 miles long, run­ Pages 219-225 in J. M. Hunter, ed. The trail drivers *Ewers, J. C. 1955. The horse in Blackfoot Indian culture. U.S. Bur. Am. Ethnol. Bull. 159. Smithsonian Insti­ clear. It can be shown, I think, on the clearest ning from southwestern Manitoba into south­ of Texas. Cokebury Press, Nashville, Tenn. evidence, that, if the fires have not caused the eastern Saskatchewan .... The strip ... since the *Bryson, R. A., and T. J. Murray. 1977. Climates of tute, Washington, D.C. *Forde, J. D., N. F. Sloan, and D. A. Shown.1984. Grass­ I 11 prairies, they are at least now extending them checking of the prairie fires, is rapidly becoming hunger. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. I Ii land habitat management using prescribed burning in in numberless places; that trees still grow on the covered with little groups of trees, or bluffs, and 171 pp. Carver, J. 1956. Travels through the interior parts of Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota. Prairie Nat. prairies on spots that are to some extent pro- in these the crows nest plentifully. 16:97-110 . . tected from the fires; and that, over large por­ North America in the years 1766, 1767, and 1768. Ross and Haines, Minneapolis, Minn. 543 pp. *Gartner, F. R., R. I. Butterfield, W.W. Thompson, and tions of the prairies, young trees spring up L. R. Roath. 1978. Prescribed burning of range eco- · ' Catlin, G. 1965. Letters and notes on the manners, ! annually, only to be at once burned; but, if pro­ Acknowledgments customs, and condition of the North American Indians. systems in South Dakota. Pages 687-690 in Proc. First tected from the fire, they would grow and in due Ross and Haines, Minneapolis, Minn. Vol.1, 264 pp.; Int. Rangeland Congr., Soc. Range Manage. time reproduce the banished forest-growth. Full support for the data collection was provided Vol. 2, 266 pp. Gleason, H. A. 1912. An isolated prairie grove and its by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern phytogeographical significance. Bot. Gaz. 53:38-49. Christy. 1892:92 Gleason, H. A. 1913. The relation of forest distribution These trees have great vitality in their roots, and Prairie Wildlife Research Center, under the direc­ and prairie fires in the middle west. Torreya 13(8): repeatedly send up fresh shoots after the annual tion of R. C. Stendell. I thank W. T. Barker, J.M. 173-181. fires, until death from exhaustion ensues. (south­ Callow, G. K. Clamby, F. R. Gartner, H. A. Kantrud, 1Entries preceded by an asterisk are not included in the Hambley, G. H. 1952. Historical records and accounts central Canada) A. D. Kruse, H. T. Lewis, C. T. Moore, J. L. Piehl, text. of the early pioneers of the district of Swan Lake, 39 38

and A.H. Abel, ed. University of Oklahoma Press, Nor­ Manitoba, from its early settlement, 1873-1950. D. W. Larpenteur, C. 1933. Forty years a fur trader on the up­ west of Hudson Bay 1660-1870. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont. 249 pp. man. 272 pp. Friesen and Sons, Altona, Manit. 280 pp. per Missouri: the personal narrative of Charles Lar­ Tanner, J. 1975. A narrative of the captivity and adven­ Harmon, D. W. 1922. A journal of voyages and travels penteur 1833-1872. Lakeside Press, R.R. Donnelley Robinson, H. M. 1972. The great fur land or sketches of life in the Hudson's Bay Territory. Coles Publishing, tures of John Tanner. E. James, ed. Garland Pub­ in the interior of North America. Allerton Book Co., and Sons Co., Chicago. 388 pp. lishing, New York. 426 pp. New York. 382 pp. Lewis, M. 1961. The Lewis and Clark expedition. 3 vols. Toronto, Ont. 348 pp. *Roe, F. G. 1970. The North American buffalo. Universi­ . Taylor, J. H. 1932. Frontier and Indian life and kaleido­ Hendry, A. 1907. York Factory to the Blackfoot Coun­ J. ~. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 889 pp. scopic lives. E. P. Getchell, Valley City, N. Dak. 327 pp. Luttig, J. C. 1964. Journal of a fur-trading expedition ty of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont. 991 pp. try: the journal of Anthony Hendry, 1754-55. Pages Roosevelt, T. 1885. Hunting trips of a ranchman. Vol. 1. *Thomas, G. 1977. Fire and fur trade: the Saskatchewan 307-364 in L. J. Burpee, ed. Proc. Trans. R. Soc. Can. on the upper Missouri 1812-1813. S. M. Drumm, ed. District: 1790-1840. Pages 32-39 in The Beaver. Argosy-Antiquarian Ltd., New York. 213 pp. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 175 pp. Ser. 3, Vol. 1, Sect. 2. Roosevelt, T. 1981. Ranch life in the far West. Outbooks, Thompson, D. 1916. David Thompson's narrative of his Hennepin, L. 1972. A new discovery of a vast country *MacNeish. R. S. 1956. Summary of archaelogical inves­ explorations in western America. J.B. Tyrrell, ed. The tigations in southeastern Manitoba. Pages 25-45 in An­ Golden, Colo. 96 pp. in America. R. G. Thwaites, ed. Kraus Reprint Co., Ross, A. 1957. The Red River settlement: its rise, pro­ Champlain Society, Toronto, Ont. 582 pp. New York. Vol. 1, 353 pp.; Vol. 2, 711 pp. nual report of the National Museum of Canada for the Trobriand, P. R. 1951. Military life in Dakota. L. M. fiscal year 1954-55. Bull. 142. gress, and present state. Ross and Haines, Minneapolis, Henry, A., and D. Thompson. 1965. New light on the Minn. 416 pp. Kane, transl. and ed. The Alvord Memorial Commis­ ~arly history of the greater northwest: the manuscript Macoun, J. 1882. Manitoba and the great northwest. sion, St. Paul, Minn. 395 pp. World Publishing, Guelph, Ont. 687 pp. *Rowe, J. S. 1969. Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grass­ Journals of Alexander Henry and David Thompson land. Can. Field-Nat. 83:317-324. *Vogl, R. J. 1974. Effects of fire on grasslands. Pages I J799-1814. E. Coues, ed. Ross and Haines, Min­ Maximilian, [Prince of Wied's]. 1966. Travels in the in­ 139-194 in T. T. Kozlowski and C. E. Ahlgren, eds. terior of America, 1832-1834. R. G. Thwaites, ed. *Sauer, C. 0. 1950. Grassland climax, fire, and man. J. I neapolis, Minn. 1027 pp. Range Manage. 3:16-21. Fire and ecosystems. Academic Press, New York. *Higgins, K. F. 1984. Lightning fires in grasslands in Arthur H. Clark Co., Glendale, Calif. Vol. 1, 393 pp.; Waheenee. 1981. Waheenee: an Indian girl's story. G. L. I Vol. 2, 395 pp. Selwyn, A. R. C. 1874. Observations in the North West ' North Dakota and in pine-savanna lands in nearby Territory, from Fort Garry to Rocky Mountain House. Wilson, transl. and ed. State Historical Society of *McAndrews, J. H., R. E. Stewart, Jr., and R. C. Bright. . I South Dakota and Montana. J. Range Manage . Pages 58-59 in Geological Survey of Canada Report North Dakota, Bismarck. Occas. Publ. 4. 188 pp. 1967. Pages 101-114 in L. Clayton and T. F. Freers 37:100-103. of Progress for 1873-74, Montreal, 1874. *Wells, P. V. 1965. Scarp woodlands, transported grass­ i eds. Glacial geology of the Missouri Coteau and adja~ I Hind, H. Y. 1969. Narrative of the Canadian Red River Shields, G. 0. 1883. Rustlings in the Rockies: hunting land soils and concept of grassland climate in the Great cent areas. N. Dak. Geol. Surv. Misc. Ser. 30. I! exploring expedition of 1857 and of the Assinniboine Plains region. Science 148:246-249. McDougall, J. 1898. Pathfinding on plain and prairie. and fishing by mountain and stream. Belford, Clarke, [sic] and Saskatchewan exploring expedition of of 1858. *Wells, P. V. 1970. Postglacial vegetational history of the William Briggs, Toronto, Ont. 277 pp. & Co., Chicago. 306 pp. Vol. 1. Greenwood Press, New York. 494 pp. Great Plains. Science 167:1574-1582. McDougall, J. 1903. In the days of the Red River Simpson, G. 1847. Narrative of a journey round the Humfreville, J. L. 1903. Twenty years among our hostile world, during the years 1841 and 1842. Vol. 1. Henry Wilhelm, P. [Duke ofWiirttemberg].1938. First journey rebellion. William Briggs, Toronto, Ont. 303 pp. to North America in the years 1822 to 1824. W. G. Bek, Indians. Hunter & Co., New York. 480 pp. *Moore, C. T. 1972. Man and fire in the central North Colburn, Publisher, London. 438 pp. Simpson, G. 1931. Fur-trade and empire. F. Merk, ed. transl. S.D. Hist. Collect. 19:7-462. Irving, J. T., Jr. 1955. Indian sketches taken during an American grassland 1535-1890: a documentary expedition to the Pawnee Tribes [1833]. J. F. McDer­ Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 370 pp. *Wright, H. A., and A. W. Bailey.1980. Fire ecology and historical geography. Ph.D. thesis. University of prescribed burning in the Great Plains-a research mott, ed. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. California, Los Angeles. 155 pp. *Stewart, 0. C. 1951. Burning and natural vegetation in 275 pp. the United States. Geogr. Rev. 41:317-320. review. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Murray, C. A. 1974. Travels in North America during Station, Ogden, Utah. U.S. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. Kane, P. 1968. Wanderings of an artist among the In­ the years 1834, 1835, and 1836. Vol. 2. DaCapo Press, *Stewart, 0. C. 1953. Why the Great Plains are treeless. dians of North America. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Colo. Quart. 1:40-50. INT-77. 60 pp. New York. 372 pp. *Wright, H. A., and A. W. Bailey. 1982. Fire ecology. John Rutland, Vt. 329 pp. *Nelson, J. G., and R. E. England. 1971. Some comments Tabeau, P. A. 1939. Tabeau's narrative of Loisel's ex­ pedition to the upper Missouri. R. A. Wright, transl., Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 501 pp. Keating, W. H. 1959. Narrative of an expedition to the on the causes and effects of fire in the northern grass­ source of St. Peter's River, Lake Winnepeek, Lake of land area of Canada and the nearby United States the Woods, and performed in the year 1823. Ross and circa 1750-1900. Can. Geogr. 15(4):295-306. ' Haines, Minneapolis, Minn. Vol. 1, 458 pp.; Vol. 2, Nicollet, J. N. 1976. Joseph N. Nicollet on the plains and 248 pp. prairies. E. C. Bray and M. C. Bray, transls. and eds. Kelsey, V. 1951. Red River runs north! Harper and M~nnesota Historical Press, St. Paul. 294 pp. Brothers Publishers, New York. 297 pp. Palhser, J. 1968. The papers of the Palliser Expedition Kilgore, W. H. 1949. The Kilgore journal of an overland 1857-1860. I. M. Spry, ed. The Champlain Society, journey to California in the year 1850. J. R. Muench Toronto, Ont. 694 pp. ed. Hastings House, New York. 63 pp. ' Palliser, J. 1969. Solitary rambles and adventures of a *Kirsch, L. M., and A. D. Kruse. 1973. Prairie fires and hunter in the prairies. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo. wildlife. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 326 pp. 12:2.89-303. Perrot, N. 1969. The Indian tribes of the upper Missis­ *Kozlowski, T. T., and C. E. Ahlgren. 1974. Fire and sippi Valley and region of the Great Lakes. Vol. 1. ecosystems. Academic Press, Inc., New York. 542 pp. E. H. Blair, transl. and ed. Kraus Reprint Co., New Kurz, R. F. 1937. Journal of Rudolph Friederich Kurz. York. 372 pp. M. Jarrell, transl., and J. N. B. Hewitt, ed. U.S. Bur. Pittman, H. H. 1928. Mallards on the prairie. Bird-Lore Am. Ethnol. Bull. 115. 382 pp. 30(1):5-6. La Potherie, B. 1969. The Indian tribes of the upper Pritchett, J.P. 1970. The Red River Valley 1811-1849. Mississippi valley and region of the Great Lakes. Vol. 2. Russell and Russell, New York. 295 pp. E. H. Blair, transl. and ed. Kraus Reprint Co., New *Pyne, S. J. 1982. Fire in America. Princeton University York. 412 pp. Press, Princeton, N.J. 654 pp. Larocque, F. A. 1934. The journal of Francois Antoine *Pyne, S. J. 1984. Introduction to wildland fire. John Larocque from the Assiniboine River to the Yellow­ Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 455 pp. stone-1805. R. Hazlitt, transl. and ed. Front. and *Ray, A. J. 1974. Indians in the fur trade: their role as Midl. 14(3):241-247; 14(4):332-339; 15(1):67-75, 88. trappers, hunters, and middlemen in the lands south- -~

Higgins, Kenneth F. 1986. Interpretation and Compendium of Historical I Higgins, Kenneth F. 1986. Interpretation and Compendium of Historical Fire Accounts in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fire Accounts in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Resour. Puhl. 161. 39 pp. I Resour. Puhl. 161. 39 pp.

In the northern Great Plains lightning-set fires were recorded far less I In the northern Great Plains lightning-set fires were recorded far less frequently than were Indian-set fires. The kinds of fire most frequently I frequently than were Indian-set fires. The kinds of fire most frequently reported were scattered, single events of short duration and small extent. reported were scattered, single events of short duration and small extent. Indian-set fires occurred mainly in two periods; March through May with I Indian-set fires occurred mainly in two periods; March through May with a peak in April, and July to early November with a peak in October. Ap­ I a peak in April, and July to early November with a peak in October. Ap­ parently Indians of the northern Great Plains generally did not subscribe parently Indians of the northern Great Plains generally did not subscribe to annual wholesale or promiscuous burning practices, but they did purposely I to annual wholesale or promiscuous burning practices, but they did purposely use fire as a tool to aid in the hunting and gathering of food and materials. I use fire as a tool to aid in the hunting and gathering of food and materials. Key words: Historical fire accounts, northern Great Plains, lightning-set I Key words: Historical fire accounts, northern Great Plains, lightning-set fires, Indian-set fires, prairie fires, temporal distribution of fires, fire use. fires, Indian-set fires, prairie fires, temporal distribution of fires, fire use. I I

~* _I lll I I I Higgins, Kenneth F. 1986. Interpretation and Compendium of Historical Fire Accounts in I Higgins, Kenneth F. 1986. Interpretation and Compendium of Historical Fire Accounts in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish Wild!. Serv., Resour. Pub!. 161. 39 pp. I the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish Wild!. Serv., Resour. Pub!. 161. 39 pp. In the northern Great Plains lightning-set fires were recorded far Jess frequently than were In the northern Great Plains lightning-set fires were recorded far less frequently than were I Indian-set fires. The kinds of fire most frequently reported were scattered, single events of short I Indian-set fires. The kinds of fire most frequently reported were scattered, single events of short duration and small extent. Indian-set fires occurred mainly in two periods; March through May duration and small extent. Indian-set fires occurred mainly in two periods; March through May § with a peak in April, and July to early November with a peak in October. Apparently Indians with a peak in April, and July to early November with a peak in October. Apparently Indians of the northern Great Plains generally did not subscribe to annual wholesale or promiscuous burn­ of the northern Great Plains generally did not subscribe to annual wholesale or promiscuous burn­ ~ ing practices, but they did purposely use fire as a tool to aid in the hunting and gathering of ing practices, but they did purposely use fire as a tool to aid in the hunting and gathering of food and materials. food and materials. ~ 10 Key words: Historical fire accounts, northern Great Plains, lightning-set fires, Indian-set fires, Key words: Historical fire accounts, northern Great Plains, lightning-set fires, Indian-set fires, ! prairie fires, temporal distribution of fires, fire use. prairie fires, temporal distribution of fires, fire use. ~ 111 ~ I A list of current Resource Publications follows. 11 I: 151. Avian Use of Forest Habitats in the Pembina Hills of Northeastern North Dakota, by Craig A. Faanes and Jonathan M. Andrew. 1983. 24 pp. 152. National Pesticide Monitoring Program: Organochlorine Residues in Freshwater Fish, by Christopher J. Schmitt, Michael A. Ribick, J. Larry Ludke and Thomas M. May. 1983. 62pp. 153. Handbook of Toxicity of Pesticides to Wildlife, by Rick H. Hudson, Richard K. Tucker and M. A. Haegele. 1984. 97 pp. 154. Nonconsumptive Use of Wildlife in the United States, by William W. Shaw and William R. Mangun. 1984. 20 pp. 155. Ecology and Management of the Bullfrog, by R. Bruce Bury and Jill A. Whelan. 1984. 23pp. 156. Statistical Inference From Band Recovery Data-A Handbook, by Cavell Brownie, David R. Anderson, Kenneth P. Burnham, and Douglas S. Robson. 1985. 305 pp. 157. The Breeding Bird Survey: Its First Fifteen Years, 1965-1979, by Chandler S. Robbins, Danny Bystrak and Paul H. Geissler. 1986. 196 pp. 158. Techniques for Studying Nest Success of Ducks in Upland Habitats in tp.e Prairie Pothole Region, by Albert T. Klett, Harold F. Duebbert, Craig A. Faanes, and Kenneth F. Higgins. 1986. 24 pp. 159. Research and Development Series: An Annotated Bibliography, 1889-1985, by Thomas J. Cortese and Barbara A. Groshek. 1987. 163 pp. 160. Manual of Acute Toxicity: Interpretation and Data Base for 410 Chemicals and 66 Species of Freshwater Animals, by Foster L. Mayer and Mark R. Ellersieck. 1986. 579 pp.

I

I'I Note: Use of trade names does not imply U.S. Government endorsement of commercial products. U.S. DEPARTMENT OFTH E INTER IOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally-owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the sound use of our lands and water resources; protecting our fish , wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places ; and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.