Structure of the Consultant Report

The Southern Krong Ana Watershed Dak Lak Province, Vietnam

A Baseline Survey

Consultancy Report

Prepared by Vo Hung, Tuyet Hoa Niekdam, Nguyen Tien, Pham Tan Ha, Nguyen Minh Anh

Compiled by Werner Schindele

Buon Ma Thuot, Nov 2006

MRC-GTZ Cooperation Programme Agriculture, Irrigation and Forestry Programme Watershed Management Project (WSMP)

The opinions and interpretations expressed in this report are those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Mekong River Commission and/or GTZ and/or the Watershed Management Project. The version presented is the unedited original as submitted by the author, which has not been screened for factual or other errors.

Table of Content Page Summary 1. Introduction...... 1 1.1. Background ...... 1 1.2. Methodology and Approach ...... 1 1.3. Development Plans of Relevance for the Pilot Area ...... 3 1.4. Programs, Projects, Activities in the Pilot Area ...... 3 2. Biophysical Environment ...... 6 2.1. Location, Administrative Boundaries and Area ...... 6 2.2. Landscape and Topography...... 6 2.2.1. Mountains...... 6 2.2.2. River Valleys ...... 7 2.2.3. Slope...... 7 2.3. Climate and Meteorological Data ...... 7 2.3.1. Climatic Regions ...... 7 2.3.2. Temperature...... 8 2.3.3. Rainfall ...... 8 2.3.4. Wind...... 10 2.3.5. Sunshine ...... 10 2.3.6. Evaporation...... 11 2.3.7. Humidity ...... 11 2.4. Geology, Soils and Land Suitability...... 11 2.4.1. Geology...... 11 2.4.2. Soils ...... 12 2.5. Land Suitability...... 15 2.6. Accessibility and Roads ...... 17 2.7. Flora and Fauna...... 18 2.7.1. Regional Flora...... 18 2.7.2. Regional Fauna...... 18 3. Socio-Economic Environment ...... 20 3.1. Demographic Data ...... 20 3.1.1. Settlement History...... 20 3.1.2. Population ...... 20 3.1.3. Population Growth and Migration...... 21 3.1.4. Ethnicity and Religion...... 22 3.2. Livelihood ...... 22 3.2.1. Living Standard ...... 22 3.2.2. Electricity and Communication...... 24 3.2.3. Markets, Business and Local Industry ...... 24 3.2.4. Infrastructure, Machinery and Equipment ...... 25 3.2.5. Public Transport...... 26 3.2.6. Education ...... 26

3.2.7. Access to Water...... 26 3.2.8. Sanitation and Health...... 27 3.2.9. Farm Activities...... 27 3.2.10. Off-Farm Activities and Employment ...... 30 3.2.11. Dependency on Forest Products for Livelihood...... 31 3.2.12. Income and Income Sources...... 33 3.3. Village Administration and Social Organisation...... 35 3.4. Effects of Forest Land Allocation...... 36 3.5. Problems, Issues and Constraints from the Perspective of the People ...... 36 3.6. Potential Fields of Intervention With Special Reference to NRM ...... 37 4. Land Management...... 38 4.1. Land-use ...... 38 4.1.1. Land Use Classification and Distribution...... 38 4.1.2. Land-use Changes and Development Trends ...... 40 4.1.3. Development Potential...... 41 4.2. Land Management ...... 43 4.2.1. Legal and Regulatory Framework ...... 43 4.2.2. Institutions, Administration & Organisation ...... 45 4.2.3. Land Tenure and Land Allocation ...... 47 4.2.4. Problems, Issues and Constraints ...... 49 4.2.5. Potential Fields of Intervention...... 49 5. Forest Resources and Management ...... 51 5.1. Vegetation Types and Forest Cover...... 51 5.1.1. Description and Distribution ...... 51 5.1.2. Relevance for Water Management ...... 54 5.1.3. Forest Cover Changes ...... 54 5.1.4. Development of Forest Cover Until 2010 ...... 57 5.2. Forest Administration and Organisation ...... 57 5.3. Forest Classification...... 58 5.4. Management of Natural Production Forest ...... 59 5.4.1. State Forest Enterprises ...... 59 5.4.2. Communities, User Groups and Households (Forest Land Allocation)...... 61 5.4.3. Forest Management Board ...... 62 5.4.4. Leased Forests ...... 63 5.5. Plantation Forest Management ...... 63 5.5.1. Industrial Timber Plantation ...... 63 5.5.2. Small Scale Plantations and Tree Planting...... 65 5.5.3. Potential Areas for Small Scale Plantations...... 65 5.6. Management of Protection and Special Use Forest...... 66 5.6.1. Protection Forest...... 66 5.6.2. Management of Special Use Forest...... 67 5.6.3. Forest Protection Contracts ...... 69 5.7. Wood Processing Industry and Timber Market in the Region ...... 70 5.7.1. Wood Processing Industry of Dak Lak Province ...... 70

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5.7.2. Wood Processing Inside Study Area (SKAW)...... 70 5.7.3. Timber and Wood Market...... 71 5.8. Non Timber Forest Products and Marketing ...... 73 5.9. Forest Crime and Protection ...... 76 5.9.1. Encroachment...... 76 5.9.2. Illegal Logging...... 76 5.9.3. Forest Fire...... 78 5.9.4. Poaching ...... 78 5.10. Problems, Issues and Constraints and Potential Fields of Intervention...... 80 6. Agro - Forestry Systems...... 83 7. Agriculture ...... 85 7.1. Administration and Organisation ...... 85 7.2. Agricultural Land-use Systems...... 86 7.2.1. Rice Production...... 87 7.2.2. Home Gardens...... 89 7.2.3. Coffee and other Cash Crops ...... 90 7.2.4. Shifting Cultivation and Forest Clearing...... 91 7.2.5. Livestock and Rangelands...... 92 7.3. Processing and Marketing of Agricultural Products...... 93 7.4. Problems, Issues and Constraints...... 95 7.5. Potential Fields of Intervention...... 96 8. Waste Land ...... 97 9. Fishing and Aquaculture...... 98 10. Mining and Quarry...... 99 11. Water and Water Resources Management ...... 100 11.1. The Water Sector in General...... 100 11.1.1. Regulatory Framework ...... 100 11.1.2. Policy Issues...... 100 11.1.3. Institutions and Organisations ...... 102 11.1.4. Planning Processes and Procedures ...... 103 11.1.5. Financial Aspects ...... 104 11.2. Water Resources of SKAW ...... 105 11.2.1. Hydrological and Meteorological Stations ...... 105 11.2.2. Rivers and Catchments ...... 106 11.2.3. Groundwater...... 108 11.2.4. Water Quantity...... 108 11.2.5. Water Quality...... 110 11.3. Flooding and Drought ...... 111 11.4. Water Users and Demand ...... 111 11.4.1. Private Households ...... 111 11.4.2. Industrial Users...... 112 11.4.3. Irrigation Schemes and Water Reservoirs...... 112 11.4.4. Hydropower ...... 114

11.5. Waste Water and Sewerage System...... 115 11.6. Erosion and Sedimentation...... 115 11.7. Problems, Issues and Constraints...... 118 11.8. Potential Fields of Intervention ...... 119

Annexes 1 Literature 2 List of households 3 Change of Vegetation Cover (1995- 2005) 4 Map Atlas

List of Tables Table 1: Projects and programs currently implemented within the SKAW 5 Table 2: Communes located within SKAW 6 Table 3: Slope classes 7 Table 4: Average, minimum and maximum monthly temperature in o C. 8 Table 5: Average annual rainfall (mm) in stations around SKAW area (1977-2004) 9 Table 6: Distribution of rainfall in dry and rainy season 9 Table 7: Annual wind velocity in m/s 10 Table 8: Annual sunshine hour 10 Table 9: Monthly evaporation in mm 11 Table 10: Monthly humidity in % 11 Table 11: Distribution of soil types 12 Table 12: Distribution of soil types within SKAW 13 Table 13: Land suitability 15 Table 14: Land suitability for various agricultural crops. 17 Table 15: Tree floral composition 18 Table 16: Faunal composition 18 Table 17: Population by gender per sub-catchment 21 Table 18: Distribution of ethnic groups in the SKAW 22 Table 19: Livelihood index according to ethnicity 23 Table 20: Household size (person/household) 23 Table 21: Off-farm enterprises 25 Table 22: Equipment and Machinery in % of households 25 Table 23: Education facilities per district 26 Table 24: Healthcare facilities 27 Table 25: Average agricultural land holding per household categories (ha/hh) 28 Table 26: Household category involvement in livestock production 29 Table 27: Average Number of animal per household 29 Table 28: Seasonal calendar for major activities 30 Table 29: Non-timber forest products commonly used in the SKAW 32 Table 30: Forest related activities 33 Table 31: Average annual income 34 Table 32: Annual income according to sources and household category 34 Table 33: Household expenditure 35 Table 34: Net revenue per household category 35 Table 35: Distribution of land types per commune within the pilot area 39 Table 36: Land use distribution in ha according to sub-catchment areas 39 Table 37: Change of land use in SKAW (ha) 40 Table 38: Shift in some agricultural and forestry land use classes (ha) from 1995 to 2005 41 Table 39: Planned change in land use until 2010 42

Table 40: Potential land types by land category 48 Table 41: Land use right certificates issued by 2005 49 Table 42: Distribution of Forest and Vegetation types 51 Table 43: Changes in vegetation cover from 1995 to 2005 55 Table 44: Change of forest cover from one type to another 56 Table 45: Development of forest cover until 2010 57 Table 46: Distribution of production forests by management organisation 59 Table 47: Annual timber production from 2001 to 2005 60 Table 48: Area of plantation forest of Krong Bong and Lak SFEs (2001 - 2005). 64 Table 49: Area in ha to be re-allocated to local authorities in 2006 66 Table 50: Project of Krong Bong district for establishment of small-scale plantations 66 Table 51: Special use forests 67 Table 52: Functional blocks and buffer zone 68 Table 53: Functional sub-division of Lake Lak and Nam Ka conservation areas (ha) 69 Table 54: Area under forest protection contracts in the SKAW 69 Table 55: Capacity and average supply of local timber industry of Dak Lak Province 70 Table 56: Round wood prices in Dak Lak province 72 Table 57: Market prices for NTFP 74 Table 58: Marketing of some major NTFP 75 Table 59: Forest violations within the SKAW during 2001 to 2005 76 Table 60: Analysis of two fields of problems and potential fields of intervention 80 Table 61: Agro-forestry systems commonly applied in the SKAW 83 Table 62: Production areas in ha for various agricultural products per sub-catchment 86 Table 63: Distribution of annual and perennial crops according to sub-catchments 86 Table 64: Economic calculation for one ha of rice (all figures in 1000 VND) 88 Table 65: Number of animal and animal products 93 Table 66: Agricultural production of Krong Bong and Lak district in tons 94 Table 67: Economic calculation for different cash crops per ha (figures are in 1000 VND) 95 Table 68: Distribution of wasteland (2005) per commune 97 Table 69: Fish production Krong Bong District 98 Table 70: Ministry Water Resources Management and Water Service Responsibilities 102 Table 71: Network of meteorological stations 105 Table 72: Average water flow measured at hydrological stations inside SKAW 109 Table 73: Characteristics of sub-catchment and water availability 109 Table 74: Water resources index 110 Table 75: Result of water quality control at some stations 110 Table 76: Maximum flooding in Srepok besin in the period from 1978 to 2005 111 Table 77: Irrigation schemes inside SKAW 113 Table 78: Potential micro hydropower station 115

List of Figures

Figure 1: Monthly rainfall from 1977 – 2004 measured at M’Drak meteorological station 10 Figure 2: Gender distribution per district 20 Figure 3: Population growth 1996 - 2005 21 Figure 4: Poverty in the SKAW 23 Figure 5: Vegetation cover 52 Figure 6: Land use change from 1995 to 2005 55 Figure 7: Organisational structure of DARD 58 Figure 8: Forestland allocation to households, communities and household groups 62 Figure 9: Wood market channel 73 Figure 10: Sedimentation rates measured at Giang Son station from 1977-2004 116 Figure 11: Sedimentation rates measured at Krong Buk station from 1977-2004 116

List of Pictures

Picture 1: 2 years old Eucalyptus plantation at Son Phong village 64 Picture 2: Wood-processing factory at Kong Bong State Forest Enterprise. 71 Picture 3: Drying bamboo shoot at Dak Lieng Commune 75 Picture 4: Illegal logging (Pterocarpus macrocarpus) by local farmers in natural forest 77 Picture 5: Illegal logging for local construction 78 Picture 6: Animal trap in the forest 79 Picture 7: Wildlife animal (Manus pentadactyla) is killed for special food 79 Picture 8: Agro forestry system cashew and cassava 84 Picture 9: Common agricultural landscape at plot area 87 Picture 10: Rice fields and perennial crops on steep slopes 89 Picture 11: Coffee and Durian in home garden at Dak Nue 90 Picture 12: Maize harvest, acacia plantation steep slopes prone to erosion 91 Picture 13: Conversion of forestland in agricultural areas along NH 27 92 Picture 14: Sand exploitation along Krong Ana and bare upper slopes prone to soil erosion 99 Picture 15: Krong Ana River 106 Picture 16: Krong Kma River 107 Picture 17: Construction of Krong Kmar hydropower station 114 Picture 18: Clearing of forestland on steep slope and signs of erosion in Ea Trul 117 Picture 19: Exposed upper slope prone to surface run-off and soil erosion 117 Picture 20: Steep bare slopes and signs of erosion 118

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

AIFP Agriculture, Irrigation and Forestry Programme (of the MRC) BMZ Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development of the Federal Republic of Germany) CIAT Centro International de Agricultural Tropical CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research CPC Commune People’s Committee DARD Department of Agriculture and Rural Development DONRE Department of Natural Resources and Environmental DPC District People Committee DPI Department of Planning Investment DFID United Kingdom Department for International Development EVN Electricity Vietnam FIPI Forest Inventory and Planning Institute FLA Forest Land Allocation GFA GFA Consulting Group GDP Gross Domestic Product GMS Greater Mekong Subregion GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit hh household IMC Irrigation Management Company IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature IWMI International Water Management Institute IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management IWRP Institute for Water Resources Planning LMB Lower Mekong Basin LWR Law on Water Resources MARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental MRC Mekong River Commission MRRF Management of River and Reservoir, Fishery NIAPP National Institute for Agriculture, Planning and Projection NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product NWRC National Water Resources Council PPC Provincial People Committees RBO River Basin Organisation RDDL Rural Development Dak Lak, GTZ-Project RWSS Rural Water Supply and Sanitation SFE State Forest Estate SWRM Srepok Water Resources Management VND Vietnamese Dong (currency) VNMC Vietnam National Mekong Commission WRB World Reference Base on Soil WRM Water Resources Management WSMP Watershed Management Project (of the MRC/AIFP) WWF World Wildlife Fund

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Summary

Southern Krong Ana watershed (SKAW) in Dak Lak province has been identified as a pilot area for watershed management in Vietnam. A baseline study was conducted from July to September 2006 for the establishment of a watershed profile, with the objective to provide information for the measurement of the impacts of natural resources management on water the resources. The SKAW covers an area of 155,200 ha and belongs to Krong Bong and Lak district. It comprises of five sub-catchments, which drain from the high mountain region in the south towards the Krong Ana River in the north. While the lowlands and hilly areas along the Krong Ana and Krong Bong rivers are highly populated and intensively used for agriculture, few people live in the mountainous region, which is still covered by natural forests. The population growth is fairly high, 3-4% per year. From 1994 –1999 under the program of population movement to economic zones many people including Kinh and other ethnic minorities immigrated from the north into the SKAW. Unregulated immigration of ethnic minorities into the SKAW is still ongoing. Most of the people live in rural areas; there are only two town lets. The living standard is comparatively low, 36.7% of the households have been considered as poor with a monthly income of less than 200,000 VND. Beside the remote settlements in the mountainous region, most households have access to electricity, to public media, to primary schools and to basic health facilities. More than 90% of the population are farmers; they cultivate annual crops such as rice (irrigation systems in the lowlands, upland rice in the mountain region) and maize, and perennial crops such as coffee, cashew and fruit trees. Due to lack of investment capital agricultural productivity is low and soil fertility is decreasing. The poor condition of many of the irrigation constructions also contributes to the low productivity. As the area of suitable agricultural land is limited, people started to cultivate on steep slopes and hilltops with negative effects on the environment. Agro-forestry systems and animal husbandry have therefore become increasingly important land use systems. Most of the rural population, especially the poor households and the ethnic minorities depend on the forest for their livelihood, The collection of NTFP such as firewood, bamboo shoots, bamboo sticks, rattan, but also food and wild meat for sale and for own consumption is part of their daily life. In the SKAW there is a high percentage of potential labor force with more than 50,000 people in labor ages, however there are only about 1000 laborers engaged by the industry and another 1400 are engaged in trade and services. There are only a few non-agricultural sectors, which provide jobs mainly in stone exploitation, brick processing, wood processing, construction and post harvesting of agricultural products. Main problems of the local people are lack of agricultural land, poor knowledge in alternative agricultural production systems (i.e. perennial crops, agro-forestry), lack of capital to invest in the improvement of agricultural production techniques (i.e. improved varieties and fertilizers), lack of capability to further process agricultural products, poor marketing skills and opportunities, lack of alternative income sources and absence of off-farm employment.

From 1995 to 2005 there has been a considerable change in land use. The agricultural land area increased from 8,200 ha in 1995 to 18,900 ha in 2005. On the other hand the area under forest cover decreased for 16,400 ha which is more then twice times higher than the increase in agricultural land. The area of wastelands has also increased dramatically, in 2005 altogether 27,100 ha or 17% of the SKAW has been unused wastelands comprising mainly of scrubby vegetation. Beside the changes in land use, another major problem is the ongoing process of forest degradation; primary and closed forests have been degraded to medium and open forest or even scrublands.

By 2005 a total of 17,240 ha of land has been allocated to local people, mainly agricultural land and 31,057 land certificates were issued. Another 22,900 ha of land were allocated to organizations and 38 land certificates were issued. Land allocation has also created some conflicts. Especially the allocation of land for organisations such as state forest enterprises and as special use forest for the purpose of nature conservation collided with the land request of people living in these areas. Indigenous ethnic people consider land as community or clan owned. However, so far village communities have not been considered as legal entities for land allocation, and the allocation of land to individuals created a lot of disputes and conflicts. The poor quality of land use plans has also been a constraint in land allocation. Another problem is the still ongoing unregulated immigration of ethnic minorities from the North, which settle in the remote mountain areas and clear forestlands by slash and burn. Since 1998, the government has started to allocate forestlands to rural households in order to protect the forest and to alleviate poverty. As in many cases, the forests allocated to the local people have been of poor condition the anticipated effects did not materialize as expected. Altogether about 33,700 ha of forests are classified as production forests, which are mainly managed by two state forest enterprises; Krong Bong and Lak SFE. The timber exploitation rate is fairly low due to the comparatively poor forest condition. From 2001 to 2005 in average about 6000 m3 of timber was produced which corresponds to about 0.2 m3/ha. Timber is processed by the SFE’s own processing unit and is mainly sold to the local market. Plantation forestry has become increasingly important and both SFE has started to invest considerably in the afforestation of bare land. Main species are eucalyptus, acacia and melia. Plantations are established in many cases in collaboration with the local population based on a benefit-sharing scheme. Both SFE together have planned to establish about 3800 ha of new plantations until 2010. Both districts, i.e. Krong Bong and Lak, have designed a programme to support local farmers in the establishment of small-scale plantations on bare land. This is supported by national funds from the 5 million ha reforestation programme. There are about 45,000 ha of special use forests which occupy 30% of the SKAW, which are Chu Yang Sin National Park, Lake Lak Historical-Cultural and Environmental Conservation Area and Nam Ka Conservation Area. Beside the objective of nature conservation they also focus increasingly on eco-tourism development. For the purpose of forest protection the SFEs and the management boards of the conservation areas cooperate with the local population based on forest protection and management contracts. The local population receive 50,000 VND per ha and year for protection of up to 30 ha of forestland, which is, especially for the poor households, a welcome increase in cash income. Forest crime is another problem, mainly illegal logging of high valuable timber species by local people and organised groups and poaching of wild and in many cases protected animals. Fishing and aquaculture play a significant role in the SKAW. Especially Lake Lak, with an area of about 500 ha, is rich in valuable fishes such as ca thac lac, hemibagrus, snakehead, anabas, and edible snail and is the biggest resource for fish in the study area. But also the numerous rivers and steams within the SKAW are rich in fish variety. Besides fishing in natural waters, fish breeding in water reservoirs and small fishponds by individual households is common. Between 2003 and 2005 fish production has decreased, mainly due to over-fishing and the destructive way of fishing. The SKAW is rich in water resources and water management is an important issue. Unfortunately information on water quality and quantity is very poor as there is only one hydrological measurement station i.e. Giang Son in operation. Although the number of meteorological stations is higher, most of them only measure temperature and rainfall and

almost all of them are located in the lowlands. There is a lack of scientific based information on important issues such as surface run-off, soil erosion and sedimentation, water pollution occurrence of floods and droughts and the information available is mainly based on the results of hydrological models or small scale experiments or on the observations made by local authorities. This creates a major bottleneck, when it comes to the measurement of impacts of natural resources management on water. It is therefore of utmost importance to set-up hydro-meteorological measurement stations on the confluence of the tributaries of the five sub-catchments with Krong Ana and Krong Bong River. The water flow in the SKAW is characterised by a high fluctuation depending on the amount of rainfall. However, due to the richness of the area in water resources which come from the forested mountain areas in the south, there is hardly any shortage of water even in dry periods. Water quality is comparatively good; there are a few traces of herbicides and pesticides found, but on a very low level. There is no industrial waste washed into the streams, as there is no industry in the region. However, there is some micro-organic pollution as all the sewerage and wastewater from local households are drained into the rivers. In general, the quality of water in the river network is suitable for irrigation and agricultural production activities but not for human consumption without purification. Drinking water comes from wells, springs or from the collection of rainwater in tanks. Irrigation agriculture, mainly for the production of rice and coffee, is of great importance in the SKAW. There are altogether 36 irrigation schemes of which 14 are reservoirs and 22 are weirs. The total area designed for irrigation agriculture is about 5000 ha but of which only 50% are actually irrigated which is mainly due to the fact that many of the irrigation constructions are in bad condition, especially those built before 1995. Major problems in water management are the change in land use, in particular the conversion of forestland into agriculture and continued forest degradation. Especially the cultivation of steep slopes and hill tops and in-adequate agricultural production techniques have led to an increase in soil erosion, surface run-off and loss in soil fertility, as observed by local authorities and backed up by hydrological model calculations and small-scale experiments. With increasing population and raise in living standard the demand on water increases. Furthermore, due the bad condition of the irrigation system considerable amount of irrigation water is lost. While this causes so far no problem in the water supply in normal years thanks to the abundant water resources, in prolonged drought periods water has already became short and caused losses in agricultural production.

The most important potential fields of interventions are: To reduce poverty through increase in agricultural production. This requires improved access to investment capital, improved knowledge and skills, diversification of agricultural production systems, improved marketing conditions, processing of agricultural products, improved NTFP collection and marketing, development of handicrafts, etc.. To reduce destructive land management systems on steep slopes by supporting small scale tree plantations, agro-forestry systems, contour line ploughing, terracing, the establishment of hedge rows, etc. Upgrading of irrigation constructions to make full use of the potential irrigation areas. To stop further forest degradation by supporting sustainable forest management systems, especially in forest areas allocated to local people. To reforest wastelands and to increase timber production by the establishment of timber plantations. To set up hydro-meteorological measurement stations in order to measure the hydrological impact of watershed management interventions.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background The Watershed Management Project (WSMP) of the Agriculture, Irrigation and Forestry Programme (AIFP) of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) has identified Southern Krang Ana Watershed Area (SKAW) within the Srepok river basin in Krong Bong and Lak District, Dak Lak Province as a pilot area for watershed management in Viet Nam. For this pilot area, a baseline survey has been implemented with the following objectives: • Compilation of all relevant baseline data for the establishment of a watershed profile. These data are required to measure the change and impact of natural resources management interventions on water resources management and on the livelihood of the population living in the pilot area. • Identification of the current status on watershed functions and related natural resources and their development trend of the last 10 years. • Identification of the relevant issues related to natural resources management from the perspective of the various stakeholders or sectors. • Provision of information required for the identification of potential interventions related to natural resources management.

From July to September 2006, five local subject matter specialists conducted the baseline survey and each one prepared a sector specific report. An international expert, who was also responsible for compilation of the present baseline study, assisted them. The implementation of the study was coordinated and organised by the country coordinator of the WSMC/MRC.

The following persons were involved in the study: Ha Pham Tan, Water Management, technical supervisor and coordinator of the study Tuyet Hoa Niekdam, Socio-Economist Nguyen Tien, Land Management and Agriculture Vo Hung, Forest Management and Agro-Forestry Nguyen Min Anh, Mapping and GIS Werner Schindele, international expert

1.2. Methodology and Approach Most of the data were collected from already existing information such as district and commune statistics and from reports and documentations, mainly from the “Integrated Water Resources Management in the Srepok River Basin project” (supported by DANIDA) and from the Rural Development (RDDL) in Dak Lak Province (supported by GTZ). The boundary of the SKAW is defined by the topographic watershed boundary of 5 sub- catchments. It covers the major parts (80%) of Krong Bong and Lak Districts and includes 20 communes. Unfortunately, for 10 communes only part (refer to Table 2) of the area is located within the SKAW. This has been a problem for the use of secondary data as they are mainly based on district or commune level. For commune statistics the problem could be easily solved, as the areas outside are located in remote and non-populated locations. Data, which were only available on district level, such as agricultural statistics, however, could not be adjusted to the SKAW. However, for the purpose of impact monitoring this is a minor problem as the major part of the two districts are located within the SKAW, especially the highly populated agricultural areas. All area related data were adjusted by GIS and refers to the SKAW only. Secondary data on forestry were collected from units that are directly in charge of forest management, forest owners or related organizations in the area who are responsible for

implementation and monitoring in the forestry sector. Those organizations are Krong Bong SFE, Lak SFE, Chu Yang Sin National Park, Lak and Nam Ka nature reserves, forest protection stations, district People’ Committees of Lak and Krong Bong districts, particularly offices for economics, natural resources management and environment under district PC. Data were also collected from organizations at provincial level, i.e. Forestry Sub-Department, Forest Protection Sub-Department and relevant projects. In Krong Bong district, field survey and village investigation were conducted at Hang Nam village of Yang Mao commune, Dak Tuor village of Cu Pui commune, Son Phong village of Hoa Phong commune, and Ja village of Hoa Son commune. In Lak district, field surveys were conducted at Dak Phoi, Dak Nue and Dak Lieng communes. The purpose of field surveys and investigations is to verify and collect additional secondary data. During field surveys, interesting topics were discussed such as existing situation of non-timber forest products, status of plantation, evaluation of growth and quality of plantation forest; interviews were conducted withfocus on land use changes and forest status over time. Case studies on forestry aspects were carried out with community-based participatory method, by various tools such as questionnaires, group discussions, and forest walks. 50 interviews with local farmers and 9 group discussions were conducted in villages; the topics were: forest protection and development, exploitation techniques, markets and price for forest products, possibility of trial plantation of potential non-timber forest products which were evaluated and selected by local communities, etc. Land use and vegetation cover was identified by satellite image interpretation based on Spot 5 panchromatic images from 2005. For verification field checks were conducted and local people and foresters were consulted. In order to allow an analysis of the changes and trends, the same classification system was used as for the Vegetation Classification Map of 1995.

Socio-economic data were collected on commune and village level by three survey teams from Forestry Faculties of Tay Nguyen University under the leadership of the socio- economist. Data collection on commune level focused on 8 major topics: demographic information, local institutions, health and sanitation, livelihood activities, production systems, land use, processing, marketing, and major income sources. From the 20 communes located within the SKAW, the following seven have been selected for the collection of primary data on village level: Hoa Le, Hoa Phong, Khue Ngoc Dien, Dak Nue, Buon Tria, Buon Triet and Dak Lieng. In altogether 23 villages data were collected and household interviews were conducted. 12 villages belong to the category 2 “medium”, 6 to the category 3 “poor” and 5 to the category 1 “better” according to the standard of the Vietnamese Government. Household data were collected from 161 households through survey cards and interviews. Households were classified into 3 categories, poor, medium and better off. The classification into poor was done following the Vietnamese standard (monthly income less than 200,000 VND), medium and better off was determined by the community. A list of communes, villages and households surveyed is attached in Annex 2.

The baseline study comprises out of the following documents:

1. TUYET HOA NIEKDAM; 2006: Socio-economic analysis of the Southern Krong Ana Watershed. 2. NGUYEN TIEN; 2006: Land use and land management in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed. 3. NGUYEN TIEN; 2006: Agriculture in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed. 4. VO HUNG; 2006: The existing forest resources management in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed. 5. HA PHAM TAN; 2006: Water Management in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed.

6. NGUYEN MINH ANH; 2006: Map Atlas of the Southern Krong Ana Watershed. 7. SCHINDELE, W. et al.; 2006: The Southern Krong Ana Watershed. A Baseline Survey.

1.3. Development Plans of Relevance for the Pilot Area In the following development plans with relevance to the SKAW are listed and briefly described: Socio – economic master plans of Krong Bong and Lak districts 2001-2010 (Lak DPC, 2001; Krong Bong DPC, 2001) These plans contain a review of the past socio-economic master plans; they compile the biophysical baseline data of the district and assess the current socio-economic situation. They describe the current district policy in relation to the socio-economic development and provide detailed planning on infrastructure development and other public services. Land use and land planning Krong Bong and Lak district to 2010 (Krong Bong DPC, 2002; Lak DPC, 2003) These land-use plans contain an assessment of the current land-use and provide different scenarios how to achieve the objectives of the relevant socio-economic master plans. They form the basis for management decisions in order ensure an effective and sustainable management of land resources. Water resources planning Krong Bong district to 2010 (IWRP, 2006) This draft plan contains an assessment of existing water resources in order to balance water demand and supply and includes proposals for potential irrigation schemes.

1.4. Programs, Projects, Activities in the Pilot Area There are several national programs of relevance to watershed management implemented inside the SKAW. They are briefly described below: Hunger Eradication And Poverty Reduction (Hepr) National Program This program is implemented throughout Vietnam but Dak Lak province is a priority area. Main objectives are: - To reduce the poverty rate below 10%; to ensure that no hunger can re-occur; and that poor communes have sufficient essential and necessary infrastructure facilities. - To provide each year 1.4-1.5 million job opportunities; to reduce unemployment rate in urban areas to below 6%, and to increase the rate of using working time in rural areas to more than 80%.

The Five Million Hectare Afforestation Program Main objectives to the year 2010 in Vietnam are: − To plant 5 million hectare of forest as well as to protect the existing forests in order to increase the coverage to 43%, contributing to the environment security, alleviation of natural disasters, increase of aquatic livability, conservation of genetic pools and biodiversity. − To make efficient use of the wasteland and bold hills to create more jobs for laborers, contributing to hunger elimination and poverty reduction, settlements, increase of the income for mountainous inhabitants, socio-political stability, national defense and security, especially in the border area. − To provide wood as materials for paper production and plywood, and to meet the needs for woods and other forestry products for domestic consumption and

production for exports as well as to develop the forestry processing industry in order to make forestry an important economic sector, contributing to socio-economic development in the mountainous areas.

The National Program For Rural Water Supply And Sanitation: (Decision No 104/2000/QD-TTg, dated August 25,2000 by the Prime Minister) − The Program's objectives to the year 2020: All rural residents will have access to at least 60 liter/day of clean water in line with the national standard, hygienic latrine and exercise personal hygiene and keep the environment in villages and communes clean. − The Program's objectives to the year 2010: 85% of rural residents will have access to at least 60 liter/day of clean water in line with the national standard and 70% have access to hygienic latrines and exercise personal hygiene.

Danish Support To Vietnam’s National Target Program II For Rural Water Supply And Sanitation (2006 – 2010) − The overall objective of the support program is “improved health and living conditions of the rural poor including ethnic minorities through provision of clean water, sanitation, hygiene promotion and protection of the environment”. The program consists of two parts in which the main part is to support the National Target Program II (NTP II) for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation and the other part is to assist water resources management. While the support to the NTP II is ready to start as soon as the funding agreement between the governments is signed, the support to water resources management will commence only when the division of water resources management roles between different Vietnamese ministries is clarified. − The support program will be divided into two phases: a two year pilot phase in nine provinces (Dien Bien, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Dak Lak, Dak Nong, Phu Yen, Ninh Thuan, An Giang and Tra Vinh) and a three year national rolling out phase subject to joint GoV donor positive assessments.

Projects/programs which are implemented within the SKAW and which are supported by international donors are briefly described in the table below. More detailed information can be derived from the relevant project/program documentations.

Table 1: Projects and programs currently implemented within the SKAW Funded/ Project implemented Period Budget Objectives/Activities by Integrating Watershed World Bank, 2005-2009 US$ 1,714,000 Biodiversity attributes of Chu and Biodiversity Bird Life Yang Sin conserved in the long Management in Chu Yang term within a wider framework Sin National Park of integrated watershed and biodiversity management Integrated Water Danida 2004-2006 Improved living conditions in the 15.34 million Resource Management Srepok River Basins achieved Denmark DKK for the Srepok River by sustainable management Basin and development of water resources. Program to promote BMZ/GTZ 2005-2009 4.5 million € for Improved efficiency and sustainable forest Germany MARD and 5 sustainability of forest management and million € for management and marketing of utilization, Trade & provinces forest products in Vietnam. marketing of major forest (Dak Lak is one of five pilot products in Vietnam provinces)

Rural Development Dak BMZ/GTZ/ 2005-2009 5.056 million Improvement of natural Lak (RDDL) Implemented EURO resources management in order Phase II by GFA to reduce poverty. Participatory planning and development of Germany community forestry are important components. Target group is the local population, which belong mainly to the ethnic groups of M'nong, Ede and J'Rai. Small-scale Agro- SDC 2003-2006 US$ 3,336,000 Develop and pilot an Agro- enterprise Development Enterprise Development in the Uplands of Lao Process (AEDP) which leads to PDR and Vietnam improved and more efficient (SADU) product market chains and business development services; (Implemented also in Krong Bong district) Watershed Management BMZ/GTZ 2002-2008 4.3 million € Supports the capability of the Project of the Mekong Germany riparian countries to sustainable River Commission manage their watersheds, and to do so increasingly in view of regional needs.

The development, documentation and dissemination of concepts for the management of selected watersheds in each member country are one main result. (SKAW has been identified as pilot area in Vietnam.)

2. Biophysical Environment

2.1. Location, Administrative Boundaries and Area SKAW covers a total land area of 155,200 ha and extends from 120 16’ to 120 32’ northern latitude and from 1070 59’ to 1080 43’ eastern longitude. It is located in the southern part of Dak Lak province within Lak and Krong Bong districts and includes the following communes (see Table 2 and Administrative Map in Annex 4): Table 2: Communes located within SKAW Area within Area within SKAW Total area District SKAW Commune Name (ha) (ha) (ha) (%) TT Krong Kmar 558 558 100.0 Xa Hoa Phong 14055 13294 94.6 Xa Hoa Le 9888 9888 100.0 Xa Yang Reh 2973 2973 100.0 Krong Xa Ea Trul 2493 2493 100.0 98840 Bong Xa Khue Ngoc Dien 6154 6154 100.0 Xa Cu Pui 17369 15584 89.7 Xa Hoa Son 5388 5388 100.0 Xa Cu Dram 16067 9518 59.2 Xa Yang Mao 40172 32990 82.1 TT Lien Son 1275 1275 100.0 Xa Yang Tao 6870 6870 100.0 Xa Bong Krang 31738 17527 55.2 Xa Dak Lieng 3167 3167 100.0 Xa Buon Triet 7431 7059 95.0 Lak 56360 Xa Buon Tria 2954 2954 100.0 Xa Dak Phoi 14058 11011 78.3 Xa Dak Nue 12624 4369 34.6 Xa Nam Ka 9286 1839 19.8 Xa Ea R'Bin 8000 289 3.6

2.2. Landscape and Topography SKAW is characterised by two major types of landscapes, which constitute a unifying framework for description of the natural resources and socio-economy of the basin: − Mountains of granite and basement shale; − River valleys with alluvial deposits 2.2.1. Mountains In the Krong Bong district in the northeast SKAW comprises of the strongly dissected mountains of the Truong Son Range, which run in northeastern to southwestern direction with altitudes up to 1800 m. In the south there is the Chu Yang Sin and Rlang Dja mountain complex with the highest elevation within SKAW of about 2442 m (Chu Yang Sin mountain). The mountains are covered by forest but at the buffer of mountain clearing for agriculture, extensive slash and burn farming and commercial logging have severely reduced the forest cover both in area and quality. The soils are thin and susceptible to erosion and loss of fertility once the vegetation cover has been disturbed.

The majority of the rainfall and run-off in the basin is generated in the mountains, where water is available around the year from springs and streams, and although the soils are thin the specific run-off remains high during the dry season. The Chu Yang Sin area which hosts one of the largest remaining tracts of evergreen forest in Vietnam has been declared as National Park. 2.2.2. River Valleys Between the mountains and the basalt plateau lays the Krong Ana river valley, which forms a flat, wide and mature floodplain although it lies at an altitude of 400 m. The valley is filled by sandy alluvial deposits with a thin cover of highly fertile clays, and is extensively developed for paddy rice. Water is abundant, both from the river and as groundwater in the sandy alluvial deposits, but the area is subject to regular flooding. In the west of the SKAW there is the large natural lake “Lak” with an area over 500 ha.

2.2.3. Slope The distribution of slope classes in the SKAW is shown in the table below and an Elevation Map is attached in the map atlas in Annex 4.

Table 3: Slope classes Slope class Area (ha) (%) 0 < 3° 37,648 24 3 < 8° 6,918 4 8 < 15° 10,591 7 15 < 20° 7,171 5 20 < 25° 5,497 4 25° + 87,375 56 Total 155,200 100

2.3. Climate and Meteorological Data The climate of the SKAW consists of the following seasons: “Winter” lasts from November to March, it is of low temperature and is dry with increasing humidity towards the end. Winds are coming from inland with north and northeastern direction. “Summer” lasts from June to August and is characterized by high temperature and rainfall. Winds are coming from the southern ocean and the South Pole. In between summer and winter there is “middle summer” with winds coming from the south and southwest (“Tin Phong”). The period from August to November wind is characterized by heavy rainfall. Specific meteorological data are given in the following sub-chapters. They were derived from the reports of Dak Lak Hydro-meteorological Station (2004) and from IWRP (2006).

2.3.1. Climatic Regions SKAW belongs climatically to the western Truong Son mountain region. It comprises of the following climatic sub-regions (refer also to the Climate Region Map in Annex 4):

(1) Krông Păk – Lăk sub-region

Located between Buon Ma Thuot highland and Chu Yang Sin mountain with elevation ranging from 400 to 500 m. Typical dry-tropical climate area (valley climate). Annual rainfall from 600-1700 mm. Rainy season from May to November, dry season from December to April; the average temperature is 23o to 25o C. (2) Buon Ma Thuot highland sub-region The highland is quite flat with elevation about 500m. The average temperature ranges from 23o to 24o C. Annual rainfall is 1700 mm, humidity is 80-82%. (3) M’Drak highland sub-region Characterized by a hilly landscape with elevation about 400m. Average temperature is from 23o to 24o C. Annual rainfall ranges from 1800 - 2000mm. (4) Chu Yang Sin sub-region Mountainous region with altitude over 1500 m, average elevation is 1700-1800 m; climate is cold and humid; temperature ranges is from 13o to 18o C. Annual rainfall is 1800-2400 mm, average humidity is about 84-86%.

2.3.2. Temperature In the following tables, the average, minimum and maximum temperatures of three selected meteorological stations Buon Ma Thuot, M’Drak and Lak, which are located in the immediate vicinity of SKAW, are compiled. A map showing the average annual temperature is attached in Annex 4. The mean annual temperature is about 23.8o C. The coldest months are December and January with about 21o C and the hottest period is during April to June with about 25o -26o C.

Table 4: Average, minimum and maximum monthly temperature in o C.

Month Stations Year J F M A M J J A S O N D Average temperature

Buon Ma Thuot 21.2 22.7 24.7 26.2 25.8 24.8 24.4 24.0 23.9 23.5 22.4 21.1 23.7

M'Drak 20.2 21.4 23.6 25.5 26.1 25.9 25.7 25.6 24.7 23.5 22.1 20.4 23.7

Lak 21.0 22.6 24.6 26.1 25.9 25.1 24.6 24.5 24.2 23.7 22.8 21.4 23.9

Maximum temperature

Buon Ma Thuot 34.3 36.9 37.6 37.9 36.9 35.1 32.9 32.6 32.7 32.3 32.6 32.4 37.9

M'Drak 33.9 36.1 36.9 38.7 36.7 35.8 34.7 34.4 35.2 32.4 32.5 30.1 38.7

Lak 31.3 34.0 35.8 36.0 35.1 33.2 32.6 32.1 31.7 31.1 30.2 29.2 32.7

Minimum temperature

Buon Ma Thuot 11.3 13.2 12.9 18.0 19.4 19.2 18.9 19.5 18.2 15.0 13.1 10.0 10.0

M'Drak 11.6 11.9 12.7 15.1 18.4 18.3 18.6 19.1 18.5 15.4 15.1 12.8 11.6

Lăk 11.8 13.6 14.6 18.7 20.5 20.2 20.2 19.9 19.3 17.8 15.4 13.5 17.1

2.3.3. Rainfall The rainy season lasts 6 month, from May to November and during this period about 75 to 85% of the total annual rainfall drops. In August and September the rainfall is highest with

over 200 mm/month. The rainy season is associated with winds coming from south and western direction. Dry season lasts from December to April, with some occasional rainfall (15 to 25% of the annual rainfall). In some years, droughts occur in January and February.

Table 5 and Table 6 show the rainfall distribution statistics for different meteorological stations and the rainfall distribution in the SKAW is shown in the map in Annex 4.

Table 5: Average annual rainfall (mm) in stations around SKAW area (1977-2004)

Month Station J F M A M J J A S O N D Total Buon Ma mm 4.3 3.6 21.7 82.9 242.2 244.3 252.4 320.8 290.3 210.7 95.4 22.4 1791 Thuot % 0.2 0.2 1.2 4.6 13.5 13.6 14.1 17.9 16.2 11.8 5.3 1.2 100 Giang mm 1.7 4.7 19.9 93.7 222.6 254.7 248.9 303.6 301.8 247.3 133.0 43.3 1875 Son % 0.1 0.3 1.1 5.0 11.9 13.6 13.3 16.2 16.1 13.2 7.1 2.3 100 Krong mm 7.8 4.3 22.5 68.7 162.7 191.7 180.5 220.0 251.3 298.7 178.3 71.6 1658 Bong*1 % 0.5 0.3 1.4 4.1 9.8 11.6 10.9 13.3 15.2 18.0 10.8 4.3 100 Krong mm 2.4 3.7 18.9 80.8 185.4 224.7 220.5 228.3 283.5 264.2 153.5 50.6 1716 Kma*2 % 0.1 0.2 1.1 4.7 10.8 13.1 12.8 13.3 16.5 15.4 8.9 2.9 100 Krong mm 4.9 4.9 35.5 81.8 182.4 150.9 136.8 177.4 213.6 218.6 171.0 53.3 1431 Buk % 0.3 0.3 2.5 5.7 12.7 10.5 9.6 12.4 14.9 15.3 12.0 3.7 100 mm 0.4 3.5 16.2 73.8 219.0 276.5 308.8 365.6 295.0 256.5 119.8 28.1 1963 Lak % 0.0 0.2 0.8 3.8 11.2 14.1 15.7 18.6 15.0 13.1 6.1 1.4 100 Buon mm 0.2 2.4 23.5 88.4 233.3 280.5 275.1 299.1 289.1 223.3 80.7 24.7 1820 Triet % 0.0 0.1 1.3 4.9 12.8 15.4 15.1 16.4 15.9 12.3 4.4 1.4 100 mm 30.1 16.8 28.7 79.4 161.9 105.6 120.1 114.5 210.5 407.2 417.5 193.2 1889 M’Drak % 1.6 0.9 1.5 4.2 8.6 5.6 6.4 6.1 11.1 21.6 22.1 10.2 100

*1 average for 1977 - 1987 ; *2 average for 1988 - 2004

Table 6: Distribution of rainfall in dry and rainy season

Total Rainy season Dry season Station (mm) (mm) (%) (mm) (%) Buon Ma Thuot 1791 1561 87 230 13 Giang Son 1875 1579 84 296 16 Krong Bong 1658 1305 79 353 21 Krong Buk 1431 1080 75 351 25 Krong Kmar 1716 1406 82 310 18 Lak 1963 1721 88 242 12 Buon Triet 1820 1600 88 220 12 M’Drak 1889 1120 59 769 41

A time series of monthly rainfall measured at M’Drak station from 1977 to 2004 (remark: from 2002 to 2004 no measurements were taken) is shown in the Figure 1 below. There has not been dramatic changes in rainfall pattern beside the fact, that rainfall peaks have been higher in 1994, 1996, 1999 and 2002 than in previous years

Figure 1: Monthly rainfall from 1977 – 2004 measured at M’Drak meteorological station

Rainfall at M'Drak station

1.000

800

600

400 Rainfall (mm) 200

0 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year

2.3.4. Wind Wind direction changes with the season. In summer and mid-summer, from May to September, winds are coming from west to southwestern direction with a frequency of about 50-55% (Buon Ma Thuot station). In winter, from November to April, it changes to east and southeastern direction with a higher frequency of 60-70%. The average annual wind velocity is higher during wintertime especially during the month of December to February (refer to Table 7), Table 7: Annual wind velocity in m/s

Month Stations Year J F M A M J J A S O N D Buon Ma Thuot 5.0 4.6 3.6 2.7 1.7 2.3 1.6 1.5 1.4 2.2 3.5 4.4 2.9 M'Drak 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.7 2.4 2.4 2.6 1.5 1.2 1.8 2.0 1.9 Lak 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.2 2.1 2.6 1.4

2.3.5. Sunshine The average sunshine hour per year is fairly high; the period with most of sunny days is January to April. The distribution of the sunshine hours per month is shown in the table below. Table 8: Annual sunshine hour

Month Stations J F M A M J J A S O N D Total Buon Ma Thuot 263.1 256.1 286.6 253.8 228.1 183.0 189.3 158.2 152.5 168.3 176.6 200.4 2516 M'Drak 142.8 184.9 248.4 247.9 235.8 207.7 219.4 193.6 168.8 136.6 101.7 91.1 2179 Lak 249.5 244.2 264.8 241.0 220.9 182.5 178.1 164.9 153.7 184.7 188.1 214.8 2073

2.3.6. Evaporation The monthly evaporation for three selected stations is shown in the table below. Table 9: Monthly evaporation in mm

Month Stations Year J F M A M J J A S O N D Buon Ma Thuot 171 184 214 184 118 75 71 63 53 74 96 127 1429 M'Drak 73 87 128 134 123 136 152 151 91 60 51 54 1241 Lak 118 114 130 119 101 86 83 77 72 81 100 113 1254

2.3.7. Humidity The average annual humidity is about 81 to 83%. The monthly variation is shown in the table below. Table 10: Monthly humidity in %

Month Stations Year J F M A M J J A S O N D Buon Ma Thuot 77 74 71 73 80 85 87 88 89 87 84 82 81 M'Drak 87 84 81 79 80 79 78 78 84 89 90 90 83 Lak 79 78 76 77 82 85 85 87 87 87 84 83 82

2.4. Geology, Soils and Land Suitability Information on geology and soil is derived from the report of NIAPP 2001 “Dak Lak soils” and on land suitability from NIAPP 2001 “Land evaluation for land use planning and development of sustainable agriculture in Dak Lak”. More detailed information on soil and land suitability is compiled in the expert report of MINH ANH. 2.4.1. Geology Geological processes that took place in the Palaeozoic and the Mesozoic Eras and subsequent geomorphologic processes have largely shaped the face of present-day Dak Lak Province but perhaps the most influential processes took place in the Cenozoic Era, which started some 65 million years ago. The Late Mesozoic-Paleogene epoch, which coincided with a period of intense pressure on the continental plates, caused by collision of the South China and Indochina plates, was succeeded by the Neogene-Quaternary epoch which was characterized by a decrease of crustal pressure on the Indochina continent, resulting in the opening of the South China Sea. This affected the southeastern region of the Indochina plate and, from the Late Neogene the extensive metamorphic sedimentary rock layers were pierced in many places by volcanic processes resulting in the eruption of basaltic lava covering large plateaux in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam. Two types of Cenozoic basalts may be distinguished: a) Tholeitic basalts of Pliocene-Pleistocene age, which occupy the main areas of the plateaux; b) Olivine basalts of Pleistocene-Holocene age, which cover parts of the Pliocene- Pleistocene basalts but which also erupted in places where no older basalts appear to have been present.

The basalts covered all the rocks older than late Neogene, except where the relief was too high for the basalts to cover. They must have covered a larger area than they do today but due to erosion the basaltic cover has been partly worn away while the underlying rocks became exposed again. 2.4.2. Soils Soil classification of SKAW is based on the World Reference Base (WRB) of 1998. The distribution of the soils within SKAW is shown in Table 11 and compiled in Table 12. The soil map is attached in the map atlas in Annex 4. Table 11: Distribution of soil types

1,9 Lepotsols 0,9 Ferrasols 2,8 Gleysols Fluvisols 6,3 85,4 Planosols 0,9 Luvisols Acrisols 0,2

Table 12: Distribution of soil types within SKAW Area No Soil Type and Units Symbols (%) (ha) I CAMBISOLS CM 2,305 1.5 1 Ferric Cambisols CM-fr 269 0.2 2 Gleyic Cambisols CM-gl 140 0.1 3 Humic Cambisols CM-hu 256 0.2 4 Stagnic Cambisols CM-st 1,640 1.1 II LEPTOSOLS LP 357 0.2 1 Hyperskeletic Leptosols LP-hk 357 0.2 III FERRALSOLS FR 1,377 0.9 1 Veti-Acric Ferralsols FR-ac-vt 1,246 0.8 2 Endoleptic Ferralsols FR-len 3 0.0 3 Geri- Acric Ferralsols FR-ac-gr 127 0.1 IV GLEYSOLS GL 9,668 6.3 1 Dystri- Fluvic Gleysols GL-fv-dy 1,704 1.1 2 Humi-Fluvic Gleysols GL-fv-hu 1,172 0.8 3 Humic Gleysols GL-hu 5,933 3.9 4 Dys tri-Histic Gleysols GL-hi-dy 859 0.6 V FLUVISOLS FL 4,312 2.8 1 Eutri-Plinthic Fluvisols FL-pl-eu 135 0.1 2 Hapli-Mollic Fluvisols FL-mo-ha 2,470 1.6 3 Dystri-Stagnic Fluvisols Fl-st-dy 1,317 0.9 4 Eutri-Stagnic Fluvisols FL-st-eu 390 0.3 VI PLANOSOLS PL 1,306 0.9 1 Hapli-Ferric Planosols PL-fr-ha 1,306 0.9 VII LUVISOLS LV 2,942 1.9 1 Ferric Luvisols LV-fr 2,297 1.5 2 Hapli-Stagnic Luvisols LV-st-ha 646 0.4 VIII ACRISOLS AC 130,770 85.4 1 Ferric Acrisols AC-fr 5,179 3.4 2 Haplic Acrisols AC-ha 38,340 25.1 3 Episkeletic Acrisols AC-skp 738 0.5 4 Endoskeletic Acrisols AC-skn 1,431 0.9 5 Stagnic Acrisols AC-st 2,268 1.5 6 Endoskeletic - Stagnic Acrisols AC-st-skn 627 0.4 7 Endoeptic Acrisols AC-len 15,729 10.3 8 Humic Acrisols AC-hu 44,798 29.3 9 Epileptic Acrisols AC-lep 21,659 14.2 TOTAL OF AREA 153,038 100.0 Water body W 2,162 Source: GIS analysis based on NIAPP (2001)

With 85% Acrisols are the dominating soil type in the SKAW. Gleysols cover 6.3% and Fluvisols 2.8% of the area, they occur mainly along the rivers and in the valleys. A brief description of the major soil types is given below, for more details refer to the expert’s report of MINH ANH.

2.4.2.1. Acrisols The group of Acrisols covers a total of 130,770 ha. They comprise of altogether 9 sub-units as shown in Table 12 above. Acrisols are common in silica-rich materials, Granitic, and metamorphic rocks. Distribution: in a hilly, mountainous, or undulating topography, in wet tropical and monsoon climates. Profile development: mostly A (E) Bt C profiles. The shallow A-horizon with dark, raw and acid organic matter grades into yellow E-horizon. The Bt-horizon has stronger or more reddish or yellowish colour than overlying E-horizon. Characteristics: with an argic horizon which has a cation exchange capacity of less than 24 cmol (+)/kg clay and base saturation of less than 50% in at least some part of B horizon.

Most Acrisols have bright red and yellow subsurface colour. In soil, ratio of Si02/Al203 is 2 or less. The clay fraction consists of well-crystallized koalinite and some gibbsite. In areas where the forest has been cleared, the surface soil looses its organic matter and slake, which results in crusting of the topsoil, surface runoff during rainfall and devastating erosion. Acrisols have poor chemical characteristics; their nutritional limitations include widespread aluminium toxicity and strong P-sorption. Use: These soils are used for subsistence farming, partly under shifting cultivation, grazing land and upland crops.

2.4.2.2. Fluvisols Fluvisols cover an area of 4,312 ha and comprise of four sub-units (refer to Table 12) Parent material: soil developed in alluvial deposits, mostly recent, medium-and fine texture fluviatile or lacustrine. Distribution: Periodically flooded areas in alluvial plains along the rivers, streams and valleys. Profile development: Fluvisols are very young soils with weak horizon differentiation, they have mostly AC–profiles; a distinct Ah-horizon may be present, evidence of stratification and no or only a weak soil structure, some place stagnating is in the lower part of the profile. Mostly fluvisols are derived from basaltic soil areas, so having heavy texture with a coarse blocky or prismatic structure. Whereas lighter textured soils can have a variety of structure types are granular, crumb, subangular blocky. Most fluvisols are fertile soils, they have neutral or near neutral pH values which do out impair the availability of nutrients. Use: In Southern Krong Ana basin, fluvisols are used for a wide range of crops such as: upland crops, rice, moonbeam, soybean, groundnut, etc. which give high yield. But, flood control, drainage or irrigation are normally required.

2.4.2.3. Gleysols Gleysols cover a total area of 9,668 hectares, they comprise of four subunits as shown in Table 12 above. Parent material: a wide range of unconsolidated materials, mainly sediments of Pleistocene or Holocene age, with basic to acid mineralogy. Distribution: in depressed areas with shallow groundwater. Concentrated in small valleys or small plains where water covers on the surface. Profile development: Mostly A(Bg) or HBg Cr profiles. Evidence of reduction processes or without segregation of iron compounds within 50 cm of the surface.

Characteristics: Low–redox conditions, created by prolonged saturation of the soil material in the presence of organic matter, results in the reduction of ferric iron compounds to ferrous compounds. This explains why the permanently saturated subsoil layers of gleysols have grey, olive or blue matrix colours: with the iron compounds mobilized and removed, the soil material shows its own colour. Gleysols in Southern Krong Ana basin are mostly of heavy texture: clay, loamy clay, because they developed from alluvial deposits of basalt-weathering materials. The soil structure is medium block or even crumb near the soil surface. Soil material is hard when dry and sticky when wet. Generally, soils are acid or weakly acid. Use: Gleysols in Southern Krong Ana basin are widely planted to two rice crops.

2.5. Land Suitability Information on land suitability was collected from NIAPP. Land suitability classes are determined based on topography, soil and climatic characteristics. Altogether 58 land suitability units of significance occur in the Krong Ana Pilot area of which the most important ones (> 1% of the area) are described in the table below. More information on land suitability can be derived from the expert report of MINH ANH. The distribution of the major land suitability units is shown in Table 13 and on the Land Suitability Map in Annex 4. Table 13: Land suitability Land Area No Suitability (%) Suitability (ha) units S2 lowland rice

12699 8.2 cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, 1 1,4 groundnut, cashew, coffee, citrus, longan, cotton, mung N bean, soybean, sweet potato, sugar, tea, cocoa, mulberry, rubber, upland rice S3 lowland rice

3105 2.0 cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, 2 6,7,12,13,55 groundnut, cashew, coffee, citrus, longan, cotton, mung N bean, soybean, sweet potato, sugar, tea, cocoa, mulberry, rubber, upland rice

cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, 2,17-20, groundnut, cashew, coffee, citrus, longan, cotton, mung 3 31-41,46-54, 105984 68.3 N bean, soybean, sweet potato, sugar, tea, cocoa, mulberry, 57 rubber, upland rice S1 tea, coca, mulberry 2042 1.3 cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, S2 groundnut, cashew, cotton, mung bean, soybean, sweet 4 3,11 potato, rubber, upland rice S3 sugar, coffee N lowland rice S1 cashew, coffee, citrus, longan, tea 3655 2.4 cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, S2 groundnut, mung bean, soybean, sweet potato, lowland rice, 5 5,8 sugar, tea, mulberry, rubber, upland rice S3 cotton, coca N lowland rice 10 16 1729 1.1 S3 coffee, citrus, longan, tea, coca, rubber

Land Area No Suitability (%) Suitability (ha) units cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, N groundnut, cashew, cotton, mung bean, soybean, sweet potato, lowland rice, sugar, mulberry, upland rice S1 coffee, citrus, longan, tea 6649 4.3 cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, 21,22,25, S2 groundnut, cashew, mung bean, soybean, sweet potato, 11 26,56 sugar, mulberry, rubber, upland rice S3 cotton, cocoa N lowland rice S2 sugar cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, S3 6682 4.3 groundnut 12 23,24 cashew, coffee, citrus, longan, cotton, mung bean, soybean, N sweet potato, lowland rice, sugar, tea, cocoa, mulberry, rubber, upland rice

cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, S2 groundnut, mung bean, soybean, sweet potato, sugar, 4417 2.8 upland rice 13 27,28 S3 cotton

cashew, coffee, citrus, longan, cotton, lowland rice, sugar, N tea, cocoa, mulberry, rubber S2 1998 1.3 S3 rubber, coffee, citrus, longan, cashew, tea, coca 15 30 cassava, banana, garlic, onion, pineapple, pasture, N groundnut, cotton, mung bean, soybean, sweet potato, lowland rice, sugar, mulberry, upland rice Source: NIAPP (2001b)

Explanations: S1: Land very well suited to crop production having no significant limitations restricting their suitability. S2: Land well suited to crop production having some limitations restricting their suitability. S3: Land moderately suited to crop production having significant limitations restricting their suitability. N: Land not suited to crop production having severe limitations.

Altogether 30.3% of the area is suitable for agricultural production. The suitability for various agricultural products is shown in the table below. The remaining area (except for water bodies or rocks) can be considered as suitable for forest cover.

Table 14: Land suitability for various agricultural crops. Suitability Product S1 S2 S3 Very suited Well suited Moderately suited Bean 11,8% 5,6% Cashew 3,2% 3,6% 1,6% Coffee 6,6% 0,5% 5,6% Cotton 9,7% Maize 11,8% 1,0% Lowland Rice 8,2% 2,0% Sugar 13,1% 4,3% Tea 8,7% 1,6% 2,4% Coca 1,3% 1,8% 9,6% Mulberry 2,2% 6,8% 1,0% Rubber 10,0% 2,7% Upland rice 11,8% 1,0%

2.6. Accessibility and Roads SKAW is accessible by a network of national and provincial roads. National high way No 27 connects Dak Lak province with Lam Dong province in the north and Ninh Thuan province in the south. It passes through the western part of SKAW from north to south, starting at Giang Son Bridge and ends at Dak Nue mountain pass. Its total length within SKAW is 65 km and it passes the following communes: Ea Trul, Yang Re, Lak Yang Tao, Bong Krang, Lien Son, Dak Lieng, Dak Phoi and Dak Nue. It has been recently upgraded to a width of 7m. It is of good condition and can be used for heavy transport. Provincial road No 7 is an asphalted road from Lien Son town (Lak) to Buon Triet with a total length of 14 km. It passes through Dak Lieng, Buon Tria, Buon Triet commune. This road is mainly used for the transport of rice but during floods it is not accessible. Provincial road No 12 this 53 km of asphalt road connects with high way No 27, at km 30 through Krong Bong district: it passes through the communes of Yang Re, Ea Trul, Hoa Son, Khue Ngoc Dien, Hoa Le, Hoa Phong, Cu Pui, Cu Dram and Yang Mao and ends at Buon Choa village. During floods it is not accessible. It is the main road for the transportation of agricultural products from the remote area to Buon Ma Thuot town. It is also used by the LT Krong Bong for the transportation of timber from the SFE in the east. Provincial road No 9 is an asphalt road that passes from Khue Ngoc Dien town to Krong Pak district and connects with National high way No 26 which continues to Nha Trang city. Its total length within SKAW is 27 km. All commune centres are connected at least by an earth road with the provincial road network. In addition to the road network, Krong Ana River is used for transportation, mainly of sand and some agricultural products. In case of floods, when the provincial roads No 7 and 12 are not accessible it is the main transport route inside the SKAW. In general accessibility in the lowland areas in the north and east is good throughout the year except for years of flooding. During heavy rains transport on the earth roads is difficult. The mountainous areas in the south and east are only accessible by footpaths.

2.7. Flora and Fauna 2.7.1. Regional Flora According to initial findings from field surveys and documentary collection, there are 948 tree species found in the region, belonging to 155 families and 591 genera. The majority of trees belong to the order of Magnoliophyta followed by Polypodiophyta, Pinophyta, Lycopodiophyta and the least is Equisetophyta. Table 15: Tree floral composition Family Genera Species Class (No) (No) (No) Lycopodiophyta 2 4 7 Equisetophyta 1 1 1 Polypodiophyta 13 20 35 Pinophyta 5 10 17 Magnoliophyta, including: 134 476 888 - Magnoliopsida 116 360 644 - Liliopsida 18 118 244 Total: 155 591 948

The main tree species forming the forest canopy belong to the following families: Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae, Theaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, Fabaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae, Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, Podocarpaceae, Poaceae.

2.7.2. Regional Fauna Without insects, there are about 308 different species acknowledged by recent publications, including: 57 mammals, 203 bird species, 29 reptiles and 19 amphibian species. Table 16: Faunal composition Of which Category Species Family Group protected Mammals 57 24 10 25 Birds 203 46 13 16 Reptiles 29 11 2 12 Frogs 19 5 1 3 Total 308 86 26 56

Mammals During a field survey conducted in April 2003, 11 additional mammal species under 3 families and 3 groups were identified, which have until then not been mentioned. In particular a specimen of Megamuntiacus vuquangensis has been found. This is a big mammal that has been recently discovered near Vu Quang Natural Conservation Area and small - claw otters that are listed in Vietnamese Red Book. Especially Chu Yang Sin National Park has a high concentration of large mammals of rare and protected species, such as Elephas maximus, Bos gaurus, Capricornis sumatraensis, Megamuntiacus vuquangensis, Manis Javanica, Viverricula India, Nyctereutes procyonoides, Panthera tigris, Malayan bear, Hog bear and some primates like Hylobates gabriellaem, Pygathrix nemaeus nigripes, Macaca arctoides and Macaca nemestria. Their protection is of high international interest.

Altogether there are 25 mammal species listed in the Vietnamese Red Book (year 2000) and 9 in the Global Red Book (year 1996) of which there are three species representative for Indochina. Some of the animals which are most endangered are Megammuntiacus vuquangensis, Viverricula india, Manis Javanica, Hylobatidea, Cervus unicolor, Nyctereutes procyonoides, Histricidea, and Capricorrnis sumatraensis.

Birds The ornithological fauna belongs to the group of endemic birds of the Da Lat Plateau of the Central Highland and the South Midland of Vietnam. Two areas in the SKAW are rich in bird species, the Chu Yang Sin National Park and Lak Lake. In total, there are 203 species belonging to 46 families and 13 groups with some endemic species such as Lophura nycthemera, Polyplectron germaini, Pavo muticus and endemic Chinese laughing – thrush with a narrow distribution like Khướu đầu đen (Garrulax milleti), Khướu ngực đốm (Garrulax merulinus), Khướu đầu xám (Garrulax vassali), Khướu mỏ dài (Jabouilleia danjoui) and Chích chạch má xám (Macronous kelleyi ). 4 species are endemic for Vietnam. They are Gà tiền mặt đỏ (Polyplectron germaini), Khướu đầu đen (Garrulax milleti), khướu đầu đen má xám (Garrulax yersini) and Mi núi bà (Crocias langbianis) and other 7 endemic species. 16 species are listed in Vietnamese Red Book and 9 species are mentioned in the Global Red Book.

Reptiles and amphibians There are 29 reptiles and 19 amphibian species in the region, of which 15 species are listed in the Vietnamese Red Book and one species is listed in the Global Red Book. Previously, crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) was commonly found in Lak lake, but no specimen were spotted since a number of years.

3. Socio-Economic Environment A detailed description and analysis of the socio-economic conditions in the SKAW is provided in the expert report of TUYET HOA NIEKDAM.

3.1. Demographic Data 3.1.1. Settlement History Hundred years ago, original ethnic minorities settled in the SKAW area close to Lak Lake. Lak lake is a famous landscapes of Central Highland and it is also the place where the name “Dak Lak” was formulated, “Dak” in M’nong language is water, lake, stream, river; “Lak” means name of a brave and strong man who found water resource for the village. Lake Lak was also used by Bao Dai King, the last King of Vietnam as a recreation spot. It has developed into a famous tourist area today. 3.1.2. Population In the SKAW there are about 119,000 residential inhabitants. The area is quite densely populated especially the flat areas along Krong Ana and Krong Bong rivers. Few people live in small villages or hamlets scattered in the mountainous region (refer also to the Population Map in Annex 4). The population density is 76.7 people/km2. Most of the people (88.9%) live in the rural areas, there are only two towns Krong Kmar and Lien Son, where 11.1% of the people live. The distribution of the population within the SKAW is shown in the Population Map in Annex 4. The gender distribution is almost equal, only in Ea Krong Bong sub-catchment there are more men (52.6%) than women (47.4%). The gender distribution within the individual sub- catchments is compiled in Table 17. Figure 2: Gender distribution per district

100.00

80.00 50.38 49.81 51.12

60.00

40.00 49.62 50.19 48.88 20.00

- Watershed Krong Bong Lak Women 50.38 49.81 51.12 Men 49.62 50.19 48.88

Source: Baseline survey, 2006

Table 17: Population by gender per sub-catchment Sex Sub-Catchment Male Female Ea Krong Kmar 8,810 49.94% 8,832 50.06% Ea Long Ding 7,065 49.56% 7,191 50.44% Ea Elan Niong 10,429 49.80% 10,512 50.20% Dac Lieng 18,612 49.03% 19,348 50.97% Ea Krong Bong 14,906 52.60% 13,432 47.40% Total 59,821 50.21% 59,316 49.79% Source: Statistical data from Krong Bong and Lak district, 2005

The population rate between men and women in terms of labour age (15 - 60 years for men, 15 -55 years for women) is not much different. The rate of men is with 50.3% slightly higher than that of women (49.7%). It differs slightly within the districts. The percentage of women in labour age in Krong Bong is lower (49.8%) than and in Lak district (51.1%). Labour force in these districts are mainly agricultural labourers of low skills.

3.1.3. Population Growth and Migration Population growth is quite high about 3-4% per year. For the period of 1998 to 2000, unplanned immigration from the North of Vietnam resulted in a sudden population growth, especially in Krong Bong District. The population growth since 1995 is shown in the figure below. From 1994-1999, under the “program of population movement to new economic zones”, many people including the Kinh and other ethnic minorities (i.e. Nung, Tay, etc.) immigrated from the north into the SKAW. In addition to this regulated and controlled immigration, there were, and still are, also quite a number of ethnic minority people immigrating from the north into the SKAW on their own.

Figure 3: Population growth 1996 - 2005

Population growth 1996-2005 (person)

160,000

140,000

120,000

100,000 Population 80,000 Urban Rural 60,000

40,000

20,000

0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Ethnic people from the north normally set up their home in remote and rather inaccessible areas and live together in small groups. There, they can practice their traditional slash and

burn cultivation system and make use of the forest without getting into conflicts with original ethnic people and local authorities. This is different for the Kinh People. If they come to the area, they normally buy land from the ethnic minorities at a low price and settle in areas adjacent to markets, town centres and along main roads. If they live in villages together with the ethnic people, they make their living by small business. They sell foods and necessary materials to local people and buy agricultural products at a low price from them. They also provide loans normally for very high interest rates.

3.1.4. Ethnicity and Religion SKAW has more than 10 ethnic groups of which the Kinh People are in the majority. Apart from the Kinh, there are two original ethnic groups i.e. the M’Nong and the Ede. Krong Bong catchment is almost entirely populated (98.9%) by Kinh. A high percentage of Kinh live also in Ea Elan Niong (70.8%) and in Ea Long Ding (62.7%). Most of the M’Nong live in the catchments of Dac Lieng and Krong Bong. The distribution according to ethnic groups and sub-catchment areas is given in Table 18. So far, there were no big conflicts between ethnic groups. Normally, they help each other in term of economic development, they respect and maintain their different culture and traditions. The people in SKAW are of various religions, there are buddhists, christians, and catholics. There are no statistical data on their distribution available. In general, most of the indigenous ethnic people as the M’Nong, the Ede and those who come from the North of Vietnam are Christians, while the Kinhs are either Buddhists or Catholics. Each religious group has their own festivals. The most popular holiday, which is celebrated by the majority, is the Lunar New Year.

Table 18: Distribution of ethnic groups in the SKAW

Ethnic group Sub- Total Kinh E Dê M'Nong Nung Tay Other Catchment No % No % No % No % No % No % No Ea Krong Kmar 17.453 98,9 32 0,2 32 0,2 59 0,3% 27 0,2 39 0,2 17.642 Ea Long Ding 8.933 62,7 3.208 22,5 1.526 10,7 0 0,0% 105 0,7 484 3,4 14.256 Ea Elan Niong 14.820 70,8 4.880 23,3 708 3,4 5 0,0% 15 0,1 514 2,5 20.941 Dac Lieng 12.665 33,4 730 1,9 23.917 63,0 147 0,4% 404 1,1 97 0,3 37.960 Ea Krong Bong 9.385 33,1 5.144 18,2 4.628 16,3 61 0,2 140 0,5% 8.980 31,7% 28.338 Total 63.256 53,1 13.994 11,7% 30.811 25,9% 272 0,2 690 0,6% 10.114 8,5% 119.137 Source: Baseline survey and statistical yearbooks 2005 of Krong Bong and Lak districts

3.2. Livelihood 3.2.1. Living Standard All households within the pilot area have been classified by the Poverty Alleviation Programme according to their living standard into two categories: poor and not poor. A household is considered as poor, if the monthly income is below 200,000 VND. The distribution of poor and not poor households is shown in the figure below. The SKAW has a comparatively high percentage of 36.7% of poor households. In Krong Bong district the percentage of poor households is 39.5% and it is slightly higher than in Lak district (33,4%).

Figure 4: Poverty in the SKAW

70 66,6 60,5 60 50 39,5 40 33,4 Lak 30 Krong Bong 20 10 0 Poor Not poor

Source: Statistical data from the districts 2005

During the baseline survey households were classified into poor, medium and better off based on the assessment of the local people themselves. The distribution according to ethnic groups is shown in the table below.

Table 19: Livelihood index according to ethnicity Ethnicity Better-Off Medium Poor Kinh 33% 30% 37% Ede 36% 29% 36% Mong 29% 31% 40% Others 33% 33% 33% Average 31% 30% 38% Source: Household survey, 2006

The distribution of households to better off, medium and poor varies slightly between the ethnic groups; the highest proportion of poor households is with the Mong. The number of poor households is less for free immigrants than that of the original ethnic minorities, free immigrants depend on clearing of forests for house construction and on poaching to make their livelihood. The average household size is 5-6 persons, ranging from to 12 persons. There is not much difference in the household size depending on the economic condition, although there is the tendency that better off households have fewer children then the others (see table below). The re are only very few households (1.1%) which have only two persons, mainly old people.

Table 20: Household size (person/household) Number of persons Household category per household Average Better-Off Medium Poor Maximum 12 9 12 12 Minimum 2 2 2 3 Average 5 5 5 6 Source: Household survey, 2006

3.2.2. Electricity and Communication In recent years the government invested heavily in the improvement of rural electricity. All communes in the Krong Bong District are connected to the electricity network, and more than 90% of all household have electricity today. Only few villages in the more in-accessible mountain regions of Krong Bong which area mainly inhabited by free immigrants from the North are still without. Due to the good electricity network, rural households have access to public media such as radio and television. About 60% of the households have already an own television set. Also, all communes in the SKAW have access to the public telephone network and all offices of the Commune’s People Committees and mainly that of businessmen and enterprises are connected. However the telephone networks is only linked with the commune centres, the other villages and settlements still depend on traditional ways of communication.

3.2.3. Markets, Business and Local Industry Most of the communes have their own markets except for Yang Mao in Krong Bong district and Dak Phoi, Bong Krang, Yang Tao in Lak district. The availability of a market forms the basis for the development of small business and enterprises. In villages without a market there are a few small shops, which provide the basic needs. Households engaged in small business and trade are mainly Kinh. Industrial and commercial facilities have increasingly developed, especially in Krong Kmar and Lien Son town lets, but is still low compared to other regions. Industrial production is mainly limited to the production of construction materials such as sand, stone, and timber. Small scale wood processing still exists even though wood exploitation is forbidden. Other services in the two town lets of Krong Kmar and Lien Son are mainly restaurants and small hotels. Services in commune centers normally include services for the supply of agricultural material, sale of agricultural products and other entertainment services such as karaoke, internet cafes and bars. There are two large enterprises, Dak Lak Cassava Processing Factory and Tobacco Material Station (Krong Bong District) which have signed contracts with local farmers for the production of cassava and tobacco leaves. Also the Paper Company in Lak district has invested in the region and cooperates with local farmers for the development of plantations for paper materials. These are good foundations for the improvement of the farmer’s living conditions. The table below provides an overview of existing shops/stores and small off farm enterprises in the SKAW.

Table 21: Off-farm enterprises Location Small Shops/Stores enterprises H. Krong Bong 307 701 Yang Re 35 40 EaTrul 23 65 Hoa Son 30 70 Krong K'ma 76 285 Khue Ngoc Dien 34 36 Hoa Le 33 63 Hoa Phong 35 45 Cu Pui 11 18 Cu D'ram 17 50 Yang Mao 13 29 H. Lak 111 588 Yang tao 8 42 Bong Krang 11 60 Lien Son 41 305 Dak Phoi 6 32 Dak Lieng 18 73 Buon Triet 11 26 Buon Tria 10 21 Dak Nue 6 29 Total 418 1289 Source: Commune statistics

3.2.4. Infrastructure, Machinery and Equipment In recent years farmers have invested significantly in equipment and machinery for agricultural production, mainly water pumps (30% of households) and tractors. The distribution of equipment and machinery depending on the household category is shown in the table below. It is noteworthy, that also some poor households can afford water pumps for coffee plantation (33%).

Table 22: Equipment and Machinery in % of households Type of Average Household category equipment Better-off Medium Poor Water pump 38.4 48.2 35.2 33.3 Plough 13.0 18.5 11.1 9.3 Tractor 21.6 27.8 27.8 9.3 Harvester 11.1 16.7 11.1 5.6 Spray 37.0 38.9 38.9 33.3 Dryer 0.6 1.9 0 0 Other 3.7 3.7 0 0 Source: Household survey, 2006

Investment in machinery and equipment is mainly for the improvement of agricultural production. A few household buy more expensive machinery such as dryers, which they then also rent to others.

3.2.5. Public Transport Public transport facilities are insufficient. There is a public bus connection from Buon Ma Thuot to Da Lat, Lam Dong with 5 buses per day. For tourists, there is one bus per hour from Buon Ma Thuot to Lak and vice versa.

3.2.6. Education Each of villages has their primary classes and kinder gardens have increased gradually. However, it does not mean that all children go to school, especially those of the ethnic minorities, although they are provided with books and are exempted from school fees by the government. Another reason is the lack of teachers who speak the language of the ethnic minorities. In recent years, the Vietnamese government has allowed the formation of private schools in order to improve educational development. There is one high school in each district. To increase the number of pupils of the ethnic minorities, high schools and secondary schools offer accommodation facilities, but with little effect. Table 23: Education facilities per district No. of Schools No. of Teachers No. of Pupils Type of school Krong Krong Krong Lak Total Lak Total Lak Total Bong Bong Bong Kindergarten 13 10 23 118 68 186 2,777 1,890 4,667 Primary 21 21 464 275 739 12,255 7,791 20,046 Primary and Secondary 3 13 16 148 148 4,251 4,251 Secondary 11 2 13 312 312 9,208 9,208 Secondary and high school 36 36 1,261 1,261 High school 1 1 2 67 67 2,767 2,767 Total 49 26 75 961 527 1,488 27,007 15,193 42,200 Source: Statistical Yearbooks 2005, Krong Bong and Lak districts

3.2.7. Access to Water At present, more than 50% of households in Lak District and 42% of Krong Bong have access to clean water (with 65% use shallow wells, 1% use borehole and 7% by water supply treatment). The higher percentage of households having access to clean water in Lak district is a result of the Rural Water Supply Program funded by Danida. Other households get their water from shallow wells or from surface water resources such as springs, rivers or streams. 62% of rural households in Lak and more than 45% in Krong Bong district have sanitary facilities such a toilet or latrine. The National Program For Rural Water Supply And Sanitation which is currently implemented by the government has the objective to exploit and use effectively groundwater, to meet clean water demand of local farmers, minimize diseases, improve healthy condition, save labor and time to abstract water in order to spend more time for other economic activities, The most benefited target by the program is women and children. Educate and raise awareness of local people of use of clean water and environmental protection

3.2.8. Sanitation and Health There are two hospitals in the SKAW with 120 beds and trained doctors and nurses. However hospital equipment is very insufficient. Each of communes has their own health care station; programs for vaccination are carried out regularly and children are exempted from the payment of health care fees. People categorized as poor are treated free of charge. Health stations also cooperate with mass media and organizations such as Women’s Union, Farmer’s Union in extension programs in health care and improvement of living behavior for local farmers.

Table 24: Healthcare facilities Krong Healthcare facilities Bong Lak Total

Health agency 14 10 24 No. of hospital 1 1 2 No. of primary healthcare centres (PHC) 13 9 22 No of hospital beds 120 95 215 Hospital 70 50 120 Primary healthcare centre 50 45 95 No of healthcare workers 127 92 219 Healthcare workers 121 88 209 Doctors 27 22 49 Physicians and technicians 38 39 77 Village healthcare volunteers (VHV), local birth attendants, hospital orderly 56 27 83 Pharmacist 3 2 5 Druggist 3 2 5 Source: Statistical Yearbooks 2005, Krong Bong and Lak districts

In the recent year, public health services and local authorities used to conduct various education and communication activities to increase local awareness on sanitation and disease preventions. Thanks to disease prevention campaigns, there have been no serious diseases or epidemics in the area for several years, and the percentage of malaria has also decreased. However, despite great efforts made in improving sanitation and health care, the pilot area is still affected by many diseases. Most common diseases reported are malnutrition, diarrhoea, rickets, and flu and fever. In the framework of the primary healthcare, staff of commune health service carries out vaccinations for children on a weekly basis. Before the season of disease outbreak starts prevention measures are undertaken by the staff from the district health office. The district health office also provides service for women in reproductive age and vitamin A for children annually.

3.2.9. Farm Activities

3.2.9.1. Farming The farmer’s land comprises of residential land including home gardens and farmland for agricultural production. Normally, each household owns a garden area of about 100-400m2 (stipulated by the Government). Agricultural production land is separate in terms of tenure from residential

land. Most of the farmers own land for perennial crops and, depending on the natural condition of the land, paddy rice. The Kinh people usually utilize all their garden and farming land annually for agricultural production. This is not the case for the original ethnic people. Because of their practice of free cattle keeping, vegetables and other agricultural crops can only be produced if protected or fenced. Due to the fact that most of the ethnic groups from the North immigrated free, their gardens and farmlands are mainly in the immediate vicinity of their homes. While this is an advantage for agricultural production their scattered distribution is a major constraints when it comes to access of public facilities like electricity, etc. The distribution of main agricultural production systems in relation to household category is shown in the table below. Better-off households in general own more land than medium and poor households, especially for annual and perennial crops. Due to high investment cost and a prolonged duration until first returns can be made, poor household cultivate hardly any perennial crops.

Table 25: Average agricultural land holding per household categories (ha/hh) Household category Home Paddy Perennial Annual Garden Crop Crop Better off 0.41 0.63 0.24 1.25 Medium 0.27 0.54 0.15 0.69 Poor 0.21 0.61 0.06 0.41 Source: Household survey, 2006

The area for annual crops is the largest for all household categories due to low cost and short production periods. Farming includes annual crops, perennial crops and rice (wet rice and upland rice). Perennial crops are coffee, cashew, and fruit trees. Annual crops are maize, cassava, beans, etc. Poor and average households mainly cultivate annual crops and rice. Over 50% of households surveyed cultivated hybrid maize while perennial trees is only cultivated by the better-off and average households. The percentage of households who plant perennial trees is low (coffee 16%, cashew 4%). In general, their gardens do not meet quality requirements. The table below provides an overview of the main agricultural products cultivated by different household categories. Table 15: Agricultural products per household category Category household Coffee Cashew Maize Cassava Rice Better off 25.9 % 3.7 % 64.8 % 31.5 % 51.9 % Medium 16.3 % 14.3 % 55.1 % 26.5 % 67.4 % Poor 16.1 % 4.8 % 54.8 % 8.1 % 54.8 % Average 25.9 % 3.7 % 64.8 % 31.5 % 51.9 % Source: Household survey, 2006

It is government policy to encourage farmers to reforest steep areas and to establish tree plantations. However, the effect of the reforestation programs so far has been little. One reason is that the funding mechanisms have not been clearly explained and another, that by planting of agricultural land with trees or other perennial crops, areas for the production of food crops is lost which cannot be compensated due to a lack of suitable agricultural land.

3.2.9.2. Animal Husbandry Livestock production is the second most important source of income for the local population. Previously, the original ethnic people kept a lot of cattle as their assets. Buffaloes, oxen and pigs are the main domestic animals in the region. In Hoa Le, goat keeping has recently been introduced. Almost every household also keeps chicken and ducks. More details on animal husbandry are given in chapter 7.2.5 of this report. The number of households involved in animal husbandry is shown in Table 26 and the number of animals per household in Table 27.

Table 26: Household category involvement in livestock production Buffalo Cow Pig Household category (%) (%) (%) Better off 7.8 56.9 52.9 Medium 6.1 49.0 42.9 Poor 9.7 43.6 45.2 Average 8 50 47 Source: Household survey, 2006

Table 27: Average Number of animal per household Category household Buffalo Cow Pig Goat Better off 1-2 4-5 8-9 Medium 2-3 4-5 7-8 1-2 Poor 0-2 0-3 2-5 Average 1-2 4-5 7-8 Source: Household survey, 2006

3.2.9.3. Seasonal Calendar People in the SKAW are involved in various activities, but the main activity is agricultural production. The table below shows the seasonal calendar for the different activities. Annual crops are planted in the rainy seasons. There are two planting seasons for corn and beans, the first one is the spring – summer season (from April to July) and the second is the summer – autumn season (April to November). But there is only one season for cassava, which lasts from April to November.

Table 28: Seasonal calendar for major activities Month Activity J F M A M J J A S O N D Lowland rain fed paddy cultivation Lowland irrigated paddy cultivation Shifting cultivation Home gardening Cash crop gardening Large livestock raising Small livestock raising Tree planting On-farm labour Fishing and aquaculture On-farm services Off-farm activities and services Labour Source: Household survey, 2006

3.2.10. Off-Farm Activities and Employment In the SKAW area there is a high percentage of potential labor force with more than 50,000 people in labor ages, however there are only about 1000 laborers engaged by the industry and another 1400 are engaged in trade and services. More than 90% of the labor force is engaged in agricultural production. Up to 2010, it is planned by the local authorities to develop one Industrial Group in Krong Bong district and to establish Tuy Nen Brick Factory in Lak district in order to create more job opportunities for local people. There are only a few non-agricultural sectors, which provide jobs mainly in stone exploitation, brick processing, wood processing, construction and post harvesting of agricultural products. But their sizes are very small.

Table 8: Occupation (persons) Commune Industrial Trade and Laborers Service Laborers Total 962 1422 H. Krong Bong 678 750 Yang R'eh 80 48 EaTrul 76 70 Hoa Son 41 73 Krong K'ma 166 304 Khue Ngoc Dien 120 40 Hoa Le 55 67 Hoa Phong 67 48 Cu Pui 33 18 Cu D'ram 26 53 Yang Mao 14 29 H. Lak 284 672 Yang tao 21 52 Bong Krang 24 72 Lien Son 133 355 Dak Phoi 11 34 Dak Lieng 41 83 Buon Triet 22 26 Buon Tria 20 21 Dak Nue 12 29 Source: Statistical Yearbooks 2005, Krong Bong and Lak districts

Better off and medium households who own machinery or other equipment also provide services for other households namely in agricultural product processing, land preparation and irrigations. Also, among these households are those of teachers or officers, which have their own salary. About 50% of the poor household are working seasonally in processing units or are hired by the better off households for framing activities. Table 9: Household category involvement in off agricultural activities % Salary and the Category household Hired labour others Better off 65 % 53 % Medium 61 % 31 % Poor 50 % 19 % Average 59 % 34 % Source: Household survey, 2006

3.2.11. Dependency on Forest Products for Livelihood

3.2.11.1. Firewood All local people benefited from the national electricity network, however due to the fact that their funds are limited, almost all the households use wood for fuel except the Kinh in town lets or commune centres. They have a higher income and can afford the use of gas and electricity for cooking.

It is estimated that from the total of about 20,0000 households in the SKAW about 15,000 household using firewood for fuel. Taking into account an annual demand of 12-14 m3/hh then a total of about 200,000m3 of firewood is consumed annually in the SKAW: Most of the firewood comes from the natural forest by collection of deadwood and fallen branches (note: it is not permitted to use live trees) or from wood of new encroached areas. So far, people hardly make use of other fuel sources such as waste from coffee plantations, perennial crops or fruit trees or wastes from agricultural production. Scarcity of firewood has become a problem for the livelihood of the people and also imposes a threat to forest lands in the immediate vicinity of villages and settlements. Today, firewood has already become a marketable good, people who have no time to collect firewood themselves or which have no access to firewood resources by from others. Even though, wood exploitation and transportation is forbidden, price of one ster (m3) varies between VND 50,000 to 70,000. In addition, the need of firewood for brick production, drying of agricultural products, etc. resulted an increase of wood demands from the natural forest. It is therefore necessary to encourage the use of alternate fuels, the planting of wood lots and hedgerows and/or use of agricultural waste

3.2.11.2. Non-Wood Products The non-timber forest products at the studied area are rich in species. Many non-timber forest products (NTFP) have an economic value but are also used traditionally by the local people such as rattan, bamboo, neohouzeana dulloa, and a number of medicinal plants. A list of NTFPs commonly used by the local people is shown in the table below: Table 29: Non-timber forest products commonly used in the SKAW

Degree of Time of NTFP Tree part Use purpose Importance usage exploitation

Bep leaves Leaf For food, for sale High High All year long Bamboo shoots Shoot For food, for sale High High Aug – Oct Rattan Top, strand Food, sale, knitting High High All year Bamboo, lo o Trunk, shoot Family use, sale High High All year Boi loi bark Bark Sale, medicine Medium High Market Rocky orchid Stem Sale Medium High Market Dương xĩ Leaf Food Medium High All year Lá trố Leaf Food Medium High All year Sweet potato Bulb Food, sale Medium High All year Wild taro Trunk, leaf Food Medium High All year Lá dao Leaf Food High Medium All year Yam Bulb Food, sale High Medium All year Lá kháng Leaf food High High Mar - Apr Djăm Brũ Leaf Food High High All year Djăm păr Leaf Food High High All year Djăm Hniết Leaf Food High High Apr - Sep Djăm căo Leaf Food Medium High All year Rau ngót rừng Leaf Food High Medium All year Dương xĩ Leaf Food High Medium All year Hla Krũ Leaf Food High Medium march Núc nác Leaf Food High Medium June - July Củ sang Bulb Food, sale High High Feb – May Củ lo Bulb Food, sale Medium High Feb – May Wild banana fruit, leaf Food, sale Medium High All year Wild lemongrass Leaf Food High High All year Củ dơr Bulb Food, sale High High All year

Degree of Time of NTFP Tree part Use purpose Importance usage exploitation

Lá lục lạc Leaf Food High Medium All year Kro tree bark Bark Fishing Medium High All year Wild taro Stem Food Medium High All year Cinnamon Bark Sale Medium High All year Ban-yan tree Leaf Medicines Medium High All year Đỗ trọng Bark Sale, medicines Medium High All year Wild pineapple Fruit Food, sale Medium High Apr - July Source: Nguyen Van Thang and Vo Hung

Each village has identified from 44 to 64 species of non-timber forest product of which from 10 to 15 species play important roles in their lives. The main use of such products is for own consumption but also for sale. In average, each household can earn from 200,000 to 1,250,000 VND per year from the sale of NTFP. Main products are bamboo shoot, bamboo and hunted animals. This reflects that the life of the local people is still poor and their dependency on the forest is high. The exploitation of non-timber forest products is not restricted, except for the collection of protected species. This however has led in some cases to over-exploitation, especially for high proceed products. The collection of medicinal plants and their processing into traditional medicine has been the source of income for some Kinh households for more then 30 years. The collection and sale of bamboo sprouts and la tep are also of economic importance for the livelihood of the local population. More details on non-timber forest products and marketing is given in chapter 5.8 of this report. The table below shows the dependency of local households on forestry and forest products. Table 30: Forest related activities Percentage of household Average annual income per hh Household category engaged in forestry from sale of forestry products Better off 47 % 572,000 VND Medium 41 % 347,000 VND Poor 29 % 129,000 VND Average 39 % 349,000 VND Source: Household survey, 2006

3.2.12. Income and Income Sources Income generation as asked in the questionnaire was answered by each household (hh) on the basis of their estimation over the last few years. It includes both the value of produced field crops that are consumed by the hh itself as well as the value of items sold. The average annual income per capita of the different household categories are compiled in the table below. The per capita income of the better off household (606,000 VND/month) is double as high than the average income of all households (319,000 VND/month). The average income of poor household (111,000 VND/month) is six times lower than the income of better-off household.

Table 31: Average annual income Household category Annual income Annual income Monthly income per household per capita per capita (VND) (VND) (VND) Better Off 37,124,000 7,237,000 606,000 Medium 18,168,000 3,394,000 283,000 Poor 7,429,000 1,328,000 111,000 Average 20,026,000 3,824,000 317,000 Source: Household survey, 2006

Income of households surveyed is mainly from agricultural production and forest related activities. Agricultural production includes cultivation and animal husbandry. The highest proportion is earned by agricultural cultivation (56%) followed from animal breeding (22%), non-agricultural activities (16%) and 7% from forest related activities. There is not much difference among the different household categories. Table 32: Annual income according to sources and household category Household Categories Agricult. Live-stock Forestry Non-agric. Total Better off In 1000 VND/person/years 5,516 2,144 572 1,517 9,749 % of sources 56.6 22.0 5.9 15.6 100.0 Medium In 1000 VND/person/years 2,879 1,141 347 850 5,217 % of sources 55.2 21.9 6.7 16.3 100.0 Poor In 1000 VND/person/years 1,488 636 129 419 2,672 % of sources 55.7 23.8 4.8 15.7 100.0 Average In 1000 VND/person/years 3,294 1,307 350 929 5,880 % of sources 56.0 22.2 5.9 15.8 100.0 Source: Household survey, 2006

3.2.12.1. Access to Credit The access to funds and credit is of great importance for the development and improvement of agricultural production and productivity. The government has established various policies to facilitate the access of farmers to credits. A network of the Social and Policy Bank has now been established in all communes. These banks provide credits to farmers through organizations such as Women’s Union and Farmer’s Union. 87% of poor and average households borrowed funds from this source. The level of credit varies between 3 and 5 million VND/household. The credit period is 3-5 years. Households often take credits from the AgriBank by mortgage of their assets as land-use ownership. The amount of money the bank lends to the farmer depends on the value of the asset and the purpose of the credit. At present, lending in kind such as in seeds, animals, fertilizer or fuel for the irrigation pump is still common in the SKAW and is conducted through Women’s Union, Farmer’s Union, Veteran Organization, and Youth Union or by private material dealers in the area.

3.2.12.2. Household Expenditure It is difficult to evaluate exactly the level of expenditure made for different purposes. Farmers only know, how much they invest in agricultural production such as for the purchase of seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, animals, etc. and for the payment of fees for cultivation and others. About 75% of the money spend for agricultural production is paid for cultivation of crops; while the other 25% are spend for animal husbandry.

Table 33: Household expenditure Household Categories Agriculture Livestock Others Total Better off In 1000 VND/person/years 1,946 733 - 2,679 % of sources 72.6 27.4 - 100 Medium In 1000 VND/person/years 1,346 458 0.7 1,802 % of sources 74.7 25.3 - 100 Poor In 1000 VND/person/years 1,044 285 1,329 % of sources 78.6 21.4 100 Average In 1000 VND/person/years 1,445 491.3 0.2 1,937 % of sources 74.6 25.4 - 100 Source: Household survey, 2006

The difference between household income and expenditure for agricultural production is the net revenue, which is available to finance all other costs and livelihood requirements. This varies considerably depending on the household category. The net revenue of better off households is almost 5 times as high than that of the poor. For poor and medium households there is no room for savings. The table below shows the net revenue per household category. Table 34: Net revenue per household category Household category Annual income Annual investment Net revenue (1000 VND) (1000 VND) (1000 VND) Better Off 8,622 2,679 5,942 Medium 5,217 1,866 3,351 Poor 2,673 1,296 1,377 Average 5,504 1,947 3,557 Source: Household survey, 2006

3.3. Village Administration and Social Organisation On commune level the political systems comprises of three organizations, the Party, the government institutions and the Fatherland Front. The Fatherland front includes Youth’s Union, Women’ Union, Farmer’s Union and Veteran’s Organization. The Youth Union is an organization of all young male and female in age of 15-30. Women’s Union comprises of women from 16-60 years of age. Veteran Organization comprises of ex army personel. Beside these, there are other organizations on commune level such as the agricultural cooperatives. All organizations share the same objective: to develop household economics, to improve living condition in rural area, to raise the knowledge and awareness of the local people. There are two community leaders on village level, one is responsible for the overall village administration and the other one is in charge of religious matters and ethnic groups. Village heads are selected by the local authorities in consultation with the community for the following positions: a. Head of village (men is predominant): Taking responsibility for all activities within the village, reporting activities in the village to commune’s authorities and disseminate information at commune level to the community. Head of village shall be able to read and write fluently. b. Head of women group: Carrying out activities of Commune’s Women Union and assign duties to each member of women’s union and periodically reporting operation results to the Women’s Union at higher levels.

c. Head of Farmer: Implementing activities of Commune’s Farmer Union and assign duties to each member of Farmer’s Union, observing and facilitate implementation of activities and periodically reporting operation results to Farmer’s Union at higher.

For village dominated by original ethnic groups, previously, the persons who have the most prestige (community leadership) in the community are heads of big families or original landowners who contributed to the founding of the village.

3.4. Effects of Forest Land Allocation The aspect of forestland allocation is discussed in chapter 5.4.2. Furthermore, a study on forestland allocation is going to be conducted, which will look into the socio-economic effects of FLA in great detail. The SKAW lies within the study area. Therefore, at this place only the main socio-economic effects are briefly touched. Forestland allocation has raised the awareness of local communities in forest management and protection in general, especially in the Krong Bong district. The anticipated impact of FLA on hunger elimination and poverty alleviation did not realize, mainly due to the fact that forest and land resources which were allocated to local farmers were mainly degraded and unproductive forests on poor land which are unsuitable for agricultural production. Also, forestry products produced from land allocated are very limited.

3.5. Problems, Issues and Constraints from the Perspective of the People The main problems expressed by the local people inside the SKAW are how to diversify their income sources and how to improve their income levels from the existing sources. At present, the main source for livelihood of local people is generated from agricultural activities, however agriculture productivity is very low. Firstly, they do not realize the importance to protect land. Secondly, they lack of funds to invest to improved varieties especially of perennial crops, which will produce high yield. Finally, as the risk of annual floods and other natural disasters is high, they prefer annual crops in order to limit the damage. However, in many cases annual crops are not the optimal land-use both in terms of productivity and cash income. Types of crops and livestock of farmers are very limited; there are a few effective agricultural models developed in the area. Off-farm activities and employment opportunities almost do no not exist; farmers furthermore lack the capability for product processing in order to add value and as such to improve their cash income. The existing irrigation systems are seriously degraded, which results in lack of water and irregular supply. There is also the need to extend the present irrigation system. Additional irrigations will contribute to regulation of water during drought or flood periods, which will help to improve productivity and income of the farmers. Basic information of the market and relationships between relevant partners in market chain is insufficient. Farmers complain that they have to sell for a very low price to the dealers, while the dealers complain about the poor quality of the agricultural product. The credit system has become very popular; at each commune there is one representative of the Social and Policy Bank. Mass organizations create favourable conditions to make funds available to their members. But it does not mean that all households in the area are members of these organizations. For non-members it is very difficult to get credit because their low production results cannot pursuit the Bank to provide them with more funds. This is a question, which is very difficult to resolve. As such, especially the poorer household, have no opportunity to invest in raising agricultural productivity.

Forestry management is a completely new concept for households, which received forestland by the forestland allocation process. Furthermore, the allocated forestland is mainly of very poor quality. Due to a lack of extension and training, farmers do not know how to develop their new forest lands, how to plant trees and to select species. In general, farmers are quite passive and ignorant of the potentials and possibilities of forestland management.

3.6. Potential Fields of Intervention With Special Reference to NRM Strengthening agricultural extension, increasing awareness of local people of the importance to protect lands and provide them knowledge and skills of land protection. Transferring effective economic and environmental models in participatory approaches. Dissemination of forest management methods and forest production technologies to farmers in a participatory way. Train farmers in the effective and efficient use of their forest resources. Conduct research in adapted crops and livestock species and varieties, which are adapted to the natural conditions of the region, produce high yield and are of low risk. Improve market conditions for agricultural products. Develop effective policies to attract investors in processing and trading of agricultural products and implement them. To solve the problem of firewood supply, the use of alternate fuels and the use of waste materials from agricultural trees, the planting of more perennial trees, woodlots, and hedgerows should be promoted.

4. Land Management A detailed analysis of land management is provided in the expert report of NGUYEN TIEN.

4.1. Land-use 4.1.1. Land Use Classification and Distribution The land use distribution in the SKAW has been identified based on satellite image interpretation of SPOT 5 imagery, which was linked with land use statistics from the Krong Bong and Lak district. According to the regulations of the 2003 Land Law, the use of land is divided into the following three major categories: Agricultural land includes land for agricultural production (for annual and perennial crops), forestry land (forestland for production, protective forests, particular use forestland), land for aquaculture, land for salt, and other agricultural land. Non-agricultural land includes residential land (in the rural, in the urban), particular use land (for offices, office facilities, natural defense and security purposes, land for public welfare purposes), land for religions, beliefs, land for cemeteries, graveyards, stream and rive land and particular use water surface, and other non-agricultural land. Wasteland includes unused flat land, unused hill/mountains and rocky mountains without tree forest.

The distribution of the major land use classes in the SKAW according to administrative units is shown in Table 35. The distribution of land use according to sub catchments is specified in Table 36 and shown in the land Use Map in Annex 4. 122,357 ha or 78.8% of the SKAW is agricultural land, of which 27,111 ha is used for agricultural production while 95,219 ha are forestlands. 5,770 ha or 3.7% are non agricultural land, the largest proportion with 2732 ha belongs to water bodies of which most of them are located in Dak Lieng sub-catchment, 863 ha are covered by residential areas. The percentage of wasteland is with 17.4% fairly high. Most of the wastelands, however, are located in the mountainous areas (25170 ha) and are unsuitable for agricultural production. Most of them are located in Krong Bong and Dak Lieng sub-catchments. A total of 1904 ha of wasteland is located on flat areas. For a more detailed distribution of land use according per communes refer to the experts report of NGUYEN TIEN. Detailed descriptions on the different land use systems are given in the relevant chapters (7.2 on agriculture, 5.1 forests; 8 on waste lands).

Table 35: Distribution of land types per commune within the pilot area Commune District Total area Agric. Land Non-agric. Waste Land (ha) (ha) Land (ha) (ha) 1. Krông Kmar town 558 359 120 79 2. Hòa Phong 13,294 11,519 496 1,280 3. Hòa Lễ 9,888 8,990 409 489 4. Yang Reh 2,973 1,351 273 1,350 5. Ea Trul 2,493 2,084 198 211 6. Khuê ngọc Điền 6,154 5,252 447 455 7. Cư Pui 15,584 13,251 238 2,095 8. Hòa Sơn 5,388 4,571 299 518 9. Cư Drăm Krong Bong 9,518 5,502 194 3,821 10. Yang Mao 32,990 28,223 260 4,508 11. Liên Sơn town 1,275 445 575 255 12. Yang Tao 6,870 4,278 395 2,197 13. Bông Krang 17,526 13,386 270 3,870 14. Đăk Liêng 3,167 1,979 321 867 15. Buôn Triết 7,059 5,083 560 1,417

16. Buôn Tría Lak 2,954 1,925 231 798 17. Đăk Phơi 11,011 8,790 237 1,984 18. Đăk Nuê 4369 3241 247 882 19. Nam Ka 1839 1836 20. Ea R’Bin 289 289 Total 155,200 122,357 5,768 27,075 Sources: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combined with land use statistics

Table 36: Land use distribution in ha according to sub-catchment areas Sub Catchment Purpose of land use Ea Long Dak Ea Elan Krong Krong Total Ding Lieng Niong Kmarr Bong Total Area 12,840 33,020 12,362 19,807 77,173 155,200 Agricultural land 10,557 22,355 8,667 16,536 64,243 122,356 Land for agricultural production 3,176 6,557 5,662 3,107 8,609 27,111 Forest land 8,103 16,793 2,616 11,596 56,111 95,219 Land for aquaculture 7 11 27 4 4 53 Non-agricultural land 586 1,937 1,239 1,013 994 5,770 Residential areas 76 99 361 212 116 863 Land for special purposes 40 423 542 608 560 2,175 Water bodies 470 1,415 336 193 318 2,732 Waste land 1,697 8,728 2,456 2,258 11,936 27,074 Waste flat land 150 798 126 57 773 1,904 Waste hilly land 1,547 7,930 2,329 2,201 11,162 25,170

4.1.2. Land-use Changes and Development Trends From 1995 to 2005 there has been a considerable change in land use in the pilot area. The total area under agricultural production increased for 8169 ha (43%), from 18,917 ha in 1995 to 27,086 ha in 2005. This is equal to an annual increase of 817 ha! The decrease in forest cover is 16,420 ha which is two times higher than the increase in agricultural land. Beside conversion into agricultural land, forest destruction and irregular forest exploitation is the main cause. This is reflected in the fact, that the total area of wasteland increased for 6,657 ha (increase of 30%). In Table 37 the land use distribution in 1995 is compared with that of 2005 and the change in land use classes is shown. Table 38 shows the shift of areas from one land use class to the other.

Table 37: Change of land use in SKAW (ha)

1995 2005 Change (+/-) Land Use Krong Krong Krong Total Lak Total Lak Total Lak Bong Bong Bong Total Area 155,200 56,361 98,840 155,200 56,360 98,840 0 0 0 Agricultural Land 130,377 48093 82,283 122,305 41,010 81,295 24,409 8088 16,320 Agric.- production 18,917 11,045 7,872 27,086 11,548 15,538 8,169 502 7,666 Annual crops 18,747 11,037 7,710 22,834 9,731 13,103 4,087 -1,306 5,393 Wet rice 7,536 5,706 1,830 9,195 6,529 2,666 1,659 823 836 Others 11,211 5,331 5,880 13,639 3,202 10,437 2,428 -2,129 4,557 Perennial crop 170 8 162 4,252 1,816 2,436 4,082 1,808 2,274 Coffee 160 8 152 1,114 636 478 954 628 326 Others 10 10 3,138 1,180 1,958 3,128 1,180 1,948 Forest Land 111,460 37,048 74,411 95,219 29,462 65,757 -16, 240 -7,586 -8,654 Natural Forest 111,143 36,918 74,224 93,965 28,913 65,052 -17,177 -8,005 -9,172 Plantation 317 130 187 1,254 549 705 937 419 518 Non-agric. Land 4,028 2,014 2,014 4,904 2,461 2,443 876 448 429 Residential area 378 128 250 863 374 489 485 246 239 Special purpose 1,080 396 684 1310 490 819 229 95 135 Water bodies 2,570 1,490 1,080 2,731 1,597 1,135 162 107 55 Waste land 20,418 6,126 14,292 27, 075 12,269 14,805 6,657 6,144 513 Flat land 7,612 2,662 4,950 1,904 948 956 -5,707 -1,714 -3,994 Mountain, etc. 12,806 3,464 9,342 25,170 11,321 13,849 12,364 7,857 4,507 Sources: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combined with land use statistics

Table 38: Shift in some agricultural and forestry land use classes (ha) from 1995 to 2005 Land use in 2005 Annual Annual Perennial Waste Other 1995 lowland upland Forest crops land land Type of land use crop crop Annual lowland crop 7,536 5,116 1,346 240 285 549 Annual upland crop 11,211 1,836 5,993 1,580 25 1,136 641 Perennial croplands Forest 111,924 600 3,378 277 95,191 12,354 123 Waste land 20,124 1,642 2,951 2,146 2 13,300 83 Other land 4,406 10 4,396 Grand Total 155,200 9,195 13,667 4,253 95,218 27,075 5,793

Agricultural land use change In 2005 the area of annual low land crop (mainly wet rice) was 9,195 ha of which 5,116 ha (56%) have been used regularly since 1995. The remaining areas were converted from other land uses: 1,836 ha (20%) from upland crop land, 600 ha (7%) from forestland and 1,642 ha (18%) from wasteland. The area of annual upland crops increased from 11,211 ha in 1995 to 13,667 ha in 2005. Only 5993 ha of upland crop area did not change since 1995. There has been some conversion of upland cropland to annual cropland (1,836 ha), perennial crops (1,580 ha) and into waste land (1,136 ha). While on the other hand 3,378 ha of forestland and 2,951 ha of wasteland were converted into upland cropland. Since 1995, 4253 ha of perennial crops were established mainly on wasteland (2146 ha) and through conversion of areas under upland crops (1,580 ha).

Change of forestland From 1995 to 2005 altogether 16,240 ha of forests were converted into other land uses, which is equal to an annual loss of 1624 ha. This corresponds with an annual deforestation raze of 1.45%! It is important to note, that only 25% of the forest area lost has been converted into agricultural land, while 75% have been merely destroyed and are considered now as wasteland. These areas are mainly located in the mountainous areas.

Change of wasteland In 2005 there have been 27,075 ha of wastelands mainly comprising of shrub and woody plants. This increase in waste land is only in the hilly and mountainous areas with 12,362 ha, while at the same time the waste land in the flat areas decreased considerably from 7,612 ha in 1995 to only 1904 ha in 2005. This shows that the pressure on agricultural land is very high which led to an increase of wasteland.

Change of other land use classes These land use classes include rivers and lakes, land for transport, for national defence, for residence and some other land types. Compared with those in 1995, this land type area increased from 4,406 ha to 5,793 ha (increase of 1,387 ha). The increase came from the conversion of 549 ha (9 %) of wet rice, 641 ha (11%) of annual upland crop, 123 ha (2%) of forest and 83 ha (1 %) of wasteland.

4.1.3. Development Potential The table below shows the planned distribution of land uses in 2010 based on the socio- economic development plans of Krong Bong and Lak districts.

Table 39: Planned change in land use until 2010

2005 2010 Change Land Use Krong Krong Krong Total Lak Total Lak Total Lak Bong Bong Bong Total Area 155,200 56,360 98,840 155,200 56,360 98,840 0 0 0 Agricultural Land 122,305 41,010 81,295 131,542 45,660 85, 882 9,237 4,650 4,587 Agric.- production 27,086 11,548 15,538 31,710 13,280 18, 430 4,624 1,732 2,892 Annual crops 22,834 9,731 13,103 24,530 9,950 14,580 1,696 219 1,477 Wet rice 9,195 6,529 2,666 9,030 6,450 2,580 -165 -79 -86 Others 13,639 3,202 10,437 15,500 3,500 12,000 1,861 298 1,563 Perennial crop 4,252 1,816 2,436 6,230 2,780 3,450 1,978 964 1,014 Coffee 1,114 636 478 1,030 580 450 -84 -56 -28 Rubber 100 20 80 100 20 80 Others 3,138 1,180 1,958 5,200 2,200 3,000 2,062 1,020 1,042 Range land 0 950 550 400 950 550 400 Forest Land 95,219 29,462 65,757 99,832 32,380 67, 452 4,613 2,918 1,695 Natural Forest 93,965 28,913 65,052 98,032 31,580 66,452 4,067 2,667 1,400 Plantation 1,254 549 705 1,800 800 1,000 546 251 295 Non-agric. Land 4,904 2,461 2,443 5,187 2,603 2,584 282 142 141 Construction 512 37 474 541 39 502 29 2 27 Transport 1,489 730 759 1,575 772 803 86 42 44 Water bodies 2,731 1,597 1,135 2,889 1,689 1,200 157 92 65 Cemetery 173 98 75 183 103 79 10 6 4 Residential area 863 374 489 1,065 462 603 201 87 114 Waste land 27,075 12,269 14,805 17, 307 7,616 9,691 -9,768 -4,654 -5,114 Flat land 1,904 948 956 650 200 450 -1,254 -748 -506 Mountain, etc. 25,170 11,321 13,849 16,657 7,416 9,241 -8,514 -3,906 -4,608 Sources: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combined with land use statistics

It is planned to convert a total of 9,768 ha of wasteland into agricultural land. About half of it, especially the areas on unproductive and instable areas should be reforested, the others shall be converted into agricultural production areas mainly into other perennial crops preferably fruit trees, and other annual crops such as maize.

Annual Crops The areas suitable for wet rice cultivation are already under production. Areas of unstable water supply should be gradually turned into maize. The target is to have about 12,500 ha of permanent maize cultivation areas by 2010. It is also the objective of the development plans to support the diversification of crops, especially sweet potatoes, cassava, soy bean, peanut, etc.. Perennial crops The area of coffee should be limited to areas, which have suitable conditions and enough water. It is also intended to develop rubber in the region and it is planned to plant about 100 ha of rubber in some areas of Dak Nue, Bong Krang, and Buon Triet of Lak district. The natural conditions of the SKAW are quite favorable for the cultivation of fruit trees, such as coconut, litchi, orange, tangerine, etc. It is planned to increase the area to altogether 5,200 ha by 2010.

A detailed description of the development goals for individual agricultural systems is given in the expert report of NGUYEN TIEN.

4.2. Land Management 4.2.1. Legal and Regulatory Framework

4.2.1.1. The Land law Since the start of the ‘doi moi‘ process, the Land Law of Vietnam has been adjusted 3 times: The 1988 Land Law provided the basis to recognize farmer households as an independent economic unit. At first, lands were assigned to farmer households for use in 15 years. As a result, Vietnam, formerly a food importing country, became the third world leading rice exporter in 1989. Yet, the 1988 Land Law had many constraints. One of the most concerned issues was the right to land lease, transfer and inheritance. Those limits in the rights of the land users and the duration had not encouraged the farmer households to get actively involved in production and investment. The 1993 Land Law, provided a wider frame toward the people to user rights for different types of agricultural and forestry land. The Law anticipated the transfer of long-term use of the most part of land that did not belong to the government to farmer households, individuals and different organizations. However, up to now, those village communities have not been regarded as the legal subjects. The state authority in land use and management were limited to defining the general use for the allocated land to be in accordance with the planning and general plans and technical guidance of responsible organizations. The promulgation of the 1993 Land Law was to surmount the weak points of the 1989 Land Law, among which there were two major changes: 1. The land user has the following rights: to replace, transfer, inherit, mortgage and lease. 2. The duration of use increased to 20 years for annual cropland and 50 years for land with perennial trees. The duration of land use could be extended if the land was used properly as stipulated in the law. The introduction of the 1993 Land Law had tremendous effects and changed the rural areas and agricultural sector considerably. The policy of allocating land to households and individuals for stable and long-term use for agricultural and forestry production resulted in a strong attachment of the farmers to their land. It resulted in a tremendous increase in agricultural productivity. Vietnam is now the 2nd largest exporter of rice worldwide. Furthermore the area of natural forest and forest plantations increased considerably (in 1990 the land areas covered with forests accounted for 28,3%, in 2000 with 35,2%). Shortcomings of the 1998 Land Law were, that the ownership of land of the whole population and the function of the state has not been fully addressed. Furthermore, there was no active allocation of land in order to meet the demand of the population for social and economic development. The administrative requirements of land management and allocation was still rather exhaustive and there have been and still are too many (more than 450) legal regulations on central and provincial level which are unspecific and contradictory.

The 2003 Land Law was issued to overcome the shortcomings and limitations of the 1993 and 1998 Land Laws as well of some articles, which have been revised and supplemented in 2001. The 2003 Land Law clearly defines that the ownership of land is with the whole population with the state as its representative. Land can be allocated to users which may comprise of public and private organizations, households, communities, individuals, religious facilities, overseas Vietnamese and foreign organizations. Certain guarantees for the land users are given (e.g. compensation in case land has to be allocated for higher purposes by the

government). The 2003 Land Law furthermore specifies that the use of land should be economically oriented, efficient and environment friendly in order to achieve a sustainable development. The 2003 Land Law is closely linked to the reform of the state administration. In addition to the above mentioned laws there are a number of regulations and directives of importance for land management, which are listed and described in the expert report of NGUYEN TIEN.

4.2.1.2. Regulations and Programs in Relation to Forestry and Land Use There are some former policies and laws in relation of land management and forestry, which are described in the following: The Law on Forest Protection and Development in 1991 and 2004 stipulated state responsibilities for the management of the entire forests and forestry land. The State would allocate forestry land to different organizations and individuals for protection, development and long-term use for various state plans. The State protected the legal interests of the forest owners and encouraged different organizations and individuals to invest their labor, capital, and materials and to apply scientific and technological advances to forest planting, protection, exploitation and processing of forestry products. The State decided the classification of forests (productive, protective and particular use forests), reclassification of forests and promulgation of regulations on land allocation and management. The program for covering denuded hills and wasteland (Program 327/556). The state budget reserved for the implementation of various national forestry programs concentrated mainly on forest protection and regeneration. Although the initially designed program in the Decision 327/CT targeted an integrated approach to rural development, the Decision no. 556/TTg of 1995 changed the target of the program to important watershed protection. Since then, its activities often covered the protection of natural forests, protection of forestland for natural forest regeneration and afforestation. The state budget was requested for activities implementing forest protection contractual assignments and afforestation programs. People participating in afforestation were paid for their labor in kind (e.g. thinning material) or cash, but the final product i.e. timber belonged to the investor. The Decree no. 02/CP of 1994 defined that forestland without forest as well as existing natural forests and planted forests could be allocated to households and issued land use certificates (red books) for a period of 50 years. This decree also anticipated for the people living within strictly protected forest areas to be given agricultural land use rights and contractual assignments for forest protection within the boundaries of the protected forests. The allocated forestland was based on the land use plans of the local inhabitants. The Decree 02/CP of the Government also required that, in order to be allocated land, households and individuals had to make a request for managing and using land. Because of this, the land use planning had to be done prior to the land allocation. Despite this, these two things were often considered parallel. Planned immigrations to new economic zones Together with the development of a system of state-own agriculture / forest enterprises, the moving of people to new economic zones was also one of many big policies of the Government aiming to exploiting forestland potentials in the Central Highland. This was also a policy to stretch the population in the lowland, a nation-wise re-distribution of population, intensification of weak and lack labor force in the Central Highland and contribution to the economic development there. Through statistical data, the moving of people to new economic zones in the Central Highland took place mainly during the period 1976 - 1980, about 90,000 people/year. Later on, the number decreased gradually and slowed down in the following years of ‘doi moi’.

4.2.1.3. Regional Regulations and Policies After the 2003 Land Law and several Governmental Decrees had been put into effect for enforcement, the Dak Lak PC promulgated various decisions to guide the implementation of the Land Law and other Governmental decrees as under:

Decision no. 01/2006/QĐ-UBND of the Dak Lak PPC on the stipulation of the land allocation limits for residence, waste land, bare hills or mountains, land having water surface not yet being used for agriculture, forestry production, aquaculture; the limits to be recognized for residential land towards cases where residential land have gardens, ponds for households, individuals within Dak Lak province. Decision no. 64/2005/QĐ-UBND of the Dak Lak PPC on the promulgation of regulations on checking current land use status; preparation, adjustment and approval of detailed land use plans; land allocation, lease and issuance of land use right certificates for state farms and state forest enterprises within the province territory. Stipulation on the sequence, procedure of land allocation, lease, conversion of land use purposes, reclaim and issuance of land use right certificates with regard to organizations, individual households. Decision no. 26/2006/QĐ-UBND on the stipulation of management of activities involved in land surveys and mapping. Decision no. 30/2006/QĐ-UBND on modified, amended regulations on compensation, support and resettlement when the State reclaims land within the territory of Dak Lak province. Decision no. 34/2006/QĐ-UBND on promulgation of rates for land lease within the territory of Dak Lak province.

4.2.2. Institutions, Administration & Organisation

4.2.2.1. National Level On national level two ministries are involved in land management:

(1) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) It is in charge of implementing the tasks and authorities specified in Decree No. 86/2002/ND- CP of the Government dated 05 November 2002, with the following specific tasks in relation to land management: - Formulate and submit to the Government for consideration and submission to the National Assembly for approval of land-use plans and planning nationwide. - Appraise land-use plans and planning of the provinces and centrally-governed cities and those for security and defense of the Ministry of Defense and Ministry of Public Security to submit to the Government for approval; - Submit to the Government for approval of the land allocation or restoration decisions in cases where the Government has the competent jurisdiction. - Direct the implementation of the survey, investigation, assessment, measurement, classification of land and set up cadastral topography; provide guidelines and summarize land statistics and data, and to set up and manage the cadastral documents; - Uniformly manage the allocation, lease, restoration of land, the transfer of land-use rights, the changing of land-use purposes, and register and issue land-use right certificates. - Guide the provincial and central-governed city people's committees in issuing land-use right certificates according to the regulations of the laws;

- Inspect the provincial and central-governed city people's committees in determining land price according to the land price frame and principles and approaches regulated by the Government in determining prices of different types of land.

(2) Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) MARD is responsible for executing its duties and authorities of state management as specified in the Governmental Decree No. 86/ND-CP dated 5th November 2002. It is the ministry in charge of agriculture, forestry and rural development.

4.2.2.2. Provincial Level On provincial level there are two main departments in charge of land management: - Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD), and - Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DONRE). Both Departments have similar tasks as MARD and MONRE, but they are under the direct responsibility of the Province People’s Committee.

4.2.2.3. District, Commune Authorities and Social Organizations District administration The district is administered by the District People’s Committee (DPC), which comprises of a chairman and three vice chairmen, which are appointed for a term of five years by the District People’s Council. The district administration is divided into functional sections such as statistics, finance, tax, cultural affairs, economics, education, health, natural resources and environment, etc. The functional sections have an advisory function to the DPC. The DPC is under the direct supervision of the District People’s Council. Large organizations such as the Fatherland Front, the Farmers’ Association, the Youth Union, the Women Union, etc. play a very important role in the social, cultural and economic development of the district. They are under the leadership of the district.

Commune administration The structure of the commune organization is almost identical to that of the district. It is administered by the Commune People’s Committee (CPC), which is supervised by the Commune People’s Council. The CPC is headed by a chairman and two vice chairmen, which are appointed for a term of 5 years. As for the DPC the commune administration is also divided into functional sections such as statistics, finance, tax, culture, agriculture- forestry, education, health, cadastral section, etc. In most communes, a commune cadre often takes up 2 to 3 responsibilities (e.g. a commune cadastral cadre may also be responsible for construction, environment, etc.). Organizations like the Youth Union, the Women’s Union, the Elderly Association play a very important role in helping the commune administration to resolve land disputes and to build up awareness of the community in the implementation of the local socio-economic development program.

4.2.2.4. Related Government Agencies At district level, there is an agency related to land management: the Sub-Department of Natural Resources and Environment (sub-DONRE). This department has the duty to give advice to the DPC on its state management task on land, map surveys, mineral resources, water and environmental protection. It is under the professional guidance of DONRE. The district sub-DONRE has an office for land registration which is responsible for the issuance of

land use rights, preparation of cadastral records, correction of land changes, statistics, land inventory, etc..

At commune level, there are about one to two cadastral officials to help the CPC on its state management of land and placed under the professional guidance of the district Sub-DONRE. The Sub-DONRE of Krong Bong district comprises of five staff who are all public servants, including one chief (no assistant chief yet), one professional who is concurrently the deputy director of the land registration office and three professionals in land management. One has with university degree in environment and one has a university degree in land management, the others are technicians. The sub-DONRE of Lak district comprises of six public servants, one chief (no assistant chief yet), one professional who is concurrently the deputy director of the land registration office and four professionals in land management. One has a university degree in agriculture, the others are technicians. Whenever required, the sub-DONRE may sign contracts with other professionals for specific tasks. According to the regulations of the 2003 Land Law, the state decentralized most of the tasks of land management to the local authorities. This includes, among others, land allocation, land lease, transfer of land use to other purposes, issuance of land use certificates, settlement of land disputes, follow-up on complaints and accusations, etc. The jurisdiction over households, individuals and communes lies with the DPC. Such strong decentralization requires a contingence of experienced and qualified officials and public servants to give advice to the district PC on land management in particular, and on the environment in general. 4.2.3. Land Tenure and Land Allocation As described by the Land Law, the ownership of land lies with the state. The state can allocate land to public and private organizations, households, communities, individuals, religious facilities, overseas Vietnamese and foreign organizations. Agricultural land is allocated for a period of 20 years for annual crops; and for perennial crops and forestland for 50 years, based on a land use right certificate (red book certification). Land can also be leased for specific purpose based on a management contract such as for the establishment of hydropower stations, quarry and mining cites, management of forestlands and plantation establishment. The table below shows the distribution of land in 2005 to different users and the areas already under management. It does not necessarily mean that land certificates or management contracts have already been issued. This process is still ongoing and it is planned that it should be completed by 2007.

Table 40: Potential land types by land category

Land type Area by management Area by user (ha) Local Local Other Other Other Economic Economic individuals Households, Households, communities communities organizations organizations organizations organizations Commune PCs PCs Commune Commune PCs PCs Commune

Agricultural land 28,497 13 22,582 51,815 6,231 13,219 Non-agricultural land 872 213 299 802 2 1,631 1,950 Waste land 10,179 10,028 6,868 Total areas 29,369 226 33,060 62,645 2 6,231 21,718 1,950

Sources: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combined with land use statistics

Economic organisations in the SKAW include: Krong Bong State Forest Enterprise (SFE), Lak SFE and Dong Nai Paper Company. Other organisation include Chu Yang Sin National Park, Nam Ka Conservation Unit, and Lake Lak Historical – Cultural – Environmental Conservation Unit. The process of land allocation has been speeded up in recent years. The administrative procedures were followed and unsystematic and irregular land allotment has been limited. Land allotment was carried out in accordance with officially approved annual land use plans. Sub-DONRE supported the DPCs in the process of land allocation to individual households and organisations. But it has to be mentioned, that for the SFEs and the Chu Yang Sin National Park so far no red book certificate has been issued. By the end of 2005, altogether 31,095 land use right certificates have been issued which cover a total area of 40,163 ha or 26% of the SKAW area. 39.570,58 ha of agricultural land or 32% of the total were allocated. Of the agricultural production land 57 % or 15.366 ha was allocated and from forest land so far only 12% or 11,702 ha was allocated.

Table 41: Land use right certificates issued by 2005 Certificates issued to households, individuals Certificates issued to organizations Total No. Total Type of land No. No. No. of hhs areas organizat- areas certificates certificates issued allotted `ions allotted issued issued (ha) issued (ha) Entire administrative unit 18,503 31,057 17,240 38 38 22,923 Agricultural land 16,847 24,354 16,662 3 3 22,908 Land for agric. production 16,847 24,311 15,365 1 1 1 Land for forestry 421 418 1,273 1 1 10,429 Land for aquaculture 407 407 24 0 0 0 Non-agricultural land 15,554 15,665 578 38 38 25 Land in the rural 13,298 13,399 505 1,506 0 0 Land in the urban 2,256 2,266 72 1,121 0 0 Particular use land 40 40 1 8 8 12

Sources: Land use statistics 2005 Note: The number in the above table do not necessarily add-up as one certificate may cover agricultural land and non agricultural land, as well as different types of land.

4.2.4. Problems, Issues and Constraints Decisions of the commune and district PC on land use and management collide with the land request of individuals and households. For example, the areas allocated to state forest enterprises for forest management and the designation of national parks and nature conservation areas does not always take into account the requirements and traditional land tenure rights of local people. Indigenous ethnic people traditionally consider land as community or clan owned. However, so far, village communities have not been considered as legal entities for the allocation of land and the issuance of land titles. The allocation of land to individuals and households creates a lot of disputes and social conflicts. There is still some unregulated immigration of people into the SKAW, which is a big problem for the sustainable management of natural resources and land allocation. Although state policies and regulations on land management are well developed and in place, their implementation so far has not been very effective out of the following two reasons: (1) the local population has little knowledge on the new land policy due to lack of information; (2) the local population, especially the ethnic minorities have a lack of understanding of the procedures and processes of land allocation and management, due to their current level of education. Although land use planning was carried out and land use plans were established, the implementation was not very effective, because of the low accuracy of land use data and lack of stakeholder participation. Main reason for this has been insufficient monitoring of land use changes and the use of outdated survey data. The progress of land allocation has been quite slow, and whether it will be possible to allocate all lands by 2007 is a big question.

4.2.5. Potential Fields of Intervention Land use planning needs to be improved in order to make optimal use of the limited agricultural land resources and to provide accurate data for land allocation. It has to be

based on most recent land use data and has to involve all stakeholders, especially local communities and rural households. All agreements reached during the process of land use planning with the stakeholders should be documented and legalised. Land-use planning should be based on the principle of economic feasibility, environmental friendliness and social acceptability. Plans and programs of various government agencies and other management organisations need to be synchronized especially with relevance to agriculture, forestry, economic development, land management and tourism development. A tourism development plan needs to be prepared in coordination with local authorities on district and province level and with other stakeholders. Emphasize should be paid to the development of eco-tourism especially in the mountainous areas inhabited by ethnic minorities. A significant area of land needs to be reserved for the ethnic minorities as well for new immigrants in order to provide the basis for the development of rural livelihood and to ensure food security. Land management and land allocation should consider the cultural background of the ethnic minorities. Land development for agro-industrial purposes should be based on an environmental impact assessment. Measures need to be formulated how to dispose waste and contaminated materials. The coverage degree of the SKAW should be increased by introduction of sound farming and agro-forestry systems, planting of watershed forests and wind-brake trees. Exposed sites or steep slopes should be reforested or planted with tree crops. The introduction of agro- forestry and home forest gardens would require the immediate issuance of long-term and stable land use rights. Considering the above mentioned, one of the most efficient field of intervention would be to support participative resource use planning especially on commune level which takes into account the actual status of the natural resources, and the current resource uses and needs of the local population. A more specific and detailed discussion on potential field of intervention is given in the expert report of NGUYEN TIEN.

5. Forest Resources and Management Very detailed information on the forestry sector in the SKAW is provided in the expert report of VO HUNG. For an analysis of the forest sector in general refer to the “National Forest Strategy”.

5.1. Vegetation Types and Forest Cover 5.1.1. Description and Distribution Based on the satellite image interpretation of SPOT 5 imagery the following forest and vegetation types occur in the SKAW by 2005 (refer also Table 42 and Figure 5). Table 42: Distribution of Forest and Vegetation types

Sub-Catchment Land Cover type Elan Krong Krong Total Dac Lieng Long Ding Niong Bong Kmarr Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 2,717 3 19,008 3,816 1 25,544 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 4,560 1,265 16,938 2,799 2,231 27,793 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 6,280 1,109 13,677 1,882 1,587 24,535 Semi-deciduous broad leaved closed forest 169 169 Deciduous broad leaved forest 7 71 78 Pure pine closed forest 142 2,512 1,352 4,006 Mixed pine forest 680 3,223 1,390 5,293 Pure bamboo forest 1,624 574 358 1,084 3,640 Mixed bamboo forest 783 178 3,199 4,160 Residential and build area 523 904 677 819 117 3,039 Grass and shrub savanna 4,760 2,060 9,210 1,790 1,665 19,484 Mosaic barren land 205 1,235 1,440 Tree savanna 3,968 191 1,491 468 32 6,151 Perennial croplands 1,289 100 1,181 1,286 396 4,252 Annual upland crop 1,930 4,014 6,458 972 290 13,664 Annual lowland crop 3,338 1,549 970 849 2,490 9,195 Water body 1,440 336 318 193 470 2,757 Grand Total 34,041 11,973 77,651 17,974 13,562 155,200 Source: GIS analysis of Spot 5 imagery

Figure 5: Vegetation cover

Rate of types of vegetable cover

Other land 4% Perennial croplands 3% Annual crop 15%

Evergreen broad leaved forest 50% Grass, shrub savanna and bare land 17%

Pine closed forest Semi-deciduous 6% broad leaved forest Pure bamboo forest 0% 5% Dipterocarp forest 0%

50% of the vegetation cover is formed by evergreen broadleaved forest of various conditions. Grass and shrubland, bare and regenerating forests cover 17% of the SKAW, pine forests 6% and bamboo forests 5%. A short description of the forest types and their status is given below, for a more detailed description refer to the expert report of VO HUNG:

5.1.1.1. Evergreen Broad Leaved Closed Forest This forest type occupies around 25,444 ha (16.5% of the total natural area). It mainly occurs in Krong Bong sub-catchment. It is distributed at an altitude of 1000 m upwards, forming a large concentrated area around Chu Yang Sin National Park in Khue Ngoc Dien, Hoa Le communes and a part in the forest stand of Krong Bong SFE in the eastern side of Yang Mao commune. This forest type is a primary forest, which is almost undisturbed. The forest cover is about 0.7- 0.9. Most dominant broadleaved species are of the families Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Altingiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Betulaceae. In addition, there are also a few coniferous tree species intermixed scattern-wise such as Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Dacrydium elatum, Nageia wallichiana, Pinus kesiya,Pinus dalatensis, Pinus krempfii, Fokienia hodginsii. This vegetation type has a typical multi-storey structure of 4-5 layers.

5.1.1.2. Evergreen Broad Leaved Medium Forest This forest type occupies 27,793 ha (17.9 %) of the total natural area and is most common in the Krong Bong and Dac Lieng sub-catchments. It is commonly distributed at an altitude of 800 – 1000 m and it concentrates mainly in Đak Phoi, Bong Krang communes (Lak district), Cu Pui, Cu Drăm, Hoà Le and Yang Mao (Krong Bong) This type of forest has already been slightly disturbed but still has a primeval character. The most common species are of the families of Dipterocarpaceae, Meliaceae, Sapindaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae, Mimosaceae, Euphorbiacea, Moraceae, Fagaceae, Lauraceae,

Magnoliaceae, Lythraceae, Combretaceae, Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Burseraceae, Eberaceae, Clusiaceae and many others. However, depending on the degree of disturbance the forest cover is around 0.5-0.8.

5.1.1.3. Evergreen Broad Leaved Open Forest This forest type has an area of 24,535 ha, occupying 15.8% of the total area. It occurs mainly in the sub-catchments of Krong Bong and Dac Lieng. It is usually distributed at an altitude from 600- 800m, and consists of degraded forests and secondary forests. This forest type concentrates mainly in the southern and southeastern sides of Chu Yang Sin National Park and in some forest stands of Lak State Forest Estate (SFE). It is usually distributed along streams or in the vicinity of villages. This forest type has been heavily disturbed and is seriously degraded. There are still some emergent trees of economic value such as Cinnamon, Michelia, Aglaia, Lithocarpus, Hopea odorata, Sorea roxburghii, Darcrytcarpus imbricartus, but the majority are fast growing and light-demanding pioneers. The forest cover is less than 0.7. Forest tree size and forest layer depends on the age and the degree of disturbance. These forest areas need to be protected and rehabilitated, wherever the natural potential for self-regeneration is lost.

5.1.1.4. Deciduous Broad Leaved Forest (Dipterocarp Forest) This forest type has a small area of 78ha, occupying only 0.05% of the total area. It is distributed near villages in Đak Phoi commune, Lak district. The species composition is uniform, mainly Dipterocarpus oftusifolius. This species is characterized by a straight stem, and it is preferably used for poles for local for house construction. Due to its vicinity close to the village it is subject to illegal logging and encroachment. It requires immediate protection.

5.1.1.5. Pure Bamboo Forest Pure bamboo forests cover an area of 3,639ha or 2.3% of the total area. It is scattern-wise distributed throughout the SKAW. It has been developed from evergreen forests, which have been seriously degraded by shifting cultivation and over-exploitation. Due to a lack of mother trees, there is no regeneration of timber species, and the forest is dominated by Bambusa procea and Gigantochloa nigro-ciliata, Schizostachyum dulloo, Schizostachyum sp. Once these species occur, they aggressively invade the neighbouring evergreen forests. Under their dense cover, no other timber species can regenerate. The majority of bamboo forests in the SKAW are of Gingantocholoa nigro-ciliata Schinzostachyum leviculme. These bamboo species are of low economic value so they are hardly used.

5.1.1.6. Pure Coniferous Closed Forest This forest type covers an area of 4,006 ha (2.6 %) and occurs in narrow strips in the Ea Krong Kmar valley and in the Đak Me Valley of Chu Yang Sin National Park and in several areas of Lak SFE. It comprises mainly of pure Pinus kesiya and has a very typical structure of a layer of pine with a density of 150-160 trees/ha and an under-storey of shrubs. This is attractive vegetation to eco- tourism in particular and to tourism in general but it has been threatened by resin exploitation and forest fires. Therefore, it should be actively conserved.

5.1.1.7. Bamboo and Mixed Timber Forest This forest type has an area of 4,160 ha (2.7 %) and comprises mainly of Bambusa procera and Neohouzeana dullo intermingled with some timber tree species. On dry and poor sites the timber trees comprise of Aporosa, Homalium, Engelhardtia, Vitex, Irvingia malayana, etc. on good sites the main timber trees are of the families of Fagaceae, Lauraceae and Theacae.

5.1.1.8. Semi-Deciduous Broad Leaved Forest Semi-deciduous forest covers a tiny area of 169 ha (0.1%) in Yang Mao commune, Krong Bong district. Species composition is quite uniform, main species are of the Dipterocarpus family such as Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Shorea obtusa, Shorea siamensis, and of Terminalia alata, who shade the leaves during the dry season. These species are intermixed with some evergreen timber trees such as Xylia xylocarpa, Lithocarpus spp, Cratoxylon polyanthum, etc.. This forest type is located in the lowlands close to residential areas and it is intensively exploited by the local people for construction wood (i.e. poles, sawn-wood). This forest types was and is heavily encroached as it stocks on lands suitable for agriculture.

5.1.1.9. Grass and Shrub Savannah This vegetation type occupies an area of 19,485 ha (12.6 %). It is distributed near villages, along roads and former settlements and developed from long-term shifting cultivation and cattle grazing. It is subject to heavy soil erosion and the now shallow and infertile soil layer is only suitable for shrubs and grasses.

5.1.1.10. Tree Savannah Tree savannah covers an area of 6,151 ha (4.0 %). It is similar to the vegetation type described above. However, there are still some small, drought-enduring regeneration trees such as Aporosa dioica, Cratoxylon polyanthum, Sapium discolor and species of the families of Fagaceae and Lauraceae. If these species are well-protected, it is possible to rehabilitate them into forest but it requires a long time. On the other hand, in terms of Bio-D preservation, it is not only an ideal biotope for birds and animals which are not adaptable to evergreen biotope but also a food-searching place for both herbivores and carnivores and as such should be conserved as it is.

5.1.2. Relevance for Water Management The total forestland in the research area is 95,219 ha, occupying 61,4 % of the total area. It is mainly distributed in high mountainous and hilly areas and on steep slopes and as such plays an important role in soil conservation and regulation of water resources. It does not only have an direct impact on the life and livelihood of the local people living there but also on those down-streams as it also controls the water flow of the whole tributary system to Krong Ana River. Most people in villages settle and conduct agricultural cultivation along Krong Ana River. The water resource of this river plays a crucial role for irrigation agriculture, such as for rice and coffee. Thus, the protection and development of the existing forestland profoundly affect the stability of life and production, and reduces the negative effects and risks of droughts and floods. Severe forest degradation on steep slopes close to residential areas has caused severe soil degradation and led to high rate of sedimentation of rivers and streams as well as of lake Lak as reported by the Department of Water Resources, DARD: Apart from preserving and developing the existing forestland, it is necessary to reforest the bare areas on steep slopes mainly in Hoa Phong, Cu Pui and Yang Mao communes.

5.1.3. Forest Cover Changes In order to determine and analyse the changes in forest covers the vegetation classification 1995 was compared with the results of the SPOT 5 image interpretation, which was conducted especially for this study. The SPOT images were taken in 2005. For the verification of image interpretation field checks were conducted and local people and foresters were consulted.

The changes of vegetation cover in the SKAW are shown in Table 43. The changes per sub- catchment are attached in Annex 3. A map in Annex 4 shows the change in vegetation cover in terms of improvement or degradation and Table 44 shows the change from one forest type to the other.

Table 43: Changes in vegetation cover from 1995 to 2005 1995 2005 Change +/- Vegetation Cover (ha) (ha) (ha) absol. relative Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 44,517 25,544 -18,973 -12.2 -42.6 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 18,849 27, 793 8,944 5.8 47.5 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 27,918 24,535 -3,383 -2.2 -12.1 Pure pine closed forest 2,828 4,006 1,178 0.8 41.7 Pure pine medium and open forest 1,310 -1,310 -0.8 -100.0 Mixed pine forest 5,342 5,293 -49 0.0 -0.9 Pure bamboo forest 4,976 3,639 -1,337 -0.9 -26.9 Mixed bamboo forest 4,955 4,160 -795 -0.5 -16.1 Semi-deciduous broad leaved closed forest 181 169 -12 0.0 -7.0 Semi-deciduous broad leaved medium and open forest 271 -271 -0.2 -100.0 Deciduous broad leaved forest (Dipterocarp forest) 776 78 -698 -0.4 -89.9 Grass and shrub savanna 4,993 19,485 14,492 9.3 290.3 Source: 1995 vegetation classification (DANIDA) and SPOT 5 interpretation 2005.

For the overall change in land use refer to Figure 6, chapter 4.1.2 and Table 37. Figure 6: Land use change from 1995 to 2005

Vegetable cover change from 1995 - 2005

20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0

Area (ha) -5,000 -10,000 -15,000 -20,000 Perennial Annual crop Forest Wood/ Shrub Other land croplands Decrease -4,456 0 -16,732 -6,824 -10 Increase 8,571 4,253 27 13,775 1396

Table 44: Change of forest cover from one type to another

FOREST COVER 2005

Semi- Semi- Evergreen deciduous Deciduous FOREST COVER 1995 Evergreen deciduous Pure pine broad Evergreen broad broad leaved Pure pine Pure Mixed broad broad medium Mixed pine Wood/ leaved broad leaved leaved forest closed bamboo bamboo Non Forest Grand Total leaved leaved and open forest closed medium forest medium (Dipterocarp forest forest forest Shrub open forest closed forest forest and open forest) forest forest

Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 22794.397 10460.20733 7420.8541 2973.0903 868.75576 44517.304

Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 1864.4272 9613.525552 5459.7611 1519.4873 391.61652 18848.818

Evergreen broad leaved open forest 885.62764 7719.225816 11627.6 5773.316 1901.7573 27907.526

Semi-deciduous broad leaved closed forest 168.72851 3.4723808 9.2870814 181.48798

Semi-deciduous broad leaved medium and open forest 227.66361 43.390441 271.05405

Deciduous broad leaved forest (Dipterocarp forest) 78.330199 284.45548 412.88399 775.66967

Pure pine closed forest 2701.0442 137.63447 2828.3154

Pure pine medium and open forest 1305.2677 4.344978 1309.6127

Mixed pine forest 5293.3922 41.75624 6.7499232 5341.8983

Pure bamboo forest 3639.2181 845.13967 491.76838 4976.1261

Mixed bamboo forest 4159.607 543.5863 252.27222 4955.4655

Wood/Shrub 1.8044817 13300.245 6821.7448 20123.794

Non Forest 25.022671 1420.5981 21707.107 23152.728

Grand total 25544.452 27792.9587 24535.042 168.72851 78.330199 4006.3119 5293.3922 3639.2181 4159.607 27074.789 32907.334 1 55200.16 Source: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combine with land use statistic

Note: Unchanged Improved Degraded Encroached Impossible

From 1995 to 2005, the forest area decreased from 111,924 ha to 95,218 ha in which only 27 ha of other forest cover has been rehabilitated while 16,732 ha has been converted into agricultural lands (3,953 ha) or in grass and shrub savannah (12,352 ha). The conversion into grass and shrub land is a result of shifting cultivation and illegal logging for timber and firewood. Increasing population and lack of agricultural land has forced people to encroach forestlands even on steep slopes for the cultivation of dry paddy, maize and cassava. This process still continues. Apart from changes of forestland into other land uses, there have also been changes, i.e. degradation or improvement, from one forest type to another, which are shown in Table 44. The most significant change was from closed evergreen broadleaved forest to medium or open evergreen forest but also to grass and shrub savannah. A detailed description of the changes of individual forest types is given in the expert report of VO HUNG.

5.1.4. Development of Forest Cover Until 2010 Most of the forest area in the SKAW has been degrtaded for the past years. It is therefore of utmost importance to strengthen the management and protection of forest resources. According to the master development plans of the two districts it is planned to increase the forest land area for about 4,600 ha mainly by rehabilitation of natural forest, but also through the establishment of plantations (see table below). Table 45: Development of forest cover until 2010

2005 2010 Change Land Use Krong Krong Krong Total Lak Total Lak Total Lak Bong Bong Bong Forest Land 95,219 29,462 65,757 99,832 32,380 67, 452 4,613 2,918 1,695 Natural Forest 93,965 28,913 65,052 98,032 31,580 66,452 4,067 2,667 1,400 Plantation 1,254 549 705 1,800 800 1,000 546 251 295 Source: Master socio-economic development plan of 2 districts in the period of 2001-2010.

5.2. Forest Administration and Organisation On national level, management of forests is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MARD, which is represented on provincial level by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD). DARD is directly responsible to the PPC. DARD comprises of the Forestry Department, Planning Section and Forestry Products Processing Section. The Forestry Department has three functional sections are technical, synthetic and project management. The main task of the Forestry Department is to approve and monitoring the annual plans and the management plans of the forestry organizations such as SFEs, national park, and conservation area management units. Their area of jurisdiction covers protection forests, production forests and special use forest. The Forestry Department staff furthermore checks forest plantation management, timber harvesting and logging, timber processing, etc.

Figure 7: Organisational structure of DARD

In Krong Bong district, there are two forestry organisations under the provincial management: Krong Bong SFE and Chu Yang Sin National Park. In Lak district there are three forestry organisations under provincial management: Lak SFE, Lake Lak Historical – Cultural – Environmental Conservation Area, Nam Ka Conservation Area. The location of these areas is shown in a map in Annex 4. All of these management areas cover different communes, which requires to work with different administrative bodies, namely commune and district leaders, especially in coordination and support for the implementation of policies that relate to planning, natural resources use and management, and socio-economic and cultural development of the local people. In terms of organisation and professional management they are directly under DARD. For the organizational structures of state forest enterprises and of Chu Yang Sin National Park refer to the report of VO HUNG.

5.3. Forest Classification In Vietnam, three forest categories are distinguished which are also relevant for the SKAW, which are: production forest, protection forest and special use forest. The distribution of these three categories is currently being reviewed. It is expected that results will be available by end of November 2005. The areas specified in the chapters below, refer to the current situation and may have to be revised later on. Production forest are identified with the main objectives to establish and develop forest areas for forest production and economic development. This includes timber and non-timber forest products in combination with environmental protection and ecological balance. Protection forest is identified for the purpose to establish and develop forest for water resource protection and regulation, soil protection, erosion prevention, natural disasters prevention, climate harmonization, to ensure ecological balance and environmental security. 58

Special use forest is defined to serve for natural conservation, ecosystem protection, the protection of gene sources of animals and plants, scientific research, protection of historical and cultural relics and sites, beauty spots and landscapes, and areas for tourism development.

5.4. Management of Natural Production Forest Altogether 33,653 ha of production forest area located in the SKAW which corresponds with 22.1% of the total area. The distribution of the production forests within communes and SFEs is shown in the table below. Table 46: Distribution of production forests by management organisation Managment Organisation Commune Krong Bong Krong Bong Lak DPC Lak SFE DPC SFE (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) TT Krong Kmar Hoa Phong 5,454 5,454 Hoa Le 1,326 Yang Reh 4 Ea Trul 858 Khue Ngoc Đien 328 Cu Pui 3,446 3,446 Hoa Sơn 1,369 Cu Dram 3,670 3,667 Yang Mao 10,376 10,376 Dak Lieng 148 Buon Triet 36 Buon Tria 18 Dak Phoi 5,589 5,589 Dak Nue 991 991 Total Area 26,871 22,946 6,782 6,580 Source: State forest enterprise reports and GIS analysis

In Krong district about 23,000 ha are managed by Krong Bong SFE based on a management contract, a red book certificate is not yet obtained. The remaining area of about 4000 ha is managed by Krong Bong district. For the latter no business or management plan has been prepared so far as it is kept as a land reserve for allocation to local people and communities. Unfortunately, most of these areas are already seriously depleted and located on steep slopes. To rehabilitate them requires a lot of input in terms of investment and labour.

5.4.1. State Forest Enterprises The largest share of the natural production forest areas are managed by the two state forest enterprises: Krong Bong SFE and Lak SFE as already shown in Table 46 above. Forest management by SFE is based on a management plan with a 5 years period. The current plans are valid from 2006 to 2010. The main management activities are: - Timber production - Forest protection - Natural forest rehabilitation - Reforestation of bare land and plantation establishment

5.4.1.1. Timber Production Logging from natural forest is a major production activity of Krong Bong and Lak enterprises for many years when forest enterprises shifted from subsidization to innovative business operation pursuant to Decision number 187/QD-TTG. Annual logging targets are based on forest management plans and logging quota set by the provincial government. Implementation of logging is controlled and monitored by the Forest Protection Department of DARD in collaboration with Forest Protection Departments at provincial and district levels. From 2001 to 2005, altogether about 30,700 m3 of timber was exploited of which two-thirds have been produced in the Krong Bong SFE (see table below). Table 47: Annual timber production from 2001 to 2005 Year Total Krong Bong SFE Lak SFE (m3) (m3) (m3) 2001 6,772 4,764 2,008 2002 7,173 5,167 2,006 2003 3,551 1,534 2,017 2004 4,603 2,500 2,103 2005 8,553 6,720 1,833 Total 30,652 20,685 9,967 Source: Lak and Krong Bong SFE reports

Most of the timber exploitation comes from rich and medium forest stand not only of production forest but also of some important and less important protection forest of the Lak SFE. Most of the exploited round wood is processed into sawn wood in SFE own workshops and sold to the local market; only little is sold outside the province. After harvesting, it is necessary to conduct forest sanitation in recently logged areas. The average area for forest sanitation in each SFE is around 200 ha/year. Sanitation measures comprise of promotion of natural regeneration, cutting of logging waste, salvage logging of damaged small trees. However, implementation is not always carried out to the extent planned.

5.4.1.2. Forest Protection Forest protection is a very difficult task because the management areas of the two SFEs are quite large and dispersed and most of the area is not easily accessible. Each SFE has a protection force, which is organized in sub-units to implement forest protection by regular patrolling and control especially of bordering areas among districts and locations where free migrants of ethnic minorities have settled. Main task is to prevent further shifting cultivation, illegal logging and poaching. In case of violations the protection force prepares records and forwards the issue to the competent authorities. Emphasis is also paid to extension work on the protection of natural forests and for the dissemination of new regulations, policies and development plans. One important activity is forest fire prevention and control. This is done in cooperation with local authorities. Close to residential areas, the SFEs signs forest protection and management contracts with individual households or household groups.

5.4.1.3. Forest Rehabilitation During recent management planning, natural regeneration zones were identified, 753 ha in Krong Bong SFE and 6,768 ha in Lak SFE. Forest rehabilitation comprises of the following activities: inventory, development of rehabilitation plans, record keeping, allocation to different households for protection, identification of boundaries, set up of land marks and sign boards. Silvicultural measures implemented are liberation, climber cutting and the removal of bushes and shrubs. Rehabilitation areas are to be protected from cattle grazing and require intensive protection.

5.4.2. Communities, User Groups and Households (Forest Land Allocation) Forestland allocation (FLA) is one of the most pressing issues in Dak Lak province. So far, a number of studies and reports dealing with FLA have already been conducted in the past, such as VO NGUYEN HUAN (undated), VO HUNG et al (2003), NGUYEN THI THANH HUONG (2002), TRAN HUU NGHI (2001), TRAN NGOC THANH (2000), THOMAS SIKOR (2000), PHAM QUOC TUAN (1997), and NGUYEN VAN XUAN (2003). During the implementation of this baseline study emphasize was also paid to the current situation of FLA and its effects on livelihood and the environment. This is discussed in detail in the report of VO HUNG. Within the next month a comprehensive study is going to be implemented with the support of the GTZ supported Project Rural Development Dak Lak (RDDL) and the WSMP of AIFM/MRC which will look into the effects of FLA on the livelihood of the people and on the forest environment in great detail based on a rather systematic and statistically sound approach. Taking this into consideration, at this place only the current status of FLA within the SKAW is described and the main issues are briefly discussed. The main objective of FLA is, that by allocating forest land to rural households and communities as ownership, they will take over the responsibility on the forest resources and ensure its protection, as they will directly benefit from it. Forestland allocation started in Dak Lak province already back in 1999. By the end of 2005 altogether about 13,500 ha of forestlands have been allocated involving 1,652 households. Forestland has been allocated almost equally to individual households (32%), household groups (32%) and local communities (36%). The table below shows the current status of FLA in the SKAW.

Household Community Household Group Total District Commune Area No. of Area No. Area No. Area No. of (ha) hh (ha) of hh (ha) of hh (ha) hh Krong Hoa Sơn 188.0 115 1,149.2 81 1,337.2 196 Bong Hoa Le 946.0 112 946,0 112 Hoa Phong 1,086.5 99 1,086.5 99 Cu Dram 1,129.7 116 1,174.5 78 2304.2 194 Yang Mao 3,522.1 740 3,522.1 740 Lak Dak Phoi 2,633.1 182 2,633.1 182 Dak Nue 1,667.8 129 1,667.8 129 Total 4300.9 311 4839.8 971 4356.2 370 13,496.9 1,652 Source: DARD Dak Lak, 2006

Figure 8: Forestland allocation to households, communities and household groups

32% 32% Individual Household Community Household Group

36%

Source : DARD Dakl Lak, 2006

In Krong Bong district from the total of 9196 ha of forestland allocated, 5428 ha (59%) has been timber forests of which almost half of it comprised of poor and regenerating forests. Another 18% has been bamboo and mixed bamboo forests and the reaming 23% was bare land or waste land without forest cover. For a break down according to individual forest categories per commune refer to the Annex in the report of VO NHUNG. In Lak district of the total of 4301 allocated land, 54% has been un-stocked wastelands and the remaining 46% were poor bamboo and pseudoxytenanthera forests. The effects of FLA are manifold, both in terms of socio-economy as well as in terms of impact on the forestlands. They are both positive and negative and so far it is not possible to draw a final conclusion. Positive effects observed were: increase of income of rural households, which have received well-stocked areas and improved access to forest products and NTFP for participating households. Reduction of illegal logging and outside impacts on allocated land. Negative effects were on the other hand, that the access to forest resources has become much more difficult for households which have not yet obtained a use certificate. The distribution of forestland was not always fair, top down and without community participation, which has created a lot of social conflicts. Traditional ownership and management practices have not been considered to the extent required which turned into an inefficient management of allocated areas, especially as far as the ethnic minorities are concerned. Furthermore, the new forest owners have little knowledge in forest management and a lack of awareness concerning the need for forest conservation. They also lack the capital to invest in forest improvement measures. Concerning the effects on the forest environment, not much is known so far, as no comparative resource assessments have been conducted.

5.4.3. Forest Management Board In the process of land and forest allocation to household groups and communities, in order to promote effects of the allocated land area, most of household groups and communities allocated forest and land have established community forest management boards. Normally, each village has set up its own management board of 3-5 members each. Members of the community forest management boards are agreed and appointed to be representatives in the process of forestland allocation by all people in the village. These are prestigious people in the village and they have the ability to agitate others to participate in forest management. Each community forest management board will act as a link among Commune Forest Board, authorities of all levels in implementing the policy of forest and land allocation and organization of forest protection and management. Interests of each community forest

management board will be discussed in detail within each community when establishing the convention on forest protection and management. In general, community forest management boards have been established in villages in Krong Bong, but they are not effective. There is a lack of motivation and the required coordination with local authorities and SFE is not followed-up. The main cause is that Forest Management Boards receive hardly any benefit and that many people are not aware of their existence.

5.4.4. Leased Forests According to statistical figures of Lak district’s economic bureau, some organisations and individuals have rented/leased forest land for the objective of forest economic development, which area the following: - HCM City Youth Technological Application: 951 ha in Krong No commune. Land was allocated in 2003; the objective of land use is to plant bamboo for bamboo shoot collection. - Tan Mai Paper Enterprise: Land area is 2100 ha and it was allocated in 2001 in Krong No. The objective is to plant pines for paper material. - Mr. Nguyen Van Hai leased 300 ha of land in Nam Ka buffer zone, Đak Nue commune. He invests in animal breeding and aquaculture and establishes plantations of Acacia auriculiformis and Melia. - Mr. Tran Van Phuoc: 800 ha for Melia plantation in Nam Ka buffer zone; - Mr. Dien: 250 ha for Melia plantation in Nam Ka buffer zone. All private forest organizations are in the first period of forest plantation and tending, no harvesting operations were conducted so far.

5.5. Plantation Forest Management 5.5.1. Industrial Timber Plantation Timber plantations on an industrial scale are a separate business plan of the SFEs. In the past years, Krong Bong and Lak SFEs have realized the good natural conditions for the establishment of plantations at a larger scale. Both invested considerably in the reforestation of bare forestland and Pseudoxytenanthera, bamboo and neohouzeana dulloa forestland mainly near transportation roads. This was financed with their own capital or by preferential loans (Ib). Mainly fast growing exotic plantation species were planted such as Eucalyptus urophylla S.T. Blake, Acacia auriculiformis and Melia azedarach. The table below provides an overview of the plantation areas established since 2001.

Table 48: Area of plantation forest of Krong Bong and Lak SFEs (2001 - 2005).

Krong Bong SFE Lak SFE

Total Area and species (ha) Total Species (ha) Year of area Bead+ Other area plantation Eucalyptus Acacia Bead Acacia Bead (ha) eucalyptus Species (ha) 2001 53 45 8 50 50 2002 277 246 31 100 100 2003 112 80 32 150 150 2004 415 231 100 70 9 4 200 200 2005 129 129 200 200 Total 986 731 171 70 9 4 700 300 400 Source: Krong Bong and Lak state forest enterprise reports

Picture 1: 2 years old Eucalyptus plantation at Son Phong village

On average, each SFE plant 100-200 ha of plantation forest on bare land area planned for forest production every year. In Krong Bong SFE, this plantation forest area is given out to local people on a contract basis and benefits are shared after harvesting. Lak SFE itself invests capital for forest plantation. It hires local people mainly of the ethnic minorities on seasonal basis and signs contracts with them for forest protection and management at a price of 5,000ha/ year. Plantation establishment is done as follows. Flat wastelands are bulldozed and ploughed, hilly areas are cleared and burnt. Tissue culture and cutting propagation are commonly applied especially for eucalyptus, acacia and melia. Plants are raised in large nurseries away from the plantation sites. Fertilizers are applied during the first three years. So far only monocultures are planted, no local species are intermixed. Plantations are regularly tended; reforestation after harvesting is done either by replanting or by applying the coppice system. Protection from fire is done based on forest protection contracts with local people; firebreaks and watchtowers are established. Forest plantation sites include land allocated to farmers and land under SFE management. Krong Bong SFE signs association contracts with local farmers for joint plantation establishment. The SFE provides the plantation investment for the production of seedlings, provision of fertilizer costs for land preparation i.e. ploughing and labour cost. According to the contracts signed between farmers and the SFE, the eucalyptus forest plantation plan of Krong Bong SFE is estimated about 17.7 million VND per ha including eucalyptus afforestation and tending in a 5 year-cycle, in the sixth year clear cutting is conducted with 100 m3 timber and it is sold for 25 million VND in total. When deducting investment costs, the net profit is 1.5 million VND/ha/year, which is evenly shared by the farmer and the enterprise. For the second and the third cycle of eucalyptus the net profit will raise for 60-70%, as no plantation establishment cost are required (i.e. Eucalyptus is regenerated by coppice). Based on the analysis of growth plots of a 4 years old eucalyptus plantations has shown an average survival rate of 86.4%, average tree height of 9.1 m and an average dbh of 12.8 cm. For more details refer to the report of VO HUNG. According to the present 5-years renovation and development plans Lak SFE plans to establish another 1500 ha of fast growing plantations; Krong Bong SFE 600 ha. Krong Bong district has submitted two projects, one of the district and another one of Chu Yang Sin National Park, to support people to plant plantation forest according to 5 million ha reforestation program. People will be supported 2 million/ha for plantation. The total plantation area of the whole Krong Bong district will be 1,482 ha in the 2007-2010 period. Taking into account all these plans, then by end of 2010, 3800 ha of new plantation forests will be established in the SKAW.

5.5.2. Small Scale Plantations and Tree Planting Apart from the commercial timber plantations mentioned above, both districts have organized events such as “thankful to Uncle Ho” encouraging people to plant trees and to establish small woodlots in agencies, schools, along provincial and district roads, planting protection tree lines in agricultural fields, household’s gardens and residential areas applying various combinations of agriculture and forest (refer also to chapter 6). From 2001 to 2005 altogether 195,100 trees were distributed and planted.

5.5.3. Potential Areas for Small Scale Plantations Through the association program of forest plantation with the SFEs, people gradually realize the potential of forest plantation as a source for considerable income generation. The main bottleneck for the farmers, however, is the lack of funds and of suitable land for the establishment of small-scale plantations.

Therefore, province and district leaders currently review the policy of the “land fund” in close coordination with DARD in order to transfer some land areas from the SFEs and other organisations back to the communes. From the “land fund” areas will be allocated to local people mainly for the establishment of forest plantations. The areas, which have already been identified for re-allocation, are shown in the table below: Table 49: Area in ha to be re-allocated to local authorities in 2006 Commune Krong Lak SFE Lake Lak Bong SFE Conservation Area Cu Pui 1,904 Cu Dram 3,314 Yang Kang 4,834 Hoa Phong 74 Dak Phoi 141 Dak Nue 389 Dak Lieng 57 Krong No 1,437 Bong Krang 2,879 Yang Tao Total 10,126 2,024 2,879 Source: data from commune and district authorities

In line with the forestry development program of Dak Lak province (2006- 2010 period) and the 5 million ha reforestation program of the government, both districts have developed a project to support farmers in the establishment of small-scale production plantations. Out of the state budget of the 5 million ha reforestation programme, farmers will receive 2 million VND/ha investment support. The table below provides an overview on this investment project in Krong Bong District.

Table 50: Project of Krong Bong district for establishment of small-scale plantations

Project Investors Area of No. of Total investment plantation participating (VND) (ha) households Krong Bong district People’s Committee 600 365 1,206,000,000 Chu Yang Sin National Park 882 626 1,816,275,000 Source: Krong Bong District and Chu Yang Sin NP

It is expected, that with this abundant “land fund” and once the investment programme is being implemented, the area of small-scale plantations will increase rapidly. While the production of wood in plantation will increase rapidly, it has to be mentioned, that there is also the need to invest into wood processing facilities for plantation wood. This would add value and create jobs in the SKAW.

5.6. Management of Protection and Special Use Forest 5.6.1. Protection Forest There are about 14,492 ha of protection forest in the Krong Bong, mainly in the commune of Yang Mao (9,842 ha) and Cu Pui (4,650ha). About 6,675 ha are under the management of Krong Bong SFE. In Lak district there are another 1,227 ha of protection forests, namely in

the watershed area of Đak Phoi River. Protection forests are managed by SFE and local authorities mainly based on forest protection contracts.

5.6.2. Management of Special Use Forest The total area of the special use forest is 45,847 ha, occupying 30% of the SKAW. There are three special use forests in the SKAW namely Chu Yang Sin National Park, Lake Lak Historical – Cultural – Environmental Forest Area and Nam Kha Conservation Area, which implement forest conservation activities in accordance with their function. Table 51: Special use forests Special Use Forest Area (ha) Chu Yang Sin National Park 36,055 Lake Lak Historical – Cultural and Environmental Conservation Area 2,682 Nam Ka Conservation Area 7,100 Total 45,847 Source: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combined with land use statistics There are still many conflicts between conservation requirements, socio-economic development and people’s dependence on forest resources. Therefore, apart from forest protection and forest allocation plans of conservation areas, it is necessary to have more strategic solutions such as to involve community participation in conservation and benefit sharing.

5.6.2.1. Chu Yang Sin National Park Chu Yang Sin National Park was established in July 2002 according to Decree No 92/2002 TTg of the Prime Minister on transformation of the Nature Reserve into the Chu Yang Sin National Park. The objective of the National Park is to preserve the rather intact forest ecosystems and the biotope of the evergreen tropical rainforest flora and fauna, especially those of the rare and endangered species for scientific, educational and tourism purposes. Chu Yang Sin National Park lies in the high mountain region; the highest peak is Chu Yang Sin (2405 m). The total area is 58.947 ha, thus only a part of the National Park is located within the SKAW. Chu Yang Sin is very rich in biological diversity (Bio-D) as it covers a number of different ecosystems, such as tropical evergreen forest, evergreen sub-tropical rain dwarf mountain forests and dry coniferous forest. From primary forests, closed to open forests, all degrees of disturbances are also present, including secondary ecosystems such as bamboo forests and grass and shrub-savannah and some remaining patches of slash and burn. The National Park is an ideal habitat for many animals and plants, especially for big mammals such as bear, tiger, elephant and monkey and other kinds of birds and animals (refer also to chapter 2.7). There are hardly any people living inside the National Park, which facilitates its protection and conservation considerably. Beside the direct ecological values, the National Park is also of high importance for the areas downstream. Two main tributaries of the Srepok River discharge from the park, Krong Ana and Krong Na. By protecting the forests of the National Park, a continuous water supply is ensured and the risks of flood is minimized. This contributes not only to the economic evelopment of the SKAW but also to that of the Mekong River Lower Section in general. Chu Yang Sin National Park is divided into three functional blocks as shown in the table below:

Table 52: Functional blocks and buffer zone Functional blocks Area (ha) Strict protected block 53,856 Ecological rehabilitation block 5,091 Administration and service block 20 Total National Park 58,947 Buffer zone 183,479 Source: Chu Yang Sin National Park report

Strictly protected block: This covers the largest area of the park. The main objective of this block is to strictly protect and conserve the eco-systems and Bio-D within the park. Other objectives are related to research, training and education in environmental and ecological issues and to develop eco-tourism. Until now, three eco-tourism tours are identified (Krong Kmar waterfall and surrounding; Dak Tuor waterfall - the revolutionary base cave - Chu Yang Sin peak; Dac Phoi to Ba Tang waterfall and back to Đac Lien stream). In the strictly protected block all management activities are strictly prohibited with exception of the controlled collection of medicinal plants and honey.

Ecological rehabilitation block: The main objective is to rehabilitate degraded forestland area by the implementation of silvicultural measures, such as reforestation of bare lands and grass and shrub savannah, identification of natural regeneration zones and enrichment planting. Only indigenous species are permitted. This block also serves the purposes of research and tourism development.

Administrative and service block: This is the headquarter of the National Park Management Board and the directing centre for conservation activities, scientific research, organization of tourist services.

Chu Yang Sin National Park’s buffer zone: is defined according to Decision No. 92/2002/QĐ- TTg dated 12th July 2002 of the Prime Minister. The buffer zone consists of all communes that have land boundaries close to the National Park. Local authorities have to coordinate activities with the National Park Management Board. Within the buffer zone only selective cutting of harvestable forest is allowed, clear cuts are forbidden. Agro-forestry systems and the establishment of tree crop plantations are encouraged. In the past years, personnel of Chu Yang Sin National Park have made good efforts to fulfil their duties. They were supported by the leaders of Dak Lak province and other appropriate authorities and they also cooperated closely with district and commune leaders in organizing activities in order to achieve the goal of forest resources conservation and biodiversity protection.

5.6.2.2. Lake Lak and Nam Ka Conservation Areas Lake Lak Historical – Cultural and Environmental Conservation Area was established in 1995 and Nam Ka Conservation Area already back in 1986. Only parts of the Lake Lak and Nam Ka conservation areas are located within the SKAW. Main objective of these conservation areas is to conserve and protect the landscape and the historical and cultural relics. Tourism development, rehabilitation of degraded forest lands, research and education, public awareness creation, support of socio-economic development, strengthening of the traditional and spiritual life of the local population are, among others, activities implemented to achieve the objective. Lake Lak and Nam Ka conservation areas are divided into three functional blocks as follows:

Table 53: Functional sub-division of Lake Lak and Nam Ka conservation areas (ha) Special use forest Total area Area within Strict Ecological Admin + SKAW protection restoration service block block block Lake Lak 16,772 2,682 6,153 6,449 4,170 Nam Ka 33,555 7,100 17,700 6,125 9,530 Source: Lake Lak and Nam Ka conservation area reports

The conservation areas have been well managed in the past and contributed to the socio- economic development of the SKAW, although there are still many conflicts between nature conservation and community development. 5.6.3. Forest Protection Contracts Forest protection contract has been implemented for many years in forest resource management units in the SKAW. The contracted areas are special use forests and protection forests. The objective of this policy is to involve local people, especially ethnic minority communities, to participate in forest protection and to provide a stable source of income for them. The table below provides an overview of the areas managed under protection contracts. Table 54: Area under forest protection contracts in the SKAW

Commune receiving Krong Bong Lak District protective forest contract District Ha HH Ha HH Cu Pui 3,103 124 Khue Ngoc Dien 2,060 67 Hoa Son 2,850 110 Hoa Le 1967 73 Hoa Phong 1,000 34 Yang Mao 3,020 101 Yang Tao 1,982 53 Bong Krang 1,857 45 Nam Ka Ea R’Bin 10,079 Buon Triet Source: Chu Yang Sin NP and Conservation Area Reports The objectives of forest protection contracts are to protect the forest area from further degradation, to increase its value through undisturbed growth, to provide income for the local people, to create jobs and by thus to eliminate hunger and reduce poverty in the remote areas. Forest protection contracts are signed between the management organisation and the household confirmed by leaders of the village. The contracts clearly stipulate terms of rights and duties of each side. In average, 25-30 ha of forestland is covered by one contract The rural households are responsible for the protection of the area from illegal cutting, shifting cultivation, forest conversion and forest fire by regular patrolling of the area and establishment of fire protection lines. The forest will be checked by the management organisation and if it was successfully protected at the end of the year 50.000 VND/ha/year are paid. This price is fixed by government regulation. So far, the contracted households performed their responsibilities well. However, it has to be mentioned at this place, that most of the protection contracts issued are located in evergreen forests of low fire risk. But poaching by H’Mong ethnic people using homemade guns and encroachment for agricultural land, especially in Dak Phoi commune, are still issues.

The people welcome the policy of protecting forestland based on protection and management contracts. Most of the people living in rural areas, especially ethnic minorities, are very poor and an additional income of 1,250,000 - 1,500,000 VND/year is highly appreciated. It also serves as confidence building measure between local authorities/forest managers and local people.

5.7. Wood Processing Industry and Timber Market in the Region 5.7.1. Wood Processing Industry of Dak Lak Province Dak Lak is an important province for the timber processing industry. There are altogether 16 state owned enterprises (4 national, 12 provincial) and 35 private enterprises. The table below summarizes the average annual demand and the average annual log supply 2004/2005 from provincial forest resources. The total annual wood demand of the wood processing industry in the province is estimated at 75,400 m3 of which 59% has been supplied from natural forest. Table 55: Capacity and average supply of local timber industry of Dak Lak Province

Ownership Type of wood processing industry Annual Demand Average (m3/year) Annual Supply (m3/year) State Furniture 9600 5100 owned Sawmill 15300 8300 enterprise Particle board, plywood, etc. 2000 1900 Total 26900 15300 Private Furniture 12900 9150 enterprise Sawmill 22800 13350 Particle board, plywood, etc. 10000 6000 Total 45700 28500 Cooperative Furniture 800 350 enterprise Sawmill 2000 550 Total 2800 900 Total 75400 44700 Source: DARD Dak Lak (2006)

5.7.2. Wood Processing Inside Study Area (SKAW) The timber produced in the SKAW by the Krong Bong and Lak SFEs is processed by their own processing units. Both SFEs have invested recently in upgrading of their infrastructure and of their forest harvesting and wood processing facilities. Currently, the SFE Lak has two wood processing units with an annual processing capacity of 3000 m3. They are equipped with one CD saw each. From 2001 to 2005, altogether 9,967m3 of timber has been processed into 6.420 m3 of sawn wood, which makes up an average conversion rate of 64%. Sawn wood was produced mainly for the local market and some has been exported to other provinces. In 1999, the Lak SFE has had formed a joint venture with another company to produce chopsticks. From 2001 to 2005, altogether 6000 tons of chopsticks were produced by special machineries. It is planned to upgrade the technical facilities in order to increase the capacity of the factory. Krong Bong SFE has much better wood processing facilities, infrastructure and equipment than the SFE Lak, including own power generator, 2 CD saws, 2 circular saws, power winch

and a power-saw (colox 750). The equipment is designed for a turnover of 15 m3 round timber per day. The average conversion rate is 75%.

Picture 2: Wood-processing factory at Kong Bong State Forest Enterprise.

In 2006, the SFE Krong Bong formed joint venture with a company to set-up 4 wood drying kilns with a capacity of 17 - 19m3 each. This will contribute to the improvement of sawn wood quality. The equipment currently used has medium quality but is not on the level of modern technology. The use coefficient of the equipment is 30% – 40 % of its total capacity due to a shortage of raw material supply. In general, the allocated wood supply for the processing units decreases year by year in accordance with the common situation of the province. Beside of the two wood processing factories of the SFEs, in almost every local community there are some small-scale onsite processing units using chainsaws. As this is illegal operation, no statistics are available on their number or production capacity.

5.7.3. Timber and Wood Market For the purpose of marketing, round wood is classified into 8 classes according to species, quality and size. Round wood prices are regulated by Dak Lak provincial authorities and are shown in the table below:

Table 56: Round wood prices in Dak Lak province Species Price with subject to NR tax (VND/m3) 36-49 cm diameter 50 cm-up diameter Group I - Pentacme siamensis 900.000 1.000.000 Group II - Hopea odorata 1.950.000 2.100.000 - Xylia dolabriformic 1.250.000 1.400.000 - Hopea pierrei 900.000 1.000.000 - other 850.000 950.000 Group III - Lagerstroemia angustifolia 1.200.000 1.350.000 - Anisoptera cochinchinensis 1.150.000 1.250.000 - Manglietia sp 1.150.000 1.300.000 - Shorea obtusa, Parashorea stellata 950.000 1.100.000 - other 750.000 850.000 Group IV - Podocarpus imbricatus 1.050.000 1.200.000 - Dipterocarpus. sp 850.000 950.000 - Photinia sp 850.000 950.000 - Pines 700.000 800.000 - other 600.000 700.000 Group V - Dipterocarpus alatus, Swietenia 1.050.000 1.200.000 macrophylla - Dipterocarpus tuberculatus 850.000 950.000 - other 550.000 650.000 Group VI - Canarium subulatum 800.000 900.000 - other 550.000 650.000 Group VII - Nauclea orientalis 800.000 900.000 - Canarium album 800.000 900.000 - Alstonia scholaris 550.000 650.000 - other 500.000 600.000 Group VIII - Tetrameles nudiflora 550.000 650.000 - other 450.000 550.000 Source: Decision No. 3630/QD-UB and Decision 17/2003/QD-UB dated 28/01/2003

In addition to the of wood officially produced by both SFE, there is also quite some illegal wood on the market. This “floating” market is an important supplier of construction wood for the rural households and of sawn wood for furniture making. These wood products are generally cheaper, almost half of the official price, as production costs are lower, although there is a certain risk that the wood is confiscated by the forest rangers. Also transportation costs are lower, as wood is exploited where it is required. Prices are set by the intermediate merchants and buyers which have higher negotiation skills than the producers/sellers. People engage in illegal logging and wood processing when they are in need of money and in most cases it is done on order.

The two different market channels for legal and illegal produced wood are shown in the figure below. In future, when timber and wood comes from forests allocated to households and communities, an open market system should be established based on bidding price mechanisms. This would improve the supply of the local demand and result in fairer prices for the then “legal” small-scale producers. Figure 9: Wood market channel

Timber exploitation unit Local farmers exploit timber themselves

Timber processing unit Mediators

Consumption mediators Users

Consumers Export to outside of province

Timber consumption free market channel Official timber consumption market channel

5.8. Non Timber Forest Products and Marketing The use of firewood and non-timber forest products by the local people and their dependency on these products for their livelihood has already been discussed in detail in chapter 3.2.11 of this report. In the following an overview is given on the main non-wood products and their marketing. In addition to the local consumption some NWFP are also produced and marketed on a commercial scale, which are mainly bamboo and rattan. The SFE Lak has a plan to exploit Bambusa procera for the production of chopsticks with an estimated demand of 150,000 bamboo shoot per year. In the period from 2001 to 2005, about 500,000 threads of rattan were exploited in the forest area of SFE Lak alone. From 5 to 10 tones of Heterosmilax gaudich audiana root are bought every year. The SFE Krong Bong buys from 50,000 to 150,000 of rattan of all kinds, some tons of fruit of canarium subulatum, some ten tons of Heterosmilax gaudich audiana root from people. In the first 8 months of the year 2006, Krong Bong SFE has exploited 4,150 Bambusa procera shoots, 23,300 rattans and 70 tones of alpinia root. According to law, the collection of NTFP is not restricted except for the strictly protected areas within the special use forests. This led in some cases to over-exploitation of the resources, especially for commercially valuable products and when market prices are high. The market prices for NTFPs are fixed by the Provincial People’s Committee of Dak Lak in Decision No 3631/QĐ-UB, and shown in the Table 57 and some specifics on the marketing of NTFPs are compiled in the Table 58.

Table 57: Market prices for NTFP

Utilized Species Healing properties Life form Price (VND) parts

Smilax glabra Backache Creeper Bulb 20,000/Kg dried Huyet den (local name) Tonic Creeper Liana 10,000/Kg dried Coscinium fenestratum Make remedies 700/Kg Xylopia vielana Malaria Wood 500/Kg Stephania rotunda Tranquillizer Bulb Bulb 800/Kg Nepenthes sp Kidney beriberi Creeper Liana 50.000/Kg dried Huyet cau (local name) Tonic, Rheumatism Creeper Liana 500/Kg Homalonema aromatica Rheumatism Bush Trunk 500/Kg Drynaria fortunei Kidney Herb Bulb 500/Kg Cibotiumbarometz Phong Herb Bulb 500/Kg Ancanthopanax Tranquillizer Herb Trunk, leaf 10,000/Kg dired lasiogyne Tran bi (local name) Asthma Bush Skin 50,000/Kg dried Ludisia discolor (Ker- Herb The whole 35,000/Kg Gawl.) A.Rich. Corymbokis veratrifoila Herb The whole 450,000/Kg Dendrobium nobile Lan The whole 800/Kg Arundina chinesis Bush The whole 800/Kg Acorus gramineus Backache Creeper The whole 20,000/Kg dried Hydnophytum Brain, liver Wood Bulb 13,000/Kg dried formicarum Dioscorea esculenta Spinal column Herb Bulb 500/Kg Piper lolot Spinal column Herb Root 5,000/Kg dried Achyranthes aspera Spinal column Herb Trunk 5,000/Kg dried Mat nhan (local name) Typhoi, dyscentery Bush 5,000/Kg chunk Uvaria rufa Female diseases Liana Liana 10,000/Kg dried Zizyphus oenoplia Soak in alcohol to drink Wood Fruit 55,000/Kg dired Strychnos sp Massage Wood Fruit 12,000/Kg seed Source: Nguyen Van Thang and Vo Hung

Table 58: Marketing of some major NTFP Location No. of Price NTFP Volume/date Time Market chain sellers (VND) 800/kg fresh Buy within district Dendrobium 100kg/10 1 1.200/kg All year Sell in BMT, nobile days location dried HCMC 800/kg fresh Buy within district Bamboo 100kg/10 1 Da Lan 1.200/kg All year Sell in BMT, orchid days location shop dried HCMC Ludisia Buy within district discolor 1 15kg/day 35.000/kg All year Sell in BMT, (Ker.-Gawl.) location HCMC A.Rich.. Gnetum 15 bunch/day Rainy Taken from gnemon L 7 1.000/bunch 2 days/week season forest for sale var griffithii 3-4 Buon Bamboo 6-7Kg/day months in Taken from 1 3.000/Kg Cham shoot 2 days/week rainy forest for sale market season 20 bunch/day Taken from Top rattan 4 2.000/bunch All year 2 days/week forest for sale Phrynium 2-3 bunch/day Taken from leaf 2 1.000/bunch All year 2 days/week forest for sale

Source: Nguyen Van Thang and Vo Hung

Picture 3: Drying bamboo shoot at Dak Lieng Commune

To maintain these valuable resources of NTFP for the livelihood of the people it is necessary to undertake some measures in order to ensure a sustainable and continuous production, such as: set-up of production limits based on the capacity of the natural resources, development of improved production and processing techniques, to actively promote the regeneration of NTFP species, to improve market conditions and to support handicrafts such as weaving, knitting, etc.. This would create jobs and income and contribute to the socio- economic development of the rural households, especially those of the ethnic minorities.

5.9. Forest Crime and Protection Forest management organisations and management boards for national park and conservation areas, have their own specialized forest protection forces which regularly patrol the forest areas in 3-5 day intervals. Along roads SFE have established forest protection stations at forest gates along transportation roads. In spite of these protection measures, still a number of violations occur, such as encroachment for perennial crops or tree plantations, illegal logging especially of high valuable species, illegal exploitation of resin and oil, and poaching. Table 59 shows the number of serious violations inside the SKAW for the period 2001 to 2005, which had been forwarded to district level. There are a much larger number of violations, which are directly settled on commune and village level, but there are no data available on these. In addition there is a large number of un-detected violations. Forest crime, namely poaching, illegal logging and encroachment are still a prevalent threat in the pilot area.

Table 59: Forest violations within the SKAW during 2001 to 2005

Location Violation 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Forest clearing for upland 7 6 8 3 10 field Krong Bong Illegal logging 3 4 20 12 9 district

Wildlife hunting 12 16 8 2

Forest clearing for upland 1 6 6 50 3 field

Lak district Illegal logging 28 40 15 12 11

Wildlife hunting 4 1 6 6 1 Source: Krong Bong and Lak forest guard division yearly reports

5.9.1. Encroachment As shown in the table above there have been in average 5-10 serious encroachments per year in the SKAW of more than one ha in size. Small-scale encroachments, or slash and burn are still wide spread especially in remote areas were new migrants from the north settle. According to the report of Krong Bong SFE, in the first 8 months of the year 2006, in the area of the SFE, 28 cases of encroachments were detected with a total area of 8.3 ha. During the last 5 years, a total of 332 ha of natural forest were encroached by local communities in the communes of Đak Phoi and Đak Nue, Lak district. 5.9.2. Illegal Logging Illegal logging still happens in the area. Most of the rural households in the more remote areas get the wood they require for their own consumption directly from the surrounding forest. Apart from this, there are some organized groups, which are engaged in illegal 76

logging especially of high valuable species such as Fokiena hodginsii, Pahudia cochinchinensis, Pterocarpus microcarpus, etc. on a commercial basis. Wood is normally processed on the spot using pitsaws and the boards are transported manually out of the forest. The wood is then sold to furniture shops or trafficked out of the area. But there are also some groups which are more organised and which are using chainsaws and tractors for exploitation. The exploitation of high valuable but rare species has serious negative effects in terms of Bio-D protection and should be prevented by all means. Based on data from the Krong Bong district, in the period from 2001 to 2005, the forest protection force has confiscated altogether 222 m3 of illegal timber, of which 33 m3 have been precious woods. In Lak district, in the same period, 200 forest law violation cases were detected, and about 100 m3 of wood was confiscated. This generated an income of 320 million VND to the State budget.

Picture 4: Illegal logging (Pterocarpus macrocarpus) by local farmers in natural forest

Picture 5: Illegal logging for local construction

5.9.3. Forest Fire During the prolonged dry season there is a certain risk for forest fire depending on the natural condition of the forest areas. While the risk is high in open and degraded forests close to settlements and shifting cultivation areas, Pseudoxytenanthera forest, forest plantations and tree and shrub savannah, it is low in evergreen forests due to high soil humidity and lack of easily combustible materials (green under-storey). There has been no large-scale forest fire in the SKAW in the past. This is also due the good protection efforts undertaken especially in plantation management. Firebreaks are established around the plantations, watchtowers are set up and local people are involved in fire protection through forest protection and management contracts. If these efforts continue, then the risk of forest fires in the SKAW remains comparatively low.

5.9.4. Poaching Being an area rich in wildlife resources, hunting and trapping of animals still happens, although protection activities are quite strict. Especially in remote areas, ethnic minorities still follow their traditional way of living and wild meat from small animals and pigs is a part of their diet. Although the main cause of the reduction in wildlife is the destruction of their habitat, illegal hunting also contributes to their reduction, especially if rare animals are poached. Besides poaching for own supply, there is also illegal hunting for sale. Statistics of Krong Bong district’s forest protection unit show that for the period 2001 – 2005, 84 animals were catched alive and 355 kg of wild meat was sold to handling agencies. But these are only the figures of cases, which have been detected; the real number might be much higher.

In the recent years, the worst problem is H’Mông ethnic group migrating from the north area, which have good hunting skill. They themselves create kinds of harquebus for their professional hunting to big and rare animals.

Picture 6: Animal trap in the forest

Picture 7: Wildlife animal (Manus pentadactyla) is killed for special food

5.10. Problems, Issues and Constraints and Potential Fields of Intervention Through field study and discussions with stakeholders, it can be seen that in the field of forest management, there are obstacles and challenges. To look forward to the protection and development of forest resources in the research area, to promote the function of protection and water reserve for Krong Ana River integrated with local socio economic development. Here is the analysis on problems and potential fields of intervention:

Table 60: Analysis of two fields of problems and potential fields of intervention

Problems, Issues and Constraints Potential Fields of Intervention Slash and burn land is scattered, disorganized, It is necessary to have rational combination with and it is also present in the special use forest. allocation or contract in order to manage these areas Land use planning is not clear, land use right To implement land use planning with the participation of boundaries of owners are difficult to fix in reality. people, communities and stakeholders in order to make Forestland allocated to SFEs for use and a plan which is feasible, effective and advantageous to management is large in relation to their existing implement land use and forest resource management human resources and management conditions. programs. Review land fund of forestry production units, Most of production forestland area of SFEs is if the forestry production units do not use resources intermingled with cultivation land of communities; effectively or have enough capacity and resources, their this causes difficulty in business and land fund will be given back to the locality for planning. management, forest destruction control and land Then, enough land will be arranged for people to encroachment. cultivate and produce in the light of Decision 132 of the Government; simultaneously, land use right certificate should be granted soon to land owners, from that they will be active in their business plans and feel secured to invest intensively in production. Production forest area assigned to household To organize re-evaluation of forest and land allocation in groups, communities for long use and the locality and the participatory approach, discover and management is in quite a large area. However, analyse weak points, challenges and difficulties faced by due to both many objective and subjective causes communities that receive forests. that forest owners have only used some un- On the basis of demands of forest receiving subjects, forested areas for agricultural cultivation. The propose to improve or adjust, implement necessary majority of households, communities only organize support measures on benefit-received mechanisms and to protect the existing forest area and almost have policies, silviculture techniques, investment capital no positive impact s on different forest types and sources, community forest business and management forest statuses, even some communities do not methods. By doing so can communities participate pay attention to the received land areas. The main actively and effectively in the forest and land allocation cause is that communities do not get any benefits program. and income from allocated forests. On the other hand, forest business is a completely new technical measure to local communities and in the context that external supports, benefit sharing mechanisms and policies, silviculture techniques applicable to communities. These are challenging problems to communities that receive forest and land. Forest and land allocation to households It is not advisable to conduct forestland allocation to conducted in Dak Phoi và Dak Nue have not been households when implementing forest and land effective. The main causes are: the approach and allocation, this will lead to difficulties in management the allocation organization do not involve complete and it is impossible to implement equality and lack participation of local people, allocated forest types conditions to organize forest business sustainable. and locations do not meet the needs of local Forest and land allocation must be conformed to communities, allocated forests are depleted and participatory approach with equality and clear discussion far from residential areas, the allocates forests are in all steps from receiving mode, location, forest types destroyed and forest land encroachment happens and forest status …and determination right of household on a large scale. This a lesson of experience groups, communities must always be respected. Forest which needs to be drawn for other localities in the and land allocation is only the first step in community organization process of forest and land allocation forest management; the important thing is that there and community forest business implementation must have the support and cooperation of stakeholders after forest and land allocation. and local leaders in the whole process, especially after forest and land allocation. Household groups and communities must enjoy equality in approaching forest resources, that is, the forests that they receive must 80

Problems, Issues and Constraints Potential Fields of Intervention have enough forest types and rich, medium and poor forest statuses. Then, the communities have the driving force to take part in and the condition to organize effective and sustainable forest business. In order to help people to get access to preferential loans for organizing effective production and business, levels and branches are requested to integrate other programs and projects with forest and land allocation program. Such appropriate authorities as Forest Ranger’s Office, Economic Bureau, Stations, Commune Forestry Board explain to people more clearly about regulations and documents of the State on forest protection and development, guide forest plantation, tending, maintenance and enrichment techniques to people so that forests can achieve high yield, guide thinning, forest harvesting, documents, procedures and approach methods to the current forest administration. Strengthen the role of the Commune Forestry Board, supplement district and commune foresters … Special use forest area which national parks and To review and re-evaluate forest protection and conservation areas have contracted with management contract programs in the area. Determine households for protection and management needs forest areas which really need forest protection contract, to be considered for improvement. In terms of communities have enough conditions and demand for conservation techniques, to avoid unnecessary getting contracts, avoid turning the contract program into impacts on habitats and habits of forest animals, it a free famine relief activity as in some localities now is not necessary to clear fire lanes (because evergreen forests are not fired in dry season) and make boundaries among households. Forests are distributed on high mountains, difficult-to-access terrain and far from residential areas, it is not necessary to contract for protection to reduce budget expenditures because in reality, there are few factors which impact on these forests. Complete, uninterrupted forest protection and management contract should be concentrated on special use forest and protection forest areas in low-lying areas, this will contribute to limit forest destruction and forest land encroachment. The planning of 3 forest types according to It is necessary to have researches to evaluate protection function in the research area is not satisfactory, and water-keeping, soil erosion limiting functions of criteria for ascertaining protection, special use and different vegetation and forest types on different production lack scientific and practical bases, the topographies, from that point set up forest classification protection function of production forest in criteria according to function exactly and realistically. On combination with production in the protection is the other hand, it is also necessary to research, not fully taken into account. The role of important, establish the protection function of production forest and large-scale watershed basin protection is not then propose, give feedback to the improvement in brought into full play, simultaneously, it is implementing harvesting plans in the production forest necessary to consider the role of protection as well as have rational impacts and harvesting in function of on the spot water resources serving for protection forest so that people will have satisfactory cultivating wet rice fields, storing up water for income and benefits from the contracted protection agricultural production in dry season. forest areas. Protection forest planning is not systematic Natural forest covers more than 50 %, which is the potential for watershed protection. It is possible to combine conservation with protection because most of special use forests are distributed in very critical areas. There is a guideline on criteria to classify critical protection forest level. The source of Non- Timber Forest Products in the To establish in detail, supplement regulations on research area is plentiful in variety, valuable in management and exploitation of non- timber forest terms of on the spot utilization as well as goods products in the convention, pay attention to conserve sold to the markets. However, the yield is reduced rare and precious species. Experiment afforestation rapidly, some species are in danger of extinction. techniques to some non-timber forest products species, Many people, especially the ethnic minority people if the experiment is successful, widespread afforestation

Problems, Issues and Constraints Potential Fields of Intervention lack knowledge as well as information about non – will be implemented to create a stable source of income. timber forest products, which have goods values Organize household groups to promote traditional trades and high utilization characteristics such as that use the available source of non- timber forest medicinal plants, cosmetics-making species … do products in the locality to create more jobs. To provide not know the price and the consumption place. information about non – timber forest products such as Therefore, native people are disadvantaged in species, utility, purchase price, consumption place so enjoying these resources. The case which people that people will have conditions to take part in from other places come to exploit non- timber harvesting, sell at the right price. Improve the forest products in the community forest still consumption channel of non-timber forest products in happens. the beneficial direction to people. The selection of many exotic, fast-growing short- To research effects of the eucalyptus plantation forest cycle tree species and the overall, pure eucalyptus on physio-chemical characteristics of soil, nutrient use forest plantation will have certain negative effects level, water regime in soil in order to have a basis to on fertility-maintaining, erosion-limiting and water- select plantation tree species, material forest plantation keeping capacities of soil. What tree species can in the locality. be planted on the areas which eucalyptus has been planted continuously after 2 - 3 cycles? Forest management decentralization and forest It is necessary to allocate forest areas under the local and land allocation is not rational and effective. management, renovate SFEs according to Decree 200 to allocate for community management. It is necessary to apply lessons to guide community forest development that is experimented and duplicated in Dak Lak province. Impacts on forest area due to lack of cultivation There is still quite a lot of shrub land area for agricultural land have reduced 6,732 ha of natural forest for production and intensive cultivation (6.824ha). However, the past five years. it is necessary to have suitable methods and investment Through the survey in some communities, now in he first time. people really lack cultivation land, wet rice To train steep land cultivation techniques, produce in the cultivation land area is very little, not enough for agro-forestry combination direction, increase the planting subsidiary crops so on the spot food is composition of perennial trees to raise the forest crown not secured. Communities that have demands for cover, promote effects of soil and water conservation. forest plantation and agro- forestry combination Experiment afforestation in combination with short-term lack land fund, capital and technical support, herbal stem trees of high value in early stages of seedlings. plantation forests, orchards of industrial crops, fruit trees, implement the motto: use the small amount of time to meet long-term requirements, use stably and sustainably, limit forest clearance for slash and burn practice to the minimum point which is common now in some localities. Violation of forest protection and development In order to prevent and then push back the violation of such as forest destruction, forest land encroach- forest resources, it is necessary to implement many ment, illegal timber harvesting and non- timber solutions synchronously: Give prominence to duties of forest products and wild animal hunting still forest owners in forest protection and management. happens in the area without tending to decrease Coordinate closely with relevant branches, committees, both in frequency and scale of cases. These communes and villages to implement wide and deep violation acts are impacting forest resources and education propaganda tasks to people in terms of forest biodiversity in the basin protection forest area. protection and development. Discover, prevent and handle violation acts to forests appropriately and resolutely in a timely manner. Speed up the inspection and control of forest products, resolutely eliminate gathering places of exploitation, trading, processing and transporting forest products illegally, prohibit buying and selling wild animals, regulate activities of selling and rare and precious non-timber forest products which are not allowed to exploit. Prohibit firewood exploitation to bake bricks, tiles and steam ovens… Conflicts between conservation and development C onservation and socio-economic development policies need to be researched harmoniously.

6. Agro - Forestry Systems Agro-forestry systems are already introduced in the SKAW. Tree species, such as eucalyptus, keo, bread-tree, fruit trees such as longan, mango, and industrial trees such as coffee, cacao, cashew are planted by many households. They are intermixed with hybrid maize, pea and bean, cucurbit, chilly, ginger, or combined with livestock keeping and forming a great variety of agro-forestry systems of different sizes. These models are very suitable for the environmental and socio-ecological conditions; they provide a variety of agricultural products on the same unit of land, and reduce the risk of soil erosion on sloping land considerably. These systems also contribute to soil improvement, reduction of surface water runoff, job creation, and handicraft production and food security by diversification of agricultural production. Table 61 provides an overview on the agro-forestry systems found in the pilot area. There are still a number of shortcomings in the application of the agro-forestry systems in the pilot area. In general, they are not diversified enough in terms of tree, plant and/or livestock species. Also, the production capacity is comparatively low, due to a lack of investment capital. The variety of the planted trees, annual crops or livestock kept are of poor quality. Furthermore, the means to invest into fertilizer is lacking. This results in a comparatively low production per unit and in a poor quality of the products. Other causes are the farmer’s lack of knowledge and skills in agro-forestry cultivation, difficult access to markets, and the long time it takes until food and fruit trees are productive. The last is especially important for the poor households, which are threatened by hunger. Table 61: Agro-forestry systems commonly applied in the SKAW Agro-forestry Locations Scale/area Method Purpose models Multi-purpose Dak Nue, Dak Less than 1 Stable, Income generation, shadow industrial HH garden: Lieng, Dak Phoi ha per HH long-term for coffee coffee + durian Eucalyptus + hybrid Hoa Phong Some ha First 1 year Better use of land, income maize generation from maize Eucalyptus + stylo Hoa Phong Several Temporary, Grass for cattle feeding grass perches sparse Cashew + cassava Hoa Le, Hoa Over 1 ha First years Better use of land, income (or maize) Phong generation from short-term crops Coffee + cashew + Bong Krang, Hoa Less than 1 Stable, Income generation, shadow acacia Phong, Khue ha per HH long-term for coffee Ngoc Dien Coffee + Pepper Ea Trul, Khue Less than 1 Stable, Income diversification Ngoc Dien ha per HH long-term “VAC”: industrial Dak Nue, Dak Less than 1 Stable, Income diversification garden, fish pond, Lieng ha per HH long-term rice field Longan (mango) + Yang Tao, Yang Less than 1 First Income diversification, Maize (cassava) ha per HH several better use of land years Eucalyptus + cashew Hoa Le Over 1 ha Sparse, on Stable cultivation on large + maize large area area

In the SKAW there is still a high potential for the expansion of agro-forestry. There is abundant land available from ex shifting cultivation areas, farm lands of low productivity, bare hilltops and steep slopes and waste lands which could be brought under production by agro- forestry. Framework conditions have also improved in favor for agriculture, transport facilities

are improved, access to loan is easier, funds are provided for afforestation and tree crops and market conditions have improved. To further support the expansion and improvement of agro-forestry, such as improved land use planning, provision of land use certificates for people willing to invest into agro-forestry, provision training in cultivation and tending techniques, adjustment of the systems to the farmer’s needs and capacities, provision of high quality trees, etc. Picture 8: Agro forestry system cashew and cassava

7. Agriculture Agriculture plays an important economic role in the SKAW. Almost 90% of the population depend on agricultural production for their livelihood. For the ethnic minorities living in the study agriculture is the only source of income and food supply. The agricultural sector is described in detail in the expert report of NGUYEN TIEN.

7.1. Administration and Organisation At provincial level, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) is the agency in charge of general management of the agricultural sector. It engages more than 100 officers in total. The areas of management are economy, science and technology, agricultural policies, farming, livestock and veterinary, plant protection and food processing. In addition, there are direct sub-departments in charge of special sectors such as Sub- department Plant Protection, Sub-department of Veterinary, Sub-department of Irrigation, and Sub-department of Forestry Development. Each Sub-department has its own units at district level for technical implementation. DARD is supported by the Farmers Association on province level and the Agricultural Extension Centre in Buon Ma Thuot. The Agricultural Extension Centre is responsible for technology development in agriculture, research and extension. Financed from central budget, the Centre implements demonstration courses on district level in plant production and animal breeding. It also organizes field workshops and study tours for farmers. The extension work of the Centre is highly appreciated by the farmers, which adapt new technologies quickly. In general, farmers make use of new seed varieties provided to them and adjust to new market conditions promptly. At district level, the Economic Division manages the agricultural sector, which is directly responsible to the District People’s Committee (DPC). It comprises of technical units such as Veterinary Unit, Agricultural Extension, etc. The Economic Divisions are staffed in average by 8-10 technicians. Agriculture is given high priority by the local authorities as it is the most important sector in the region. The DPC in coordination with other local authorities supports farmer by providing seeds, implementing demonstration models and providing training courses in agriculture and forestry. They furthermore support farmers in keeping the timetable for planting and transplanting, in making efficient use of irrigation areas and assist in the maintenance and repair of the canal system. Other organisations involved in agriculture are: Farmer Associations: They are organised on central and commune level. They unite farmers in the association in order to support them, among others, in production development, in providing access to capital markets and new technology, etc. Women Union: It is also organised from central to commune level. Main objective of this organisation is to support women in agricultural production and in providing better access to credits. Youth Union: It’s main objective is to support the young farmer in agricultural and forestry production, to provide training in economics and marketing and to proved better access to credits. All these organisations are non-profit oriented. They are of great importance for rural development and for the agricultural sector in particular. The improvement in agricultural production and the increase in living standards in recent years can be largely attributed to their work. It is also important to note, that they support ethnic minorities in particular.

7.2. Agricultural Land-use Systems The total area under agriculture within SKAW is about 27,400 ha (2005). It has increased constantly during the last 10 years; from 1995 to 2000 the increase was about 5300 ha (+ 30%) and from 2000 to 2005 about 4900 ha (+ 21%). The distribution of agricultural land for different crops is shown in the table below. Table 62: Production areas in ha for various agricultural products per sub-catchment

Type of crop Ea Long Ding Dak Lieng Ea Elan Niong Krong Kmar Krong Bong Total

1995 2005 1995 2005 1995 2005 1995 2005 1995 2005 1995 2005 Agricultural Land 2317 3176 9402 6557 5196 5662 3452 3107 5465 8609 29964 49186 Annual crops 2317 3048 8894 4868 5019 5172 3167 2382 5148 7389 28676 45350 Rice land 1158 2853 3531 2131 987 1551 515 1472 897 1213 14198 18296 Two crops 791 1434 1556 1654 646 976 420 834 541 565 3954 5463 One crop 345 1419 1355 477 211 575 55 407 85 648 2051 3526 Dry rice 22 70 620 24 130 39 40 18 271 80 8193 9307 Others 195 1832 2737 3046 3621 2137 910 3354 6176 14478 27055 Perennial crops 128 509 1689 177 491 285 725 318 1220 1288 3836 Coffee 33 227 442 79 129 127 190 141 320 574 1114 Pepper 1 4 16 1 5 2 7 2 12 10 41 Cashew 10 223 128 78 37 125 55 139 92 564 322 Fruit-tree 8 55 111 19 32 31 48 35 80 140 279 Others 75 991 288 426 716 2080 Source: GIS analysis

While the area for coffee was considerably reduced the area in wet rice production and for maize raised considerable due to a change in market conditions. The average agricultural production area is with 0.24 ha/person far below the average of Dak Lak District, which is 0.62 ha/person. This is mainly due to the high percentage of ethnic minorities in the SKAW, which have in general much less agricultural skill than the Kinh. The table below shows the distribution of annual and perennial crops per sub-catchment.

Table 63: Distribution of annual and perennial crops according to sub-catchments Sub-catchment Total agricultural Annual crops Perennial area crops Rice Others (ha) (%) (ha) (ha) (ha) Ea Long Ding 3176 11.7 2853 195 128 Dak Lieng 6557 24.2 2131 2737 1689 Ea Elan Niong 5662 20.9 1551 321 491 Krong Kmar 3107 11.5 1472 910 725 Krong Bong 8609 31.8 1213 6176 1220 Total 27111 100.0 9220 13639 4252 Source: GIS Analysis

Picture 9: Common agricultural landscape at plot area

7.2.1. Rice Production The watershed of Krong Ana River has a high concentration of rice production. Indigenous people have produced rice since ages. As the region has been suffering from annual floods regularly, people used a “floating” rice variety, which is able to adjust to different water levels. 20-30 days after the flood, the rice was ripe and could be harvested. While this rice variety is very well adapted to the conditions in the area, it has the big disadvantage of comparatively low production of about 2 t/ha. Under the program on “Food Plant Development and Food Security” which has started in year 2000 improved rice varieties were promoted, the area of irrigation rice was increased and the level of productivity was considerably raised. Since 1995 the total area for rice production was constantly increased from 6005 ha to 9220 ha in 2005, of which 5463 ha can be harvested two times a year. Due to improvement of the irrigation system, especially the area of winter-spring rice increased. The average yield for summer-autumn crop is 4.2-4.8 t/ha and for winter-spring crop is 4.5-6 t/ha. Due to the fertilizing effect of flooding the yield of winter-spring crop is in general higher. The average yield obtained by the ethnic minority groups in Bong Krang, Yang Tao, Dak Lieng and Dak Phoi is with 2.8-4.0 t/ha much lower, due to low investment, lower land fertility and poor cultivation techniques. The average yield for rain fed lowland paddy is less, about 3-3.5 t. The SKAW is self sufficient in rice production and normally food security is ensured. There is even some surplus, which can be sold to the local market. Only during severe drought periods or years of severe flooding, when crops fail, food aid is required. In 2003 altogether about 56,000 t, in 2004 about 60,800 t and in 2005 about 52,300 t of rice were produced in total. The changes in production are mainly due to change in climatic conditions. Rice production varies between the communes. Communes with better conditions such as aluminium soil, good irrigation system, high investment capacity and good experience such 87

as Buon Tria, Buon Triek, Dak Lieng of Lak district have an annual rice production per capita of 1010 kg, while for the other communities the rice production per person is much less, only about 250 kg/capita. However, this is compensated by other agricultural products such as maize, cassava, etc. (760 kg/capita including all products). The lowest production capacity in agricultural products is in communes of low soil fertility, especially in the mountainous regions, which are inhabited by ethnic minorities. Here the total production of agricultural products is 540 kg of which only 233 kg is rice. Rice production varies between households. Most households are self-sufficient; if they have surplus rice they sell it to the local market. For ethnic minorities, which only have small parcels of land, poor access to investment and poor cultivation techniques, they just can produce enough paddy or upland rice for their own consumption. They are the first who suffer, when the season is bad. The households in the communes of Buon Triet, and Buon Tria of Lak district, on the other hand, have large rice cultivation areas of about 2-5 ha. They are rich enough to invest in improved production and harvesting techniques and to produce on a commercial scale. Land preparation is in general done by small machines, but the use of cattle for land tilling is still common, especially among the poorer households. As field sizes are in general fairly small, farm work is done usually by the owners and no foreign labourers are engaged. Weeding is done by hand, but some, especially those having larger areas, apply herbicides. Harvesting is done by hand or by machine. For harvesting farmers normally assist each other, only rich farmers contract labourers. The cost for harvesting by machine is about 100,000 VND per ha, the cost for one labourer about 30,000 to 50,000 VND per day. In the table below economic data for different rice production systems are compared.

Table 64: Economic calculation for one ha of rice (all figures in 1000 VND) Production system Type of cost Revenue Profit Income Profit rate Material Hired Own Other Total (%) Labour Labour costs Two crop rice 2821 240 2033 395 5489 9833 4344 6377 79 Rice – food plants 2851 220 2300 463 5834 7160 1521 3821 26 One crop rice 1428 90 1067 125 2710 6233 3524 4590 132 (winter-spring) One crop rice 1393 150 967 270 2780 3600 820 1787 30 (summer-autumn) Source: Statistical household data, 2001

Picture 10: Rice fields and perennial crops on steep slopes

7.2.2. Home Gardens Almost every household has a home garden for the production of eggplants, beans, cucurbit, chilli and other vegetables but also for perennial crops such as bananas, jackfruit, longan fruit, and cashew. The average size of a home garden ranges between 800 to 1600 m2. As most of the residential areas are located on the hillside, the areas suitable for home garden are limited. Home gardens serve different purposes, first of all they are used for self-supply, especially for vegetables, banana, and chilly. Better off households, especially in Dak Phoi and Dak Nue commune of Lak district, which have larger home gardens also plant cash crops for sale such as coffee, pepper and cashew. Products from home gardens are sold at the local markets. Some households sell their products to small merchants at their homes, especially if they have small quantities or no time to go to the market themselves.

Picture 11: Coffee and Durian in home garden at Dak Nue

7.2.3. Coffee and other Cash Crops Beside rice, maize, coffee, and cashew are the main cash crops produced ion the pilot area. Coffee In 2005, the total area for coffee production was 1114 ha almost 50% higher than in 1995. About 490 ha of basalt soil in the communes of Dak Nue, Dak Phoi and Dak Lieng of Lak district are especially suitable for coffee production. In the remaining area most of the coffee is planted on grey soil in plantation areas of 3-90 ha. The average annual yield of 1.46 tons is low, but some households are able to produce up to 4 tons per ha. The area cultivated for coffee large depends on the international coffee price. As international market prices went down, many coffee plantations established until 2000 (i.e. 3437 ha in the SKAW), especially those on sites of low productivity, have been abandoned and left fallow or were changed into another land use. Coffee cultivation should not be expanded due to unfavourable soil conditions and high water requirements.

Maize Maize grows very well in the SKAW and its production area increased continuously during the last 10 years (from 1,556 ha in 1995 to 10,771 in 2005). Maize yields reaches from 4-7 t/ha and can be harvested about 100 days after planting. Without watering, two crops can be achieved per year. It is recognized that maize occupies a half of plantation area of other cash crops in the pilot region.

Picture 12: Maize harvest, acacia plantation steep slopes prone to erosion

Cashew Cashew can grow well on comparatively bad soils, and because of the low investment cost, cashew can also be planted by poor household. However, the climate conditions are not too favourable; it often rains too much during cashew’s blooming period, which results in a low productivity. The area for the production of cashew in the SKAW was significantly reduced to 322 ha due to the low market prices.

Other cash crops Other cash crops beside rice, maize, coffee, and cashew are pepper, green bean, Soya bean, cashew but also tobacco, sugar cane, batate, and cassava. They are mainly produced on a smaller scale in home gardens or small fields.

7.2.4. Shifting Cultivation and Forest Clearing There are still some areas of shifting cultivation but which are not very large. Most of the mountainous area is covered by the special use forests of Nam Ka Nature Conservation Area and Chu Yang Sin National Park, which are generally well managed and protected. In addition these areas are quite steep and almost inaccessible. In addition, the government has implemented many programs to reclaim lowland paddy fields and to support tree plantations. This has led to an improvement of the living conditions and improved food. On the other hand the growing population is in need of agricultural land which is however very limited. This has led to the situation that almost all forestland close to residential and cultivated areas have been cleared for agricultural crops, such as maize and beans. However, after one or two harvests, the soil is exhausted and the area is planted with tree crops such as cashew or fruit trees. These areas can be found almost everywhere in the 91

SKAW, and the deforested hills and steep slopes under agricultural production along the National Road 27 are more than typical. Although this conversion of forest is illegal and fined, it still continues (see picture below). The problem can hardly to be solved, as additional agricultural land is not available. High population growth and lack of labour has also forced especially the ethnic minority groups to continue with shifting cultivation even in protection and conservation areas.

Picture 13: Conversion of forestland in agricultural areas along NH 27

7.2.5. Livestock and Rangelands The condition for livestock keeping in the SKAW are quite favourable, due the mass production of food crops as their waste can serve as fodder for animals, such as buffalo, cattle, goats, pig, chicken and duck. So far, animal breeding is only done on small sale household level. In average one household keeps 2 to 5 pigs, 2-10 cattle and 10-50 chickens. They are taken care by elders, women or children that stay at home and are kept for self supply and to increase the household income through sale on the local market. Animal production has the advantage that it does neither require high investment, nor additional or expertise. So it can be practised by every household, which has surplus labour. Small-scale animal breeding has also its constraints, such as environmental pollution and sometimes poor product quality. Also the risk of animal diseases is high, such as bird flu and foot and mouth disease on cattle. Diseases spread out quickly as veterinary services and epidemic prevention means are poorly accessible. Annually, the number of cattle increases significantly. Animal extension services support the introduction of new breeds of high weight and high quality meat, which require less food and can be raised in a short period of time, such as hybrid pigs and Laisind cows. There are also 92

programs going on to improve the local cattle breeds. Cattle are raised in the traditional way by grazing of paddy fields after harvesting, fallow land and wastelands, or the dams along the canals. Also forest grazing has become increasingly common. Rice straw is used as fodder, which is stored (as there are in general two rice harvest, fodder production is no problem). The planting of high productivity grasses such as elephant grass, ghi, ne etc. on low fertile soils and areas of low productivity becomes increasingly common. In some villages of the ethnic minorities cattle open cattle grazing is practised or the cattle is kept and under the tilt of their houses. Pigs are fed by household and agricultural waste but also special pig food is bought on the market. Main animal products are meat and eggs. Animal dung is also used as fertilizer for home gardens and fields. The sale of animals and animal products to the local market is an important source of income for the local household throughout the year. The table below provides an overview of animal and animal products in the whole districts of Krong Bong and Lak for the year 2005. Table 65: Number of animal and animal products By district Name of animal Unit Total Krông Bông Lăk Animals Buffalo Head 3,966 3,200 766 Cow “ 28,086 19,852 8,234 Pig “ 47,885 29,839 18,046 Goat “ 3,250 2,600 650 Poultry “ 328,414 170,200 158,214 Products Buffalo meat Tons 190 52 138 Cow meat “ 1543 226 1,317 Pork “ 4338 3,220 1,118 Poultry meat “ 388 214 174 Goat meat “ 21 5.0 16 Source: Statistical yearbooks 2005 of Krong Bong and Lak districts

7.3. Processing and Marketing of Agricultural Products Main agricultural products in the region are rice, maize, beans, tobacco and sugar cane. While a part of the products are used for own consumption and animal breeding, the surplus is sold in the market or to merchants. Sugar, coffee, tobacco and tapioca is sold to merchants or directly to the processing industry. All agricultural products are marketed unprocessed. While the variety of products sold is quite diverse, the quantities are in general quite low. The following table provides an overview on the main agricultural products produced in Krong Bong and Lak district in the year 2000 and 2005.

Table 66: Agricultural production of Krong Bong and Lak district in tons Krông Bông Lăk Products 2000 2005 2000 2005 Rice 22,547 21,060 21,131 31,232 Maize 16,774 39,820 5,662 35,627 Soy bean 516 90 95 63 Batata 334 25 1,538 1,167 Other beans 262 110 276 324 Raw cassava 5,100 40,574 1,425 1,861 Sugar cane 41,315 8,640 1,500 No data Tobacoo 70 230 16,5 No data Coffee 2,150 998 1,144 1,138 Pepper 36 45 6,0 9,9 Cashew 423 360 33 29 Fruit-tree 2103 3058 227 545 Source: Statistical yearbooks 2005 of Krong Bong and Lak districts

Rice is mainly produced for own consumption, only the surplus is sold. In 2005, an estimated surplus of 9,800 t has been produced mainly in Buon Triet, Buon Tri and Dak Lieng commune in Lak district. The price for rice fluctuates from 2,000 – 2,600 VND/kg. Most of the rice is sold to small-scale food processing mills in the districts or in Buon Ma Thuot. However, in periods of drought or flooding, rice production drops considerably and food aid by the government is required to eliminate hunger. Maize production has increased considerably since 1995 and has contributed considerably to farmer’s income. The average production of maize is 40-70 t/ha and with an average price of about 1500-2000 VND/kg a revenue of about 8-14 million VND per ha and crop can be achieved. Maize is mainly used for animal fodder and sold to middlemen who sell to it to animal food processing factories in Binh Duong province and Ho Chi Minh City. Sugar cane is almost entirely produced for sale to the sugar factories of 333 Sugar Company which is about 50 km east of SKAW in the Ea Kar district and Dak Nong Sugar Company in Cu Jut district which are about 60km west if the SKAW. Sugar cane is sold at a guaranteed price of 280,000 to 320,000 VND/t. Taking into account an average production of 40 t/ha the revenue for the farmer is about 12-15 million VND per crop. Tobacco grows very well in the region, especially in Krong Bong. Average productivity is about 1.8 t/ha and with an average price of 19 million VND the revenue amounts up to 34 million VND per ha of crop. Compared with other products, tobacco can earn the highest revenue. In 2005, a total of 230 t of tobacco was produced in the district of Krong Bong. Tobacco seeds are provided to the farmers by Nam Company, which also buys the tobacco, leaves from them. The company supplies Vinataba Cigarette Manufactory in Ho Chi Minh City. Cassava is the raw product for the tapioca-processing factory in Cu Kty commune, Krong Bong district. The annual yield of cassava is estimated at 35,000 to 40,000 tons. Cultivated on sandy soils cassava is of high productivity (10-16 t/ha) with a starch content of more than 30%. The average size of a cassava field is about 2,000-5,000 m2 and only few households have areas larger than 1 ha. The revenue from 1 ha cassava is about 10 - 15 million VND at a price of 350 - 500 VND/kg, the net profit is about 5 - 10 million VND. There are no marketing problems for cassava due to the high demand of the tapioca-processing factory of 25,000 tons of starch or an equivalent of about 70,000 –80,000 tons of raw cassava per year. Robusta coffee is mainly produced on the basaltic areas of Dak Phoi, Dak Nuw, and Dak Lieng of Lak district. In 2005, about 2100 tons of coffee was produced in the whole of Krong Bong and Lak district. In recent years the price for coffee decreased considerably on the international market leading to a very low price of 8-10 million VND/t on the domestic market.

Thus, the average revenue for 1 ha of coffee plantation is about 10 – 15 million VND/ha (taking into account an average production of 1.46 t/ha). This is quite low, when compared to other products. On the other hand investment and production costs are comparatively high which leads to a very low profit margin (see table below). This has resulted in the fact, that many coffee plantations have been abandoned in the past (see also chapter 7.2.3). Cashew Annual cashew yield reaches only 300-350 tons, price of cashew bean is from 8.000.000 VND/t onwards, occasionally 15,000,000 VND/t. Exported cashew bean is sold with a price of 4,000 – 5,000 USD/t. Raw cashew beans are sold to local middlemen in the district, then they are sold to Cashew Processing Factory in Ea Kar district about 50-60 km far from the district to the east. Refined cashew beans are exported to China and United State. Soybean, green bean and white bean are commodity products of Krong Bong district, they are hardly found in Lak. They are sold to local merchants in the district.

Table 67: Economic calculation for different cash crops per ha (figures are in 1000 VND) Production system Type of cost Revenue Profit Income Profit Material Hired Own Other Total rate Labour Labour costs (%) Green bean 2595 1365 50 1000 180 3000 600 1600 16 Maize 4363 2078 300 1700 285 5.628 1265 2965 29 Sugar cane 7268 5457 225 1400 186 15033 7766 9166 107 Tobacco 12094 6719 475 5658 586 20025 7931 13589 66 Coffee 11795 7428 800 3567 3075 12192 397 3963 3 Source: Statistical household data, 2001

7.4. Problems, Issues and Constraints All areas suitable for agriculture are already under cultivation, forcing the growing population to cultivate steep slopes, low production sites and to encroach forestland although it is legally protected and conserved. This results in erosion, loss of soil fertility in the long run and increased surface run off. Agricultural production methods on slopes are inadequate. So far techniques such as ploughing along contour lines, hedgerows for the protection of erosion, etc. are not introduced to the extent required. Job opportunities for the growing population are poor; there is hardly any industry in the region. The capital resources of the average rural household is low and the access to credit is poor, as such there is little capital available to invest in an improvement of agricultural productivity (i.e. improved seeds and breeds, use of fertilizer, etc.). This is especially true for the ethnic minorities. Flood and droughts are natural disaster, which impose an increasing threat to agricultural production. Neither adequate prevention nor mitigation measures are in place. Production techniques are not adjusted to cope with these repeated threats. The condition of irrigation systems is poor and beside large-scale irrigation system the network of small and medium size irrigation system is not fully developed. Low education, lack of skills and limited social awareness are the major bottlenecks for the introduction of new production technologies, especially as far as the ethnic minorities are concerned.

7.5. Potential Fields of Intervention Improvement of agricultural productivity should have highest priority. Specific potential fields of intervention are: Further introduction of high yield species and improved breeds. - More effort in extension work especially for ethnic minorities. - Introduction of cultivation techniques on sloping areas. - Support animal breeding at commercial scale. - Improved agricultural planning to identify the most appropriate agricultural system for different sites. - Extension of small and medium scale irrigation systems. Construction of canals and additional water reservoirs to ensure constant water flow for irrigation. - Repair and maintenance of existing irrigation structures. - Convert rice field with unstable water supply into maize or bean production areas. - Proper planning of mitigation measures for flood and drought periods and introduction of drought resistant varieties. - Extent the production of maize as main food crop on dry lands. - Improve access to credit. - Creation of job opportunities by supporting on farm processing. More specific solutions in relation to different agricultural products are specified in the expert report of NGUYEN TIEN.

Steep slopes and ridges shall be reforested or planted with fruit or timber trees in order to minimize environmental degradation. Proper use should be made of unused land and wasteland. This requires participative land use planning on village and household level.

8. Waste Land There is quite a considerable area of 27,075 ha (17.4 %) of unused wasteland in the pilot area. Most of it, 25,170 ha (93.0 %) are destroyed forest lands and shifting cultivation areas which are mainly located in hilly and mountainous terrain, only 7% or 1,904 ha are located on flat areas.

Table 68: Distribution of wasteland (2005) per commune Flat Waste Hilly Waste Total Area Total Waste Land District/Commune Land Land (ha) Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (ha) Lak 56,360 12,269 21.8 948 11,321 Lien Son town 1,275 255 20.0 255 Yang Tao 6,870 2,197 32.0 21 2,176 Bong Krang 17,527 3,871 22.1 27 3,844 Dak Lieng 3,167 867 27.4 180 687 Buon Triet 7,059 1,417 20.1 140 1,276 Buon Tria 2,954 798 27.0 9 789 Dak Phoi 11,011 1,984 18.0 90 1,894 Dak Nue 4,369 882 20.2 481 401 Nam Ka 1,839 0 0.0 Ea R'Bin 289 0 0.0 Krong Bong 98,840 14,805 15.0 956 13,849 Krong Kmar town 558 79 14.2 17 62 Hoa Phong 13,294 1,280 9.6 327 953 Hoa Le 9,888 489 4.9 9 480 Yang Reh 2,973 1,350 45.4 33 1,317 Ea Trul 2,493 211 8.5 4 207 KhueNgocDien 6,154 455 7.4 51 404 Cu Pui 15,584 2,095 13.4 228 1,867 Hoa Son 5,388 518 9.6 68 450 Cu Dram 9,518 3,821 40.1 114 3,707 Yang Mao 32,990 4,508 13.7 105 4,403

Sources: Spot satellite imagine 2005 and GPS survey combined with land use statistics

It is planned to convert a total of 9,768 ha of wasteland into agricultural land1. About half of it, especially the areas on unproductive and instable areas should be reforested, the others shall be converted into agricultural production areas mainly into other perennial crops preferably fruit trees, and other annual crops such as maize.

1 This includes forest land per definition. 97

9. Fishing and Aquaculture Fishing and aquaculture play a significant role in the SKAW. Especially Lake Lak, with an area of about 500 ha, is rich in valuable fishes such as ca thac lac, hemibagrus, snakehead, anabas, and edible snail and is the biggest resource for fish in the study area. But also the numerous rivers and steams within the SKAW are rich in fish variety (a list of fish species that occur in the Srepok river basin is attached in the expert report of PHAM TAN HA). Besides fishing in natural waters, fish breeding in water reservoirs and small fishponds by individual households is common. Catch rates and breeding figures for Lak and Krong Bong districts are given in the table below. Between 2003 and 2005 fish production has decreased, especially in Krong Bong where it dropped dramatically, especially the fishing rates in natural water resources. This is mainly due to over-fishing and the destructive way of fishing (i.e. dense fishing net, electric fishing). Alone for Lake Lak 306 fishermen are officially registered. Fishes are used for domestic use and are sold to Buon Ma Thuot with a price of 25,000 – 40,000 VND/kg for snake headed fish, carps, etc.. Apart from that, the region has potentials to expand small-scale fish breeding for household by means of fishponds, in which intensive fishing measures are applied. This would help to raise fish production.

Table 69: Fish production Krong Bong District Source Fish production (t) 2003 2005 Krong Bong District Fish breeding 170 100 Fishing 235 110 Sub-Total 405 210 Lak District Lak Lake 198 166 Rivers/streams 26 29 Sub-Total 204 195 Grand Total 609 305

10. Mining and Quarry According to geological surveys the potential for mining is low in the SKAW, except for construction materials such as sand, stone and clay. There are stone pits in the communes of Yang Reh, Cu Dram and Krong Kmar town in Krong Bong district, but only the quarry in Yang Reh is currently in operation as Cu Dram and Krong Kmar are located within the Chu Yang Sin National Park. It produces about 10,000 to 15.000 m3 of small stones of a size of 1-2 cm and 4-6 cm. Granite and granodiorit occur in Chu Yang Re and Chu Yang Trang mountains with a potential of 50-70 million m3. Sand for construction is found along Krong Ana and Krong Bong River. It is commercially exploited and transported to two sand places one at Giang Son and one at Chu V Bridge. There are clay mines in the communes of Khue Ngoc Dien, Ea Trul and Hoa Phong in Krong Bong district. However the quality of clay is poor and the annual production is low. In Lak district there is a large clay mine of quality clay for brick making. There are a few brick mills in Krong Bong and Lak districts, which produce bricks only for the local market. Clay is also found near in the villages of Dong Yang and Triet in Yang Tao commune/Lak district with an estimated potential of 4 million m3. Another potential area for clay production is along Krong Ana River with an estimated production potential of 60 million m3, but this area is already used for wet rice production. Some gold and tin minerals are found but not to the extent to be of interest for commercial production. Tin ore occurs in Dak Mray stream and in the northern west of Youk Mao Yang Ho Mountain. There is a small Cassiterit mine in Dak Phoi commune on the upper Dak Phoi stream. Picture 14: Sand exploitation along Krong Ana and bare upper slopes prone to soil erosion

11. Water and Water Resources Management Water and Water Resources Management in general and for the SKAW in particular is described in detail in the expert report of PHAM TAN HA. An in depth analysis of the policies related to watershed management in Vietnam can be derived from WSMP/AIFP/MRC (2006),

11.1. The Water Sector in General In the following a brief description of the water sector in Vietnam is provided which is basically derived from the Policy Study of WSMP/AIFP/MRC (2006). Emphasize is given to issues of relevance to the SKAW. 11.1.1. Regulatory Framework The direction for water resources management in Vietnam is provided by the Law on Water Resources (LWR), a comprehensive, framework law that covers the important aspects of the management and development of water at both the central and river basin level. In addition a large number of government decisions and regulations on various levels and by different departments have been issued with relevance to water management. For a list of these regulations refer to the expert report of PHAM TAN HA. Under the heading of “state management of water resources” the LWR has introduced a number of new functions and institutional arrangements in water resources management in Vietnam. These new functions and arrangements include:

− A National Water Resources Council (NWRC) as a high level advisory and co-ordinating body, responsible to advise the Government on important water policy issues; − Integrated water resources management oriented to river basins as the basic hydrological unit; − Establishment of river basin organisations (RBOs) to co-ordinate data collection, manage co-ordinated river basin planning and help to resolve water-related disputes; − Specific functions for state management of water resources, including o Formulation of water resources management goals, policies and national legislation, o Preparation of national and basin water resources plans, o Administration and enforcement of regulatory legislation with a focus on water allocation, issuance of water rights, and safety of hydraulic works, o Administration of collection, evaluation and dissemination of data on water resources, o Co-ordination and conflict resolution, including international aspects of water resources management, and o Organisational arrangements, capacity building and public education and awareness.

These functions and institutional arrangements provide a strong basis for future water resources management and correspond very closely with current international recommendations and reform experience. However, the LWR only provides an overall framework, which needs to be supplemented with more detailed legislation on a wide range of issues at both national and river basin levels.

11.1.2. Policy Issues The system of Vietnamese policies and laws of water resources management still contains weaknesses, such as: − There is not a strategic master plan for hydropower in Vietnam so as to restrict the effects of hydropower activities on water environment to the minimum level.

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− Water resource is one of components of the environment so that the protection of water is prescribed in the Law on environment protection (1993). However, some regulations are still not very specific and clear, these include regulations for water resources and environment licensing; regulations for promulgating and organizing the implementation of water resources standard. − Some laws are in contradiction with each other.

The following are the main issues, which need to be addressed to improve water management in general and for the SKAW in particular:

Documents for the implementation of the Law on Water Resources To deploy the Law on Water Resources, legal normative documents need to be developed, including: − Regulation on granting license to exploit and utilize surface water. − Regulation on granting license to release wastewater into water source and irrigational works. − Regulation on punishment of administrative violations in the field of water resources. Currently, water resources polluting offences are treated according to the Decree 26/CP dated 26/4/1996 on punishing administrative offences against environment protection. Other offences of protection, excessive exploitation and utility of water, derogation of authorized purposes are not specified in this Decree. − Regulation on special inspection of water resources. − Regulation on management of river basin planning, management of water quality, prevention and control of pollution. − Financial policies for protection, exploitation and utility of water resources are not comprehensively built, especially the problem of fees for exploiting and utililizing water resources. − Central and local management organizational systems are in the process of improvement so as to meet the administrative reform work. The decree number 91/2002/NĐ-CP of the Government regulates that national functions of managing water resources are transformed to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.

Decentralized administration − The organizational system is under influence of Ministry of Interdisciplinary Administration, Service of Interdisciplinary Administration. The management of water resources has not satisfied the mission specified in laws in regard to both organizational framework, apparatus, ability and facility, therefore it has not met the personnel to ensure that the task of water resources management is suitable with the requirements. − National management functions are not really devolved to the lowest grassroots level appropriately.

Systematic management of basins, irrigational work system − Management agency of river basin planning is not a state management agency but only an administrative body, which does not have enough power to manage. − Management agency of river basin planning does not have enough power to co-ordinate with People’s Committee of different levels within the basins. This indicates that there is not a combination between the management of basins and the management according to administrative border.

Feasibility of legal system − Prescribed laws, which have to be followed in daily life, need to have sub-law documents instructing in details the implementation of laws. 101

− Sub-law documents (decrees, circulars, decisions) are promulgated late, sometimes not specific with unclear sanctions. − There are entanglements in state management mechanism between branches and levels of Government. − The overlap originating from the scope of adjusted subjects of laws leads to the overlap in functions, missions of state management agencies. − The coordinating mechanism is not clearly classified between state management agencies.

11.1.3. Institutions and Organisations

11.1.3.1. Central Level The major responsibility for implementation of the LWR and water resources management at the national level lies with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), which was formed in November 1995 by the merger of the former Ministries of Agriculture and Food Industries, Water Resources and Forestry. This situation is currently being revised following the establishment of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) in August 2002. Water resources management is included in the responsibilities, functions and organisational structure of this new ministry. Table 70 below shows the current allocation of responsibilities in the water sector prior to the ongoing government restructuring.

Table 70: Ministry Water Resources Management and Water Service Responsibilities Sector / Function Present responsible ministry Water resources investigation and Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment management (Department of Water Resources Management) Surface water management Groundwater management Water Resources protection Rural water supply Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Irrigation (Irrigation Department) Drainage Flood protection Watershed management (forest land) Land use management (agricultural land) Surface water monitoring Hydro-Meteorological Survey Ground water monitoring Ministry of Industry Urban water supply and drainage Ministry of Construction Small towns water supply Water quality Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Ministry of Health Mekong River Basin Vietnam National Mekong Commission (Mekong Basin) chaired by Minister of MARD, inter-ministry representation Hydropower, planning and reservoir Ministry of Industry operation Budget, planning, investment allocation Ministry of Finance and co-ordination of international Ministry of Planning and Investment assistance Fisheries management Ministry of Fisheries River channels and water transportation Ministry of Transportation and Communication Drinking water standards and regulation Ministry of Health

As becomes apparent from the table above, the water sector in Vietnam, as in many other countries in the region, suffers from fragmentation among several line ministries. Especially

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the distribution of the main responsibilities on water and water resources management among MARD and MONRE has been the cause of overlapping responsibilities.

11.1.3.2. Provincial Level At provincial level the responsibilities of the central ministries are entrusted with the departments, which administratively belong to the PPC, but technically are responsible that regulations and standards issued by the central ministries are adhered to. The relationship between the national and provincial levels is in theory repeated at district and commune levels, but in practice few districts and even fewer communes have the capacity for active water resources management. The delegation of the management of water resources to provincial and sub-provincial levels will thus require a major capacity building and strengthening effort. Due in part to differing organisations in various provinces before 1995, not all DARDs are identically structured at present. In some provinces the DARD contains a Sub-department of Water Resources Management, while other provinces lack this unit. The need to establish and strengthen these sub-departments has been recognised at the national level. In Dak Lak province, the Sub-Department of Water Resources (DARD) is now responsible for the management of irrigation schemes, disaster/flood protection and management and partly for the management of surface water. Because of their past overall responsibility for water management they have well qualified technical staff and good expertise. The new established DONRE, which is now mainly responsible for water management, suffers from the lack of qualified staff, information, experience and technical expertise. The management of the large irrigation schemes in Dak Lak is the responsibility of the Irrigation Management Company (IMC), which is directly under the PPC. The IMC has branches in some of the districts. On district level there are two divisions responsible for water resources management: the Environmental Division and the Economic Division, which are directly under the DPC. However, most of the staff has no background in water resources management. With the support of Danida, the Srepok River Basin Organisation (RBO) was formed in May 2006, which, however, is not yet operational. The RBO is a non-business agency established under LWR comprising of members from the PPCs of the four Srepok river basin provinces of Dak Lak, Dak Nong, Gia Lai and Lam Dong and other representatives of provincial and national agencies. The main objectives of the Srepok RBO are, among others, to coordinate water resources planning, to ensure cooperation among all organisations involved in water management and to resolve conflicts over water resources. More information on the RBO can be derived from the expert report of THAM TAN HA. The WSMC/AIFP/MRC committed itself to assist Srepok RBO with technical assistance in institution and capacity building. The Dak Lak Hydrometeorology Forecast Centre operates several measurement stations in the province to monitor hydrological and meteorological data. It suffers under lack of technical equipment and the skill of their staff in the use of computers and other high-tech equipment is poor.

11.1.4. Planning Processes and Procedures Previous water resources planning in Vietnam has been strongly focused on development of the resource within individual water-using sectors. Also, it has not provided adequate opportunity for stakeholder participation. Till now, each sector has an individual planning; for example: the Institute for Water Planning (IWRP) is responsible for water resources planning, the National Institute for Agriculture, Planning and Projection (NIAPP) for agriculture planning, the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI) for forestry planning, the Electricity Vietnam (EVN) for hydropower planning, etc...

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11.1.4.1. Planning in the Context of the Mekong River Basin The planning process for the watershed area must be developed within the context of the Mekong River Basin of which it forms a part. The basin planning undertaken by the Mekong River Commission of which Vietnam is a member, and notably for Sub-Basin 7V that includes SKAW, may impose constraints for water-related objectives (for example, minimum flows at the border) that will need to be taken into account in the SKAW planning process. Therefore, effective links need to be developed between SKAW, the Srepok RBO and the MRC Secretariat (currently located in Vientiane, Lao PDR) that is responsible for the Mekong River Basin planning.

11.1.4.2. Links to Provincial Planning Processes Developing an integrated watershed plan will not have a great deal of impact on improved water resources management if there are no links to the planning processes on provincial level within the basin. The watershed plan(s) must be translated into actions that can be included on the provincial planning agenda, and hence “compete” for funding, along with other high priority issues, such as education, health and so on. It is therefore proposed to work closely with the provincial authorities, and in particular with the Departments of Planning and Investment (DPIs), in order to jointly develop mechanisms whereby the watershed plans influence and guide investment decisions in the SKAW. 11.1.5. Financial Aspects Currently, there have been no separated regulations of financial management in watershed areas but regulations in legal documents of each branch and each field. The following documents have only focused mainly on mobilizing capital sources to be carried out in each related branch in watershed areas such as • Decision 184/2004/ QĐ-TTg regulating the use of investing credit capital to carry out programs of solidification of irrigation canals, development of rural transport, infrastructures of aquatic product culture and infrastructures of rural trade village from 2006 to 2010. • Joint Circular 90/1997/TTLT-TC-NN on instructions of managing regulations of financial for state enterprises of beneficial operation in the field of exploitation and protection of irrigational works; • Decree 121/2004/NĐ-CP regulating the punishment of administrative violation in the field of exploitation and protection of irrigational works; • Decree 121/2004/NĐ-CP regulating the punishment of administrative violation in the field of environment protection; • Decree 67/2003/ NĐ-CP regulating the costs of environmental for waste water.

The financial mechanism for the development of watershed areas includes: (1) national budget for direct investment; (2) national budget for the investment through National Target Programs, projects of implementing activities of development of watershed areas; (3) national preferential credit source for trade and manufacturing organizations in fields of localities with targets of watershed protection; (4) capital source of assistance of project programs of International Organizations, Overseas Governments (ODA capital), Non- governmental Organizations and individuals for the field of watershed development; (5) the return of agencies, organizations benefiting from watershed areas including both upstream and downstream areas. However, these sources are mainly national budgets, while the third source and the fifth one are very few. Currently, the government has been encouraging economic organizations to invest in some fields such as building hydro electrical works, developing eco-tourism, open areas of industrial and material plants in production sites to satisfy the target of watershed protection.

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11.2. Water Resources of SKAW 11.2.1. Hydrological and Meteorological Stations

11.2.1.1. Meteorological Stations Inside SKAW there are seven meteorological measurement stations, of which six just measure rainfall data. To get a comprehensive overview of the climatic conditions and to monitor future climatic changes in the region, the meteorological stations in Buon Ma Thuot and M’Drak, which are in the immediate vicinity of the SKAW are also relevant, as they provide various climatic data over long period of time. The network of the meteorological stations and the type and period of measurements is compiled in the table below. Their location is shown in the map on hydrological and meteorological stations in Annex 4. Table 71: Network of meteorological stations

No Station Longitude Latitude Measuring Measuring No. of element time years 1 Buon Ma Thuot 108003' 12040' X, T, E, R, V,S 1958-1964 46 1966-1974 1976-2006 2 M'Drak 108046' 12045' X, T, E, R, V, S 1978-2006 29 3 Krong Buk (Bridge 42) 108022' 12046' X 1977-2006 30 4 Krong Pach 108000’ 12002 X 1978-1987 10 5 Krong Bong 108027' 12033' X 1977-2006 30 6 Krong Kma 1977-1996 20 7 Giang Son 108011' 12030' X 1977-2006 30 8 Lak 108011’ 12040’ X, T, E, R, V, S 1977-2006 30 9 Buon Triet 108006’ 12026’ X 1987-2001 14

Notes: X,T,E,R,V,S are abbreviations for rainfall, temperature, vaporization, humidity and wind speed respectively. The table above shows, that from 1977 onwards continuous measurement data are available for the main meteorological data. Although the number of stations seems to be sufficient, all stations are located in the low land areas and therefore no meteorological data are available for the hilly and mountainous region. As such the meteorological data are not representative for the whole study area. It is therefore recommended to establish some more measurement stations in the mountainous region. Beside rainfall, all stations should also measure at least temperature and humidity.

11.2.1.2. Hydrological Stations Hydrological data are only available from two stations located within the study area (refer also to map in Annex 4): − Krong Bong station, located on Krong Bong River above the confluence with Krong Ana River. It was operated from 1977 to 1986 and only water level and water flow was measured. It was closed in 1987 due to lack of funds. − Giang Son station along Krong Ana River is a primary hydrological station; it is located right on the boundary of Krong Bong district and Lak district. Beside water level and flow, the rate of sedimentation is measured. Data are available from 1966-1974 and from 1977 onwards. For the measurement of the impact of natural resources management one hydrological station, which measures only water level, water flow and sedimentation, is not sufficient at all. There must be at least one hydrological station in each sub-catchment (refer to chapter 105

11.2.2) at the confluences of Krong Bong, Krong Kmar, Elan Niong, Long Ding and Dac Lieng. Beside water level and flow, the rate of sedimentation and water quality needs to be measured.

11.2.2. Rivers and Catchments The main river is Krong Ana, which forms the northern boundary of the SKAW and runs from east to the west. It comprises of 3 main tributaries, i.e. Krong Buk, Krong Pak and Krong Bong of which only Krong Bong is located within the study area. It starts from where the 3 tributaries meet, runs along the study area until it meets Krong No River. The length of Krong Ana within the district territory is 89 km, with the slope 4-5 ‰. Picture 15: Krong Ana River

The SKAW can be divided into five main sub-catchment areas (see catchment map in Annex 4), which are:

Ea Krong Bong This is the largest sub-catchment in the east of SKAW, it covers with a total area of about 77,650 ha half of the study area. It is characterised by a hilly and mountainous landscape and a high forest cover of about 72%. Krong Bong is the primary tributary of Krong Ana River. It originates from Eastern Truong Son Mountain; its upper part runs south north, then east west before joining Krong Ana River at Hoa Le commune. The riverbed is narrow and steep. Its length is 73 km, the slope 13‰. Many streams serve as tributaries with the density around 0,5 km per km2.

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Ea Krong Kmar Ea Krong Kmar is the sub-catchment next to Ea Krong Bong in the west. The total area of this sub-catchment is about 17,970 ha and it covers 11% of SKAW. It combines two sub- catchments, that of Krong Kmar and the small catchment area of Ea Nane. Both drain in northern direction directly into Krong Ana River. Krong Kmar originates from Chu Yang Sin mountain at the height of 1,675m, it runs east- west at the upper part, then changes the direction to south-north at Proh village of Krong Bong district, then joins to Krong Ana river at Khue Ngoc Dien commune. The length of the river is 22 km, the slope is 33.2‰ and river network density is 0.56 km per km2. In the south, the catchment area is covered by high mountains while in the north towards Krong Ana; it covers the flat areas along Krong Ana River. Forest cover is about 65%. Picture 16: Krong Kma River

Ea Elan Niong This sub-catchment is located in the lowland area along the Krong Ana River and covers a total area of 11,973 ha, which is equal to about 8% of the SKAW. It is intensively used for agriculture and has the lowest forest cover of about 22% within the study area.

Dac Lieng Dac Lieng sub-catchment is the second largest within in the SKAW and covers 34,040 ha or about 22% of the study area. Dak Lieng originates from Chu Yang Sin Mountain at the height of 1,800m. It runs east west in the upper part, then changes the direction to south north at the centre of Dak Phoi commune, and joins Krong Ana River at Dak Lieng commune. The length of the river is 32 km, the slope 14.8‰ and tributary density is 0.24 km per km2. Forest cover is about 49%.

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Lak lake is a pre-dominant feature in the north-western part of the catchments and forms the largest water body inside SKAW with a size of about 500 ha and an average depth of 4-5m. It is connected with Krong Ana by a canal and is the main water source for about 400 ha of irrigated rice fields. It is very rich in fish (annual fish production 200 t/year) and a famous tourist area.

Ea Long Ding Ea Long Ding is the sub-catchment in the west of the SKAW. It covers 13,560 ha or about 9% of the study area. The percentage of surface water bodies within the sub-catchment is with about 3.5% the second highest after Dac Lieng (4.2%), of which Buon Tung Lake next to Krong Ana river has with 141 ha the largest share. Landscape is flat with some hilly areas in the south. Forest cover is about 60% of which most of it is bamboo forest or wood and shrub land.

11.2.3. Groundwater The geological and hydrological characteristics of groundwater are described in detail in DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALS, 1999. In this publication, the reserves for potential exploitation of groundwater in the Krong Pach - Lak depression are estimated at 257,814 m3/day. According to this study the groundwater belongs to the Holocene porous sediment aquifer

(QIV). This aquifer comprises mainly of sediments from rivers and streams, which include sand, semi clay, bibbley-rock mix sandy clay. Its thickness varies from 1 to 18 m. A map showing the different aquifers is attached in the map atlas in Annex 4. The groundwater in the Holocene porous sediment aquifer has no pressure, the dynamic water level ranges from 0.7 to 3 m. there are no groundwater springs in the area, seepage discharge is 0.85 l/s, and discharge in boreholes is 0.78 to 9,02 l/s. Groundwater exploitation in the SKAW is about 1% by borehole and 65% by shallow wells. The quality is not good as the groundwater contains a high level of aluminium and iron.

11.2.4. Water Quantity Water flow in the SKAW is characterised by a high fluctuation depending on the total amount of rainfall and varies greatly between years and month. According to hydrological data collected at hydrological stations in the area and the neighbourhood, the beginning and end of the flood season may vary up to 2-3 month. Also the total length of the flood seasons ranges between 2 to 6 month. This shows the instability of the catchment area. In years with a strong southeast monsoon in the beginning of rainy season (in May), the flood season starts quite early in the catchment area. By the end of rainy season, if there are rainstorms or tropical low pressures coming from Eastern Sea, the flood season tends to prolong. At Krong Bong station on Krong Bong River, flood season lasts for 4 months from September to December, the flow in flood season is 69.3% of annual flow, of which the highest flow happens usually in November and accounts for 24.9% of annual flow. The dry season lasts from January to August, the low flow is 30.7% of annual flow, of which the lowest flow happens usually in April and accounts for only 2.3% of the annual flow. At Giang Son station on Krong Ana River, flood season lasts for 4 months from September to December, the flow in flood season is 66,5% of annual flow, of which the highest flow happens usually in November and accounts for 21,9% of annual flow. The dry season lasts from January to August, the low flow is 33,5% of annual flow, of which the lowest flow happens usually in April and accounts for only 2% of the annual flow.

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Table 72: Average water flow measured at hydrological stations inside SKAW

Station Unit Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

3 Krong Bong m /s 15.1 9.37 6.43 5.37 6.24 8.98 9.39 12.4 20.2 46.3 59.4 39.1 19.9 (1977 – 1987) % 6.3 3.9 2.7 2.2 2.6 3.8 3.9 5.2 8.5 19.4 24.9 16.4 100.0 Giang Son 3 m /s 52.3 27.1 18.1 17.0 27.6 42.6 42.8 62.0 86.1 151.0 189.1 148.1 72.0 (1966 –1974) (1977 – 2003) % 6.1 3.1 2.1 2.0 3.2 4.9 5.0 7.2 10.0 17.5 21.9 17.2 100.0 Remark: Due to a lack of funds, Krong Bong hydrological station was closed down in 1988. Because of the war, no data are available from Giang Son station for 1975 to 1976.

Because of the comparatively high forest cover of the SKAW, the water flow in the rivers and streams is still abundant even in dry periods, when other rivers in the Srepok basin such as Krong Buk, Ea Tul, Ea Hleo, etc. fell dry, as it was the case in the dry season of 2004/2005. The table below compiles the most important characteristics of the individual sub-catchments of the SKAW based on a hydrological model and provides a water resources index C for the availability of water for the local population. Table 73: Characteristics of sub-catchment and water availability Sub-catchment Characteristics Ea Krong Ea Long Ea Elan Dac Ea Krong Kmar Ding Niong Lieng Bong Natural area (km2) 179.7 135.6 119.7 340.4 776.5 Total rainfall*1 (106m3) 388.19 295.98 227.49 752.60 2120.43 Total Flow*2 (106m3) 144.58 109.1 96.32 273.83 624.63 Agriculture area (ha) 2,122 2,845 5,464 8,408 8,247 Forest area (ha) 11,596 8,103 2,616 16,793 56,111 Forest cover (%) 64.5 59.8 21.9 49.3 72.3 Population in 2005 17642 14256 20941 37960 27630 Population density (person/km2) 98 105 174 111 35 Water resource index C*3 32 30 18 28 90 Irrigation scheme (2005) 4 4 2 14 12 *1: rainfall data per sub-catchmwent were derived based on GIS analysis from rainfall maps. *2: derived from the NAM rainfall-runoff model according to IWRP (2006): Krong Bong hydrology report *3: Water resources index C has been developed at the 1963 Warsaw Water Resources Conference and is used by the Ha Noi Water Resources Univesity for the assessment water resources. It specifies the availability of water in relation to the annual water demand of the population.

The average annual water demand per person has been estimated at 250 m3.

total flow in m3 Availability index C = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ population*250 m3/person

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Table 74: Water resources index Index C Water resources availability 20+ Profuse water resources 10 -20 Enough water but need to be balanced 5 -10 Poor water resource < 5 Very poor water Resource

According to the above hydrological modelling, the Krong Bong sub-catchment is a very profuse water resource (C = 90!), due to its high forest cover of 72.3% and its low population density of 35 person/km2. Also the sub-catchment areas of Ea Krong Kmar, Ea Long Dieng and Dak Lieng still can be considered as profuse water resources, while the Ea Long Niong sub-catchment may face little problems in water distribution due to high population and low forest cover. It can be concluded, that water supply is no problem in the SKAW except for extreme drought period, even then the SKAW is less affected then the other parts of Dak Lak province due to its richness in natural water resources.

11.2.5. Water Quality Compared to other areas in the Srepok basin, the water quality of the study area in general is good. The results of the latest water quality measurement of the Institute of Tropics and Environment Protection are shown in the table below. Table 75: Result of water quality control at some stations Location No Parameter Unit Flow to Lak Middle of Ea Krông lake Lak lake Kmar 1 Turbidity - 180 7 21 2 SS mg/l 67 10 4 3 pH - 7.0 7.0 7.1 4 Total Dissolve Solid Substance mgCaCo3/L 14 15 19 5 COD mg/L 29 19 5 6 DO mg/L 5.9 5.3 6.5

7 BOD5 mg/L 11 9 3 8 Clorua mg/L 7 7 7

9 NO2 mg/L 0.013 0.010 <0.010

10 NO3 mg/L 0.24 0.23 0.33

11 NH3 mg/L 0.067 0.195 0.019 12 Total Phosphorus mg/L 0.028 0.022 0.001

13 H2S mg/L 0.040 0.014 0.084 14 Fe mg/L 0.015 0.014 0.013 15 Total Coliform MPN/100ml 24000 15000 46000 Sources: Data from Institute of Tropics and Environment Protection (2006)

In some cases, traces of organo-chlorin pesticide and phosphorous pesticides and herbicides were found, however in doses which do neither affect humans nor animals. However, if these pollutions occur frequently, they may accumulate and cause serious health problems in the long-term. There are some signs of water pollution from the usage of inorganic fertilizers and from livelihood wastes to the water sources inside the fields of Dak Lieng commune, Lak district.

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As most of the sewerage and waste water goes directly into streams, there is some organoic pollution, especially during dry periods, when the water table is low. The micro-organic pollution may cause various diseases such as diarrhoea, etc. In general, the quality of water of the river network is suitable for irrigation in agricultural production activities.

11.3. Flooding and Drought During heavy rainfall in the period August to November the water level increases considerably in the Krong Ana River which reaches a peak in October. It has been observed that during the last decade flooding has become more frequently. There have been some serious flooding in 1992, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2005 which caused serious damages and causes a threat to the socio-economic development. Since 1978 the most serious floods as measured by the hydrological stations happened in November 1998 and in October 2000 (see table below). A map showing the extent of the flood in 2000 is attached in the map atlas in Annex 4. The 2005 flood caused 4 casualities, 915 houses were flooded, 86 houses seriously damaged and 920 ha of rice fields were flooded. The total damage was estimated at 1000 million VND. Hydrological models such as the Vusoski2 formula link the increased surface runoff with the high rate of deforestation in the area. Table 76: Maximum flooding in Srepok besin in the period from 1978 to 2005

Cat. Area Qmax Modulus Station River Time (km2) (m3/s) (m3/s.km2)

Giang Son Krong Ana 3180 1620 0,51 22 Nov.1998

Duc Xuyen Krong Kno 3080 4020 1,31 10 Oct. 2000

Bridge 14 Srepok 8610 3600 0,42 12 Oct. 2000

According to the Department of Water Resources drought have increased recently in Dak Lak province. However, compared to other areas, the SKAW is not so much affected due to its comparatively richness in water resources. Nevertheless, the 2004 drought has caused considerable damages in the SKAW to the agricultural production of rice (mainly upland rice) and coffee (refer also to the expert report of PHAM TAN HA).

11.4. Water Users and Demand 11.4.1. Private Households Clean water supply for rural livelihood is one of the urgent tasks of the local authorities. At present, there are a lot of limitations for local residents of SKAW in using sanitary water in their livelihood. According to the survey of Dak Lak Center for Clean Water and Environmental Sanitary, and according to the statistics of district economic offices, at present local people are using water mainly from digging wells, drilling wells, rain water tanks, and water supply by gravity. The quantity of existing water supply constructions is as followed: - Drilling wells: total quantity of drilling wells in Krong Bong district is 101, of which 97 were drilled from the funds supported by UNICEF and 4 were built out of that fund. Each drilling well can serve about 5 to 10 people. The number of people who are using drilling wells is still very limited, which is approximately 800 persons (not yet 1% of total population). In Lak district Danida project support for 1087 househole in 7 boreholes.

2 The Visowski formula links surface run-off with the vegetation and forest cover of the area.

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- Digging wells: are generally the main type of water supply constructions for people in Krong Bong district. Total quantity of digging wells of the district is 7,712. The number of people who are using digging wells accounts for about 65% of total population. In Lak district over 50%% population use shalow wells. - Water supply by gravity: in Krong Bong district there are 4 systems of water supply by gravity, the building of which was supported by UNICEF. These schemes take water from watersheds which are located on higher altitude. The four schemes are located in Yang Mao, Hoa Le, Hoa Son and Khue Ngoc Dien communes, serving for about 6,000 people. In Lak district, there are 8 schemes of water supply by gravity, serving for 2,361 households. Thus, the people who use water by gravity just account for a small percentage. The others use mainly water directly exploited from open sources such as streams, ponds and lakes. 11.4.2. Industrial Users Beside agro-industry, which use surface water for irrigation (refer to the chapter below) there are hardly any industrial users of water in the SKAW. 11.4.3. Irrigation Schemes and Water Reservoirs There are 36 irrigation shemes in the SKAW area (see Table 77 and map on irrigation in Annex 4), of which 14 are water reservoirs and 22 are weirs. Of the total 36 shemes, only 4 belong to medium size irrigation schemes, i.e Yang Reh, Krong Kmar, Buon Triet and Buon Tria; the other remaining 32 schemes are of small scale. The total designed irrigated area is 4974 ha (4744 ha of wetland rice and 230 ha of coffee); but the actual irrigated area is only 2431 ha (2381 ha of rice and 50 ha of coffee). All the constructions were developed after the Liberation; the majority was built before 1995. While the constructions built after 1995 are usually of good quality, the older ones are seriously degrading and many of these irrigation schemes can no longer asure water supply. This imposes a high risk on the production of irrigation rice in the long run. A list of all irrigation svhemes is provided in the table below. More detailed description including technical detils are attached to the exoert report of PHAM TAN HA.

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Table 77: Irrigation schemes inside SKAW Designed area Existing area Year of Existing No Name Type Owner (ha) (ha) constr. situation Rice Coffee Rice Coffee 1 Ea Mhat Weir 1985 OK Yang Mao 25 10 20 5 2 Ea Khar Weir 1982 downgrade Yang Mao 68 0 30 5 3 Ea Tong Weir 1991 OK Yang Mao 95 0 25 5 4 Ea Sai Weir Yang Mao 10 5 Ea Tar Weir Yang Mao 7 6 Ea Tung Weir Yang Mao 10 7 Ea Hmun Reservoir 1987 OK Cu Pui 50 0 50 0 8 Ea Plei Weir 2003 Good Cu Pui 47 0 42 5 9 Ea Drouih Weir 1984 OK Hoa Phong 25 0 30 0 10 Chu Phiang Weir 1980 OK Hoa Phong 45 0 60 0 11 Son Phong Weir Breakdown Hoa Phong 45 0 0 0 12 Son Phong 1 Weir Breakdown Hoa Phong 20 20 13 Yang Reh Reservoir 1986 Good IMC 342 0 130 0 14 Thon 2 Reservoir 1985 downgrade Ea Trul 15 0 12 0 15 Hoa Son Reservoir 1982 OK IMC 24 0 15 0 16 Ea Hra Reservoir 2004 Good Hoa Son 15 0 8 10 17 Krong Kmar Weir 1980 downgrade IMC 400 150 300 0 18 An ninh Reservoir 1987 OK IMC 100 0 50 0 19 Dong Le Weir 1978 downgrade Hoa Le 21 0 35 0 20 Buon Tung Reservoir 2003 Good Buon Triet 40 0 40 0 21 Khe Mon Reservoir 1993 Good Buon Triet 25 0 25 0 22 Buon Triet Reservoir 1978 Good IMC 2100 0 800 0 23 Buon Tria Reservoir 1980 OK IMC 300 0 150 0 24 Buon Jong Reservoir 2001 Good Dak Nue 22 0 20 0 25 Buon Tor Weir 2005 Good Dak Lieng 72 0 75 0 26 Yang Lah Weir 2002 Good Dak Lieng 112 0 80 0 27 Lieng Ong Weir Dak Phoi 150 60 100 20 28 Dak Lieng Weir 1991 Good Dak Lieng 160 0 100 0 29 Lien Son Reservoir 1983 downgrade Lien Son 5 0 6 0 30 La Tang Po Weir 1996 OK Yang Tao 60 0 20 0 31 Buon Tlung Reservoir Dak Phoi 19 10 10 0 32 Dak Yu Reservoir Breakdown Bong Krang 25 0 5 0 33 Dak Pal Weir 2000 Good Bong Krang 50 0 40 0 34 Buon Tieu Weir Bong Krang 40 0 25 0 35 Buon Biep Weir 1978 downgrade District 200 0 16 0 DakPok 36 Weir 1979 OK Yang Tao 27 0 15 0 Thuong Total 4744 230 2381 50

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The responsibility for the management of irrigation constructions lies with DARD. The operation of large reservoirs and other constructions in the area, such as Yang Reh, Buon Triet, Buon Tria has been delegated to Irrigation Management Company (IMC) at provincial level, which is responsible to PPC. Medium and small-scale irrigation constructions are managed by IMC at district level. The responsibility of water resources management, land and land use management is with DONRE. At district level, the Office of Natural Resources and Environment under DONRE carries out this task.

11.4.4. Hydropower Due to the abundant water resources and the mountainous terrain in the southern part, SKAW has a good potential for hydropower production, especially for micro hydropower stations. In the 1980’s two hydro power station: Krong Kmar and Dak Lieng were built to supply electricity for Lien Son and Khue Ngoc Dien town. Both stations were closed down, when the area was connected to the national electricity network. At present, the construction of the new hydropower station “Krong Kmar” with a capacity of 11.2 MW is ongoing. It is planned that this hydropower station provides 49.57 million KWH into the public electricity network. For this project about 103 ha of forest area has been required of which about 77 ha are located within the Chu Yang Sin National Park.

Picture 17: Construction of Krong Kmar hydropower station

Electricity Vietnam (EVN) has identified 10 locations as potential sites for the establishment of micro hydropower stations, which are listed in the table below. The location of existing and potential hydropower station is shown in the map atlas in Annex 4. 114

Table 78: Potential micro hydropower station Height difference Catch. area (km Capacity (MW) (m) No Name Latitude Longitude Commune River 2 )

1 Ea Khar 1 12.42 107.62 Yang Mao Ea Khar 22 400 2.2 2 Ea Khar 2 12.43 108.59 Yang Mao Ea Khar 39 100 1 3 Ea Krong Pac 12.60 108.59 Cu Pui Krong Pach 78 20 0.2 4 Ea Ktour 12.49 108.47 Cu Pui Ea Ktour 62 60 0.5 5 Ia Krong Kna 1 12.35 108.61 Yang Mao Krong Bong 73 60 1 6 Ia Krong Kna 2 12.37 108.56 Yang Mao Krong Bong 130 40 1.2 7 Ia Rong 12.40 108.53 Yang Mao Krong Bong 29 100 0.6 8 Dak Lieng 1 12.35 108.25 Dak Phoi Dak Lieng 38 100 0.6 9 Dak Lieng 2 12.35 108.22 Dak Phoi Dak Lieng 60 60 0.6 10 Dak Phoi 12.33 108.24 Dak Phoi Dak Phoi 43 40 27 Source: EVN (2004)

11.5. Waste Water and Sewerage System The sewerage and waste water system almost does not exist, the major part of wastewater and sewage from residential areas goes directly into streams and rivers. Industry of the area is not yet developed; therefore there is almost no industrial waste water.

11.6. Erosion and Sedimentation Local authorities have described soil erosion as a severe problem especially on steep and deforested slopes (see pictuires below). During the rainy season erosion rates between 2.96 to 90.20 tonnes/ha have been measured. Experiments conducted in 1998 by the Soil Research Institute showed that the soil loss on bare land on slopes above 20 decrees is considerably higher than on areas covered by vegetation and is as high as 7-10 ton/ha/year. These amounts of mud and soil is washed into the rivers and streams and causes increased sedimentation, which negatively affect also hydrological constructions. Monthly average sedimentation rates measured at Giang Son station from 1977 to 2004 show a constant increase in sedimentation from 1996 onwards (refer to Figure 10). This may be caused by the increased deforestation from 1995 onwards as described in chapter 4.1.2. Sedimentation rates measured in May, June and July 2004 at Giang Son have been as high as 164, 175 and 113 g/m3 respectively. The sedimentation rates measured at Krong Buk which is further upstreams of the SKAW show considerable peaks in sedimentation in the years 1998, 2002, 2003 (refer to Figure 12).

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Figure 10: Sedimentation rates measured at Giang Son station from 1977-2004

Rate of Sedimentation at Giang Son Station

200 180 160 140 120 100 80 Rate (g/m3) 60 40 20 0

monthly averages from 3/1977-12/2004

Figure 11: Sedimentation rates measured at Krong Buk station from 1977-2004

Rate of Sedimention at Krong Buk station

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000 Rate (g/m3)

500

monthly averages from 3/1977-12/2004

Erosion has not only swept away soil but also decreased the soil fertility. The average nutrient loss at experimental survey sites was measured to be equivalent to 203.5 kg Sulphate Ammonium, 19.3 kg KCl and 303.6 kg Thermo Phosphate per hectare per rainy season. For more details refer to the esxpert report of PHAM TAN HA. The study conducted by the Soil Research Institute in 1998 came to the conclusion, that the decrease and degradation of organic matter in the soil leads to series of negative consequences for cultivating on sloping land such as declining crop yield; and the soil fertility is reduced quickly, especially nitrogen, phosphate (the soluble fraction) and potassium. This problem can not be completely solved by applying fertilizer unless a fresh amount of organic matter is introduced.

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Picture 18: Clearing of forestland on steep slope and signs of erosion in Ea Trul

Picture 19: Exposed upper slope prone to surface run-off and soil erosion

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Picture 20: Steep bare slopes and signs of erosion

11.7. Problems, Issues and Constraints Problems, issues and constraints in relation to water and water resources management within SKAW have been identified during a Strategic Planning Workshop for IWRM in October 2005 as follows:

Changing land use Since 1980s land use in the SKAW has rapidly changed. Large areas of forests have been converted into other land-uses due to increased demand on agricultural land by the fast growing population and due to dramatically increasing world coffee prices. On the other hand the remaining forest areas have been continuously degraded (refer to chapter 4.1.2 and 5.1.3). It has been pointed out by local authorities and a number of reports that this has led to an increased surface runoff of rainwater linked with increased erosion and loss of soil fertility which led to an increase in sedimentation of the rivers.

Increasing water demand Population growth and improved living standard has led to an increased water demand for domestic consumption. Also water demand for coffee production and irrigation agriculture has been considerably increased due to an increase in the production areas in the 1980s and 1990s. The bad condition of most of the irrigation constructions established before 1995 has increased the demand of water per agricultural production unit (i.e. t/ha of rice, coffee etc.).

Hydropower The Krong Kmar hydropower project is underway. According to the planning of Electricity Vietnam, up to 10 micro hydropower stations will be constructed within the SKAW. This will

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lead to further forest conversion with negative impact on the environment and water resources.

Tourism A number of tourist spots such as Krong Kmar waterfall, Lak Lake located, etc. attract many tourists and their number is increasing. The development of tourism activities has caused some negative impacts on the environment and created other social issues.

Fisheries and aquaculture While aquaculture brings economic benefits to the region, it has a negative impact on water quality, mainly through the discharge of polluted water into rivers and streams.

Conflicts over use of water for irrigation Conflicts over use of water source for irrigation in dry season have been commonly occurred among the districts (between up-stream and down stream). This is due to absence of effective coordination mechanisms and/or inappropriate allocation of water.

Exploitation of sand Along Krong Ana and Krong Bong River, large quantities of sand from the riverbanks are exploited for the increasing demand of the construction business. This has severe effects on riverbank stability through increasing bank erosion.

Institutional constraints There are many institutions involved in water management with overlapping responsibilities. Lack of human resources, technical skills and lack of equipment are bottlenecks for effective and efficient water management.

Hydro-meteorological Stations The number and distribution of hydrological and meteorological stations in the SKAW is not adequate to provide sufficient data for the monitoring of the impacts of watershed management. Another bottleneck is the poor equipment with technical instruments, which is unsuitable for the measurement of the most important indicators.

11.8. Potential Fields of Intervention Within the framework of this baseline study some potential field of intervention have been identified which are briefly described in the following:

1. Further institutional development of Srepok RBO To overcome the institutional problems, the Srepok RBO council was established in May 2006. However, up to now the by-laws of the RBO have not been officially approved (the draft regulation of Srepok RBO are attached to the expert report of PHAM TAN HA). Due to the large area of the Srepok river basin it is furthermore necessary to establish sub-councils for individual watersheds or sub-catchments such as SKAW. Capacity building and technical support is required to develop the RBO into a well functioning watershed management organisation.

2. Development of an integrated watershed planning for the SKAW Integrated watershed management planning is urgently required especially concerning the planning and establishment of hydropower stations and their effects on the environment, especially for the areas located inside the Chu Yang Sin National Park. Improved planning may also contribute to conflict resolution in irrigation water disputes.

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3. Set-up of hydro-meteorological measurement stations for the SKAW. At least one hydrological measurement station should be set up at the main tributary of each of the five sub-catchments of the SKAW in order to measure the impact of natural resources management on water quality and quantity. Additional meteorological measurement stations for the measurement of rainfall, humidity and temperature should be set up in the mountainous region of SKAW in order to collect meteorological data which are representative for the whole study area.

4. Set-up of an information system and information sharing mechanism for the SKAW Another important issue is the development of an information system on all aspects of water management inside the SKAW. This should be integrated into the mandate of the Srepok RBO.

5. Improvement of irrigation constructions To reduce water demand and resolve disputes on irrigation water, the existing irrigation constructions should repaired and be properly maintained.

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Annex 1

Literature

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Literature

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LAK DISTRICT; 2006a: Lak statistic book. LAK DISTRICT; 2006b: Result agriculture production 2006 and planning for Winter-Spring season 2006-2007. Report Lak Economic Division. LAK DISTRICT; 2006c: Rural water supply and sanitation activities in Lak district. Lak consultation on RWSS unit. LAK DPC; 2003: Land and land use planning for Lak district to 2010. LAK DPC; 2001: Socio-economic development master plan for Lak district period 2001-2010. MRRF; 2005: Survey on fishing and aquaculture in Srepok basin. NGUYEN NGọC LUNG, et al.; 2003: Evaluation on initial achievement of natural forest allocation. Ha Noi, Dec, 2003 NGUYEN MIN ANH; 2006: The Geology, Soils and Land Suitability in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed area. Technical report prepared for WSMP/AIFP/MRC September 2006. NGUYEN QUANG TAN; 2001: Report on Finding from field visits forest land allocation locations in Cu Jut and Krong Bong Districts, Daklak Province NGUYEN THI THANH HUONG; 2002: Research on impact factor to forest land use and community-base forest management direction of Ede group at Cu Dam commune, Krong Bong District, Dak Lak Province. Forest Master thesis. Xuan Mai Forest University. NGUYEN TIEN; 2006a: The Agriculture in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed area. Technical report prepared for WSMP/AIFP/MRC September 2006. NGUYEN TIEN; 2006b: Land Management and Landuse in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed area. Technical report prepared for WSMP/AIFP/MRC September 2006. NGUYEN VAN TUAN, LE ĐUC KHANH; 2004: Household economic analyze of M’Nong group at M’Nang Dong village, Yang Mao commune, belong to Buffer zone of Chu Yang Sin National Park. Forestry Bachelor thesis, Tay Nguyen University NGUYEN VAN THANG, VO HUNG; 2006: Assessment status of management and potential of NTFP’s at some villages belong the buffer-zone of Chu Yang Sin National Park. Forestry engineer thesis. Tay Nguyen University. NGUYEN VAN XUAN; 2003: Natural forest allocation in Dak Lak Province: Opportunities and challenges. Dak Lak DARD. NGUYEN VU HUNG, CAO THI LY; 2006: Research on relationship between wildlife animal groups with impact factors in Chu Yang Sin National Park. Forestry engineer thesis. Tay Nguyen University. NIAPP; 2001a: Dak Lak Soils. NIASPP; 2001b: Land evaluation for land use planning and development of sustainable agri culture in Dak Lak. PHAM CONG TRI; 2002: NTFPs’ role analysis in livelihood of Ede Ethnic Minority in Krong Bong District, Dak Lak Province. Forest Master thesis. Xuan Mai Forest University. PHAM QUOC TUAN; 1997: Report on land allocation and forest assignment and recommendations on assistance to facilitate the effective process of land allocation and forest assignment at commune level, lak district, Dak Lak province PHAM TAN HA; 2006: The Water Resources Management in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed area. Technical report prepared for WSMP/AIFP/MRC September 2006. PHAM XUAN PHƯƠNG, ĐO ANH MINH; (undated): Report on status implementation the benefit policy for household, private and commune, who had allocated, make forest protection contract in Gia Lai and Dak Lak Province. SONG DA COMPANY; 2005: EIA for Krong Kmar hydropower station. SIKOR, T.; 2000: Forest Land Allocation in Dak Lak: An Initial Assessment STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT; 2005: Statistical year book of Daklak Province 2005 SWRM; 1998: Soil Erosion and Biological Anti-erosive Technologies to Conserve Soil in Buon Yong catchment. SWRM-Highland Soil Research Station.

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TRAN NGOC THANH; 2000: Forest land allocation in Dak Lak A learning process. Sustainable Management of Resources In The Lower Mekong Basin Project SMRP. TRAN NGOC THANH; (undated): Does devolution really influence local forest institution? Two case studies in the Central Highlands of Vietnam. Humboldt University Berlin. TRAN HUU NGHI; 2001: Forest land allocation in Daklak province. A case study of Ea Hleo and Cu Jut forest enterprises, Vietnam. Georg-August University Goettingen, Germany. TU QUANG HIEN; 1998: Formal report on participatory establish Agroforestry models at Ju village, Dak phoi commune, Lak District, Dak Lak Province. TUYET HOA NIEKDAM; 2006: Socio-Economic Study of the Southern Krong Ana Watershed area. Technical report prepared for WSMP/AIFP/MRC September 2006. VO NGUYEN HUAN; undated: Evaluation of the effectiveness of forest land allocation and allocation of forest for protection on contract to households and individuals. FSIV VO HUNG, et al; 2003: Report on effectiveness of natural forest allocation at Nam village, Dak Phoi commune, Lak District, Dak Lak Province. Daklak DARD. VO HUNG; 2006: The existing Forest Resources in the Southern Krong Ana Watershed area. Technical report prepared for WSMP/AIFP/MRC September 2006. WSMP/AIFP/MRC; 2006: Review and Analysis of Policies related to watershed management in Vietnam. Consolidated Report by Nguyen Ba Ngai, Vu Hong Chau, Pham Xuan Phuong, Vo Dai Hai, Tran Thi Hien Hanh, Pham Tan Ha, Nguyen Xuan Thanh.

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Annex 2 List of Households

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Annex 2: List of households

Village Household District Commune Name Ethnicity name category

Krong Bong Cu Dram CuDram Mi Son Medium E DE Krong Bong Cu Dram CuDram H'Rung Nie Better-Off E DE Krong Bong Cu Dram CuDram Y Noang Mlo Better-Off E DE Krong Bong Cu Dram CuDram Amiut Medium E DE Krong Bong Cu Dram CuDram Ama Phuong Poor E DE Krong Bong Cu Dram CuDram My Moi Poor E DE Krong Bong Cu Dram Yang Han Hau Khai Van Better-Off Mong Krong Bong Cu Dram Yang Han Vo Van Bao Medium Mong Krong Bong Cu Dram Yang Han Duong Tien Sinh Better-Off Mong Krong Bong Cu Dram Yang Han Cu Xeo Su Poor Mong Krong Bong Cu Dram Yang Han Duong Tien Hoa Better-Off Mong Krong Bong Cu Dram Yang Han Vo A Thanh Poor Mong Krong Bong Cu Pui Dak Tuor Y Bong Better-Off M' Nong Krong Bong Cu Pui Dak Tuor Ma Đuong Poor M' Nong Krong Bong Cu Pui Dak Tuor H' Sot Bya Better-Off M' Nong Krong Bong Cu Pui Dak Tuor Y Srieng Nie Poor M' Nong Krong Bong Cu Pui Dak Tuor Y Phem Medium M' Nong Krong Bong Cu Pui Dak Tuor Y Yang Nie Medium M' Nong Krong Bong Cu Pui ea Lang Đ ao van Danh Poor H' Mong Krong Bong Cu Pui ea Lang Sung van Lung Medium Mong Krong Bong Cu Pui ea Lang Ly van Kinh Better-Off Mong Krong Bong Cu Pui ea Lang Đ ao van Dia Poor H' Mong Krong Bong Cu Pui ea Lang Nong thi Lien Better-Off Tay Krong Bong Cu Pui ea Lang Sung nhe Phu Medium H' Mong Krong Bong Hoa Le Thon 10 Nguyen Van Cuong Poor Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Le Thon 2 Tong Thi Huong Poor Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Le Thon 4 Nguyen Thi Phuong Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Le Thon 4 Vo Huu Sum Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Le Thon 6 Vo Van Muoi Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Le Thon 6 Le Van Binh Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Phong Na Prong Hong Van Giang Poor H' Mong Krong Bong Hoa Phong Na Prong Đao Van Khin Medium H' Mong Krong Bong Hoa Phong Ngo A Y Lum eung Better-Off M' Nong Krong Bong Hoa Phong Ngo A Y Kai Bya Poor M' Nong Krong Bong Hoa Phong Thon 1 Le Thi Thao Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Phong Thon 1 Le Nam Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 10 Đang Van Trinh Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 10 Nguyen Thi Hoa Poor Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 10 Nguyen Tac Pham Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 10 Pham Ngoc Tin Poor Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 10 Đ o The Huy Poor Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 10 Mai Van Hien Better-Off Kinh

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Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 4 Phan Thanh Khang Poor Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 4 Vu Thi Chuyen Poor Muong Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 4 Phan Thanh Tuyen Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 4 Nguyen Van Tho Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 4 Nguyen Thi Cong Medium Kinh Krong Bong Hoa Son Thon 4 Nguyen Tan Le Medium Kinh Krong Bong Khue Ngoc Dien Thon 1 Le Đinh Anh Poor Kinh Krong Bong Khue Ngoc Dien Thon 1 Vo Minh Chau Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Khue Ngoc Dien Thon 3 Truong Van Đong Medium Kinh Krong Bong Khue Ngoc Dien Thon 3 Bui Van Tam Poor Kinh Krong Bong Khue Ngoc Dien Thon 5 Nguyen Thanh Khoa Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Khue Ngoc Dien Thon 5 Nguyen Thanh Xuan Poor Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 4 Le Van Hung Medium Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 4 Ho Thi Cuc Poor Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 4 Phan Thi Rang Medium Cham Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 4 Le Thi Hai Medium Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 4 Y Khoan Nie Poor E DE Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 4 Hoang Thi Hoa Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 7 Đ ang Thi Hong Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 7 Nguyen Van Men Medium Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 7 Nguyen Van Hung Medium Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 7 Nguyen Hoai Van Better-Off Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 7 Nguyen Xuan Hiep Poor Kinh Krong Bong Krong Kmar To 7 Phan Xuan An Poor Kinh Krong Bong Yang Mao Buon Tul H Lim Nie Kdam Poor M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Buon Tul Ama Thia Poor E DE Krong Bong Yang Mao Buon Tul H Dam Better-Off M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Buon Tul H Nuon Nie Poor M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Buon Tul Y Xuan Mlo Medium M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Buon Tul Ma Kre Better-Off E DE Krong Bong Yang Mao Hang Nam Y Ghan Sao Medium M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Hang Nam Y Pal Ksor Medium M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Hang Nam Y Year Poor Nùng Krong Bong Yang Mao Hang Nam Y Lanh Better-Off M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Hang Nam Y Luc Poor M' Nong Krong Bong Yang Mao Hang Nam Y The Kso Better-Off Mong Krong Bong Yang Re Thon 1 Tran Thi Kim Lan Medium Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Thon 1 Phan Van Tan Medium Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Thon 1 Nguyen Thi Nhung Poor Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Thon 1 Tran Nhung Medium Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Thon 1 Nguyen Tan Huong Medium Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Thon 1 Huynh Minh Hai Poor Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Yang Re Nie Sieng Medium E DE Krong Bong Yang Re Yang Re Y Ngun Bya Poor E DE Krong Bong Yang Re Yang Re Ama Kuu Medium E DE Krong Bong Yang Re Yang Re Hoang Thi Binh Poor Kinh Krong Bong Yang Re Yang Re Mi Bren Better-Off E DE

128

Krong Bong Yang Re Yang Re Y Bhet Kpor Better-Off E DE Lak Bong Krang Dak Ju Y Son Uong Medium M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Dak Ju Y Pre Luk Better-Off M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Dak Ju Y Son Knong Better-Off M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Dak Ju Y Sroc Hlong Poor M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Dak Ju Y Sanh Du Poor M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Dak Ju Đoan Quang Dung Better-Off Kinh Lak Bong Krang Sruong Nguyen Đoai Medium Kinh Lak Bong Krang Sruong Y Dhun Medium M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Sruong H Ba Poor M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Sruong Le Vang Better-Off Kinh Lak Bong Krang Sruong H Nghiep Better-Off M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Sruong Ho Trong Huan Poor Kinh Lak Bong Krang Yang Kring Y Nar Rong Poor M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Yang Kring Tran Van Dung Poor Kinh Lak Bong Krang Yang Kring H Krang Medium M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Yang Kring Tran Thi Khanh Hung Better-Off Kinh Lak Bong Krang Yang Kring Y Bang Medium M' Nong Lak Bong Krang Yang Kring Đao Duy Binh Better-Off Kinh Lak Buon Triet Doan Ket 1 Duong Van Luc Poor Kinh Lak Buon Triet Doan Ket 1 Nguyen Van Đong Better-Off Kinh Lak Buon Triet Doan Ket 2 Tran Danh Lap Medium Kinh Lak Buon Triet Doan Ket 2 Pham Ngoc Bau Poor Kinh Lak Buon Triet Son Cuong La Nhu Len Medium Kinh Lak Buon Triet Son Cuong Nguyen Tho Han Poor Kinh Lak Buon Tria Dong Giang 2 Nguyen Thi Tuyen Better-Off Kinh Lak Buon Tria Dong Giang 2 Vu Xuan Cuong Poor Kinh Lak Buon Tria Dong Giang 2 Tran Xuan Hang Poor Kinh Lak Buon Tria Tan Giang Vu Manh Hung Better-Off Kinh Lak Buon Tria Tan Giang Nguyen Xuan Du Poor Kinh Lak Buon Tria Tan Giang Vu Thi Vui Poor Kinh Lak Dak Lieng Buon Bang H Phem Bdap Poor M' Nong Lak Dak Lieng Buon Bang H Phin Der Poor M' Nong Lak Dak Lieng Buon To H Dum Buon Krong Better-Off M' Nong Lak Dak Lieng Buon To Y Sang Nie Medium M' Nong Lak Dak Lieng Hoa Bình Tieu Viet Hoang Poor Kinh Lak Dak Lieng Hoa Bình Bui Van Nhi Better-Off Kinh Lak Dak Nue Buon Than 1 Bui Thi Thai Better-Off Kinh Lak Dak Nue Buon Than 2 Nguyen Thi Tham Better-Off Kinh Lak Dak Nue Yen Thanh 1 Nguyen Đình Medium Kinh Lak Dak Nue Yen Thanh 1 Phan Trung Kien Poor Kinh Lak Dak Nue Yen Thanh 2 Phan Xuan Ly Poor Kinh Lak Dak Nue Yen Thanh 2 Nguyen Đang Hanh Better-Off Kinh Lak Lien Son Hop Thanh Nguyen Van anh Better-Off Kinh Lak Lien Son Hop Thanh Nguyen Thi Tien Medium Kinh Lak Lien Son Hop Thanh Le Hong Quan Better-Off Kinh Lak Lien Son Hop Thanh Le Hữu Thanh Medium Kinh

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Lak Lien Son Hop Thanh Tran Van Phung Poor Kinh Lak Lien Son Hop Thanh Y Bin Tor Poor M' Nong Lak Lien Son Thon 4 Nguyen Van Anh Better-Off Kinh Lak Lien Son Thon 4 Bui Thi Trang Poor Kinh Lak Lien Son Thon 4 Nguyen Thi Hoa Medium Kinh Lak Lien Son Thon 4 Duong Van Thuy Medium Kinh Lak Lien Son Thon 4 Le Van Que Poor Kinh Lak Lien Son Thon 4 Đao Van Phuc Poor Kinh Lak Yang Tao Buon Bhok Y Yang Xieng Poor M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Bhok Y Soan Triet Medium M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Bhok Y Sih Brong Medium M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Bhok Y Binh Uong Better-Off M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Bhok Y Quang Uong Better-Off M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Bhok Y Doan Triet Poor M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon C'uor Y Nuot Tetc Poor M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon C'uor Y ot Mlo Poor M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon C'uor Y Lung Uong Medium M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon C'uor Y Sik Luk Better-Off M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon C'uor Y Nuon Uong Better-Off M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon C'uor Y Wai Buon Medium M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Drung Phan Thi Hai Better-Off Kinh Lak Yang Tao Buon Drung Nguyen Thi Ngoc Hang Better-Off Kinh Lak Yang Tao Buon Drung Y Croi Sruc Medium M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Drung Y Lich Sruk Poor M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Drung Y Tot Long Ninh Poor M' Nong Lak Yang Tao Buon Drung Vo Thi Nghia Better-Off Kinh

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Annex 3

Change in Vegetation Cover 1995 to 2005

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Sub- 1995 2005 Change +/- catchment Vegetation Cover Absolute Relative (ha) (ha) (ha) (%) (%) Dac Lieng Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 8,431 2,717 -5,715 -3.7 -67.8 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 1,693 4,560 2,867 1.8 169.3 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 5,494 6,280 786 0.5 14.3 Deciduous broad leaved forest (Dipterocarp forest) 43 7 -35 0.0 -82.5 Pure pine closed forest 142 142 0 0.0 0.0 Mixed pine forest 680 680 0 0.0 0.0 Pure bamboo forest 2,145 1,624 -521 -0.3 -24.3 Mixed bamboo forest 1,174 783 -391 -0.3 -33.3 Wood/Shrub 6,897 8,728 1,832 1.2 26.6 Agricultural Land 5,871 6,557 685 0.4 11.7 Residential and build area 122 523 400 0.3 327.4 Water body 1,347 1,440 92 0.1 6.9 Dac Lieng Total 34,041 34,041 0 0.0 0.0 Ea Elan Niong Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 1,113 3 -1,111 -0.7 -99.8 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 404 1,265 861 0.6 213.1 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 2,430 1,109 -1,321 -0.9 -54.4 Semi-deciduous broad leaved closed forest 182 169 -13 0.0 -7.1 Semi-deciduous broad leaved medium+open forest 271 -271 -0.2 -100.0 Deciduous broad leaved forest (Dipterocarp forest) 733 71 -662 -0.4 -90.3 Wood/Shrub 1,454 2,456 1,002 0.6 68.9 Agricultural Land 4,209 5,662 1,453 0.9 34.5 Residential and build area 842 904 62 0.0 7.3 Water body 336 336 0 0.0 0.0 Ea Elan Niong Total 11,973 11,973 0 0.0 0.0 Ea Krong Bong Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 29,686 19,008 -10,678 -6.9 -36.0 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 14,353 16,938 2,585 1.7 18.0 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 13,526 13,677 151 0.1 1.1 Pure pine closed forest 1,210 2,512 1,303 0.8 107.7 Pure pine medium and open forest 1,310 -1,310 -0.8 -100.0 Mixed pine forest 3,240 3,223 -17 0.0 -0.5 Pure bamboo forest 818 574 -244 -0.2 -29.8 Mixed bamboo forest 206 178 -28 0.0 -13.5 Wood/Shrub 7,946 11,936 3,990 2.6 50.2 Agricultural Land 4,568 8,609 4,041 2.6 88.4 Residential and build area 522 677 155 0.1 29.6 Water body 266 318 52 0.0 19.5 Ea Krong Bong Total 77,651 77,651 0 0.0 0.0 Ea Krong Kmar Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 4,835 3,816 -1,019 -0.7 -21.1 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 3 2,799 2,795 1.8 81.865.7 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 4,960 1,882 -3,077 -2.0 -62.0 Pure pine closed forest 1,487 1,352 -136 -0.1 -9.1 Mixed pine forest 1,422 1,390 -32 0.0 -2.3 Pure bamboo forest 758 358 -401 -0.3 -52.8 Wood/Shrub 1,101 2,258 1,156 0.7 105.0 Agricultural Land 2,937 3,107 170 0.1 5.8 Residential and build area 305 819 515 0.3 169.0 Water body 165 193 28 0.0 17.0 Ea Krong Kmar Total 17,974 17,974 0 0.0 0.0

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Ea Long Ding Evergreen broad leaved closed forest 451 1 -450 -0.3 -99.8 Evergreen broad leaved medium forest 2,395 2,231 -164 -0.1 -6.8 Evergreen broad leaved open forest 1,499 1,587 88 0.1 5.8 Pure bamboo forest 1,256 1,084 -171 -0.1 -13.6 Mixed bamboo forest 3,576 3,199 -376 -0.2 -10.5 Wood/Shrub 2,723 1,697 -1,026 -0.7 -37.7 Agricultural Land 1,158 3,176 2,018 1.3 174.2 Residential and build area 48 117 69 0.0 143.8 Water body 455 470 14 0.0 3.1 Ea Long Ding Total 13.562 13.562 0 0.0 0.0 Grand Total 155.200 155.200 0 0.0

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Annex 4

Map Atlas

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