Strategic Partnership in Adult Migrant Education: Perspectives from Mediterranean and Baltic Sea Regions

Adult migrant education methodology and the integration programs analysis

DIVERSITY DEVELOPMENT GROUP (Lithuania) CENTRE FOR ADVANCEMENT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY LTD (Cyprus) FUNDACJA OSRODEK BADAN NAD MIGRACJAMI (Poland) KOPERAZZJONI INTERNAZZJONALI (Malta) TAMAT CENTRO STUDI FORMAZIONE E RICERCA (Italy) UNINERSIDAD DE SALAMANCA (Spain)

2015

Co-funded by the European Union

Project Title: Strategic Partnership in Adult Migrant Education: Perspectives from Mediterranean and Baltic Sea Regions Project Acronym: MEDBALT Project number: 2014-1-LT01-KA204-000643 Programme: Erasmus+ Key Action: Cooperation for innovation and the exchange of good practices Action: Strategic Partnerships Field: Strategic Partnerships for adult education Intellectual Output: O1: Adult migrant education methodology and the integration programs analysis

Contacts: Diversity Development Group / Z. Sierakausko g. 15, Vilnius, Lithuania / Code: 302877111 Phone: +370 670 84739 / e-mail: [email protected] / www.diversitygroup.lt

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Co-funded by the European Union

STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP IN ADULT MIGRANT EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVES FROM MEDITERRANEAN AND BALTIC SEA REGIONS (M E D B A L T)

The decades from 1990 to 2010 mark a each of the project’s participating period of intense international migration in countries; to prepare political Europe, which brought forth various recommendations in the field of migrants’ challenges for national and international education for integration state policies and called for societies to deal with intercultural coexistence. At the same Activities: To study the good practices in time as the western European countries adult migrants’ education; to analyse the began to critically evaluate their methodology of adult migrants’ education immigration and migrant integration and integration programmes; to prepare policies, the ‘new’ EU member states the education methodology for adult confronted the challenges of creating migrants; to make recommendations migration regulations and strategies for regarding the programmes and migrant integration, where access to infrastructure for the integration of adult education is considered as one of the basic migrants; to present the results in a final needs of migrants. As a consequence, the project conference. aim of the project Strategic Partnership in Adult Migrant Education: Perspectives from Project coordinator: Diversity Development Mediterranean and Baltic Sea Regions is to Group (Lithuania); partner organisations: prepare a methodology for the adult Uninersidad de Salamanca (Spain), Tamat migrants’ education based on good Centro Studi Formazione e Ricerca (Italy), practices implemented by each Centre for Advancement of Research and participating country. Development in Educational Technology LTD (Cyprus), Koperazzjoni Internazzjonali (Malta), Fundacja Osrodek Badan nad Migracjami (Poland). Objectives: to develop a case study on the adult migrants’ integration and education in

Co-funded by the European Union

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION………………………………….…………….…………………………………….…8 ITALY……………………………………………………………………………..………………..….…….11 1. CHAPTER 1: The immigrant situation in Italy……...……………………………..…....11 1.1. The internal approach to the issue of immigration in Italy………………………………………………………………………………………..……16 1.2. The external approach to the issue of immigration in Italy……..……………………………………………………………………………...... 21 2. CHAPTER 2. Migrant adult education in Italy……………………...... ……………...23 2.1 Immigrant adult education………………………………….……………..…………..24 2.2 Intervention Guidelines: some examples………………………….……………..31 3. CHAPTER 3: Return migration: voluntary return as a best practice in the migration framework…………………………………………………….……………………………33 3.1. Theoretical approach analysis………………………………….…………………...34 3.2. The Italian AVR program……………………………………………………………....37 CYPRUS……………………………………………………………………………………………………..48 1. CHAPTER 1: Migration background………………… ……..……………………………48 2. CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in country…………….…………………….…57 3. CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective adult migrant education strategy………………………………………………………………………………………..……..…66 LITHUANIA…………………………………………………..…………………………..………..……….69 1. CHAPTER 1: The Lithuanian migration background………………….………….…..71

2. CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in Lithuania ……………….……………....…90

3. CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective adult migrant education strategy………………………..……………………………………………………….………….…....103 MALTA………………………………………………………..…………………………….……………...109

1. CHAPTER 1: Migration Background…………………………………….………………...110

2. CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in Malta……………………………………….118

3. CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective adult migrant education strategy……..……………………………………………….………………………………………...124

Co-funded by the European Union

POLAND……………………..…………………………………………………………………………….129 1. CHAPTER 1: Migration profile of Poland…………………….……..………………...…129 2. CHAPTER 2 : Adult migrants’ access to the system of education in Poland…..…………………………………………………………………………….,………………141 3. CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective strategy of adult migrants education.……………………………………………………………………………..………………148 SPAIN…………………………………………..……………………………………………...……………155 1. CHAPTER 1: The Spanish migration background ……...... 155

2. CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in Spain………...………………………...…..171

3. CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective adult migrant education strategy …..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………………….183 CONCLUSION………………………………………………….………………………………………...187 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………………..194

Co-funded by the European Union

INTRODUCTION

Migration is one of the biggest strategies and policies regarding trends in our modern world. It is immigrant issues and encouraging admitted that the number of their integration became inevitable migrating people is increasing in order to ensure a stable situation enormously fast and, hence in the respective societies and to becomes a huge and difficult satisfy the needs of both the country challenge for all societies. The and the immigrants. growing economy, urbanization, Due to a growing number of cooperation between countries and immigrants and demographic military conflicts are all factors that changes inside societies, the need encourage people to migrate not for consistent migrant integration only inside their own countries but policies and measures emerged. also outside their nation’s borders. Governments are trying to create Europe has become the largest and implement policies that would manifest example of the growth in allow migrant integration into the global migration, as represented by labor market and the wider society. the admittance of nations into the It is an undeniable fact that the European Union (EU) and the education of adult migrants is a key creation of the Schengen zone. element of successful migrant Legislation of the European Union integration and thus, policies (EU) created a favorable related to that have to be environment for people to leave reconsidered thoroughly or new their home countries and settle measures have to be implemented. abroad. Such moves are caused by Many problems emerge when it different economic situations, comes to learning the new ‘home’ variable labor markets of member language, acquiring knowledge of states, family reunification or other local bureaucratic and legal systems, reasons that encourage people to gaining competency in the national emigrate. The enlargement of the culture, and obtaining vocational EU in 2004 and 2007 caused by the training or recognition of personal influx of migrants from Eastern qualifications. Although this trend European (including Bulgaria and led governments to change their Romania) became a huge challenge policies and create new strategies, a for other member states. These lot of measures and goals stay at the enlargements are perceived to be theoretical level and are not turning points that led governments implemented in practice. Most of to reconsider their migration and the countries include migration and migrant integration policies. New migrant integration policies in their

8 political agenda and foresee related migrant education in Cyprus, Italy, objectives, however, none of the Lithuania, Malta, Poland and Spain. countries managed to employ these Each section provides details policies successfully at the practical regarding immigrants to the each of level. Therefore, evaluating the the countries included in this study. current situation and identifying The focus will be on the integration obstacles is a necessity. As of immigrants as well as the relevant mentioned above, the biggest issue laws and programs related to their remains adult migrant education as integration into the respective it plays an important role in the nation. Moreover, provision and integration process of migrants. implementation of goals, methods Knowledge of the native language and measures taken at the and culture as well as knowledge of governmental and the principles of the national nongovernmental levels will be constitution is an imperative for evaluated. In the beginning of each successful integration. case study, general information of MEDBALT project aims to the number and nationalities of analyze the situation and migrants will be provided; following methodologies related to adult that, there will be a discussion of migrant education in the legislation and strategies affecting Mediterranean and Baltic Sea migrant integration and adult regions and exchange good migrant education. Further, there practices, which should result in will be a discussion of the needs of raising the level of innovation in this migrants and if they are both field. Considering the fact that matched by and met by the relevant migration has become a main trend policies. This research will provide a and challenge for European detailed description of a variety of countries, an overview of the projects and implemented situation of migrant integration and programs in the above-mentioned adult migrant education is of vital countries. The MEDBALT initiative importance. Not only does it allow will provide relevant parties participating agencies and agents to information about different policies find out more about different of a variety of EU countries. How policies, methodologies and these countries are coping with the measures that countries implement, influx of immigrants may give but also to identify limitations and valuable information that would weaknesses. facilitate the progress of adult This research will provide a migrant education and migrant detailed analysis of the situation of integration. migrant integration and adult

In the conclusion of this report, implications. Conclusions will allow there will be an overall evaluation of readers to assess the general all countries concerned and a situation and weaknesses in the summary of the main findings. field of migrant integration policies Moreover, a comprehensive and adult migrant education, which analysis of the situation in Cyprus, may result in creating a better Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Poland and foundation for more stable and Spain will provide readers of this successful migrant integration. report with valuable recommendations and their

ITALY

CHAPTER 1: The immigrant situation in Italy

One of the main motives for this woman which is slightly lower than research is the fact that immigrants the European average of 1.5 children in Italy constitute an important part per woman. . Further analyzing this of the Italian society, and the process fertility rate for the country, it can be of immigration has reached the state noticed that the native female of relative stability. The demographic portion of the population presents a data show that the number of fertility value of 1.33 children per immigrants has an impact on the woman and the foreign women structure of the society, i.e., its present a value of 2.05 children per demographics and workforce. , For woman. While, in 2002, the life this reason, it is important to expectancy at birth was 77.1years for describe the demographic aspects of men and 83 years for women, in the Italian population in the present 2008 the values had increased to context. 79.2 for men and 84.4 years for Given that the population in women. One of the consequences of Italy is almost at 60 million these factors is the aging of the inhabitants, this classifies the overall population. But the country as the fourth largest state in demographics of this is quite terms of population in the European interesting since the group over 65 Union, after Germany, France and years-old and the group between 0- Great Britain. In addition, the density 14 years old have both increased of the population is one of the since 2002. However, the increase in highest on the European continent, senior citizens is due primarily to even though the territorial increased life expectancy of people distribution of the population is of Italian origin whereas the increase more concentrated in the in the 0-14 years old group is metropolitan areas than in the other significantly impacted by the higher territorial structures. fertility rates of recent immigrant In recent years, the population women. The aging of the population has slowly increased because of the is further illustrated by the fact that immigration processes. The fertility society is dominated by elderly rate in Italy is 1.41 children per people (i.e., those over 65 years of

11 age). These demographic shifts play country, but most of the immigrants an important role in how immigrants come from none EU countries: are perceived by the Italian nation as Romania, Albania, Morocco, Peru, a whole. Bangladesh, India, Philippines, In the year 2011, the migratory Ukraine, and China. The influence of flow presented a positive increase of the immigration process in Italy has a 4,570,317 foreign residents who had double impact regarding the legal documents for long-term territory’s dynamics. One is given by residence in Italy. This represents a the increase of the migration rate 7% increase over the previous year and the other is the positive impact (2010). The number of people on the natural balance values without documents that live in the between the number of births and territory of Italy is estimated to be deaths. around 1 million. The diversity of the immigrants is high for a European

Fig. 1- The country origins of immigrants in Italy - 20151

In 2008, a growth of non-EU immigrants can be observed – which can be attributed to the general increase in the number of immigrants in the country. In 2011, Romanians constituted the largest group of foreigners residing in Italy with 968,576 people, followed by Albanians (482,627), Moroccans (452,424), Chinese (209,934), Ukrainians (200,730), Filipinos (134,154) and Moldovans (130 948).

As can be seen in Fig.2i, the majority of the foreign population (86.5%) resides in the central and northern regions, especially in Lombardy, Lazio, Veneto and Emilia Romagna. The growth of the non-Italian residents has generated insecurity in the public perception. As the crime rate has increased during the

1Web site Tuttitalia

12 time of immigration, this explains the correlation between immigration and growth in the number of crimes committed, despite a significant decline in homicide rates. The growth in population density in the Central and Northern regions was the causal factor in the developed sense of insecurity among locals. Together with the growing number of immigrants, the number of prisoners of non-Italian origin has also gradually increased.

Fig.2 Charting the frequency distribution of immigrants in in Italy (by percent)– 2008 2

In analyzing Figure 3 we can Tuscany, Umbria, Marche. Among see how, following the trail of the top ten provinces for the darker color, the "path" of presence of non-EU citizens, three immigration dynamics can be re- are in Lombardy (Milan, Brescia and created; this “path” mainly trails Bergamo), two in Emilia (Modena along the Central and Northern and Bologna), one in Veneto regions of Italy and around the cities (Verona), one in Lazio (Rome), one with the highest inside-outside in Piedmont (Turin), one in Tuscany transportation dynamics (Venice in (Florence) and one in Naples. Other the North-East, Milan in the North- provinces that have in excess of 20 West , and Rome in the Center); so thousand foreign residents are four the path winds along the regions provinces of Veneto (Vicenza, that have the highest percentage of Treviso, Padua and Venice), two of foreign residents is Piedmont, Emilia (Reggio and Parma), Tuscan Lombardy, Veneto, Emilia Romagna, (Prato), Liguria (Genoa), Umbria

2Web site Enciclopedia Treccani

(Perugia), Lombardy (Varese) and Puglia (Bari).

Fig. 3 - The number of the foreign population in Italy 2013 ³

The total number of foreign citizens immigrants by the region of residing in Italy is 5,014,437, which residence and gender. It turns out in different areas constitutes that male immigrants represent the between 2 percent and 12 percent majority only in Sicily, while the of the total population. There are number of female immigrants six regions, where this value (ranging from 5,000 in Valle d'Aosta exceeds 10 percent: Lombardy, to more than 500,000 in Lombardy) Lazio, Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, are a majority in all the other Tuscany, and Umbria. The table regions. below shows the total number of

Regione Cittadini stranieri % Stranieri su popolaz. totale Maschi Femmine Totale

1. Lombardia 563.371 588.949 1.152.320 11,52%

2. Lazio 304.092 332.432 636.524 10,80%

3. Emilia-Romagna 250.763 285.984 536.747 12,06%

4. Veneto 243.408 268.150 511.558 10,38%

5. Piemonte 198.161 227.287 425.448 9,62%

6. Toscana 182.641 212.932 395.573 10,54%

7. Campania 99.482 118.021 217.503 3,71%

8. Sicilia 88.754 85.362 174.116 3,42%

9. Marche 65.852 79.278 145.130 9,36%

10. Liguria 63.869 74.828 138.697 8,76%

11. Puglia 54.729 63.003 117.732 2,88%

12. Friuli Venezia Giulia 50.945 56.614 107.559 8,77%

13. Umbria 43.249 55.369 98.618 11,02%

14. Trentino-Alto Adige 44.660 51.489 96.149 9,11%

15. Calabria 42.972 48.382 91.354 4,62%

16. Abruzzo 39.125 47.120 86.245 6,48%

17. Sardegna 19.912 25.167 45.079 2,71%

18. Basilicata 8.164 10.046 18.210 3,16%

19. Molise 4.753 6.047 10.800 3,45%

20. Valle d'Aosta 3.894 5.181 9.075 7,07% Totale ITALIA 2.372.796 2.641.641 5.014.437

Table 1 - Foreign citizens in Italy, by gender and region of residence

1.1 The internal approach to the issue of immigration in Italy

Corrado Giustiniani traced a projections of per annum arrivals of possible future scenario of the immigrants. Germany today has an situation of immigrants in Italy: a immigrant population of just under country, which, by 2020, could claim seven million. However, compared the highest number of immigrants in to Italy, Germany transforms the EU. foreigners, skilled as well as In 2010, Italy had a number of seasonal workers, into German five million foreign residents. ISTAT citizens at a much faster rate than projects a realistic rate of 250,000 does Italy. The cold figures do not arrivals per year. Thus, the number fully capture the most amazing of immigrants would have increased revolution that has hit Italy. To give to seven and a half million by 2020. a better idea of the size of the The case of Germany is quite similar immigrant population, it is as if, in to that of Italy in terms of 2010, the four major Italian cities,

Rome, Milan, Naples and Turin, had domestic workers from the been entirely inhabited by Philippines and Cape Verde. In the foreigners. By 2020, the cities of secluded areas worked the first Genoa and Palermo, Bologna and tomato pickers; African students Florence, Bari and Venice could also who pledged to work for the become dominated by a high Summer University; also sellers of number of immigrants. It is hard to fabrics and leathers who were notice the impact of this process in wandering the beaches. These were the territory. The year 1976 is the first images of the immigrants in considered the turning point the territory. Then, slowly the main between early retirement and industries of Italy also began to economic inputs supporting employ foreign workers: in retirees. In 1876 the first official November 1977, the magazine Vita survey on emigration was Nuova announced that in Modena conducted which shows that over Fiat hired 50 Egyptians. In the the century as many as 27 million eighties and nineties, the Italians left the peninsula in search immigration numbers exploded, as of their fortune abroad. In fact, more and more businesses and according to some estimates, the households offered job openings sign reversal would come four years that Italians do not want to occupy, earlier. In 1972, a positive balance of e.g., tanning industry, construction, 14,000 arrivals was recorded in the cleaning offices and hotels, country. Italy has been taken by restaurant services, taking care of surprise, because the first the elderly and the children of immigrants came silently in places Italian families. These were the main totally, distant from one another, so areas of work for immigrants. In the it took a while until the immigrant first decade of the new century, we dynamics was felt in the nation. saw a tripling in the number of Among the first immigrants were immigrants (in 2000 immigrants the Tunisian fishermen from Mazara were ‘just’ a million and a half) and del Vallo; they were marginally in just one year in addition to the located and barely noticed as their crisis, in 2010 ISMU registered an work was away from the mainland. increase of 388,000 foreigners In a similar way, secluded are the registered. The situation of homes of wealthy families from immigrants was studied together Rome and Milan, which in the with Caritas carefully. seventies hosted the first migrant

BOX 1: Italian immigrants

Three key features related to the identity and origins of the recent wave of immigrants to Italy: polycentric geography  prevailing religion of Christianity  employment by the families

integrate into the society: Other Immigrant jobs are mostly signs of desired integration are concentrated in the areas of elderly these: every year, almost 100,000 care and childcare; this fact speaks children of immigrant parents are to the need for these services born in Italy; mixed marriages have because about one million tripled in the last three decades, foreigners are already employed in now representing one of every domestic work. As for religion, the seven marriages. Immigration poses followers of Allah constitute barely complicated challenges for Italy: on one-third of the total immigrant the one hand, the government population. Regarding the needs to find a way to govern the geographical origin of the flow of immigrants; and on the population in the Italian schools, other hand, a solid structure of there are about 180 different integration is needed for a process nationalities represented. The that contributes 11% of the total approximate number of registered country’s GDP. Romanian immigrants in Italy is 1.2 The characteristics of the million, which makes them the most immigration dynamics in Italy: The numerous ethnic group among flow of migrants back to the country immigrants in Italy. Another of origin (repatriation); important statistic is the number of  The flow of migrants (with foreigners who own businesses. In nationality other than that of the May 2010, there were 213,000 country of destination) from other foreign business owners. This countries of the EU; shows that immigrants come not  The flow of migrants from countries only to look for work, but also to outside the EU. create work, showing a desire to

BOX 2: The characteristics of the migratory phenomenon in Italy

In the most recent data published by ISTAT, the resident foreign population in Italy as of 31 December 2013 amounted to 4.92 million people, equivalent to 8.1% of the resident population, which in 1 January 2015 amounted to 60,795,612 individuals. The main reasons that drive immigrants are those related to work, study, and family reunification.

Immigrant workers, The internal mobility of immigrants in depending on the nature of the Italy is of two types, depending on the work they do, can be classified as country of origin: follows: a. non-EU citizens in Italy;  Non-seasonal immigrant b. foreign nationals who are EU workers citizens.  Seasonal immigrant workers  Immigrant workers who have In terms of applications for become residents residence permits, the chart below Sectors that make use of shows how work placement immigrant labor to a greater continues to be the decisive factor extent: in granting residence permits:  Industry indeed work-based residence  Work in heavy industries (eg. permits have increased over the Automakers) past decades. However, the  Public utilities (electricity, gas, significant new aspect that deserves water, environment) attention is represented by the  Construction industry growing number of residence  Service permits for family reunification reasons, a clear expression of the phenomena of stabilization.

Chart 1 - Residence permits for reasons of work and family reunification, Years 1992 - 2000, Source: ISTAT data, Op. Cit., Istat, Rome, 2001

Based on the data gathered in Italy in 1992 and in 2000. From from the three geographical areas 1992 to 2000 residence permits for on the distribution of residence family reunification reasons (rose permits the highest values of from just over 14 percent to nearly residence permits are given on the 25 percent in both Northern and basis of work and family and these Southern regions. Residence are mostly held in the north part of permits issued on the basis of the country (see Table 2 below). religion play a significant role only in Permits granted for work account the Central region. for two-thirds of the permits issued

As Istat considers realistic, value would become seven million and a half, excluding the irregular number of immigrants.

Table 2- The distribution of residence permits in the three geographical areas of Italy.

1.2. The external approach to the issue of immigration in Italy

The presence of immigrants in sector (hotels and restaurants) and the workforce e changes the pace of in agriculture. A total of 32 percent work of the Italian population: as of immigrants have working hours the graph below shows, immigrants after 23pm or between 20pm and tend to work longer hours, as well as 23 pm. The highest demand for they accept work in a wide variety of employees comes from the sectors different occupations. In particular, with irregular work shifts and non- most of the non-standard working standard work hours. hours can be found in the service

Table 3 - The Encyclopedia Treccani tries to draw a general picture of immigration in Italy.

The phenomenon of which are also countries of emigration and immigration has emigration and immigration. We been present in Italy for years. At can speak about the Mediterranean various times, usually after model of international migration regularization, workers would since these countries share an depart from the regions of the South experience of emigration. The and go to the North. Many workers stabilization process of some of the from Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and immigrants is expressed in the fact Morocco came to work in factories that they were able to invite family in Brescia, Vicenza or other places members to live with them in the mostly in the north. Some destination country where they immigrants spent a period of their migrated to (e.g., their spouse or migration experience in the South of minor children). The implications of Italy, predominantly in places such this data can be registered in a few as Campania. The phenomenon of years when the children of migration from one region to immigrants will become part of the another also affected the Marche workforce. For now, the large region. Italy is at the crossroads of number of family reunifications is international migration like other only an indicator of the process of countries in the Mediterranean, stable consolidation. Currently, as

21 we have seen, the families of Max Frisch about the great Italian immigrants are typically young. It is immigration to Switzerland. "We not just the working adults that are wanted arms but people have important and have an impact on come." This country has to find ways the country of destination but far to deal with immigration because greater may be the impact of the arms are in great need. young on the local population. One is reminded of the famous quote by

CHAPTER 2. The migrant adult education in Italy

initiatives carried out at both local The Italian system provides and provincial levels; and directly opportunities for adults willing to setting up courses for adults (older enhance their educational and than 16) who have not earned a cultural knowledge, with two main primary or a lower secondary institutions, the Centri provinciali education degree. per l’istruzione degli adulti, or CPIA In order to meet the needs of (Provincial Centres for Adult the students who usually have a job Education, in English), and the and a dependent family, and evening courses (also dubbed considering the differences in both evening schools); both of them are personal background and levels of dependent on the Ministry of education and knowledge, CPIA Education, University and Research courses opt for a structure, which (MIUR). The broader category of can be described as “flexible.” They “vocational agencies” comprises provide customized educational numerous subjects dedicated to paths, which are identified through vocational training. the abilities and interests of the CPIAs migrants. These educational paths CPIAs are courses for workers. also incorporate online courses, These were formerly known as which can take up to one fifth of the Permanent Territorial Centers whole training schedule. For the (Centri Territoriali Permanenti, or same reason, courses are usually CTPs), a 1997 reformulation of the not held in a school building, but educational courses for workers. rather in places easier reached by Since 2012, the CPIAs have those interested, or in prisons if undergone a restructuring and are demanded by inmates. now autonomous educational institutes fulfilling two tasks: coordinating various educational

CPIAs organize: education area is highly varied: “traditional” institutional bodies,  Preparatory educational courses for which uphold Christian values or are earning the credits required to related to unions; vocational attend evening courses for high centers organized by public school diplomas (technical, administration; commissioned scientific, classical, professional, or schools and universities; and even artistic studies); companies choosing to combine production and vocational  Courses intended to provide basic initiatives all comprise the vast qualifications in the professional category of “vocational agencies”. and technical environments; The role of private companies has  Alphabetization and Italian courses actually been a relatively recent for adult immigrants, in order to phenomenon, probably linked to earn a certificate vouching for at the new interest in vocational least a basic functional knowledge education, which tends to be closer of Italian (level A2 in the CEFR). to a firm’s actual needs and helps to balance out the negative effects of Evening courses an economic crisis on the labor market. Reformed in 1990 in order to better address the personal needs The staff chosen for of the students, evening courses are vocational services is for the most designed to give an opportunity to part composed of teachers, tutors attend high school after working and project managers; the courses hours and earn a high school degree use many methods, from the most or a professional qualification. theoretical ones (stages) to practical These courses are directly organized ones (practice exercises), to by high schools and are usually held workshops. by their own teaching staff.

Vocational agencies

Primarily concentrated in Northern Italy, the vocational 2.1 Immigrant adult education

BOX 3: Teaching Italian

One of the first difficulties an immigrant has to face, once he/she arrives in the destination country, is without any doubt, achieving a satisfactory knowledge of the local language. In the Italian case, the first interaction between the local population and immigrants are hampered by almost insuperable communication difficulties, with the increased risk of causing friction, and making the immigrants’ integration in the host country even more difficult. If, on the one hand, the mechanisms for immigrants’ integration are still being defined, the language teaching of immigrants has come a long way, with 30 years of studies conducted by national institutions, scholars and teachers facing the problem at least since the 80s.

As of today, one of the most when speaking Italian at the level of efficient means to ease the proficiency of at least A2, was added immigrants’ integration through among the parameters for the teaching the Italian language has concession of the residency permit probably been the CPIA. Thanks to valid for at least one year; this institution being present locally moreover, this level had to be (there are more than 500 CPIAs in attained within the period of two the entire country), and offering years – with the possibility for a competent teaching staff – albeit third year to be granted – since the they usually are not particularly day of application. expert in teaching adults and strangers-- and providing relatively Another service the CPIAs are cheap (usually 15 euros) language able to provide the immigrants is courses for immigrants. They are the license to issue an official also supported through public and certificate of proficiency in Italian: EU funds. for a relatively small fee ( approximately 90 euros) those who The role of these centers has are interested have the possibility to become more important since 2007 take the required examination and (when they were still called CTPs), possibly submit the certificate

24 during the evaluation for the has been confirmed that attending renewal of the residence permit. language courses in CPIAs, gives the possibility to earn an official TAs an effect of the 2012 certificate of proficiency, and it is a reform – a new method has been relatively practical and inexpensive introduced for the permit way to guarantee the permit concession, based on a similar renewal. French system: Another viable way to - Upon arrival in Italy, the improve one’s knowledge of Italian foreigner who is older than 16 and is attending the courses organised desiring to stay for more than one by NGOs and volunteers, instead of year in the country, in addition to the national educational system: applying for appropriate residence these courses are typically more permit, has to sign an Integration flexible than CPIAs’, enhancing the Agreement, which commits the possibility to fulfill individual immigrant to learning the language requests and needs; the staff and the basics of Italian civic life in employed is qualified for these type two years at most; of courses and tend to have more - After two years, the contacts in the world of applicant is given a number of employment thus improving the credits, based on the documents possibility to get a job for those who s/he provided; if the amount of the are looking for one. On the other credits is above the threshold of 30 hand, these courses have some points, then the Residence Permit by peculiar limitations: Points is automatically renewed. - The voluntary nature of One of the singularities of the the service, and in the case of the system is the importance bestowed NGOs, the necessity for external on knowledge of the language: a funds in order to subsidize the really basic knowledge of Italian projects, do not give guarantees confers 10 credits, which can rise up about the duration or the to 24, 28 or 30 credits depending on continuation of courses in the long- higher levels of proficiency (A2, B1, term; B2 levels respectively and above). - Moreover, most of these Since the mere signing of the institutions do not have the permit agreement further confers 16 to issue an official certificate in credits, it is self-explanatory that language proficiency. This knowing Italian has become crucial provides an element of difficulty for factor for integration and a function the immigrants who have to fulfil that regularizes migration in Italy. It

25 the language requirement from the the degrees already in possession of Ministry of the Interior. the immigrants: more than half of them had already earned either a Despite these shortcomings, primary (29 percent) or a secondary the alternative language schooling (23.7 percent) education degree seems to work fine, evidenced by before leaving their home countries. the higher number of these courses being offered in some areas Talking about their former compared to the official courses. school education, some data related to gender differences should be considered important: despite the aggregate data revealing a tie in Data on immigrants in the school registered men and women Adult Education System immigrants ( 81 and 78 thousands respectively), analysis related to According to the 2012 education levels points out that the Monitoring Report by the National higher the level of education, the Institute for Documentation, higher the probabilities that a Innovation and Educational woman earned it compared to a Research (Istituto Nazionale di man: men represent 58.3 percent of Documentazione, Innovazione e the students with a primary Ricerca Educativa, or INDIRE), education degree, but the during the academic year of difference is turned around when it 2011/12 160.388 foreigners comes to professional qualification attended a course included in the (52.4 percent of those having such Adult Education (Istruzione degli qualifications are women), the Adulti, or IDA) framework, an difference getting more significant increase of 35 percent compared to with graduate students (women 2006; the diffusion of foreign adult reach a staggering 70.3 percent). students reflects the data about the presence of immigrants in Language courses are the only various regions: 71 percent of them type of course where there are are concentrated in northern Italy more women than men, even if the and only 25% in Lombardy. difference is quite small – some 3% - while the tendency regarding the Almost half (49.3 percent) of educational level is confirmed as the the foreign students attended percentage of working students is language classes; a little more than higher than the average amount in 1 out of 3 students attended other courses: 34% (26,516 courses to earn a basic school individuals) instead of 29% of the degree. These data are reflective of

26 aggregated data. Thus, if one is reached: the percentage of women working one has a higher motivation and minors who leave their to take language courses then when countries to join their relatives in not working. Italy is increasing.

Data reported by OECD are Nevertheless, the main not positive about the effectiveness concerns for newcomers remain the of the system: first, with regard to attainment of a job that would allow the above mentioned data, OECD’s them to achieve a respectable life report registers a decrease in the style, easier integration in the local percentage of working students context, and, eventually, saving which in 2006 were recorded at 42 money for the relatives who live in percent. Furthermore, the increase the country of origin. in the number of participants in language courses between 2006 and The main limitations of the 2012 does not accord y with the previously described system reside intensification of migration flows in exactly in the steps of work Italy (according to ISTAT during the inclusion, training and retraining. same period the number of foreign Indeed, the adopted approaches, residents increased by about 70%) which are mainly oriented to nor with the expectations raised by didactics and social inclusion, the Integration Agreement. usually pay less attention to vocational training and neglect In conclusion, the report contacts with the world of work. revealed that only 30% of students effectively achieved the certificate The solution to the problem at the conclusion of their language of immigrants’ work inclusion is course at CPIA: in the opinion of the entrusted to different institutions at managing institution, it is a the national and local levels. At the justifiable failure due to a series of national level, it is possible to list factors such as the different levels of three different types of job-related language knowledge and the training for immigrant adults: difficulties of reconciling the schedule of courses with working - European Social Fund hours. financed courses: these are addressed to resident immigrants Professional Training that are job seekers or unemployed. These courses are mainly based on Data about immigration flows training for work inclusion in those from previous years indicate that a sectors in which there is a great “stabilization” phase has been demand for workers, such as

27 mechanics and the construction different advantages Preselection of industry. They include theoretical migrant workers helps to simplify lessons, practical lessons in the the bureaucratic process associated laboratory and traineeships in firms. with issuing residence permits. On These courses are among those the other hand, this approach is too with higher rates of success (about expensive for many Italian 80 percent of the students actually companies, which prefer, especially find work upon graduation), but at during difficult economic times, to the same time they present some provide training on site or to recruit critical points: a stiffness toward experienced workers. different training needs of immigrants, tendency to neglect National data training for jobs in the service sector, in which mainly women In the Italian system, the work. Centers for Employment (Centri per l’impiego - CPI) were conceived as - Brief Courses for already the first and essential points of employed immigrants which are contact between job-seeking based on specific aspects of work immigrants and the State. Through activities (including literacy in these Institutions, immigrants enter Italian) and are aimed to improve career counseling and job training student’s knowledge and abilities, and, at the same time, they have thereby enhancing his/her work bestowed the rights and duties of opportunities for a lasting and the unemployed status. economically satisfying occupation; Considering its r - Recruitment Courses and administrative and bureaucratic Pre-training courses abroad, profile, the system of the Centers introduced with the Bossi-Fini law in for Employment works in an optimal 2002 and especially popular abroad. way. A total of 81 percent of These courses, aspire to immigrants contact the CPI to regulate workers’ flows in the declare themselves for the first time local production system: in the or to confirm their status of country of origin, the companies unemployment. In addition, they organize a three-step course– which also declare their availability for includes selection, vocational employment which is a requirement guidance, and pre-training –that for all those who are unemployed. prepares students for the real Moreover, 56.2 percent of training course, held in Italy. On the unemployed immigrants contact CPI one hand, this approach presents to become informed about the

28 existence of employment thousand immigrants; 135 thousand opportunities. of those are non-European citizens; - unemployed immigrants who The account becomes less were offered by the CPI the encouraging if we examine the data opportunity to attend a training regarding immigrant student course organized by the Region or a attendance of professional training traineeship barely amounts to the courses organized by regions. The 0.5%; percentage of employed foreigners - immigrants who were that attend these courses is 5 successful at getting a job thanks to percent out of all the residents; this CPI assistance, constitute a negligible is less than half when compared to 0.7% of the unemployed, their Italian counterparts. - unemployed immigrants who Considering other categories, the received CPI career counseling or difference between Italians and vocational guidance represent 3.3 immigrants is slightly reduced, but percent of the total number. always substantial: the percentage of Italian job seekers amounts to Analyzing these data, it is 10.7 percent against 65 percent of possible to summarize that the immigrant job seekers. Center for Employment completely fails in accomplishing its principal Ultimately, there are further objectives; in an overall evaluation, data that underline the problems of this is a system that functions more CPI with regard to the system of as an assistance program (than as a work inclusion: collaborative and effective approach to finding jobs for the - unemployed immigrants who unemployed immigrants. The CPI never contacted the Center for system illustrates some of the Employment constitute about40 weaknesses with regard to active percent of the total, exactly 194 policies to combat unemployment of foreign residents.

2.2 Intervention Guidelines: some examples

BOX 4: Reasons related to policies for immigrants vocational training

The reasons residing at the core of the policies for immigrants’ vocational training refer to the State’s need for their best integration in the social context, and are essentially connected to two aspects:  One of the immigrants’ duties is “to contribute to the National welfare through work activities”; if they are inactive their sense of alienation and anguish increases, and they become “recipients” of welfare;  Each immigrant that succeeds in entering the world of employment represents a source of earnings for the State, a new user of local services, and a potential customer for retailers; for these reasons, an increase in the immigration phenomenon could entail an opportunity for national growth, especially if we consider that immigrant workers are employed in those work sectors that, otherwise, would suffer from a shortage of employees.

The role of the Regions policies oriented to employment determines a particular situation in opportunities. In some cases the the Italian system, in which, same region can manifest different depending on the territories and initiatives; it is also possible to list immigration types, the policies in regional, provincial and local support of immigrants (work interventions that present a lot of policies included) differ in a difficulties due to the absence of significant way. The so-called regional coordination. “transit” regions have established emergency or initial reception The ISFOL survey published in procedures; regions where the 2010 considered policies presence of foreign residents has implemented by four regions with reached stability follow the the greater presence of immigrants approach that promotes immigrant on their territory: Lombardy, integration and participation in the Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, and Lazio. social context; regions with a These regions represent the most significant presence of immigrant advanced integration policies in Italy residents and workers have their and provide the best examples of

30 intervention guidelines for partnership between the Region, immigrant instruction and local institutions (provinces and professional training and, municipality), and private consequently, immigrant institutions, that cooperate in integration. implementing immigrant integration initiatives. Of course, Lombardy the regional government agents take on the central role in this Lombardy is the Italian region partnership. Veneto with the greatest presence of foreign residents that in 2010 According to the ISFOL report, exceeded one million. It is also the Veneto region represents the most region which adopted the most recent phenomenon of stabilization advanced integration policies. of migration flows. Veneto has Immigration is considered a become the target more for job- structural aspect of regional seeking immigrants than for family demography and immigrants are reunifications. Moreover, Veneto, considered equal to local residents as Emilia-Romagna, presents a and workers. This fair attitude spread of immigrants throughout toward immigrants leads to the entire territory, while in Lazio effective interventions that and in Lombardy there is a collocate immigrant and Italian significant concentration of people on the same level and foreigners in the major urban provide immigrants with the centers, especially Rome and Milan. necessary assistance for language learning and vocational training, Veneto is a region with a great aimed not only at professional concentration of small and medium- achievements but also at personal sized companies. The need for growth, as individuals and citizens. manpower is satisfied through the creation of training courses for Emilia Romagna young (apprenticeship) and adult immigrants. These courses also Second region with the provide them with the tools to build largest number of foreign residents their own businesses in Italy or, if is Emilia-Romagna. Over time, the the occasion arises, in their own region has recognized its multi- country. cultural reality and, following the Lombardy model, adopted Lazio approaches for immigrant integration as inclusive as possible. The situation of Lazio is This is made possible thanks to the different from the other regions. As

31 previously mentioned, the agent in the case of a returning immigrant population in this region migrant. is especially concentrated in the It is crystal clear that all municipality of Rome. Only recently migrants leave but not all of them the regional policies for immigration return to their original countries; have changed their approach from economic, political, social, the emergency type to a more emotional and family matters play a structured approach, aimed at unique role. Return migration is a creating more inclusive initiatives multi-faceted phenomenon hardly through an increased intervention measurable from a statistical of the provinces. perspective (sometimes it is not the ultimate decision; sometimes it is The role of the Region is to just a phase of the migration cycle; guarantee the effectiveness of the sometimes it consists of visits or interventions which are setting up a remote business in the implemented following an accurate home country). analysis of the current situation. For the time being and These interventions consider considering the growing diversity in vocational training crucial for international migration flows, we entering the world of employment have to focus on return migration as and for setting up own businesses. a concrete answer to migration issues since migrant categories are more heterogeneous and 3. Return migration: International Organizations are voluntary return as the best trying to facilitate legal migration and mobility. Organizations have to practice in the migration focus on the final part of the framework migratory cycle: the reintegration in the country of origin from both Return migration can be seen socio-cultural and job-related as a part of a circular migratory path standpoint in order to avoid with a starting point and a given frustration, loss of social status and end. As Davide Calenda points out in economic problems incurred by the his study on return migration, we returning migrant. have to consider that a complete migration cycle fosters the socio- It is necessary to think about professional integration of returning an organized return project which migrants; an incomplete cycle, on takes into account the appropriate the other hand, does not facilitate psychological and organizational reintegration and can be a stress preparation since the returnee is the

32 protagonist of the action of coming back and has a role both in the host and home country and has to be prepared and ready for most anything. 3.1 Theoretical approach analysis “The higher the level of preparedness, the greater the ability In this chapter, we will of returnees to mobilize resources analyze socio-economic theories autonomously and the stronger about return migration and the their contribution to development. Italian measures of Assisted (…) Return refers to a preparation Voluntary Return by RIRVA and IOM. process that can be optimally The table proposed by Jean invested in development if it takes Pierre Cassarino in his study about place autonomously and if the return migration is very useful in migration experience is long enough order to understand different to foster resource mobilization. (…) approaches about the subject Finally, it argues that a continuum is matter and the figure of the needed to allow resources to be returning migrants: mobilized not only before but also after return”

Table 4 - different profiles of a returning migrant according to different theoretical perspectives.

We can identify different return once having enough money profiles of a returning migrant to buy land; conservative returnees according to different theoretical do not want to change their original perspectives: societies instead they help to preserve them) and, finally, the 1. Neo-classical approach: return return innovation (the most seems to be the outcome of a failed dynamic) category in which the migration experience; the migrant returnee is an innovator and uses needs to go (or is forced to go) back savings and the skills acquired to his country even if he doesn’t abroad to be a ‘carrier of change’. have enough money or resources to Structuralists consider the returning invest once he is back; the migrant as a conservative returnee, knowledge acquired in immigration neither successful nor failed => the is not needed => migrant’s human migrant’s motivation relies on capital is completely lost. nostalgia or root boundaries, so the returnee has no real impact on the 2. New Economics of Labor Migration: development in the home country. a migrant has successfully achieved his/her goals or targets and wants to 4. Trans-nationalism: in this case, go back to his country of origin since return is not the end of a migration he is deeply connected with it. He cycle; the ‘journey’ continues thanks has been remitting part of his to social and economic income to the household, he has relationships. Returnees retain enough savings and skills to be strong links with their home successful once he is back => a countries and prepare for their return is a part of a ‘calculated reintegration at home through strategy’ and a returning migrant regular visits even if they do not will be successful thanks to his abandon the identities they develop willingness and depending on the abroad (‘double identity’) => socio-economic conditions of the returnees are able to adapt home country. themselves once back home; improved skills and educational 3. Structural Approach: return is a background gained allow upward question of context (social, political, mobility and social change in the economic and institutional factors). original country giving birth to a The structural approach considers real transnational identity. Francesco Cerase’s typologies, namely: return of failure (personal 5. Cross-border Social and Economic or familiar), return of retirement, Networks: social network theory return of conservation (planned interprets returning migrant as an

34 actor of social change both in the resource mobilization and country of destination and origin. preparedness” Return is just a step in the migrant project which consist of investing in So that, different degrees of a successful return (by the means of: preparedness, which include the knowledge, savings, remittances, willingness to return home and the experiences, acquaintances and returnee’s readiness to do so, mean values) => migrant succeeded in his different degrees of reintegration in migratory project and repatriates the society of origin. The desire of as a ‘hero’, being highly regarded going back has to match with a by the home country. resource mobilization which requires time and depends also on Cassarino’s classification is economic, institutional and political really useful when considering changes occurred at home. As a different factors of return migration result, preparedness is shaped both as a complex phenomenon. The last by the host and home countries; the two theories perhaps offer the two of them have to work together complete perspective since they in order to create advantageous consider a return as a long process conditions for the returnee who has which does not end once the been seen as a real asset for both returnee is back. It is interesting to societies, an actor of social change understand why some returnees are and a person representing great actors of social change whereas human capital. others are not and Cassarino Currently, policies regarding deepens his analysis by adding new return migration are of two kinds: variables: those controlling temporary migrations and those concerning “(…) the propensity of Assisted Voluntary Returns (AVR). migrants to become actors of Other measures such as the forced change and development at home return of illegal immigrants, depends on the extent to which they naturalization, refugee status have provided for the preparation of appeals together with political, their return. To be successfully economic and social conditions of achieved return preparation the country of origin have a heavy requires time, resources and weight in the return migration willingness on the part of the decision as well as home country migrant. In other words, there exist policies to encourage the return of various degrees of return their nationals. preparation that differ in terms of Some countries are making efforts to draw back their citizens. It

35 is worth mentioning Jamaican programs operating since 1993; 3.2. The Italian AVR Philippines “one-stop shop” for the program reintegration of migrant workers in 2007 providing access to several In Italy, the Assisted services including economic and Voluntary Return program allows psycho-social assistance; Colombian people to return voluntarily to their Government measures to enlist country of origin in a secure way. It expatriate scientists for ongoing is supervised by the RIRVA (Rete projects or giving loans to create Italiana per il Ritorno Volontario innovative enterprises; the Tunisian Assistito) and by the IOM system facilitates investment in (International Organization for economic projects in Tunisia (tax- Migration). AVR program is free bank account, free assets supported by the Home Office transfer, duty-free repatriation of all (Immigration and Civil Liberty personal belongings, exemption Department) and by the European from tax on the import of Return Fund (RF) in the frame of the equipment for those aiming at Solidarity and Management of creating a business); the example of Migration Flows project. RF includes the Chinese government Forced Return/Repatriation of encouraging the return of young Illegal Immigrants and AVR which is graduates by offering them social financed by public announcements programs, job placement, and social for NGOs, associations, local and advancement. regional authorities in charge of the dissemination and the promotion of On the other hand, the the measure. European Union has prepared some guidelines in order to define the By reading the graph below Assisted Voluntary Return and to we can see how in the period of create effective measures to help 2008-2013 funds allocated to the people willing to go back to their Forced Return decreased while home country in a successful way; those for the AVR (named RVA in the AVR measures are going to be picture from the Italian acronym of described in the following chapter. Ritorno Volontario Assistito) increased:

Table 5 -Funds allocated to the Forced Return in the period of 2008-2013.

The program is intended for different entities, on 16 January the following types of migrants: 2015, the Home Office launched the  Irregular migrants project RIRVA VI in partnership with:  Individuals whose application for the National Group Idee in Rete, CIR asylum was rejected or withdrawn (Consiglio Italiano per i Rifugiati),  Victims of trafficking Oxfam, Gea, CNOAS (Consiglio  Vulnerable groups (unaccompanied Nazionale dell’ordine degli migrant children, disabled people, Assistenti Sociali) and ISMU elderly people, single mothers with Foundation. children, people with severe mental and/or physical problems, homeless RIRVA VI supervises services people) for the migrants such as a Help Desk,  Foreigners who no longer meet the a toll-free number, a web site, some requirement for residence permit multilingual information sheets, a renewal guide for the workers, a net of  Foreign citizens subjected to fourteen focal points. repatriation measures. It gives preliminary The following types are information to the migrant and not eligible: helps him in choosing the project a. EU citizens which fits him best; it offers b. Holders of the EU long-term assistance in filling required residency permit questionnaire and submitting the form to the authorities. If the Assisted Voluntary Return migrant opts for the services means assistance, an amount of granted by AVR, the project money for the return journey as well provides the pre-departure as support in social and employment counseling (information, reintegration. In order to coordinate documents, travel arrangement and purchase of the ticket), assistance at

the departure, provision of a development of a socio-economic subsistence allowance for the first micro-project which can include: accommodation once back to the house repair, education/training, home country, re-integration start-up and a reintegration assistance, assistance in family allowance of up to 2100 euros). reunification (if needed), assistance in obtaining sanitary services and  Action 7: a networking project understanding reintegration policies setting up a system for information (when provided). and access to the AVR measures Some of the projects carried addressing both migrants and out in the period of 2008-2013 are private/public organizations of a different nature and belong to interested in participating in the diverse actions of the program: RIRVA Network.

 Action 1: involves programs tailored IOM is one of the more for vulnerable migrants, as Partir VI committed bodies working in the (July 2013-March 2014, concerning RIRVA network; it offers multilingual 1055 migrants from third World material both for workers and for countries): in addition to basic migrants, tutorials for filling out services already mentioned, the questionnaires, and obtaining useful provision of cash at departure (100 contacts. IOM guarantees departure euros) and a reintegration assistance at the airport and a assistance grant up to 1100 euros. pocket money grant (additional money is also available once back in  Action 2: for irregular migrants or the home country). migrants at risk of irregular stay, e.g., the project Ausilium Within the framework of the implemented by IOM which project REMPLOY III, IOM created an foresees a cash provision of 200 interesting Guide to setting up and euros per migrant but no managing a micro-enterprise for reintegration actions once at home. migrants returning to their country of origin called ‘Productive Return’  Action 3: programs for specific (available also in Italian, French, categories of migrants. Integrazione Spanish, Portuguese and Arab or the di Ritorno was tailored for 80 languages spoken by the migrants coming from Algeria, nationalities which appeal most to Ghana, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia RIRVA) and designed to be an easy- by CIR, CISP and Oxfam Italia to-use tool : (provision of 400 euros cash and reintegration assistance with the

“IOM is committed to shops’ (November 2014-August the principle that humane and 2016); this is a project for the orderly migration benefits migrants sustainable reintegration of Latin- and society. As an American migrants who found intergovernmental organization, themselves in a situation of IOM acts with its partners in the vulnerability. It is prepared for international community to: assist in people coming from Bolivia, Brazil, meeting operational challenges of Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru and migration; advance understanding Uruguay and it is a remarkable of migration issues; encourage example of cooperation: the ICEI social and economic development office works together with some through migration; and uphold the help desks in Latin America and human dignity and well-being of together they offer complete migrants” assistance from start to finish. It is a tailored project of reintegration Another interesting example consisting of assistance, grants and of an AVR project implemented by a continuing supervision. OEI and ICEI is ‘OSS-LAC One-stop-

The project ‘OSS-LAC One-stop-shops’ in Latin America

The graph below helps to but half of them are from Ecuador, examine the factual results of AVR Peru, Tunisia, Morocco and Brazil. projects during the period of June The reason why people go 2009 - June 2014: the graph shows back to their home country is mainly that return migrations are the loss of work and the consequent increasing and that 62 percent of loss of the residency permit (which the returnees are men. Sixty-five is accentuated by the economic percent of the returnees have crisis in Italy). Thus, AVR seems to be participated in a social and work a successful practice which is more reintegration program. Moreover, advisable than Forced Return returnees are from 86 nationalities

Fig. 4 – Bar Graph indicating the Increase of return migrations between 2009-2014.

Therefore, it is quite though the email address is still surprising to open up the RIRVA web operational but there is no news page and to find a banner stating about further measures of AVR: that RIRVA VI is now closed, even

The RIRVA VI was meant to billion Euros for seven years in order end in June 2015 even if it was born to “promote the efficient on January 2015. Perhaps there are management of migration flows and still NGOs and associations working the implementation, strengthening on the dissemination of the project and development of a common but its future is undefined. Union approach to asylum and Actually, the Asylum, immigration” but then the Member Migration and Integration Fund States are independent in the use of (AMIF) was set up for the period of the different amounts of funds 2014-2020 with a total of 3.137 granted to them.

Chart 2- RIRVA VI

On 9 June 2015, the RIRVA  Return is the best answer for network held a Conference about migrants who are in an irregular or the results of the first cycle of work. vulnerable situation The material presented is available  In the last three years, 70.000 on-line and we can draw a final migrants accessed information report of the achievements: about AVR

 The network started with 101 focal  It is hard to identify the migrant points (former NIRVA network) that target; grew into 341 offices  There is a lack in coordination and  Dissemination worked well since collaboration among the institutions 75% of the calls to the toll-free involved; number were autonomous and not  A national negotiating table is closely related with the focal point. missing. Moreover, we can visualize On the other hand, some that 2013 was the ‘golden year’ for problems were highlighted: AVR and below is the list of nationalities which have been most  Communication about AVR is still reactive to AVR: weak and does not reach all the eligible migrants;

Table 6- The ‘golden years’ for AVR.

Table 7- The nationalities most reactive to AVR

Table 8 - First six countries of destination

Generally speaking, even if once the person was back to in the the strategy seems to be successful, country of origin there would a solid returns seem to be scarce. Is this reintegration projects addressing all due to weaknesses with RIRVA or a the possible obstacles the returned lack of preparedness on the part of was likely to face so that s/he could the migrant? Does the migrant think avoid a sense of failure. of AVR as a personal failure of his Rosaria De Ponte emphasizes migratory adventure? the importance of a psycho-social Marzio Barbieri offers an observation of the returnee and interesting critique in his speech for sees the RIRVA Network as a kind of the RIRVA Conference proposing showcase for collecting all the temporary visits before the final stories of returnees in order to show return, psychological support for how the program works and how the returnees who are vulnerable effective it is given that a return is both in the host and in the home worth considering society-wise if it countries. Further, he proposed that contributes to the political and

44 socio-economic development of a nowadays the Return Fund is mainly country and person-wise if the implemented by EU countries returnee gains his/her sense of through shared management and independence after a period of through national annual programs economic and psychological that are based on multi-annual assistance. programming. The RIRVA Network members The EU prepared a European are urging increasing support for Agenda on Migration 2015 aiming to AVR measures since they want it to reduce the incentives for irregular become a real option over Forced migration, saving lives and securing Return/Repatriation. As a matter of the external borders, creating a fact, Forced Return is a more strong asylum policy and a new expensive measure due to travel policy on legal migration. costs and security needed. A state-of-the-art Agenda is Moreover, the EU declared shown in the pamphlet below with that harmonization of the member ticked boxes for actions already states policies is mandatory since solved:

Fig. 5 - European Agenda on Migration 2015

Yet the Agenda states that the the AVR program, defined as “a Return Directive has to secure “a comprehensive and sustainable humane and dignified treatment of migration policy”. returnees and a proportionate use AVR should be favored of coercive measures in line with over Forced Return/Repatriation fundamental rights” and that since it is sustainable, clever and a member states will be handed a socially smart approach both for Return Handbook with the host and home countries as shown fundamental guidelines. Still the in the inventory of projects are given impression is that Forced Return will in this chapter that show the success be prominent and the more readily of this practice. available course of action relative to

CYPRUS CHAPTER 1: Migration background

Migration is an everlasting global the island an ideal destination for phenomenon that stems from asylum seekers and refugees human’s need to find a better (Vrasidas et al: 2009). quality of life. In contemporary times, as the world is divided into An overview of the situation of nation-states, an immigrant is a migrants and immigration person who enters a foreign country regulations with the intention of remaining at least a year for working purposes or According to the latest population settling permanently in the host census in 2011 (Cyprus Statistical country. Cyprus has been a Service: 2013), Cyprus has a total reception center over the last three population of 840,407 people, of decades due to the dramatic which 170,383 are foreign citizens economic growth occurring in the and 2,626 are not stated (Figure 1). 1980s, 1990s and in 2004 when the Foreign nationals comprise 20, 3% island became a member of the of the total population in 2011. European Union. Despite the fact However, at the end of 2013, that Cyprus was an emigration state estimations show that the between the 1950s-1980s, now, due population in the government- to economic and social factors, a controlled area has been slightly shift has occurred and Cyprus is now increased reaching 858,000 people a migration country. The geographic (Cyprus Statistical Service: 2013). location of the island and the conflicts in the Middle East make

Figure 1: Population by citizenship 2011

800.000

700.000 667.398

600.000

500.000

400.000

300.000

200.000 170.383

100.000 2.626 0 Cypriots Non-Cypriots Not stated

Regarding the latest estimate, net demographic data (European Fund migration has been generally for the Integration of third-country positive during the last decade. nationals: 2008). For instance, third- However, in 2012 and 2013, it has country nationals (TCNs) are mostly been negative as it decreased to - employed in the lower echelons of 629 and -12.078 respectively. The the labor hierarchy where the majority of the immigrants are Ministry of Labor has noticed a labor employed in households, the tourist shortage. Many immigrants are also industry and the construction sector students attending private tertiary with females exceeding the male institutes and universities. population according to

BOX 5: Nationalities of immigrants in Cyprus

Most of the immigrants with a previous residence in a European country come from Greece, United Kingdom, Romania, Bulgaria, Philippines, Russia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Syria, Poland and Ukraine (Figure 2). With regards to TCNs (Figure 3), the largest percentage corresponds to people from the Philippines (1251), followed by people from Sri Lanka (1128). Many Russian and Ukraine nationals immigrated to Cyprus after the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Most of them live in Limassol with their families and are mainly engaged with trade and shipping. Furthermore, there are many British nationals (mainly pensioners) who choose Cyprus as the best place to spend the rest of their life.

Figure 2: Foreign residents by country of citizenship 2011 (main countries) 35.000

30.000

25.000

20.000

15.000

10.000

5.000

Figure 3: Migrants from abroad by country of previous residence (most of the Non-EU countries) 1.400 1.200 1.000 800 600 400 200

IRAQ

IRAN

INDIA

SYRIA

EGYPT

ISRAEL

RUSSIA

SERBIA

JORDAN

TURKEY

NIGERIA

CANADA

GEORGIA

UKRAINE

BELARUS

VIETNAM

LEBANON

PAKISTAN

MOLDOVA

SRI SRI LANKA

AUSTRALIA

ARGENTINA

PHILIPPINES

BANGLADESH

UNITED UNITED ARAB…

SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH UNITED UNITED STATES

CHINA (INCLUDING… CHINA

The stakeholders in migration in Despite the fact that trade unions Cyprus are: are active participants in decision-  Non-Governmental Organisations – making, there is a limited Civil Society representation of migrant issues. In Cyprus, there are some NGO’s  Local Authorities that focus on migration issues, LAs have an active role in the European networking and community, take initiatives and get developing grass-root activities. involved in projects regarding NGOs however, have limited migration and integration issues in influence with the government. collaboration with NGOs. Although, Some of their services include they have limited participation in consultation on labor problems and decision-making. immigration difficulties, vocational training, language courses, legal Migrant Integration Policy advice and job information, support and Measures / Services of migrant workers’ community and , development of migrants’ social and During the last decade a collective cultural life. A Migrants’ Union does effort has been made from the not exist as such in Cyprus, hence, stakeholders to successfully immigrants can indirectly integrate immigrants in the participate in self-empowerment community. Thus far, training through NGOs. seminars are delivered to employers and employees related to labor  Trade Unions relations, vocational training programs and school and health

50 services. Nevertheless, migrants 2004) “Integration is a dynamic, still confront various challenges, long-term, and continuous two-way such as marginalization, access to process of mutual accommodation, the labor market and public not a static outcome. It demands the benefits, long working hours, poor participation not only of immigrants work conditions, injuries at the and their descendants but of every workplace, financial difficulties, resident. The integration process conflicts with indigent workers - involves adaptation by immigrants, racism, physical assault, sexual both men and women, who all have harassment and undocumented rights and responsibilities in relation migration calls for immediate but to their new country of residence. It sustainable solutions. also involves the receiving society, which should create the The Cyprus government is opportunities for the immigrants' bureaucratic and there is a lack of a full economic, social, cultural, and legal framework for immigrants due political participation. Accordingly, to the fact that “foreign labor” was Member States are encouraged to falsely considered as a temporary consider and involve both phenomenon (Planning Bureau: immigrants and national citizens in 1989; Matsis and Charalambous: integration policy, and to 1993). The legislation implemented communicate clearly their mutual adheres to the EU directives, having rights and responsibilities.” The thus limited adaptation to the local definition of ‘migrants’ integration’, needs of immigrants. Overall, there derives from EU directives, is a vague understanding of legislation and the existing legal integration processes. The Cyprus framework of the Republic of government claims that taking Cyprus. Although integration refers measures aimed at integrating to “the access of migrants to immigrants is imperative (European collective collective-social, labor Fund for the Integration of third- and civic—rights while preserving country nationals: 2008). their identity”, in Cyprus it is said to In order to tackle these challenges, resemble “assimilation that implies the Cyprus government and the EU the adoption by the immigrant are involved in shaping the group of the values and traditions of migration policy of Cyprus, aimed at the host society, up to the point of integrating migrants fully into abandoning its original language society. According to the Common and culture” (Vrasidas et al: 2009). Basic Principles for immigrants’ The policy of migrant integration integration policy in the European concerns the issues of long-term Union (Council of European Union:

residency, family reunion, social Access to citizenship is given to and labor rights (Lodovici: 2010). migrants over 18 years old who have Migrants are not allowed to receive been legal residents in the Republic members of their family (spouses of Cyprus for over 5 years. The over 21 years old and unmarried process of acquiring a Cypriot children) prior to the annual permit citizenship is expensive and long. (it takes 2 years to get one), though Unlikely the family reunification and it has many restrictions. For long-term residency in the national example, the hosting migrant is legislation, Cyprus has developed a required to have adequate housing consisted anti-discrimination policy and income in order to obey the addressing issues of race, ethnicity, Cypriot eligibility rules for family sexuality and religion. Nevertheless, reunion. As far as long-term the implementation of this policy residency is concerned, TCNs from has turned out to be ambiguous. 117 countries have to obtain some The lack of support to victims of form of visa to enter the country and racism, specialized training for the opportunities for long-term public servants and the limited residency are limited (Ministry of involvement of NGOs in the Foreign Affairs: 2015). Furthermore, implementation of policies are TCNs do not have equal rights of considered important problems. access in employment with EU In the non-occupied area, the nationals despite the Annual Democratic Rally of Cyprus (DISY), Reports of the Labor Office of the the right wing party, in 2011, Ministry of Labor and Social referred to the suppression and Insurance that support the policy of criminalization of migration rather an equal treatment between than promoting integration. Strict Cypriots and non-Cypriot workers. measures were taken for external For example, TCNs need to have a border controls and increased job in order to obtain a work permit. controls of the green line crossings Consequently, due to their short with the use of new electronics and residence status, they lack civic FRONTEX3. However, DIKO (central- rights, increasing the chances of right party) suggested promoting marginalization in the society. migrants with coupons for clothes Migrants do not have any voting and food instead of giving money rights and they do not participate in and restricting the status of refugee any official decision-making body.

3 Frontex, the EU agency based in Warsaw, was driven. Frontex complements and provides particular created as a specialised and independent body added value to the national border. tasked to coordinate the operational cooperation between Member States in the field of border security. The activities of Frontex are intelligence

52 status rejections (Vrasidas et al: the last years in collaboration with 2009). the Ministry of Education. Recently, the government along The Migration Integration Policy with the support of the European Index (MIPEX: 2015) though, a long- Integration Fund has launched many term project which evaluates projects aiming to foster awareness integration policies of migrants in on migrants’ issues. Numerous the EU Member States, locates campaigns and activities to promote Cyprus in a generally unfavorable human rights and tackle racism integration position (ranked 2nd issues have been carried out within from the last, of all 38 MIPEX countries). Figure 4: Ranking of Cyprus in MIPEX in relation to integration policies for migrants

As the ENAR Shadow Report countries, cannot claim indicates (2012: 50), the British unemployment benefits or public Council and Migration Policy Group’ allowances and once they are s MIPEX, stated that Cypriot law unemployed they are forced to “creates the least favorable leave Cyprus. They also have few conditions” for migrant workers and real opportunities to be involved in this fact discourages long-term democratic life despite the fact that migration. MIPEX results confirm the majority of Cypriots believe that the impossibility for migrants to immigrants enrich Cyprus fully integrate into Cypriot society. economically and culturally and Migrant workers have the least should have equal rights as Cyprus favorable rights of all 38 MIPEX citizens (Migrant Integration Policy:

2015). As a general assessment, the  The “Common Basic Principles for migration policy in Cyprus prevents Integration” adopted by the temporary migrants from applying European Ministers of Justice and for long-term residency. Home Affairs that form the basis of building a coherent integration According to the latest National policy. Action Plan 2010-2012 for the  The “Common Agenda for Integration of TCNs (The UN Integration” that was presented by Refugee Agency Cyprus 2010: 2), the the European Commission in 2005 strategy for the integration of and proposes measures for immigrants is based on the implementing the Common Basic international and European law principles along with a series of “adopting international and supportive EU mechanisms. European conventions” and  The European Fund for Integration adjusting to our national context. of Third Countries 2007-2013 and Particularly, the National Political the new European Refugee Fund Integration and National Action Plan 2008-2013. are in accordance with:  The Stockholm Programme 2010-  The European Directives on the 2014. elimination of discrimination, family  The European Pact on Immigration reunification, students, researchers and Asylum. and long-term residents.

BOX 6: The National Action Plan 2010-2012 for Integration of TCNs

The National Action Plan 2010-2012 for the Integration of TCNs was prepared by the Special Committee of Experts on the Integration of third country nationals legally residing in Cyprus. The Committee was decided by the Cabinet and chaired by the Ministry of Interior. The policy seeks to engage migrants in Cypriot society, recognize their human rights and tackle the racism and discrimination. The National Action Plan consists of 8 priorities:

1st Priority: Information – Service – Transparency 2nd Priority: Employment, Training, Unions' 3rd Priority: Education and Learning of Language 4th Priority: Health 5th Priority: Housing - Improving quality of life, social protection and interaction 6th Priority: Culture, Civics, basic elements of political and social reality 7th Priority: Inclusiveness 8th Priority: Evaluation - Annual and Total The measures/actions included in the National Action Plan aim to raise awareness, exchange of experiences, provide vocational training and Greek language courses, access to justice, seminars for employers and employees on labour relations, health provisions at schools and educational measures for the integration of children at schools. These actions are co-funded mainly by national funds, the European Integration Fund or the European Social Fund and focus on educating the immigrants.

Identifying the Educational and their descendants to be actively Needs of Adult Migrants engaged in the host society. Newly arrived immigrants usually have Education is the optimum way to more needs during the initial stages integrate people in the society. of their integration since they are Education services offered to struggling to get to know how the migrants, with respect to the council host country’s system functions. The of the European Union, are education system of a country has significant in preparing immigrants the crucial role of providing

55 immigrants with information on the immigrants’ educational needs will work of societal institutions and help them “to quickly find a place in regulations and transmit the norms the key domains of work, housing, and values of the host society. education, and health, and help Hence, immigrants feel confident start the longer-term process of about interacting with local people normative adaptation to the new and gradually they become society” (Council of European Union successfully integrated into the 2004: 10). society. Consequently, satisfying

CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in country

The education system is a vital pillar 2014; European Fund for the for the social and economic Integration of third-country development of a country. The nationals 2008: 5). Ministry of Education in Cyprus aims to offer equal opportunities to all Cyprus Educational System and students. Hence, it has taken Infrastructure extensive measures to support and help the vulnerable population of The Cyprus educational system has immigrant pupils. These measures been traditionally divided into three focus on a) respect for diversity, levels: Primary (6 years, students pluralism (cultural, linguistic, from 6 to 11 years), Secondary (6 religious) and multiple intelligence, years – Gymnasium - lower and (b) social inclusion of all secondary school, Lyceum - upper children, combating leaks from the secondary school and Technical - system and the fight against social Vocational Educational that exclusion in all public and private correspond to students of 12 to 18 schools, universities, vocational and years) and Higher or Tertiary technical schools, and post- institutions. The Ministry of graduate levels of education Education and Culture (Ministry of Education and Culture: (Ministry of Education) also Adult Education Centres and the provides Life Long Education State Institutes for Further opportunities mainly through the Education (S.I.F.E.).

Figure 5: The Structure of the Education System in Cyprus4

learn the Greek language and to Migrant Education Policies, provide them with support to access Programmes and Methods. the Cypriot labor market. The education system in Cyprus According to the objectives of the offers certain courses and training latest National Action Plan (The UN programs for immigrants of all ages Refugee Agency Cyprus: 2010) for focusing in providing smooth the inclusion of Third-Country integration in Greek-Cypriot society. Nationals in the labor market, there The Ministry of Education with the is a provision for immigrants to support of the European Social Fund

4 Structure of the Education System of Cyprus. Retrieved from: http://www.highereducation.ac.cy/en/pdf/educational-system.pdf

during the years 2007-2013 has implemented the programmes below for the integration of  Training Programme for in-service immigrants into Cypriot society. teachers of Secondary Education and Professional Training  Learning Program to acquire Programme for Teacher Candidates competency in the Greek language of Secondary Education. for immigrants and foreign The Ministry of Education and residents in Cyprus. Culture offers training for teachers In public primary education, all on an annual basis on matters of children have free access to public intercultural education in order to schools regardless of their residence meet adequately the needs of status (documented residents). The immigrants and give them the tools government policy on multicultural to tackle the challenges that might education aims to actively engage appear. The Teaching Training immigrant students in the Cyprus Institute organizes annually various education system, provide seminars and encourages teachers knowledge about other cultures and to participate. The main topics of foster the principles of equality, the seminars refer to guidelines for social justice, mutual understanding teaching Greek as a second/or and respect.5 TCN students attend foreign language and teaching intensive Greek language courses students in a multicultural inside and outside school hours. environment. What’s more, Support meetings for parents are intercultural education has been also organized in order to develop integrated into the compulsory good communication with the courses of the pre‐service training school. programme for candidate teachers As far as the secondary education is in secondary education. concerned, the Ministry of

Education offers evening classes - the so-called evening gymnasiums -  Programme against early school where foreign students and workers leaving, School Failure and (over 15 years old), can both Delinquency in Educational Priority complete their studies in secondary Zones (EPZ). education and obtain a School In the latest years, the public Leaving Certificate. (primary and secondary) schools in Cyprus that deal with social,

5 Cyprus Guide for Third-Country Nationals (TCNs) Retrieved from: www.cyprus-guide.org (20.07. (2015). Action A4, European Integration Fund for 2015). Third-Country Nationals, Annual Programme 2013.

economic and cultural inequalities, educational system. Some schools have become part of a Zone of offer learning opportunities to Educational Priority. This migrant adults as well by delivering programme has been implemented Greek language courses to the in the 2003-2004 academic year. parents of migrant children. The zones are based on basic criteria that relate to geographical location,  Post-secondary Institutes of socio-economic composition of Vocational Education and Training. families, the presence of foreign or The Cyprus government offers immigrant children, the dropout vocational education and training rate of students and the special services for TCNs in order to provide education needs. The Pedagogical lifelong learning opportunities to Institute of Cyprus, through the EPZ TCNs and facilitate their social programme, provides additional integration in Cyprus society and support such as language lessons to labour market.6 In Adult Learning non-indigenous students and Centres, the Learning Program of promotes the principles of the Greek language to immigrants collaboration, equality and and foreign residents of Cyprus was solidarity through extra-curricular implemented for five consecutive activities allowing interaction school years (2010-2015). TCNs over between the features of the foreign 15 years old could attend Greek students’ culture and the features of language courses acquiring thus the culture of Cyprus. During the language and communication skills. EPZ programme, the teachers The programme consisted of fifty implement student-centered 90-minute sessions, twice a week pedagogical methods and organize for each group, composed from 10 educational, cultural and health to 15 people. The students were activities. The teachers recruited in divided into three levels according EPZ schools for the morning hours to their language skills. The annual are bilingual. The curriculum is also fees were very low and at the end of adjusted in a way that allows pupils the course the students received a to attend culture and civilization certificate of attendance and they courses in their mother tongue could also take a final exam, during religion and history subjects. prepared by the Examination This programme aims to engage Service of the Ministry of Education. children in a multicultural society The courses were delivered by and improve the quality of the qualified instructors, mainly

6 Action A4, European Integration Fund for Third- Cyprus Information Guide. Retrieved from Country Nationals, Annual Programme 2013 (2015) www.cyprus-guide.org on 20 June 2015.

59 philologists, who were selected that the highest percentage of the following a contest. The programme participants attending the courses was considered successful since falls into the category of being there were a great number of graduates of tertiary education participants (Table 1) from which 69 (Figure 6). percent were women and 31 percent were men. It is worth noting Table 1: Participants in the Learning programme of the Greek language to immigrants and foreign residents of Cyprus School Years: 2010-2011, 2011-2012, 2012- 2013 & 2013-2014 Number of students 10800

Number of groups 775

Number of teachers 427

Figure 6: Participants in the Education System per level

Participants' Educational Level

6000 5537

5000

4000 2970 3000

2000 1275 1018 1000

0 Primary Education Secondary Education After-Secondary Tertiary Education Education

Participants' Educational Level

There are also 40 State Institutes for foreign and Greek language courses Further Education all over the to non-Greek speakers-, accounting island, providing language courses – and computer studies and the

Evening Technical School of  Centre for the Advancement of Limassol which offers vocational Research and Development in training. Educational Technology (CARDET) (www.cardet.org). It is a non-profit Non-Governmental Organisations research and development (NGOs), with the support of the organization in Cyprus that offers Republic of Cyprus and European programmers on vocational programmes (e.g. the European education, civil society, education Integration Fund), offer vocational and training, eLearning, inclusive education and training programmes practices, and social justice. to TCNs. Most importantly, TCNs can  INNOVADE LI LTD attend the courses mainly for free. (www.innovade.eu). It is a The courses have a focus on small/medium enterprise (SME) in developing language or professional Cyprus, focusing on business skills and integrating migrants in the development, strategic society. Such organizations are the development, business consulting, following: learning technologies and ICT,  KISA - Action for Equality, Support, project management, education Antiracism (www.kisa.org.cy). KISA and training. is a NGO with the main focus on  Future Worlds Centre is a non-profit Migration, Asylum, Racism, organization Discrimination and Trafficking and (www.futureworldscenter.org) that aims to raise awareness of the promotes human rights and social Cypriot society and influence the justice, advocates for the rights of legal framework in these fields. KISA refugees, addresses social also operates a Migrant and inequalities, poverty and exclusion Refugee Centre providing as well as combating racism, information, support and mediation xenophobia and discrimination. services to migrants, refugees, victims of trafficking and racism / During the last decade, there was a discrimination and ethnic minorities considerable number of initiatives in general, targeting in social addressing migrants’ needs in integration. Cyprus. Some of these initiatives are  Mediterranean Institute of Gender listed below: Studies (MIGS)  Municipalities Network (www.medinstgenderstudies.org) (www.municipalitiesnet.eu) is an that aims to strengthen the women action that focuses on the participation in civic society and establishment of a European educate marginalized groups. network, with the participation of Local Authorities, to exchange

information and best practices on African Migrants’ Solidarity organizational structures with (http://lefamsol.uop.gr/) is a respect to Third-Country Nationals’ curriculum development project for (TCN) integration and diversity. hard to reach target groups of  LIGHTHOUSE adults, oriented towards cultural (http://www.lighthouse- mediation and peer training. It project.eu/) is a project that intends focuses on Female African Migrant to establish an innovative model Groups, including sex workers, and tools for supporting lifelong aiming initially to create a pool of learning and career paths for human resources that can operate migrants by tailored counselling and gender/ethnically delineated “Self- recognition of prior learning to Help Desks.” improve skills, employability and  Research on topics related to TCN mobility. youth in Cyprus and their future  MEET (Meeting the health literacy perspectives (www.youth- needs of immigrant populations) research.org/) aims to confront with (http://migranthealth.eu/) project problems facing young migrants focuses on health promotion and (TCNs) and their future career. seeks to set up a model  The Mediterranean Migration multidisciplinary task force to tackle Network: Establishment of inequalities in social and health care multilateral networks with countries access by migrant citizens in in the Mediterranean region (MMN) different contexts. (www.migrationnetwork.org) seeks  Research for the EU Media approach to promote collaboration and regarding Third-Country Nationals exchange of good practices among (TCN) and migration issues public and private stakeholders (http://www.migrationinthemedia. active in the fields of migration and eu/) is an action group that aims to integration. research and evaluate the different  Intercultural Mentoring tools to perceptions presented via the support migrant integration at media regarding TCN and migration school (INTO) that will provide suggestions and (www.interculturalmentoring.eu) good practices adjusted to the aims to promote strategies and special needs and conditions of the methods that help students with a Cypriot society for the development migrant background at risk of Early of an action plan for integration and School Leaving to maintain their TCN in general. motivation through the  LeFAMSol: Learning for Female development, testing and validation African Migrants’ Solidarity of an Intercultural Mentoring LeFAMSol: Learning for Female Programme based on the

empowered peer education strategic actions needed to face methodology. common and current challenges.  Integration policies: Who benefits? Recently, many LAs and The development and use of municipalities in Cyprus have indicators in integration debates launched projects for immigrants’ (MIPEX) (www.mipex.eu) project, integration offering a variety of aims to inform and engage key services (social and education policy actors about how to use services) due to EU financing. Such indicators to improve integration projects seek to integrate governance and policy immigrants in the local level that is effectiveness. MIPEX is a unique tool their neighbourhood, school and which evaluates and compares what other community centers. In governments are doing to promote particular, the local authorities offer the integration of migrants in all EU afternoon care services for migrant member states and many other workers’ children, counseling, countries. informal legal advice, Greek  Mothers and Children in L2 is a language lessons, non-formal project that aims to design and pilot education opportunities such as a methodology and tools to involve history and Cyprus culture young migrant mothers with workshops, art and craft workshops, children aged 2-6 in a language- and first aid workshops, cooking lessons content-integrated training. The and multicultural events with contents of the course are closely international flavors, music and related to everyday life and dance. common issues the mothers have to For example, the municipality of cope with. Nicosia (capital of Cyprus), through  Migrations, Integration and Co- its Intercultural centre provides Development in Europe (Migrations- migrant residents with learning Integration-and-Co-Development- opportunities during the afternoon in-Europe) encourages an hours.7 The Intercultural centre intercultural dialogue between civil aims to tackle social exclusion society organizations and citizens issues, support immigrants and from different countries and living provide them with vocational communities in Europe to express opportunities and services to obtain their views about EU policies related professional and digital literacy to migration and asylum and more skills. The immigrants can attend broadly, about the key priorities and socially-oriented lectures, Greek

7 Nicosia Municipality (2015). Intercultural Center. GR/municipality/multipurpose- Retrieved from: http://www.nicosia.org.cy/el- centre/intercultural/61750/

language and computer courses, courses in more than 20 areas. Also access the internet in a fully the programme ““Limassol: one city, equipped place (internet café), have the whole world”9 which is in vocational guidance and consulting collaboration with the services and be involved in creative municipalities of Limassol, aims to and psychological support activities. promote the smooth integration of TCNs into Cyprian society and the Furthermore, the municipality of job market. This programme Ayios Athanasios in Limassol supports immigrants through participates in various integration providing training and learning programmes for migrants. In 2007, activities, orientation and social Ayios Athanasios municipality has support services and cultural established the "Open School" events. Association8, an innovative institution addressed to all citizens regardless of their origin that offers

CHAPTER 3: Developing and effective adult migrant education strategy

NZ). New destination countries with Challenges and opportunities small immigrant communities offer in the adult migrant education a limited number of ad hoc projects for a few groups and schools (e.g. JP, Educational systems across the LV/LT, MT, Central and Southeast world have implemented some Europe). Countries considered as educational policies in order to new destinations for immigrants integrate immigrant pupils into the such as GR, IE, IT and ES have work host society. The educational to do in catching up with a large policies focus on addressing the number of immigrant pupils. needs of immigrant children. According to the key findings of Emphasis is given to the individual MIPEX (2015), within the 38 needs of immigrant children (in countries participating, Sweden Nordic countries), vulnerable racial achieved the highest score (77) in and social groups (in the US) or the 2014 ranking following by promoting multiculturalism (AU, CA, Australia (76), New Zealand (66),

8 Agios Athanasions Municipality (2015). Open 9 Agios Athanasions Municipality (2015). Free School. Retrieved from: Course for Third-Country Nationals. Retrieved http://www.openschoolcy.com/ from: http://www.agiosathanasios.org.cy/

Norway and Canada (65), Portugal policies. Thus far, school education (62), Belgium (61), Finland and the policies are mainly restricted to US (60). However, Cyprus holds the migrant children. There are many 25th place with a low score of 27. non – governmental bodies that could collaborate with the Furthermore, the lack of a legal government and formulate an framework for migrant integration effective education policy for adult in Cyprus raises numerous migrants. Such bodies are non-profit challenges for adult migrant organisations, trade unions, education. At the same time, employer organisations and social introductory programmes that have and religious organisations. It is been implemented provide basic evident that “more inclusive knowledge of the host society’s integration policies may bring more language and culture; they are highly-skilled immigrants and higher considered indispensable to inward Foreign Direct Investment” integration. Immigrants (Migrant Integration Policy 2015: participating in these programmes 15). become aware of the various It is important though to measure aspects of how the host country the process and evaluate system works and have the integration policies. Indicators, clear opportunity to access the host goals and evaluation mechanisms country’s services in order to meet can assist the process of monitoring their needs. Such integration and evaluating the integration projects have an immediate impact project. Regarding the common on the economic and social well- basic principles for immigrant being of the society as well. integration policy in the European Nonetheless, it is important to point Union (Council of European Union: out that the integration policy 2004) “The purpose of such should demonstrate full respect for evaluation is to learn from the immigrants’ own language and experience, a way to avoid possible culture. failures of the past, adjust policy accordingly and showing interest for each other’s efforts”. The sharing of Planning and evaluating adult good practices and exchanging migrant education policies information between the Member States of the European Union has Immigrant integration is highly proved useful in the process of influenced by governments’ integration. policies. Particular consideration Overall, the lack of an official should be given to planning and legislation framework for evaluating adult migrant education

immigrants in Cyprus has a negative financial support to civil society impact for providing educational organizations to promote and opportunities with a few exceptions. support family reunification; These exceptions include the  Provide training to public servants integration programmes on on communication skills, law, collaboration with the Ministry of human rights and non- Education, the NGO’s and Local discrimination approaches; Authorities. Despite the will to  Organize extra-curricular school integrate migrants in Cyprus’ activities for both immigrant and society, the fact that the migration Cypriot pupils. policy in Cyprus prevents temporary To conclude, education is listed migrants from applying for long- among the greatest weaknesses in term residency hinders the integration policies in most integration process. CARDET, as a countries (MIPEX: 2015). Despite MIPEX partner from Cyprus, has the fact that the educational system developed a list of policy in Cyprus implements some recommendations to support integration programmes for immigrants in Cyprus. Some of these immigrant pupils, inside and outside recommendations (Migrant the school, addressing adult Integration Policy 2015: 8-9) are: migrants’ educational needs still  Create Immigrants Civil Society and remains an urgent requirement. Youth organizations which will Hence, collective efforts would represent immigrants in society and promote the effective integration of have an active role in the public migrants into civic society and dialogue; consequently develop fertile ground  Improve labour conditions for for further educational immigrants at the workplace by opportunities, facilitating the improving the non-discrimination integration process and the policies and providing training to entrance into the labour market. employers;  Improve the conditions for family reunification process and provide

LITHUANIA

Introduction

The decades from 1990 to 2010 from countries within the mark a period of intense geographical vicinity (Russia, international migration in Europe, Belarus, and Ukraine) as well as which brought forth various from more distant parts of the world challenges for national and (Turkey and China). At the same international state policies and time, when the western European called for societies to deal with countries began critically evaluate intercultural coexistence. The their immigration and migrant expansion of the EU and the latest integration policies, the ‘new’ EU ratification of the Schengen member states confronted the agreement changed the geopolitical challenges of creating migration and situation of the European continent. migrant integration policies. The “shifting” of the EU border In the context of international towards the East and the migration processes, Lithuania is not liberalisation of the freedom of an exception as it played an movement within the EU became important role as a ‘sending’ important factors encouraging country. After the restoration of international migration processes. independence in 1991, Lithuania These factors influenced the experienced significant political and emergence of new international the socio-economic changes, which migration systems in the EU. Despite led to specific patterns of the strict immigration policy, most international migration. After 1991, of the EU member states witnessed large-scale of emigration of a surge in immigration. While in the Lithuanian citizens to the western 1990s, the main destination centres regions of the EU brought in the EU were considered the demographic challenges and led to western European and Scandinavian structural changes in the Lithuanian countries, the (dis)integration labour market. After Lithuania processes of the 21st century joined the EU in 2004, economic occurring in Europe and elsewhere emigration became more visible. have revealed new migration Together with the growing trend of trends. The ‘new’ EU member states economic emigration, new became not only the source of migration patterns were identified immigrants, but also transit points as the demographic shortfall or destinations for those coming combined with labour force

67 shortages triggered immigration can be employed. Concerning the from third countries. Membership in implementation of migration and the EU and the development of migrant integration policies, one Schengen area has increased the must take into consideration possibilities of migrant transit (un)successful political practices. By through the territory of Lithuania. combining the development of Parallel to that, Lithuania has immigration studies and the become an attractive target country potential of policy-creation, an for economic immigrants both from adequate and preventative political geographically close countries as response can be formulated to solve well as from distant ones. Though, future challenges. due to changes in the global The same argument applies both economy (2008–2011) the scale of to immigration policies in general immigration noticeably decreased and adult migrant education (while at the same time Lithuania methodologies (as a part of the experienced the peak of package of migrant integration emigration), the newest policies) in particular. Eventually, immigration trends (2011–2014) the main aim of this study is to witness an increase of immigration, prepare the analysis of adult especially labour-related. migrant education methodologies Taking a closer look at the and migrant integration policies in development of migration policies, Lithuania, to provide conclusions Lithuania is in a rather favourable and recommendations for effective position. In order to analyse inclusion of adult migrant education immigration processes, measures into programmes and systematised databases can be action plans of migrant integration used, certain well-established and policies in Lithuania. developed theoretical approaches

CHAPTER 1: The Lithuanian migration backround

Overview of the Situation of Immigration Dynamics and Migration Policies

Immigration flows (especially immigration (both labour and total) labour related) to Lithuania started started to increase again and almost to increase from 2001 with the peak reached pre-crisis level (see Graph before global economic changes in 1). Together with mass emigration 2008. Economic growth, the EU and growing trend of immigration, enlargement in 2004 and the legislative and institutional development of Schengen developments in the area of Agreement in late 2007 made an immigration and migrant impact on immigration flows to integration policies emerged. Such Lithuania. Consequently, labour developments have led to political immigration became significant, and societal debates about socio- while flows of asylum seekers economic consequences of remained insignificant and stable. international migration in Lithuania. After global economic changes,

Graph1. Immigration dynamics in Lithuania 2005–2014

8000 7819 7000 6000 5686 5382 5000 5036 4627 4766 4301 4000 3980 3415 3327 3000 2982 2960 3036 2687 2468 2486 2000 2156 2084 2239 1565 1666 1808 1673 1000 877 1060 599 609 477 488 419 343 397 402 419 0 269 288 228 110 95 124 137 177 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Refugee status or subsidiary protection Work permits issued for foreigners Immigration of foreigners

Source: Statistics Lithuania, Migration Department, Lithuanian Labour Exchange

Immigration structure

Regardless of the increase of labour immigration to Lithuania, both the annual immigration10 flows and the total number of foreigners living in Lithuania remain small: 32,500 foreigners (0.98 percent from the total population) lived in

Lithuania in 2010. This number from 31,300 in 2012 to 35,500 in decreased to 29,600 (0.91 per cent 2014 and 40,000 in 2015 (see Table from the total population) in 2011. 1). Despite a relatively low number However, after the global economic of foreigners residing in Lithuania changes, the number of foreigners and arriving annually, labour related in Lithuania increased significantly: immigration became visible in public space. It has triggered debates on demand of a new approach towards labour immigration and migrant integration policies.

Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. However, Table 1. Number of foreigners in Lithuania 2010–2015 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 during Number of residents 3 137,0 3 052,6 3 007,8 2 979,3 2 944,5 2 921,9 2006– Number of foreigners 32,500 29,600 31,300 32,300 35,500 40,000 Share of foreigners (%) 1,04 0,97 1,04 1,08 1,20 1,37 2008, Source: Migration Department While summing up the assumptions of formation of new immigration flows to Lithuania, immigrant groups from China and several trends could be identified. Turkey were observed.11 Second, First, the vast majority of the distribution of immigrants by immigrants living in Lithuania and age groups allows one to posit that arriving annually to the country for Lithuania is an attractive country for various purposes are citizens of people of working age from outside

10 The analysis of annual immigration flows shows 11 With the relation to the EU enlargement and that majority of immigrants have Lithuanian structural changes in the Lithuanian Labour market, citizenship. This is an evidence of the return general immigration structure in Lithuania has migration. Immigration flows of foreign citizens become more diverse. For example, during 2006– either from EU or non-EU countries are small. In the 2008, the number of labour immigrants from Turkey general context of immigration, non-EU citizens and China has increased near the most numerous form one fourth of the total immigration flow; in the labour immigrant groups: Russians, Ukrainians and context of foreign immigration, the percentage Belarusians. Therefore, the Chinese and Turks were increases up to 80 per cent and more. (respectively) the fourth and the third largest labour immigrant groups in Lithuania.

the EU. Third, the distribution of structure revealed that foreigners immigrants by gender shows a (non-EU citizens) are mainly prevailing trend favouring male concentrated in the largest immigration. However, as Žibas Lithuanian cities as around 70–80 (2009) argues, circumstances of per cent of all foreigners live in 6 family reunification are related to municipalities. This means that the women immigration and economic major Lithuanian cities are centres (labour) circumstances – with male of attraction of immigration. immigration. Fourth, regardless of Deeper analysis of immigration global economic changes, family structure in Lithuania revealed reunification usually is the first or specific features of recent the second biggest channel (usually, immigrants and ethnic minorities. after labour-related immigration) For example, the data on residence for legal immigration to Lithuania permits showed that the majority of (though immigration of students foreigners are living in Lithuania and entrepreneurs is increasing as with the second or the third well). Fifth, usually after particular permanent residence permit. In restrictions of legal immigration order to receive a permanent channels are enforced, trends of residence permit, a foreigner has to undocumented immigration reside in Lithuania for at least 5 emerge. For example, there has years, while permanent residence been an increase in the number of permit is issued up to five years. It sham marriages (marriage is the means that these people are main channel for family residing in Lithuania for more than reunification) or fake companies 10 or 15 years (or from the (legal business activities are a restoration of independence and channel for obtaining a residence earlier on) without obtaining permit). Such a trend is related to Lithuanian citizenship.12 Such Lithuania as a transit country rather foreigners are still considered than a country of destination. Sixth, immigrants rather than ethnic local aspects of the immigration minorities.

12 Usually, foreigners are not obtaining Lithuanian citizenship due to strict dual citizenship policies (Žibas 2014).

BOX 6: Immigration patterns in Lithuania

The analysis of the data1 on foreigners in the largest Lithuanian cities revealed certain immigration patterns. Lithuanian cities attract different categories of immigrants (both, in terms of countries of origin and grounds of arrival). It can be assumed that Lithuanian cities already formed certain, although weak, migration networks. Eventually, the largest cities (Vilnius, Klaipeda and Kaunas) hold more than half of all the foreigners in Lithuania, and other cities with a large share of foreigners (such as Visaginas) certainly create common structural characteristics of immigration to Lithuania. For example, Visaginas could be characterised as a city with a relatively big number of permanent residents from non-EU countries and a trend of family immigration; while Vilnius region, Klaipeda and Šiauliai – exhibit trends of labour immigration and a more diverse immigration structure in terms of countries of origin (for example, migrant workers from Turkey or China). On the other hand, Vilnius and Kaunas are cities, where immigrants from non-EU countries are more likely to establish small or medium scale enterprises.

Dublin (1990) and other EU The development of documents. Economic migration immigration policies policy is regulated in the law ‘On the Legal Status of Aliens’ and national Some issues of immigration policy long-term strategies. However, the in Lithuania are already resolved or area of immigration policy is still are at least adequately addressed. being developed. When Lithuania restored its Immigration policy and the independence, citizenship issues regulation measures of migrant were successfully resolved using integration in Lithuania have not ‘zero option of citizenship’; although been implemented in accord with dual citizenship issues are still the changes in international unresolved. Asylum system is migration processes, i.e., migration operating in Lithuania since 1997 policy was based on the migratory using common principles of the EU behaviour or on the so-called ad-hoc asylum policies, consolidated in the approach. Immigration flows have conventions of Geneva (1949), been adjusted starting in 1991,

when the ‘Immigration Law’13 came debate about the challenges of into force. According to this law, an emigration for the state and society. annual immigrant quota was In parallel to that, the business adopted. It receded into the sector began to discuss ‘importing’ a background in 1999. Law ‘On the labour force. Consequently, Legal Status of Aliens’14, which came Government began to initiate not into force in 1999, has amended the only programmes of ‘detention’ and previously mentioned law and claw back at emigrants, but also became the main document began to debate the guidelines of regulating the legal status of immigration policy. However, the foreigners in Lithuania and the main regulation of immigration and areas of immigration management. migrant integration processes This law is a starting point in the remained within the framework of analysis of Lithuanian immigration the law ‘On the Legal Status of policy. Aliens’ and the directives of the EU16 After the collapse of the Soviet without application of any specific Union, the strategy of Lithuanian programmes of these immigration immigration policy was associated policies. with restricting immigration from Lithuania did not have a strategy Russia and other post-Soviet of immigration policy based on the countries.15 The situation began to long-term goals and priorities. Until change gradually when the large recently, immigration policy has scale of emigration started to been formed indirectly in the long- change the structure of the term strategies such as ‘The Long- Lithuanian population and labour Term Development Strategy of the market. It triggered a debate not State’, ‘Strategy of the National only about the effects of emigration, Demographic (Population) Policy’ but also about the need for and ‘The Long-Term Strategy (up to immigration. After the EU 2015) of Lithuanian economy enlargement in 2004, the economic (economic) development’. In the factors of emigration have become light of the new challenges raised by more important as mass outflows of contemporary migration processes, population were at the centre of a in April 2007 the Government

13 The Republic of Lithuania, Immigration Law, no. strictly selective immigration policy) can be I-1755, 04.09.1992, Official Gazette, 1991, no. 27- regarded as a political strategy related to 730. immigration restriction in view of inter-republican 14 Law of the Republic of Lithuania, On the Legal migration, which took place during the Soviet Status of Aliens, no. VIII-978, 17.12.1998, Official period. Gazette, 1998, no. 115-3236. 16 For example, the provisions of Directive 15 While analysing immigration and migrant 2008/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the integration policies, historical context has to be Council of 16 December 2008 on common standards emphasised and considered as an absence of migrant and procedures in Member States for returning integration policy (as well as implementation of illegally staying third-country nationals.

adopted Economic Migration the implementation of strict Regulation Strategy (EMRS) which, immigration policy for third-country in 2014, was changed by the nationals), the practical means of Lithuanian Migration Policy implementation of such policy was Guidelines. not declared. ‘The State Strategy of Long-Term In ‘The Long-Term Strategy19 of Development’17 (2002) was not Lithuanian economic development directly related to the formation of up to 2015’ (2004), immigration immigration policies. The document policy management was defined as highlighted emigration an inevitable necessity. Thus, the management and the consequences strategy emphasised strict of this process. Illegal immigration immigration control, although was seen as a threat and the control specific policy measures were not of immigration was exclusively planned. However, legal and illegal associated with the consolidation of immigration processes were protection of the migration across identified as challenges. the external border of the EU. The Immigration origin countries match document did not provide specific the priority countries listed in the measures of regulation of Economic Migration Regulation immigration. Strategy (see below). ‘The Strategy of National Migration Regulation Strategy Demographic (Population) Policy’18 (2007) could be considered as the (2004) revealed main weaknesses of response to demographic changes immigration management in caused by emigration. The strategy Lithuania (such as the lack of labour outlined long-term priorities of migration programmes, Lithuanian migration policy which coordination, responsibility underlined challenges related to between the migration regulatory return migration and reducing authorities, etc.). However, among emigration rather than migrant the opportunities, no long-term integration or long-term immigration policy was identified. immigration strategy. Main Although the model of Lithuanian objectives of EMRS were the immigration policy was provided in reduction of negative migration net the vision of the strategy (such as to zero by 2012,20 focusing on

17 Resolution of the Seimas of Republic of Lithuania, 19 The Ministry of Finance of the Republic of State Strategy of Long-Term Development, no. IX- Lithuania, Long-term strategy of Lithuanian 1187, 12.11.2002, Official Gazette, 2002, no. 113- economy (economic) development up to 2015. 5029. Vilnius, 2002. 18 Resolution of the Seimas of Republic of Lithuania, 20 Main objective was not accomplished as mass Strategy of National Demographic (Population) outflow of population reach the peak in 2010. Policy, no. 1350, 28.10.2004, Official Gazette, 2004, Consequently, in 2013, Lithuania had negative no. 159-5795. migration net of 5.7 per 1000 population (in 2013,

processes of return migration and immigrants and the country of regulation of labour immigration Lithuania. from third countries. With regard to It has to be mentioned that EMRS the last objective, clear targets to and related documents were apply selective immigration policy formulated under the conditions of by defining the geographic priorities rapid economic growth. Many (Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine and objectives that were formulated in South Caucasus) and emphasising EMRS were relevant only for 2007 regulation of immigration from non- and 2008. Consequently, after 2008, EU countries were revealed. there was no any action plan In addition, a long-term vision of accompanying EMRS. Lithuanian migration policy was Parallel to EMRS and related defined in other related documents: documents, Governmental ‘Principles of Lithuanian Program23 (2008) considered immigration policy’21 and ‘The immigration issues in the political Resolution on Confirmation of agenda. Chapter XXIII of the Landmarks of Lithuanian Migration Program emphasised issues related Policy’.22 Two dimensions of to immigration management. economic migration were set up in Analysis of the content revealed these documents: regulation of that migrant integration and regular immigration flows and consistent implementation of migrant integration. Considering immigration policy were not priority these dimensions, the main fields of policymaking. objectives that were raised Analysis of the content of EMRS concerned the correspondence and other documents revealed six between foreign workers in main aspects, which could be Lithuania and the needs of the considered as long-term priorities Lithuanian labour market, social and (but not as specific measures of cultural harmony (multicultural and implementation of immigration integrated Lithuanian society), the policy). First, before development of an effective and implementation of EMRS there were coherent holistic rather than the ad certain priorities of immigration hoc economic migration policy that policies which changed only is now in place; such a unified gradually. Before and, to a certain approach would benefit employers, extent, after 2004, the development

only Latvia and Cyprus had bigger negative 22 Resolution of the Government of the Republic of migration net in the EU). Lithuania, On Confirmation of Landmarks of 21 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Lithuanian Migration Policy, no. 1317, 03.12.2008. Lithuania, Principles of Lithuanian immigration 23 Resolution of the Seimas of Republic of policy. Lithuania, On Government program of Republic of Lithuania, no. XI-52, 09.12.2008.

of Lithuanian migration policies was permanent residence and, at the concentrated towards the reduction same time, without the need for of emigration, promotion of return integration) who are able to satisfy migration but not towards the labour force demands. Sixth, labour implementation of immigration immigration policies were (and still programmes and migrant are) connected to the Lithuanian integration tools. Second, since labour market, which is regulated in 2007 Lithuanian long-term order to ‘protect’ internal labour immigration policy has been formed force from the competition. emphasising not only the However, immigration of highly challenges, raised by the emigration qualified migrant workers is process, but (after the adoption of considered a priority. the EMRS) also the management24 of labour immigration. Third, * * * management of legal migration flows has been the main priority. While analysing the content of However, the management rules migration policies in Lithuania, one continued being governed by the important distinction with regard to framework of the Law ‘On the Legal the time frame has to be made. Status of Aliens’. Moreover, specific Before 2014, migration policy was management measures of based on the so-called ad hoc immigration processes were not principle. During the first half of provided, although, immigration has 2014, a new trend emerged as the been highlighted as a threat or a Government adopted Lithuanian challenge. Fourth, migrant Migration Policy Guidelines25, integration remained within the where the main priorities in an area framework of priorities without any of migration were identified. The specific action plan. Fifth, a Guidelines cover emigration, ‘selectively open’ immigration reversible migration, immigration, policy was applied with the main integration of foreigners, asylum aim to stimulate circular (international protection), fight (temporary) migration. Temporary against illegal migration, and issues immigration ‘saves’ integration related to the institutional policy meaning that immigrants were (and development and implementation. still are) considered economic Regarding immigration policies, a resources (without the potential of few key areas have to be

24 There were proposals given in the plan of the Republic of Lithuania, On Lithuanian policy of implementation measures of EMRS 2007–2008: economic migration. 28.12.2007). while regulating labour migration from third 25 Government of the Republic of Lithuania. countries, to implement ‘selectively open Resolution on Approval of the Lithuanian Migration immigration policy’ (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Policy Guidelines. 2014.01.22. No. 79

emphasised: harmonisation of in Lithuania. Art. 107 of the law ‘On immigration policies with EU the Legal Status of Aliens’ on the legislation; attracting a labour force Integration of foreigners stipulates from third countries (with some that Lithuania shall provide reservations);26 and better conditions for foreigners holding a regulation of different legal residence permit to integrate into immigration channels. While the political, social, economic and analysing the legislative cultural life of the State. This law developments of migration policies targets all immigrants coming to in Lithuania since the restoration of Lithuania, including all grounds for independence, it seems that the immigration. However, migrant recent Guidelines should be integration is specified only with considered as a backdrop to or the regard to foreigners who have been first step towards the establishment granted refugee status or subsidiary of a long-term migration vision. protection. There are no integration measures for other types of immigrants in Lithuania. In EMRS, migrant integration was described neatly by associating this Migrant Integration Policies process with a common EU policy (mainly with EU funds). EMRS Contrary to immigration, marked the absence of responsible implementation of migrant authority for the coordination of integration policy was (and still is) migrant integration processes and a based on the project-based lack of a long-term approach activities of the EU integration towards migrant integration funds. In the legal framework which policies. Summarising the content of regulates immigration policy in the strategy, the proportion of Lithuania, immigrants are not measures relating to different singled out as a target group of aspects of migration policy should integration policy. Although the law be emphasised. In 2007, eight out of ‘On the Legal Status of Aliens’ 35 migration policy implementation declares integration into the measures, and in 2008 four out of 22 country’s political, social, economic were designed for regulating and cultural life, a priority reserved immigration and only one for for foreigners who received asylum integrating migrants. The latter policy was related to the European

26 For example, labour immigration policies should countries. However, regulations should not stimulate be flexible and ensure the competitiveness of employers to use cheap labour from third countries Lithuania as a country of immigration, only when without making all possible efforts to use the internal there is a need to attract migrant workers from third workforce.

Fund for the Integration of Third- Resolution ‘On Confirmation of country Nationals (EIF). The analysis Landmarks of Lithuanian Migration of the report of the Ministry of Policy’30 confirmed the necessity of Social Security and Labour on the long-term integration measures. It implementation of EMRS27 revealed was stated that integration that the policy paper highlighted measures should be imposed only only the role of the programs28 of for foreigners with permanent the EIF. residence permits. This document Another document, which showed integration to be one of the provided guidelines for economic directions of immigration policy migration policy, is ‘Principles of development; the main tools for Lithuanian immigration policy’.29 implementation of these principles The analysis of the document involving social partners (employers showed that the migrant integration and trade unions) and using funding process was treated as a secondary from the EIF. factor, the implementation of which However, the analysis of is not necessary, but is desirable in documents revealed a mismatch in order not to lose ‘investments’ in migrant integration priorities. On immigrants. It was also noted that the one hand, in the report of EMRS trade unions should be assigned (which was closely related to the with functions, which could enable same EMRS) and in the resolution them to ensure the protection of ‘On Confirmation of Landmarks of immigrants and help in distributing Lithuanian Migration Policy’ the role immigrants according to the of the EIF was emphasised. On the demand of labour force. In the other hand, according to these summative chapter of this paper, it documents, integration measures was declared that the integration should be applied to foreigners with processes should be carried out only permanent residence permits; while for foreigners who have permanent the priority of the guidelines of residence permits. It was generally annual programs of the EIF was proposed not to apply short-term given to ‘newly’ arriving immigrants. measures of integration in order to It shows that target groups of stimulate brain circulation.

27 Ministry of Social Security and Labour of the no. A1-250, 20.09.2007, Official Gazette 2007, no. Republic of Lithuania, Report of implementation of 100-4096. the plan of Economic Migration Regulation Strategy 29 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of and its implementation means, 2007–2008, no. SD- Lithuania, Principles of Lithuanian immigration 3725, 29.04.2009. policy. 28 Ministry of Social Security and Labour of the 30 Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Republic of Lithuania, On the approval of program Lithuania On Confirmation of Landmarks of of management and control system in Lithuania for Lithuanian Migration Policy, no. 1317, 03.12.2008. integration of third-country nationals, 2007–2013,

integration policy were defined Immigrants, as a target group of differently. integration policies, were also not National and EU support distinguished in the ‘National anti- programs also determine discriminative program 2009– immigration and migrant 2011’33, although two measures integration policies in Lithuania. were previewed: (1) to conduct ‘Document of common sociological research in order to programming of Lithuania in 2004– monitor immigration and migrant 2006’31 emphasised the support for integration processes and (2) to social adaptation and professional organise state language courses for rehabilitation programs for immigrants. However, none of these vulnerable groups, including ethnic measures were implemented in minorities and refugees. During the practice. In other national first year of EU membership, specific programs,34 immigrants and their action plan (‘Prevention of social integration were not even exclusion and social integration’) mentioned. was implemented. However, immigrants were not included. * * * ‘Program of Development of Human Resources 2007–2013’32 However, as mentioned above, emphasised education, during the first half of 2014, a new employment and qualifications of trend emerged as the Government different social groups. It was stated adopted Lithuanian Migration Policy that unemployed people (including Guidelines, where migrant immigrants) may have different integration issues were emphasised education, work experience or and, for the first time since the qualifications. Consequently, the restoration of Lithuanian need of provision of services to the Independence, received special specific groups was determined. status as a prioritised policy area. Again, there were no specific According to the Guidelines, integration measures for migrant integration policies should immigrants. ensure benefits offered by

31 Document of Common Programming of Lithuania, 33 The Government of the Republic of Lithuania, 2004–2006, p. 210–211: National anti-discriminative annual program 2009– http://www.smm.lt/es_parama/docs/2004- 2011, no. 317, 15.04.2009: preliminarus_BPD_02.pdf http://www.lrv.lt/Posed_medz/2009/09030 32 Program of Human Resources Development, 9/02.pdf 2007–2013, p. 94. Vilnius, 2007: 34 For example, ‘Program of Cohesion Promotion http://www.esparama.lt/ES_Parama/struktu Action, 2007–2013’, ‘National Overall Strategy: rines_paramos_2007_1013m._medis/titulin Structural Assistance Using Strategy of European Union for implementation of the convergence goal is/files/1VP_ZIP_2007-07-30.pdf for Lithuania, 2007–2013’.

immigration, while foreigners and practitioners started to develop should actively contribute to the a Strategic Document for strengthening of the state by Integration of Third-Country participating in its economic, social Nationals.37 On the one hand, such and cultural life. Parallel to that, the legislative developments show that fight against xenophobia, integration of foreigners should discrimination and racism were become prioritised policy area. On emphasised with the development the other hand, institutional of a more tolerant society and developments (particularly, the acceptance of multicultural initiative to close the Migration attitudes. The most important Department) has to be mentioned principles of migrant integration are as it raises concerns about effective the following: ensuring human implementation of migration rights and equal opportunities in all policies in Lithuania (according to areas of life; provision of the status the Ministry of the Interior, all of a permanent resident and (or) functions related to asylum citizenship; reduction of social procedures will be transferred to inequality, vulnerability and the State Border Guard Service, exploitation; observation of work while immigration procedures – to and living conditions; improving the Police Department). their socio-political representation. As a result (and regardless of Parallel to the Lithuanian recent positive legislative Migration Policy Guidelines, the developments), Lithuanian migrant Action Plan for Implementation of integration policy in the context of the Policy for the Integration of such policies applied in the other EU Foreigners 35 and the Decree of the Member States evidences Government of the Republic of stagnation. According to ‘Migrant Lithuania ‘On the composition of Integration Policy Index’ (MIPEX coordinating working group for the 2007; MIPEX 2011; MIPEX 2015), integration of foreigners’36 were since 2007 no progress in the field of adopted. At the same time, a new implementation of migrant area of policy emerged in the integration policies has been made. Ministry of Social Security of Labour In 2007, Lithuania took 20th place – Integration of Foreigners. out of 28 countries, in 2011 – 27th -- Moreover, NGOs, migration experts 31st, while in 2015 – 34th of 38. The

35 Decree of the Minister of Social Security and working group for integration of foreigners. Labour on Approval of the 2015–2017 Action Plan 2014.01.22 No. 54. for Implementation of the Policy for the Integration 37 For more, see: of Foreigners 2014.12.31. No. A1-683. http://ces.lt/en/projects/current- 36 Decree of the Government of the Republic of projects/the-strategic-document-for- Lithuania On the composition of coordinating integration-of-third-country-nationals/

80 newest ‘Migrant Integration Policy education, are available in Index’ revealed that the country's Lithuania, such as compulsory labour market is not attractive to education as a legal right, provision those migrants who want to stay in of support to learn language of the country and integrate. Schools instruction (language instruction are poorly prepared to accept and communicative/academic immigrant children as they lack a fluency), teacher training to reflect basic infrastructure. Immigrants do migrant learning needs, school not have equal access to general curriculum and teachers training to health services. Moreover, such reflect diversity. Many measures, people's right to participate in the related to adult migrant education country's political life is restricted, (such as access to vocational as they cannot join political parties training, educational guidance at all and associations. Finally, levels, measures to address the immigrants have to go a long and educational situation of migrant complicated way to become groups, measures to support citizens. migrant parents and communities, state-supported information Identifying the Educational Needs initiatives) are not accessible (see of Adult Migrants Table 2).

According to ‘Migrant Integration Policy Index’ (MIPEX 2015), only a few among many possible integration measures, related to

Table 2. Migrant Integration Policy Index: Education in Lithuania

Source: www.mipex.eu

Such results could be explained (especially, considering that by an imbalance of education learning the local language is a pre- measures for ethnic minority groups condition for successful migrant and ‘new’ immigrants. As integration), a new challenge is yet Zygmantas (2011) states, despite to be overcome as migrant adult increasing number of immigrants, education measures have to be which are considered to be a ‘new’ designed and implemented by audience of adult education qualified practitioners. measures, language courses and An overview of national-level teaching materials have been research revealed a broader addressing the needs only of spectrum of integration obstacles, minority groups. Eventually, there is related to migrant education. For a lack of materials targeting adult example, research, which analysed migrants to develop reading, the social and economic situation of listening, speaking and refugees (DSTI 2003; FOLLOW 2005; pronunciation skills. As adult SEKI 2006; LVI 2009, etc.) disclosed migrants are also in need of training that the social context in which the

refugees find themselves addressing short-term. Many more problems everyday challenges has a were disclosed by the other study, significant impact on their which evaluated the integration, where language implementation of the EU asylum obstacle limits employment policies in Lithuania (Ethnicity opportunities of refugees and Studies 201338): the limited and allows them to choose only fragmented area of application; unskilled, poorly paid jobs. Other restrictions on the freedom of studies on refugee integration (STI movement; and the issue of the 2007; Žibas 2014) confirmed material conditions of refugee language as a key element of reception and the provision of integration. It emphasised that medical services. The data has language is related not only to revealed specific shortcomings in employment, but also to accessing the national legal regulation and health care sector, housing and practices that need to be addressed social assistance. Moreover, in order to avoid conflict between vocational training was indicated the EU asylum requirements and the among the special needs of national legal basis. refugees. Moving towards other types of Unfortunately, there are other immigration to Lithuania, similar integration obstacles than indicated trends are identified. According to above. According to Žydžiūnaitė quantitative study (N-500) of (2012), due to the absence of an immigrant attitudes (Ethnicity accommodation policy and the Studies 2009/239), 78.4 per cent of restricted mobility in the country, respondents indicated a lack of refugees suffer poverty and qualifications as a key obstacle for insecurity. Due to the lack of employment in Lithuania, while 70 political and public debates, the per cent emphasised the lack of notion of a refugee is becoming recognition of their qualifications, political and it encourages hostility and 46 mentioned language between refugees and the majority competency. Among potential of the society. Due to the lack of obstacles for effective employment, consistency in the activities of non- immigrants emphasised the lack of governmental organisations, qualifications (61 per cent), the assistance to refugees is discrepancy of education fragmented, unsystematic and /qualifications (59 per cent) and

38 Articles are available online at 39 Articles are available online at http://www.ces.lt/etniskumo-studijos- http://www.ces.lt/etniskumo-studijos- 2/isleisti-zurnalai/etniskumo-studijos- 2/isleisti-zurnalai/etniskumo-studijos- 20131/ 20092/

language (52 per cent). The above through the channel of family discussed obstacles could be reunification. illustrated by the kinds of social Developing the research of resources, which immigrants migrant groups by countries of possess. For example, in the case of origin, the monograph “Chinese and language training, recognition of Turkish Immigrants in Lithuania” has qualifications and for further to be emphasised (Žibas 2014). The education/training, immigrants monograph explored the processes would ask for help from his/her of Chinese and Turkish immigration employer or specialised institutions. to Lithuania, explaining political and However, such services (with an economic circumstances leading to exception of recognition of the rise of new diaspora qualifications) are provided by communities and examining newly nongovernmental organisations formed migration networks in (not governmental institutions or Lithuania. According to the research employers). According to research findings, the vast majority of the results, educational institutions (15 Chinese immigrants have graduated per cent) were among those, which from higher education; while the have been addressed quite rarely. educational qualifications of the Finally, 5,6 per cent of respondents Turkish respondents varied indicated, that recognition of their between secondary and higher qualifications is the most relevant levels (in particular cases, Turkish issue, which has to be solved now; respondents indicated that Lacking language competency was education [both secondary and the key challenge for more than 25 higher level] was incomplete). per cent of respondents. However, respondents indicated Research on the three biggest that despite language requirements immigrant groups (LSTC 201240) (as an integration test for revealed the characteristics of social permanent residence and integration of Belarusians, Russians citizenship), governmental and Ukrainians arriving in Lithuania. institutions are not providing According to the research findings, language courses free of charges. even students consider language as Only nongovernmental a key integration obstacle, which is organisations are providing such also related to challenges of courses. integration in the labour market. Other studies analyse immigration Such challenge was confirmed by to Lithuania within the overall immigrants, which are coming context of international migration. A

40 Articles are available online at 2/isleisti-zurnalai/etniskumo-studijos- http://www.ces.lt/etniskumo-studijos- 2012/

84 study conducted in 2009 (Leončikas Lithuania. Consequently, issues and Žibas 2009) analysed the related to adult migrant education characteristics of the are left outside the political agenda implementation of the migration and, as the entire migrant and immigration policy in the integration infrastructure, countries of the Söderköping education measures are fragmented Process (Belarus, Estonia, Hungary, and applied only in the framework Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, of project-based activities. Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine). The A study conducted in 2010 study provided an overview of the (Kovalenko et al. 2010) focused on implementation of the migration the problems of immigrants in the policy, analysed the specific Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and situation of the countries in the Lithuania) and the characteristics of context of international migration, the implementation of the and revealed prevailing common migration and migrant integration migration trends related to the policies. The Lithuanian case study enlargement of the EU and the (Leončikas and Žibas 2010) provided Schengen area and other processes an analysis of the immigration policy that affected migration. Another implemented in Lithuania and study conducted in 2009 focused on revealed the basic problem issues of the situation of Belarusians, migrant life in Lithuania. The limited Moldovans and Ukrainians in the implementation of integration labour markets of Hungary, Latvia, policy measures, the negative Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia (EK attitudes of society, the lack of 2009). The study exposed both information about living and aspects of the implementation of working conditions, limited the labour migration policy and the participation of immigrants in trade specific situation of immigrants in unions and negative reflection of the labour market. The findings immigration in the media were emphasised the need for labour emphasised. According to the study, immigrants related to the EU education for children and adults integration processes; the (i.e. equalising courses) could be vulnerability of labour immigrants in considered as integration measure. the labour market was also Since 2005, schools in Lithuania can highlighted. However, in the above organise classes for pupils from mentioned studies, adult migrant foreign countries that need to learn education processes were not Lithuanian language in order to reflected. The rationale behind this continue the educational process in is the fact, that there is no any the general system. However, the migrant integration strategy in practice of providing foreign pupils

with language courses is infrequent. Lithuania, while 81 per cent think The statistical information about that children education, and 62 per third-country nationals, which cent – qualification courses should reside in Lithuania with families and be applied as integrative measures. children are fragmented. Such data shows that society One more, but nonetheless supports integration measures, important area in the immigration related to migrant education in research is the research of public Lithuania. attitudes. Although there are quite a However, while discussing the few studies on the attitudes towards possibility of accessing migrant various ethnic groups, the research adult education in Lithuania, of public opinion in respect of Totoraitis (2005) states that immigrants started relatively opportunities for continuing recently. The surveys conducted by education are not equally accessible the Institute of Ethnic Studies of the to all social groups. Certain groups in Lithuanian Social Research Centre society, such as immigrants, have (2005–2014)41 reveal attitudes (and limited opportunities to participate change thereof) on migrant groups in society, while at the same time – living in Lithuania. Aspects of being engaged in learning the native attitudes such as social distance, the language (Totoraitis et al. 2005). demand for information about ‘Migrant Integration Policy Index’ immigrants, integration obstacles, (MIPEX 2015) confirmed this trend. the dominant forms of interactions, The research results allow public opinion about the generalisations about the migrant implementation of immigration and integration challenges in Lithuania. integration policies, assessment of First, the findings of qualitative and the social and legal status and the quantitative research on migrant countries of origin of immigrants groups reveal social differentiation were analysed. According to public between the migrants and the opinion polls, the vast majority majority of the society and show (more than 80 per cent) of that due to different integration respondents think, that language is factors (especially, due to language the key migrant integration and the discrepancy of obstacle. Consequently, 80 per cent education/qualifications) of respondents agree that language integration processes do not take courses, as an integration measure, place equally among all migrant should be applied for immigrants in groups. Second, the analysis of

41 For more information about the surveys see database available at http://www.ces.lt/veikla- Beresnevičiūtė and Leončikas 2009; Ethnicity 2/ziniasklaidos-stebesena/visuomenes- Studies 2009/2; Žibas 2010; Vildaitė and Žibas

2010; Pilinkaitė Sotirovič and Žibas 2011. Online nuomones-apklausos/

86 immigration and migrant Moreover, such measures are integration policy shows that project-based and are not stable integration measures, including over time. Third, studies of public education, are not applied with attitudes testify to the growing respect to immigrants living in social divide between immigrants Lithuania, which means that these and the host society and the individuals solve difficulties without prevailing negative hierarchy of support from the state. In such a attitudes towards different migrant dubious integration context (where groups. However, regardless of the the key integration measures, more negative than positive societal related to education, are language attitudes towards immigration and courses, qualification recognition immigrants, society is in favour of and vocational training), education education measures, which would measures are applied in a be applied for immigrants in fragmented, unsystematic way. Lithuania.

CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in Lithuania

The Lithuanian Adult Education System and Infrastructure

Definitions development and increase access to employment, acquire new or In the context of this study, target improved, existing competencies, groups of migrant adult education and retraining to match the needs are all immigrants with temporary of the labour market. The general and permanent residence permits, task of adult (migrant) education is including refugees, while adult to provide learning opportunities (migrant) education is a practice, for all, and especially, to those who where adults are engaged in a need such services the most – systematic learning process to gain socially disadvantaged groups (low- or strengthen different forms of skilled workers, the unemployed, knowledge, skills, attitudes and adults, who have special needs, the values. Such a process can elderly people, migrants, etc.). In encompass a variety of learning/ the context of this study, socially teaching forms, which go far beyond disadvantaged groups are traditional schooling. Adult considered the most vulnerable education includes formal, non- migrant groups: refugees, migrant formal and informal learning in workers, elderly migrants and order to improve or gain general migrant women. skills, encourage personal

As measures of adult migrant education and housing sectors, as education are linked to a broader well as stimulates informal package of migrant integration networks with the majority society policies, the definition of integration and other immigrants. When a (the infra-structure for integration) migration network expands it allows has to be discussed. In this study for the expansion of the informal (and considering the Lithuanian integration infrastructure and helps context of immigration/migrant to ensure effective integration. If integration policies), migrant the informal integration integration is an inevitable result of infrastructure is linked to the NGO immigration processes, with an sector, then the migration networks impact on the macro (e.g., (or networks between immigrants) immigration and migrant and mutual assistance, and state integration policies), meso (e.g., resources are linked to the migration networks) and micro (e.g., development of integration policies migratory behaviour) levels. If and resources at migrant integration on the meso national/governmental level. level is linked to the development of However, in Lithuania, the entire an informal integration integration infrastructure is being infrastructure through migration developed on the non- networks and NGO activities (which governmental level as project-based facilitate access to the labour activities, supported by the EU market, housing, education, health funds, already these organizations and social service sectors), migrant have managed to ‘change’ the integration on the macro level is development and implementation linked to overcoming integration of migrant integration policies at the obstacles while using state or governmental level (for more see government resources. Migrant Infrastructure of Adult Migrant integration on the micro level is Education). In such a context, adult linked to individual experiences. migrant education policy has to be The informal infrastructure for analysed and discussed. integration is embedded in the migration network of different types Adult Education System and of immigrants and is linked to the Infrastructure concept of migrant integration. The informal infrastructure for The system of education in integration provides a basis for the Lithuania experienced reforms since exchange of information and mutual Lithuania restored its assistance, enhancing migrant independence. At the same time, integration in the labour market, vocational education and training

(VET) were restructured to prepare be considered as education, society to be economically active training, continuous education and within the new context. After training as well as other activities Lithuania became a member of the broadening cultural and civic EU, the development of adult outlook to meet the needs of an education became a prioritised area individual and society. Target of education policies in Lithuania. groups of such educations are The Lithuanian education system adults, usually not younger than 18. encompasses 1) general education Adult education in Lithuania (pre-school, pre-primary, primary, encompasses formal, non-formal lower and upper secondary), 2) and informal learning to improve or initial education and training (IVET) gain skills, strengthen personal at lower, upper and post-secondary competences and foster access to levels, 3) continuing education and employment, while considering training (CVET) and higher needs of the labour market. The education (college and university main aim of adult education is to studies). VET system covers IVET, provide learning opportunities for CVET and vocational guidance. VET all, with an emphasis on socially programmes are designed for target disadvantaged groups, such as low- groups of different ages and skilled workers, unemployed, backgrounds. In IVET, learners have elderly people, immigrants, other. an opportunity to acquire a first However, there are no any special vocational qualification and policy measures for immigrants, complete general lower or upper with an exception of secondary education (Cedefop nongovernmental level, where 2013). different measures according to According to the Law On different methodologies are applied Nonformal Adult Education,42 in practice (see Adult Migrant nonformal adult education should Education Policies).

42 Republic of Lithuania. Law On Nonformal Adult http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.sh Education (VIII-882). 30.06.1998. Last amendment owdoc_l?p_id=478674 on 10.07.2014. Available at:

BOX 7: Priority areas of adult education policies in Lithuania

The main priority areas of adult education policies in Lithuania are linked to improvement of access, quality and efficiency of adult education; promotion of equal opportunities, social cohesion, active citizenship, participation in social and cultural learning for personal development, encouragement of creativity and innovation, and improvement of the learning environment.1 According to the Constitution1 of the Republic of Lithuania, education is compulsory until age 16. Compulsory education refers to the completion of lower secondary education and receiving a basic school certificate, after which learners can choose upper secondary general education or VET programmes. Those who fail to graduate from lower secondary education may enter VET programmes or youth schools (for a detailed scheme of the Lithuanian education system, see Graph 2).

Graph 2. Lithuanian education system

Source: European portal for youngsters in vocational education training: http://mavoieproeurope.onisep.fr/en

For detailed overview of adult shows, that on the one hand, there education system and policies in is no such process as adult migrant Lithuania, see integration policies in Lithuania http://www.kpmpc.lt/refernet/?pa (however, there is, at least, a basic ge_id=325 / http://www.infonet- legal environment for such a process ae.eu/country-overviews/lithuania to take place). On the other hand, there is a strong background at the local level for an adult migrant Adult Migrant Education education infrastructure to emerge Policies as nongovernmental organisations are active in the field of migrant One key conclusion concerning integration, including education. adult migrant education from the analysis of immigration, migrant Access to education and integration and adult education training policies in Lithuania can be drawn. In the main political documents, adult According to articles No. 2 and 24 43 migrant education issues are not of the Law on Education each reflected. It could be explained by Lithuanian citizen and foreigner, the fact that only since 2014 who has the right of permanent or Lithuania started implementing temporary residence in Lithuania, more comprehensive policies have the right to study, attain an concerning migrant integration. education level and a qualification. Eventually, measures related to In addition, the State takes adult migrant education are still left measures so that each child in behind political priorities, but, at the Lithuania studies according to same time, such measures are primary, basic and secondary 44 already ‘on the spot’ of education curricula. Moreover, nongovernmental organisations, the State guarantees each acting in the area of immigration, Lithuanian citizen and foreigner, diversity and human rights (see who has the right of permanent or ‘Infrastructure of Adult Migrant temporary residence in Lithuania, Education System’). Such a situation primary, basic and secondary

43 Republic of Lithuania. Law on Education (I-1489). of 16 of citizens of the Republic of Lithuania 25.06.1991. Amended in 03.04.2007. Available at: residing in the Republic of Lithuania and foreigners http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.sh having the right of permanent or temporary owdoc_l?p_id=1050203 residence in the Republic of Lithuania according to 44 In the article No. 2 of the Law on Education, two primary and basic education curricula. Universally definitions regarding migrant education are available education – education guaranteed by the indicated: compulsory education and universally State to all citizens of the Republic of Lithuania and available education. Compulsory education – foreigners having the right of permanent or compulsory State-guaranteed education until the age temporary residence in the Republic of Lithuania.

education as well as an access to basic principles of the Constitution higher education study programmes as well as the procedure for the or vocational training programmes issue of the relevant certificates is that result in the acquisition of established by the Government. qualification. According to the Law on the Article No. 30 of the Law on Citizenship46 (Article No. 12), Education guarantees education in foreigners that seek to obtain the Lithuanian language and of the Lithuanian citizenship, have to pass Lithuanian (state) language. The law an exam on the Lithuanian grants the same conditions for language. The Minister of education children of foreigners (with confirms the description of the temporary and permanent exam. There are no other linguistic residence permits) together with norms applied for third- country the possibility to learn in their nationals willing to work or be mother tongue. Article No. 28 engaged in other lawful activities in describes the concept of the Lithuania. network of education providers. The purpose of the network of Recognition of qualifications education providers is to ensure accessibility of compulsory and Regarding qualification universally available education, its recognition, Lithuanian Centre for variety, and the possibility of life- Quality Assessment in Higher long learning to all Lithuanian Education47 is responsible for citizens and foreigners having the recognizing qualifications right of permanent or temporary concerning higher education (since residence in the country. 2003 – for secondary as well). In According to the Law on Legal terms of recognizing the Status of Aliens45 (Article No. 53), qualifications of foreigners, the the permanent residence permit Centre is engaged in two types of may be issued if the foreigner has activities: for foreign students and passed an examination in the state graduates. In the context of the first language and an examination in the type of activity, the Centre provides basic principles of the Constitution. information about higher education The procedure for the examination institutions (HEI) in Lithuania and in the state language and in the assesses foreign secondary

45 Law of Republic of Lithuania, On the Legal Status 46 Republic of Lithuania. Law on Citizenship (IX- of Aliens, (IX-2206). 29.04.2004, Official Gazette, 1078). 17.09.2002. Available at: 2004, no. 73-2539, art. 107. Available at: http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.sh http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.sh owdoc_l?p_id=347706 owdoc_l?p_id=356478 47 For more, see: http://www.skvc.lt/en/?id=0

92 education qualifications if the and scientists to Lithuania is foreigner intends to enter an HEI in considered an important process as Lithuania. In the context of the it helps to meet the need for second activity, the Centre assesses development of science. higher education (HE) qualifications Contrary to Lithuanian Migration if foreigner intends to study or work Policy Guidelines, Action Plan for in Lithuania and provides them with Implementation of the Policy for the the information about Lithuanian Integration of Foreigners deals with institutions that he or she can apply adult migrant education more to in order to seek recognition of specifically as there are certain their qualification. measures foreseen. For example, to organise training, Lithuanian Lithuanian Migration Policy language courses and instruction on Guidelines and Action Plan for the foundations of the Constitution; Implementation of the Policy for provide social, psychological, legal, the Integration of Foreigners representational and other services/consultations, as well as Regarding immigration and education- and training-oriented migrant integration policies and measures to facilitate migrant links to adult migrant education, employment. only a few pieces of legislation have Moreover, there is one specific to be mentioned: the Lithuanian task – to improve education Migration Policy Guidelines and the measures for foreigners. With the Action Plan for Implementation of relation to this task, two measures the Policy for the Integration of are foreseen. The first one provides Foreigners. However, the Lithuanian more learning support for students Migration Policy Guidelines who come from abroad (various emphasises only immigration education modules, considering schemes, rather than practical students’ individual learning needs measures for migrant education. For and ensuring equal opportunities in example, chapter No. 19.6 states the educational process). The that in order to stimulate scientific second one, ensure the preparation research and innovation, a more of materials for exams to test comprehensive scheme has to be knowledge of the state language established to attract foreigners and the foundations of the involved in research or Constitution, as well as the experimental development and teaching at Lithuanian scientific and educational institutions. The immigration of students, teachers

organisation and implementation of The Lithuanian Red Cross Society these exams.48 has different projects covering Regarding qualifications, there is refugees and other immigrants. For a specific measure to improve example, consultancy centres for legislation governing recognition of immigrants are dealing with migrant professional qualifications of integration obstacles and providing foreigners. In addition, there are different services: Lithuanian more measures, which are related language courses, social and legal to adult migrant education consultations, courses of Lithuanian indirectly. For example, to organise Constitution and society. In training for education and health addition, it provides psychological care providers designed to improve consultations and different training intercultural skills, reduce activities to strengthen social stereotypes and form values of resources of immigrants for more respect for diversity and equality. effective integration in the labour market and social networks with Infrastructure of Adult state institutions and the society. Migrant Education The Red Cross is not directly linked to adult migrant education. While considering the However, such activities facilitate infrastructure of adult migrant access to public and private services education in Lithuania, the specific and increase adaptability to the 49 context has to be emphasised. On labour market. the one hand, it is very much linked Caritas Lithuania provides to project-based activities, where support for immigrants through education measures are applied offering courses on Lithuanian unsystematically. On the other language, history and culture hand, nongovernmental activities (including literature, documentary, are key instruments for building cinema, music, theatre and visual migrant integration infrastructure, art courses). The main task of including adult migrant education. Caritas is to organise targeted seminars, lectures, intensive Project-based activities courses and other events to strengthen social resources, competencies and other abilities of

48 Indicators: the number of education modules, 49 For more see taking students’ individual learning needs into http://redcross.lt/en/activity/support-for- account; the number of exams organised to test migrants / knowledge of the state language and the foundations of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania. http://redcross.lt/en/activity/refugees- asylum-seekers

immigrants as it fosters social, integration. It also provides courses economic, cultural and political related to integration into the integration.50 labour market and International Organization for entrepreneurship.53 Migration Vilnius implements Soros International House in different activities, related to Vilnius (SIH) could be considered an migrant integration. For example, organisation with activities directly projects with an aim to build the linked to adult migrant education intercultural capacities of the through language training. For specialists working with immigrants. example, project INTEGRA (the LLP Particularly, with families where at Gruntvig Multilateral Project54) least one parent is an immigrant. aimed to create a Europe-wide However, such activities are linked network of institutions to improve to more general measures of migrant integration by providing strengthening infrastructure of migrants with opportunities to gain migrant integration51, rather than to language skills on financial issues. adult migrant education.52 The project ‘NORDPLUS’ was aimed Centre PLUS provides Lithuanian at empowering migrant women language courses for Russian and without prior education experience English speakers. There is a by forming a Nordic network of possibility to join three different adult education and groups: beginners, intermediates nongovernmental organisations. and advanced, where all groups are These organizations worked on obliged to attend courses. In topics related to migrant integration addition, the Centre provides and gender equality. They had social services of social worker, legal welfare offices and public consultations, civic and health employment centres for providing education courses, art therapy and experience and knowledge to driving courses. The Centre elaborate a strategy for assistance emphasises economic aspects of of migrant women in

50 For more see 53 For more see http://centreplus.org/ http://www.vilnius.caritas.lt/caritas- 54 The project was implemented in 2010-2012 by the padaliniai/uzsienieciu-integracijos- consortium consisting of partner institutions from programa/projektai.html Lithuania, Greece, Germany, Spain, Turkey, Ireland, 51 Training programme on how to work with third- Netherlands, Romania, UK, Poland and Belarus. country nationals and mixed families undergoing INTEGRA’s main output – an internet platform crises or divorces; building capacities of the designed to meet the needs of the migrant specialists working with third-country nationals and communities in Europe. It integrates useful learning mixed families undergoing crises or divorces; and training materials, financial information, good guidebook on consultations for mixed families and practice examples, contacts, networks, links and data children from immigrant families. in partner countries’ languages for migrants and the wider audience. For more see 52 For more see http://iom.lt/en/what-we-do- http://sih.lt/integra_en /intercultural-competences

vocation/professional education implemented flexible language system.55 The project ‘TAKE CARE: study programmes of various Healthcare Guide for Migrants’ comprehension levels, taking into aimed to help immigrants to consideration the skills and improve knowledge about health educational background of issues and language, make health- immigrants.59 The project care more accessible.56 SIH also ‘Lithuanian language training and participated in the Network for civic orientation courses for third- Social and Market Inclusion through country nationals using real life Language Education (SMILE)57, situation simulation techniques’ which aimed at teaching languages continued language courses with an in various educational, social and aim to teach third-country nationals economic sectors. Lithuanian language and ensure Other projects of Soros practise at the A1 level.60 International House Vilnius were Vilnius Business College took part related to integration of third- in the consortium of the project country nationals. Project ‘FEEL IT’ ‘ADUQUA – Quality assurance in aimed at enhancing intercultural integration training for adult dialogue, contributing to raising migrants’ with the focus on awareness and combating negative implementation of the European attitudes towards immigration.58 framework for developing and The project ‘Language opens any promoting the quality and common doors: Third-Country Nationals’ standards for adult migrant integration into Lithuanian society’ education.61The Women’s issues facilitated integration of third- information centre implemented country nationals by teaching them the project ‘FORWARD’ with an aim Lithuanian language skills in to design and implement an accordance with the Common innovative competence-based European Framework of Reference portfolio and pedagogical tools for for Languages. The project gave the identification, recognition, instruments to immigrants to validation and development of the acquire knowledge about Lithuanian competencies of migrant women.62 society, history, legal basis, health Board of National Association of care, education and social security Folk High Schools in Lithuania was systems. In addition, the Project part of the consortium,

55 For more see http://sih.lt/women_support 60 For more see http://sih.lt/en/tspi 56 For more see http://sih.lt/take_care_EN 61 For more see 57 For more see http://www.smile-network.eu/ http://www.aduqua.eu/index.php 62 58 For more see http://sih.lt/feelit2012 For more see 59 For more see http://sih.lt/en/tsp_2 http://forwardproject.eu/project-the/

implementing the project assists in searching for work ‘MIGRANT. Meeting learning needs together with the Lithuanian Labour of A8 migrants using ICTs’ with an Exchange, and the local Labour aim to support migrant integration, Market Training and Consulting targeting those with lower levels of Authority.66 In the framework of education and skills. The project has different projects, the Centre developed new methods for adult implements planning of the education providers, assisting vocational career of refugees and migrants to integrate the research on employers’ attitudes competencies and educational towards participation of refugees in experiences acquired in their the labour market. The Centre countries of origin into the created a module for the training of workplace.63 social skills and motivation of The College of Social Sciences foreigners to take part in different implemented the project ‘L-PACK 2: training courses. Citizenship Language Pack For The overview67 of project-based Migrants in Europe – Extended’, activities shows that different which produced an online A2 level nongovernmental organisations and course of colloquial Italian, Spanish, governmental institutions provide a German, Lithuanian, Greek and variety of education-related Czech as second languages for adult integration measures. The biggest migrants.64 attention is given to language Only one governmental courses, followed by vocational institution provides integration training and entrepreneurship, legal services for immigrants, particularly and social consultations. However, – refugees. Refugee Reception such measures are provided without Centre65 provides social assistance, any framework of adult migrant health care and legal consultations, education programmes and Lithuanian language courses, methodologies (as there are no any courses about Lithuanian society, specific programmes or methods for courses for IT literacy, courses on migrant adult education in labour rights and entrepreneurship. Lithuania). Moreover, such activities The Centre implements evaluation are fragmented and not stable over of personal skills to find suitable time. Since the 1st of July 2015, work, provides vocational training, nongovernmental organisations

63 For more see 65 For more see http://www.rppc.lt http://www.piap.pl/en/Scientific- 66 For more see activities/International-Research- http://www.rppc.lt/files/323/bukletas.pdf Project/Projects-completed/MIGRANT 67 Only key and recent projects have been 64 For more see http://www.l- overviewed. pack.eu/?page_id=16

closed integration centres and migrant education in Lithuania, it stopped providing integration seems that different methodologies measures as new Guidelines of for migrant education are related to Asylum, Migration and Integration separate training schemes, without Fund (AMIF) have not yet been any mainstreaming of particular adopted. These centres are education measures through the expected to begin operations in main VET systems. 2016. Adult Migrant Education * * * Programmes and Methods

On the one hand, measures, As was already mentioned, there related to the training of are no specific programmes or immigrants, are very crucial as methods for migrant adult certain elements in designing and education in Lithuania. It is possible implementing VET initiatives can to find different project-related reduce social exclusion. On the productions, which could be other hand, when different target considered as guidelines to provide groups are not mainstreamed Lithuanian language or other through the main VET systems, but courses for immigrants. For kept in separate vocational example, recommendations for schemes, there are likely to be poor high-quality integration training;69 outcomes in terms of addressing learning and training materials social inclusion as separate (including e-learning of the vocational schemes may tend to Lithuanian language) of the Project reinforce rather than reduce social 68 exclusion. VET schemes have to be applied not only to integrate the ‘INTEGRA’;70 portfolio and socially excluded into society, but pedagogical tools to identify, also to include them in the recognise, validate and improve the governance of VET policies, which competencies acquired by migrant are targeted towards them women in formal, non‐formal and (Cedefop 2009). From an overview informal learning contexts;71 a of the infrastructure of adult collection of best practices of

68 Immigrants coming from third countries have the 69 For more see lowest level of educational attainment. Lack of skills http://www.aduqua.eu/images/survey/grid_ among immigrant populations is a prime reason for guide.pdf their disadvantaged position, hampering social 70 For more see http://www.integra-project.eu/ inclusion. Vocational education and training has a 71 key role to play in addressing these problems, For more see especially through social inclusion programmes http://forwardproject.eu/products/ (Cedefop 2009).

training methodologies and learning migrant education. As Zygmantas techniques for adult education;72 (2011) indicates, in Lithuania, adult production of a SIRIUS network;73 a learners are lacking cognitive model for adult education providers abilities. For example, they are not to attract, engage and deliver initial remembering or understanding, adult education programmes to having a different learning style or migrants;74a citizenship language pace, being too old or not being pack for migrants in Europe;75 a good language learners. Moreover, training programme and the nature of adult migrants, their methodological tool for migrant orientation to learning, their needs women in Lithuania;76 etc. There are and abilities are not reflected as more guidelines, toolkits, instruction seems to follow a collections of good practices and traditional approach to language methodologies, which were not teaching, where great emphasis to overviewed in this chapter. grammar and vocabulary is given, However, such a project-based with little focus on developing production is not approved by the communicative competence. state and does not have legal power. Eventually, it may be argued that Different organisations are adult migrant non-participation in applying different methodologies the Lithuanian society is a and techniques, or providing consequence of the lack of different courses and training supplementary teaching materials, without relying on a unified pedagogical actions based on methodological framework. traditional methods and old course Such a trend could be explained books designed to address the by prevailing on the so-called needs of different target groups. ‘traditional approach’ towards adult

CHAPTER 3: Development an effective adult migrant education strategy

72 For more see 74 Project ‘MIGRANT: Meeting learning needs of http://www.sdcentras.lt/pr_cremole/Cremo A8 migrants using ICTs‘. For more see le_bestpractices.pdf http://migrantict.ning.com/ 73 European Policy Network on the education of 75 Project ‘L-PACK 2: Citizenship Language Pack children and young people with a migrant For Migrants in Europe – Extended‘. For more see background. For more see http://www.sirius- http://www.l-pack.eu/?page_id=402 76 migrationeducation.org/policy-outreach/ For more see http://playbackteatras.lt/?p=1040

Challenges and Opportunities in the Adult Migrant Education

As there is no migrant integration of the strategy of migrant strategy in Lithuania, issues related integration policy (along with the to adult migrant education are left action plan, political will, outside the political agenda. As an coordinating institution, entire migrant integration mobilisation of nongovernmental infrastructure, education measures sector and the EU funding) is the are fragmented and applied only in most important challenge, which the framework of project-based has to be addressed in the future. In activities. In order to make such such a strategy, adult migrant activities more structured and education has to be considered as a better organised, there is a need to key priority. ensure the continuity of different Adult migrant education funding schemes on the one hand, measures have to be specified and and prioritise adult migrant included not only in the long-term education measures in the field of migrant integration strategy and activities of nongovernmental Action Plan for Implementation of sector on the other hand. Though, the Policy for the Integration of such measures are already ‘on the Foreigners, but also in vocational spot’ of nongovernmental education and training schemes. organisations, acting in an area of Such inclusion would allow immigration, diversity and human mainstreaming adult migrant rights, there is a lack of overall integration measures through state coordination to achieve effective policies and reduce social exclusion. social inclusion, especially of such Such schemes should be applied not vulnerable migrant groups as only to integrate immigrants into refugees and migrant women. society, but also include them in the However, without a long-term vision governance of integration and towards integration policies, such education policies, which are objectives might not achieve targeted towards them. Moreover, expected outcomes. adult migrant education measures Policy analysis leads to have to be developed and identification of future challenges, implemented in the framework of which are related to the political will particular adult education concepts and long-term strategy of migrant and methodologies. Such a integration policies. Eventually, the framework would ensure efficiency development and implementation and provide a long-term vision.

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Planning and Evaluating Adult Migrant Education Policies: Indicators of Development, Implementation and Evaluation

Planning and Evaluating Adult Migrant Education Policies Research, evaluation and identification of adult migrant needs How needs, related to education of different migrant groups, should be analysed and what kind of methodologies have to be applied? What kind of statistics has to be collected in order to measure efficiency of adult migrant integration policies and measures? How specific competencies (for example, multilingualism) of different adult migrant groups should be identified and reflected in education methodologies and training techniques? How specific cultural aspects (for example, attitudes towards learning languages or strengthening other social and/or economic competences) of different adult migrant groups should be identified and reflected in education methodologies and training techniques? How psychological aspects (for example, vulnerability, sensitivity, psychological instability, other) of different adult migrant groups (especially, refugees, elderly immigrants and migrant women) should be identified and reflected in education methodologies and training techniques? How to identify previous experiences of language learning and vocational training of different adult migrant groups. How to use such experience in adult migrant education methodologies and training techniques? How to establish the link between specific objectives (for example, integration in the labour market, specific knowledge of languages, related to specific profession or economic sector) of different adult migrant groups and (potential) outcomes of adult migrant education methodologies and training techniques? How to identify stages, at which language courses and vocational training is the most effective? For example, at the stage of refugee reception or at the stage of integration? Do specific linguistic competencies enhance different adult migrant groups accessing different services and sectors (for example, health care, education, housing, employment, social assistance, other)? Planning and Evaluating Adult Migrant Education Policies Adult migrant language courses and vocational training Adult migrant motivation to learn language and strengthen social/economic recourses/competencies. Motivation VS social and demographic characteristics (such as age, gender, level of education, other.); Regular attendance of language courses and vocational training without early dropout. Attendance VS achievements (for example, successful completion of exams); Measures to stimulate adult migrant motivation to learn languages and strengthen social/economic recourses/competences. Individual VS collective approach; Possible and achievable objectives of language courses and vocational training of highly educated, low educated and illiterate adult migrants. Individual VS collective approach;

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The possibility to develop and implement informal and formal learning in joint programmes; Development and implementation of specific language courses to enhance an access to health care, education, housing, employment, social assistance, other. Inclusion of intercultural learning into language courses and vocational training. Identification of the best ways to do that; To use existing social networks of different migrant groups (communities) supporting language learning within the community. To identify and evaluate different approaches, prioritising different courses and trainings. For example, language or integration in the labour market as first integration measure. Planning and Evaluating Adult Migrant Education Policies Teaching methods and techniques Did researches or experts indicate the most effective teaching methods, techniques and materials to teach adult migrants language? Did researches or experts indicate the most effective vocational training methods, techniques and materials to teach adult migrants? Did researches or experts indicate how long does it take different adult migrant groups to learn the language and gain/strengthen social and economic competences? Did researches or experts indicate which methodologies are more efficient? Regular courses/trainings VS e learning (or combination). Did researches or experts indicate informal environments (for example, work place, household, other), where adult migrants can learn or practice language? Did researches or experts indicate the need of specific training (for example, multicultural competences) for teachers, engaged in adult migrant education? Planning and Evaluating Adult Migrant Education Policies Testing/examining Are there any benchmarking on the impact of tests/exams and real results of adult migrant education measures? Did researches or experts indicate different side effects of tests/exams? For example, what kind of tests/exams is more efficient? Formal VS informal evaluation. Did researches or experts indicate alternative ways of organising tests/exams? Did researches or experts indicate the link between the type of migration (for example, asylum, family reunion, labour, other) and outcomes of adult migrant education? Did researchers or experts indicate whether tests/exams are considered real instruments of measurement of certain competencies or just a restriction accessing residence permits or citizenship? Did researchers or experts indicate, if there is a necessity to organise exams for all adult migrant groups, including the most vulnerable ones, such as refugees or elderly immigrants? Did researchers or experts indicate which categories of immigrants are the most successful and unsuccessful in passing tests/exams? Is there any link between type of immigration, approach towards learning and (un)successful completion of tests/exams?

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Are there any possibilities to organise e-tests? Did researches or experts indicate that such tests would be more effective (or not) than regular examination?

Access to Quality Education development of one specific sector for cooperation (in this case – the Four different indicators can nongovernmental sector). At the measure access to quality same time, the development of education: partnership and intersectional cooperation engagement; human capital and (between different non- technological resources; practices of governmental organisations, evaluation and assessment; governmental-education facilitation of the transition from institutions and the private sector)) education to the labour market. is still left outside the prioritised Access to quality education in the area of adult migrant education context of partnership and policies and vocational education engagement in Lithuania could be and training systems. discussed and analysed within the While discussing access to quality framework of project-based education in the context of human activities, which provide a capital and technological resources, background for the emergence of an the current migrant integration adult migrant education infrastructure has to be infrastructure. In such cases, emphasised. On the one hand, it different partnerships could be creates a decent background (or emphasised, such as ‘The Strategic potential) to develop adult migrant Document for Integration of Third- education measures at the local Country Nationals’ where, in the level as there are enough development of migrant integration organisations with experienced strategy, six different partners personnel, working in the area of where involved.77 In addition, migrant integration. On the other almost all projects related to adult hand, there is not any conceptual migrant language training were framework within which adult implemented in broader migrant education measures would partnership going far beyond the be integrated. At the same, time, national level.78 However, such there is a lack of training for local partnerships emphasise the practitioners regarding how

77 For more see 78 Above discussed international partnerships of http://ces.lt/en/projects/current- Soros International House in Vilnius, Vilnius projects/the-strategic-document-for- Business College, Women’s issues information, Board of National Association of Folk High Schools integration-of-third-country-nationals/ in Lithuania, etc.

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different training techniques could reports/assessments on adult be applied to immigrants from education policies and vocational different social, educational and education and training systems. religious backgrounds and with However, such reports are not limited capabilities or emphasising the educational competencies. challenges of adult migrants in Regarding access to quality Lithuania. education and practices of Access to quality education in the evaluation and assessment, the lack context of facilitation of the of officially established indicators transition from education to the and assessment mechanisms has to labour market is the most important be emphasised. It is not clear what element of adult migrant education percentage of adult migrants are policies as it provides a direct link passing exams/test after finishing from education measures, applied language courses or courses on the to adult migrants, to successful Constitution. In addition, it is not integration in the labour market. clear how many (what percentage) Different nongovernmental adult migrants, after finishing organisations are organising vocational training or other courses, qualification courses in accordance find work. Moreover, there are no with the needs of the Lithuanian indicators to monitor the situation labour market. However, there are in the labour market. For example, no indications of how many adult what are the working conditions; migrants80 are successful in how long are adult migrants able to occupying those sectors stay in one workplace. On the other (professions) with significant labour hand, despite the lack of assessment shortages. Moreover, it is not clear of integration measures (applied at how many and for how long the local level), there are attempts successful adult migrants are able to to monitor and assess integration maintain their position in such policies, including migrant workplaces. In order to possess such education (however, without an data, there is a need to develop and emphasis on the educational implement decent monitoring tools. attainments of adult people).79 In general, there are many

79 ‘Third-Country Nationals in Lithuania: http://www.ces.lt/2009/02/lietuvoje- Assessment and Indexes of Integration Policy’ on gyvenanciu-treciuju-saliu-pilieciu- the basis of an annual programme (2007) of The European Fund for the Integration of Third-country integracijos-politikos-vertinimo-principai- Nationals. Available at ir-rodikliai/ 80 With an exception of migrant workers.

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MALTA

Introduction integration, not only for children, but also for adults, who will not only During the last decades, Malta has have more opportunities to learn experienced a growth in the number about the society they're living in, of foreigners living on the island, but also to have the opportunity to thus giving prominence to the need adapt to the labour market of the for specific integration programs. destination country. This need has been covered in the past by a number of projects run by In terms of educational local NGOs which often have no opportunities offered to migrants, follow-up after the end of the there are basically no differences project funding. between the programs offered to natives and the ones targeting In terms of the integration of migrants in Malta, the only existing migrants, the Maltese context is differences are in terms of characterized as follows: a number bureaucracy. This often converts to of initiatives have been undertaken low attendance by third-country by different governmental and non- nationals. governmental organizations and some of them have no continuity The strategy which has been thus undermining the positive developed for the coming years took effects generated. into consideration the different needs of these categories, paying Starting from last year, the particular attention to their needs in government has committed to terms of literacy. In any case, it is approving a comprehensive prominent to the sector that the integration policy which should be correct educational system is officially presented later on during identified, thus the needs of the the year. The process of public beneficiaries can be met and consultation, held as a preparatory addressed in the correct way. work for this strategy, highlighted the importance of education for

CHAPTER 1: Migration Background

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1.1. Overview of the situation of migrants and immigration regulations As most of the countries in the Arabs and Nigerians landed in the Mediterranean area, Malta has country and established roots there switched from being a source to a (Cassar 2013: 12). destination country during the XXI During the 1990s, the country came century. to be recognized as a country of At the beginning of the last century, humanitarian immigration because the English monarchy planned to of the arrival of refugees from the have a military base on the island, Gulf and later from Yugoslavia. but they had the impression that the During the same period, the population was so dispersed that, Government started discussions given the small size of the island, related to the possibility of Malta there would have been no space for joining the European Union. This soldiers. This led to a demographic process led to an official negotiation policy based on making the process and finally entry into the EU migration of Maltese people easier. on 1 May 2004. Most of the English-speaking Some researchers (Pace 2012: 199) Maltese moved to other English link access to the EU to the growth speaking countries (mainly USA, of the numbers of arrivals of people Canada and Australia). The flow of from Sub-Saharan region, who migrants from Malta continued started coming to Malta in the first during the two World Wars and decade of the 2000s. thereafter. The government had According to UNHCR Malta (2014), begun to organize technical boat arrivals in Malta have been trainings in order to ease integration increasing between 2002 and 2008, into the labour market of the when Italy and Libya signed a country of destination (Mayo 2007: security agreement which made the 9). flow of boats decrease until 2010. While some Maltese people were Thereafter, the flow started to still leaving the islands, and the increase again with the explosion of remainder were obtaining their the crisis in Northern Africa. UNHCR independence from the United states that the increase during the Kingdom, small groups of foreigners following years can be linked to the started to arrive and settle down: operation Mare Nostrum, which was besides some British who decided to putting more pressure on the stay in Malta even if the British Maltese Government for the period of domination was over. organization of missions of rescue at Relatively small groups of Indians, sea. The end of the operation

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marked a new drop in the flows, order to ascertain if he/she is starting from last year and entitled to humanitarian protection. continuing during the current year. If the person does not intend to seek Despite the perception of an influx asylum, a Removal Order becomes of arrivals from the MENA region applicable and effective (Article 14), and Sub-Saharan Africa which is which will lead the person back to common among the general public, his/her country of origin or to the majority of migrants arriving in another State in which he/she may Malta are made up of EU citizens. be permitted to enter according to According to UNHCR, the biggest the provisions of any re-admission non-Maltese group on the island in agreement concluded in accordance 2011 were British, followed by with international law and to which Somali and Italians. Malta may be party (Article 14.4). According to the current Minister of The detention of people arriving Education and Employment Mr. without proper documentation, Evarist Bartolo, there are over 6,000 even if they intend to seek asylum, third-country nationals working in is one of the most criticized aspects Malta:81 the largest community of Maltese law. According to Social being the Filipinos (1,128), followed Watch Europe (Sammut 2009), by the Serbs (793) and Chinese conditions in the detention centres (346). Most of them are employed in on the island in 2009 were unskilled occupations, but given the deplorable. The high number of particularly favourable Maltese boat arrivals caused the centres to fiscal regime, a number of be overcrowded and with poor companies which are incorporated hygiene facilities. Detention is in the country are managed by mandatory for all the people foreigners and presently there are arriving without a visa from the good employment opportunities for country of origin. For the ones who foreigners to come to Malta. could not obtain a visa on arrival Immigration to Malta is regulated by and for those who attempt to Chapter 21782 of the Laws of Malta, overstay after their visa expires i.e. the Immigration Act. Article 10 detention is also mandatory. of the Act states that if someone In order to modify the Returns enters the country without the Directive (n. 2008/115), some necessary documents, this person amendments to Returns should be temporary detained, in Regulations were made in 2014

81 The figure has been reported by various 82 Republic of Malta (1970). Chapter 217, newspapers and was tabled by the Minister as an Immigration Act. Laws of Malta. answer to Parlamentary questions by Mr. Charlo Bonnici, Member of Maltese Parliament.

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through Legal Notice 15. The deem proper to establish, a amendments introduced a review of residence permit to any person who the period of detention to a makes an application for retirement, reasonable interval, not to exceed settlement or an indefinite stay in three months. This change in the Malta“. In order to obtain a regulation resulted in changes in the residence permit, a non-EU national procedure, which resulted in the shall first prove that he/she can release of detained persons. maintain him/herself, by providing a According to the AIDA report (2015: work contract or any title that 54), it seems that the changes proves that he or she has the means consisted of assessments on the to maintain themselves.83. “returnability” of persons, based on After five years of continuous their nationality. residence in the country, migrants According to the Immigration Act are allowed to obtain long-term (Article 7), “the Minister may issue, residence. subject to such conditions as he may

BOX 7: Other requirements for long-term residence

Besides the criteria of continuous residence in the country, other requirements are: 1. Economic self-sufficiency for the two years previous to the application (the person might also be required to prove that s/he has the resources to sustain members of the family) 2. Adequate accommodation 3. Health insurance 4. Compliance with some basic integration conditions: a. Attendance (at least 75%) of a course organised by the Employment and Training Corporation on the social, economic, cultural and demographic history and environment of Malta b. Obtain a passing mark of at least 75% after being assessed for the equivalent of Malta Qualifications Framework Level 2 in English Submit a letter explaining why they came and then stayed in Malta (employment history, current and past premises occupied, family members and any other information which may be useful in the consideration of the long-term status).

83 Until 2014, there was a different application for which asked governments to unify the procedure EU citizens and non-EU citizens. Legal Notice for EU citizens and non-EU citizens. 160/2014 transposed the EU directive 2001/98

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Long-term resident permit is valid experiences, involvement in the for 5 years and shall be community). automatically renewed upon The Individual Investment application. Programme allows individuals (and their families) who contribute to the Foreigners willing to acquire economic and social development Maltese citizenship have two main of the country to obtain citizenship choices, besides marriage with a by a certificate of naturalisation. Maltese: naturalization upon Besides the other documents, the registration and naturalization programme requires some under the Individual Investor investments, namely: Programme (IIP). - the acquisition of a property for the Maltese Citizenship Act84 (Article 10) value of 350,000€85 states that a person can apply for - a contribution to the National Maltese citizenship if the following Development and Social Fund requirements are fulfilled: - an investment in stock, bonds or 1. Has resided for at least 12 months in special purpose vehicles to be Malta without interruptions (i.e., identified by the governmental traveling abroad for an extended agency (Identity Malta).86 period)during the period immediately preceding the date of Family reunification is regulated by application the Subsidiary Legislation n. 150 of 2. Has spent in Malta at least 4 years said Act, which states that the prior to the said period of 12 months sponsor has to prove that s/he has a 3. Has an adequate knowledge of the stable economic situation and is Maltese and English language potentially entitled to permanent 4. Is of good character and would be a residence. If these requirements are suitable citizen of Malta filled, the person can ask for the reunification of his/her spouse and Besides the application form and ID child/ren.87 documents, a person should provide Besides residence permits, a letter which explains why s/he according to the Immigration Act, a wishes to become a Maltese third-country national will need an citizenship, and also an explanation employment license (a former work of her/his life in Malta (work permit). This will be issued by the

84 Republic of Malta (1965), Chapter 188, Maltese 86 The minimum amount of investment is 150,000€ Citizenship Act. Laws of Malta and they have to be detained for a minimum of 5 years. 85 The property has to be kept for at least 5 years 87 Republic of Malta (2000), Chapter 420, Refugee Act. Laws of Malta.

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Employment and Training for integration. The overall score Corporation (ETC), a governmental obtained (40/100), ranks the agency which provides assistance to country in 33rd position out of 38 workers and employers in order to countries. make it easier for them to “meet” One of the most criticized points is their needs in the labour market. the extent of bureaucratic Employment licenses for third- regulations, which is seen as country nationals are generally excessive and an obstacle to issued for one year but are integration. One aspect which is renewable. Differences in the strongly criticized by third-country duration are applied in the case of national communities is the refugees (6 months) and failed slowness of the procedure to obtain asylum seekers (3 months). Among residence permits, which is the documents needed to apply, the worsened by language barriers. The applicant who has no specific long bureaucratic delays make it qualification for the job needs to more difficult for third-country provide letters of references which nationals to start working or have will prove that the person has the possibility to apply and received gained experience in the position. family reunification permission, Another requirement is a letter by thus making it even more difficult the employer which explains why for them to integrate into the the position can’t be filled by a society. In addition to this, the Maltese or European national. negative attitude that the general public has towards migrants is reflected in the lack of will to help 1.2. Migrant Integration people understand the Policy and Measures / administrative machine. Services In order to ease the process of obtaining information and make the bureaucratic process run faster, the 88 Even though migration is not a new Government created a web portal phenomenon in Malta, the public in which the user can find attitude towards migrants is still a information on Maltese Law, barrier for their integration. The documents needed to obtain Migrant Integration Policy Index residence permits, educational (MIPEX) showed that Malta has a opportunities, and other important slightly unfavorable environment information. The website was

88 The integration portal is available at www.integration.gov.mt

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launched only last year, as a result of month and collected feedback from a project which saw the different organizations (migrant and collaboration between the Ministry Maltese organizations and NGOs for Social Dialogue and the working in the field), independent International Organisation for citizens (both Maltese and Migration (IOM). foreigners), academic institution The biggest challenge for Malta is and international organizations the lack of a comprehensive (IOM and UNHCR). integration policy. This leads Most of the subscribers agreed that migrants to rely on the community there is a need for an integration of origin, to help them locate the policy, which will empower migrants required documents. and make it easier for them to build During the last year, policy attention a life in Malta. Most of the entities towards integration of third-country that gave feedback agreed that the nationals increased. This interest concerns cited above need to be pushed the Ministry for Social addressed in order to have a good Dialogue, Consumer Affairs and Civil integration strategy. Some Liberties to launch the project Mind contributors made suggestions D Gap – Together we can make a based on information from other difference. The main aim of the countries and/or studies which project is to contribute to the show best practices all over the integration strategy which will be world. The main theme that comes launched in 2015. out of the consultation, which is also In the framework of this project, the underlined by MIOEX, is that the Minister launched, in May 2015, a government needs to improve the public consultation process by anti-discrimination regulations, as publishing online three general this is considered a big obstacle to questions asking for opinions and integration. Discrimination is suggestions of individuals or groups considered to be a key area and of citizens regarding different fields improvements there will have a very of action for developing an positive impact on the other integration of migrants strategy targeted problem areas for (anti-discrimination, social barriers integration (cited above), in and opportunities, role of local particular facilitating access to the communities, civil participation).89 labour market by easing the The consultation was open for one

89 The results of the public consultation process are available at http://tinyurl.com/qfo776s

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procedure to obtain the languages spoken in the country employment license. (English and Maltese). This would At the moment, a working group is give migrants a better shaping the strategy which will be understanding of the specific aspect issued later on during the year of the culture. Moreover, a course (2015). on Maltese culture is deemed useful because it eases understanding of the community they are going to live in. Besides cultural and linguistic courses, some of the migrants 1.3. Identifying Educational interviewed also requested specific Needs of Adult Migrants vocational courses, possibly with a training component. This is deemed useful in order to improve their In the framework of the public employability. Another useful consultation process, almost all the aspect, according to the Malta subscribers recognised that Migrants Association,91 would be to education is one of the main drivers have more information on the rights for integration. of the workers and on Maltese This outcome has been confirmed labour legislation, this would help to by third-country nationals who were avoid exploitation and raise consulted during the awareness on their rights as human 90 research. Almost all of them beings. recognised that linguistic barriers The main finding that emerges from make the process of obtaining both subscribers to public information on the required consultations and interviews with documents more difficult. The migrants is the need for more request made by most of the information on educational migrants to have more opportunities, which are often not opportunities to learn both the “advertised”.

CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in Malta

90 During the research we got in touch with some 91 Feedback provided in the framework of the public third-country nationals and asked them to answer consultation process for the Integration Strategy to some questions regarding their educational (May 2015), available at http://tinyurl.com/qfo776s needs and their awareness about educational opportunities offered to them in Malta.

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2.1. The Maltese Adult Education System and Infrastructure

The first step for the diffusion of In between the two World Wars, the Adult Education Programmes in economy of the country was Malta was made in 1850, when the stationary.92In a state where rev. Pullicino organised the first resources are limited, labour evening classes targeting adults. The becomes an easily exportable course took inspiration from the commodity, and that is precisely Italian “scuola serale” (evening what happened to Malta. People school). The main aim of the lessons emigrated from the island to look was to teach people how to read for work in English speaking and write, and also to gain some countries (Canada, USA and mathematical and technical skills Australia). The Government, (Mayo 2007: 8). following the suggestions of the The evening classes, together with receiving countries, started to Sunday classes, survived until the organise courses which provided beginning of the last century, when the future migrants with technical some changes in the programmes and agricultural skills. In 1938, the reflecting changes in the political first Migrants Training Centre was situation were instituted. According opened in Ghammieri (Mayo, 2007: to Professor Mayo (2007: 8), the 8). main change was the introduction of English – the language spoken by the elite at the beginning of XXI century - as a way to end the Italian influence on the country.

92 As already mentioned, the beginning of XXI country a military camp and shaped the whole century in Malta was characterized by the British political and economical system around it. domination. The colonizers decided to built in the

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BOX 8: Lifelong Learning Strategy

Last year, the Ministry for Education and Employment launched the Lifelong Learning Strategy1, for the period between 2014 and 2020. The basic idea is to provide learning opportunities from cradle to grave. The Strategy has to be read together with a number of other documents1, whose aim is to organize a comprehensive policy which will increase the flexibility of adult workers and improve their employability not only at the national, but also at the international level. The challenges identified within the Strategy are the following: - Low level of adults participating in the Lifelong Learning Programme - High number of early school leavers1 - Low participation of women in the labour market or in Lifelong Learning - Low education passed on from generation to generation. In order to address the challenges, the Strategy set 5 main objectives: 1. Stimulate participation by creating a demand and a desire for learning 2. Place the learner at the centre through the optimisation of methodologies 3. Improve skill sets contributing to professional development and employment mobility 4. Develop support structures 5. Improve governance of the Lifelong learning sector.

The primary public organisation in different subjects, varying from charge of Lifelong Learning is the language to vocational courses. Basic Directorate for Lifelong Learning. The courses are offered free of charge, main objective of this organisation is while level 1 courses are offered at a to develop a strong and responsive subsidised rate. adult learning sector. The Centre Another provider of vocational provides different courses at both the education and training is the basic level and at MQF level 1,93 in Employment and Training

93 Malta Qualification Framework (MQF) provides course, which is decribed through the use of a an indication of the level of difficulty as a number of level descriptors, which indicate the benchmark for those qualifications which still need outcomes acquired by the learner at the end of the to be mapped in the framework. The qualification is educationl process. recognised according to the level of difficulty of the

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Corporation (ETC), which has, as its The Institute of Tourism Studies main objective the enhancement of (ITS) aims at meeting the changing employability through policy needs of the hospitality and tourism recommendations and the industry. As the MCAST, the level of implementation of an initiative for the courses ranges from the empowerment of job seekers; it qualification to degree (MQF level 1- also provides assistance to 6). employers in the recruitment and training. ETC offers basic skills courses with the aim of increasing 2.2. Adult Migrant education employment opportunities for the policies unemployed. Through the Reggie Miller Foundation, the General Workers Recognition of diplomas and Union94 offers a number of courses qualifications in Malta is carried out for adults. The courses cover a wide by the National Commission for range of topics varying from arts and Further and Higher Education craft to IT and vocational courses. (NCFHE), through the Qualifications The University of Malta offers the Recognition and Information Centre opportunity for adults interested in (QRIC). Recognition is based on courses to enroll as part-time criteria provided by the Malta students, in order to match Qualification Network and educational and working needs. European Qualification Framework While full-time students can attend for Lifelong Learning (EQF). the courses free of charge, part- As pointed out by some of the third- time students have to pay to attend. country nationals interviewed, the Two other institutes provide problem is still the slowness of the educational and vocational courses, bureaucratic process. It may take up mainly focusing on science and to three months for qualification technology and tourism. Malta certificates or diplomas to be College of Arts, Science and recognized and this may discourage Technology (MCAST) is a tertiary people from undertaking the the education provider. Its aim is to process and thus may limit provide educational and training employment opportunities. courses ranging from qualification In Malta, third-country nationals to degree level (MQF levels 1-6). have the same right as natives to enrol in educational and vocational

94 General Workers Union (GWU) is the largest trade black market economy which is a phenomenon that union in Malta. Among the service they offer to often involves third-country nationals. their members, they also have a programme against

115 trainings being offered. The only refugees living in the open refugee difference is related to costs: for centres, because a number of NGOs courses offered by the Directorate and voluntary organizations provide for Lifelong Learning, natives and EU educational activities both inside citizens have the opportunity to and outside the centres. Usually, attend basic courses free of charge these are offered on a voluntary and level 1 courses at a subsidised basis, which means that often rate; third-country nationals have to people teaching in the program lack pay for the basic courses, and have experience or qualifications. Besides to pay a higher fee to attend the the lack of professional educators, level 1 courses. The same policy another problem is that educational applies when it comes to MCAST activities offered to refugee and and University courses, even if in asylum seekers may be financed this cases exemptions are possible through different funding sources, in the case of refugees and people and might stop once the project under subsidiary protection. ends. The difference in pricing policy The lack of professional teaching might be seen as one of the issues skills and the lack of continuity are that should be addressed by the recognised as two of the main integration strategy because it factors affecting the educational might be an obstacle for third- activities offered inside the open country nationals to access centres, but another issue which education and training may affect the employability of the opportunities. residents might also be the lack of The only initiative specifically qualifications recognised by these targeting third-country nationals courses was implemented by ETC last year. As one of the outcomes of an EU co- financed project (IF 03-2012 Integrating TCNs in Maltese society), ETC was asked to organize a training program called Living and Working in Malta, which was aimed at providing information on the documents required to work in Malta. It also provided basic cultural 2.3. Infrastructures of Adult information, that was intended to Migrant Education System ease integration. The context is a bit different when it comes to asylum seekers and

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As already mentioned, there are no schools and improve their specific policies for the education of knowledge of the language. adult migrants, so there is no As already mentioned, the situation difference in the public for asylum seekers and refugees is a infrastructure offering educational bit different, with NGOs offering and vocational trainings to adults. courses and information sessions It has to be highlighted that a inside the open centres, but also number of people come to Malta on other religious and nonreligious a temporary basis, in order to attend organisations offer courses outside one of the many private English the centres.

BOX 9: The most interesting initiatives

The following are some of the initiatives which are deemed to be most interesting. Information sessions for the residents in the open centres. The sessions were organized by the Agency for the Welfare of Asylum Seekers (AWAS) and have been held in the open centres between March and June 2015 by Kopin1. The topics of each sessions and the informative materials have been provided by AWAS. The topics that were tackled are: education and employment, budgeting, health, housing, social skills and hygiene. The outcomes were positive both from the trainers and from the beneficiaries’ points of view. Lessons in Marsa open centre. The Foundation for Shelter and Support to Migrants (FSM) is an NGO which is in charge of managing an open centre in Marsa hosting adult men. The management offers residents the opportunity to attend different educational and vocational trainings. Also, a course on food handling was offered which was open also to residents located at other open centres. English courses at Blue Door Institute. This institute is managed and financed by Saint Andrew Scots Church. The institute offers English lessons held by professional teachers; the courses are open only to refugee and asylum seekers. Courses are held between October and June and have quite a large attendance (between 100 and 180 people). The lessons are open to people living in the centres and also people living in the community. The organization confers a certificate to the students who attend showing clearly their level.

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important to have a look at South 2.4. Adult Migrants Education America, the main destination Programmes and Methods continent of European flows during the second half of the last century. One of the most important As already mentioned, the researchers in the field of pedagogy methodology used in Malta for in the last century, Professor Paulo migrant education is the same as for Freire (1921-1997) developed the natives. But, by observing the work concept of Pedagogy of the of some of the actors involved in Oppressed (Freire, 1921), and adult education and migrant banking education, which has been education in Malta, it is possible to deemed really useful by pedagogues identify some methodological around the world in order to deal features which might be considered with adult education. The main idea good practices. that the pedagogy of Freire tries to It is deemed important to mention destroy is that human mind is like an that within the framework of an ESF empty jar, which has to be filled with project involving a number of concepts. According to Freire, in organisations both governmental fact, this is the process used by and non-governmental working in oppressors in order to enslave the field of education, a toolkit for people with no education. Maltese literacy has been Freire suggests a contextual developed. The toolkit, called “Ic- approach, based on real-life Cavetta”, is currently used by the experiences of the learner. In this Directorate of Lifelong Learning in informal approach, formal language literacy courses for Maltese. It takes study plays a secondary role: into consideration different aspects reading and writing skills are deemed important when it comes to acquired through the inquiry of the teaching literacy skills to adults. First problems affecting the community. of all, the training techniques have a One of the main features of this strong visual aspect, in order to approach is the dialogue between facilitate the recognition of the teachers and learners. The dialogue letters. The contents of the toolkit was defined by Freire as a two-way are specifically developed in order relationship between two subjects, to target adults, and it is also IT 95 in which the parts confront each interactive. other as equally knowledgeable: According to Professor Mayo from while the teachers have the the University of Malta, it is

95 More information on the project are available at http://www.cavetta.org.mt/eng/about.php

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knowledge on reading and writing The use of this approach for skills, the students have the teaching a foreign language might knowledge of their culture. be limited by cultural differences, Freire’s approach was successfully but research conducted on its used for teaching in developing application show that it is possible countries, but also as a and useful to use everyday life methodology to teach basic literacy situations as a starting point for skills in native languages in the discussion and teaching of adults, United States. particularly if dealing with language learning.

CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective adult migrant education strategy

One of the aims of integration policy 3.1. Challenges and should be the exploitation of the opportunities in the adult potential that education migrant education opportunities have. Thus, this strategy should take into consideration also the provisions of 96 According to MIPEX Analysis the other policy documents results, Malta has obtained quite a developed during the last years, low score with regards to particularly the Lifelong Learning educational opportunities offered. Strategy and the National As already pointed out, a number of Employment Policy. third-country nationals underlined According to the National the importance of education as a Employment Policy (2014: 72), driver for integration: in this offering training and education framework, having a better opportunities to migrants will have organized educational system a positive economic impact because targeting migrants should help ease they will fill the vacancies resulting integration. Through cultural and from an excess of demand. linguistic courses, migrants get to Education opportunities will know the destination country and empower the migrant labour force understand better the context in and allow them to be employed on which they are living. the formal labour market, thus

96 Migrant Integration Policy Index, is developed in results for each country involved are available at Malta by The People for Change Foundation. The http://www.mipex.eu/.

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mitigating the disadvantages resettlement as a focal point. experienced by unemployment in Moreover, it should be useful to the formal market. Moreover, from have intercultural courses for all the a macro-economic perspective, the people who are working with recruitment of a young migrant asylum seekers, not only social and labour force will mitigate the ageing care workers, but also people factor, which has been growing working in the police force, the during last years. army, the judicial sector and also The challenges that the strategy for people working in the media, in adult education will have to tackle order to stop the xenophobic wave have already been listed and some which is spreading throughout of them can be addressed also when Europe. it comes to migrant education. It is important to keep in mind, anyway, that migrants have different stories, 3.2. Planning and evaluating which are part of their cultural adult migrant education background and can affect the policies learning process in different ways. It is deemed important also that both the learning materials and In order to achieve quality methodology show links with education for migrants, the first step everyday situations, which can be is to have in place an effective anti- helpful to make adults understand discrimination law. According to the the importance of education. Network of Experts in Social Another shared challenge is the Sciences of Education and training involvement of women, which can (Heckmann 2008: 71), anti- be problematic among migrants too, discrimination laws will be useful in depending on cultural habits. working to overcome forms of As suggested by Professor Mayo discrimination which can take place 97 (Mayo, 2009), with regards to at the micro level, but they might asylum seekers and refugees, an not be effective when it comes to opportunity might come about by improving the situation of structural transforming detention/open disadvantage in education. Thus, centres into Lifelong Learning the main objective of these laws, in Centres with education for the field of education, should be to

97 Heckmann identifies three different forms of avoid social sanction; opportunistic discrimination at micro level: individual discrimination, based on the belief that discrimination, i.e. the unjustified unequal recognition and acceptance for membership of treatment based on prejudice and stereotyping; certain persons would be detrimental to oneself conformity discrimination, i.e. the unequal or one’s organization, because other people have treatment caused by social group pressure and to prejudice against these persons (2008: 36-37).

120 combat discrimination that leads to these groups. Such results will be the denial of support for migrants. possible because of the change in This form of discrimination has been perception of the system, which will suggested by the Network which be deemed to provide more refers to the “…denial by the opportunities for success and also political and civil leadership of more support to minorities. societies, of support for individuals Another policy which could be and groups with little economic, useful in order to attain quality cultural and social capital, who education concerns the recruitment cannot improve their lot on their of the personnel, particularly the own so as to achieve a situation of teachers. By increasing the number equal opportunity in the societal of teachers from minority groups, competition for positions, resources the institute will double their goals and status.” (Heckmann 2008: 37). first by pushing minorities towards The main suggestion made by the education and second by Network for developing a program deconstructing some of the of quality education for migrants is prejudices towards minority to try and implement diversity students by other social groups. policies that look upon diversity as a The application of these principles resource that is not used to its full to the adult migrant education potential. Such policies would target system will lead to the mainly institutions and empowerment of migrants, who organizations that are against those would ideally feel more integrated rules and habits which cause into the society. Moreover, giving an disadvantages to minority groups. opportunity and a fair chance to The opening of new opportunities, migrants will allow the society of should go in parallel with the destination to avail itself of the full empowerment of the groups, not economic potential of all its human only the migrants, but also natives, resources. who should be trained in order to The application of these principles improve inter-group relations and to Maltese society should start with reduce prejudices. the removal of the differences in the If applied to the field of education, pricing policy for educational this policy could take the form of opportunities. This might be helpful goals targeting minority groups, and in order to increase the number of this will generate a ripple effect third countries nationals enrolled in which will translate into the the courses. Moreover, elimination of obstacles that have implementing specific programmes been hindering the participation which take into consideration the and the success of students from different learning paths and

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backgrounds of the students would o Accreditation and Certification translate into an increase in the o Quality Assurance percent of migrants who will The Strategy has already foreseen a successfully complete the courses. specific Programme which can be It is deemed useful, moreover, to applied to migrants. Programme 34 clearly identify a number of target foresees the setting up of a working indicators, this will have the effect group with the aim of identifying of having a concrete means to and removing the barriers to adult measure the effects of the policies. learning among migrants, particularly those who are not in 3.3. Access to quality education, employment and education training (NEETs) programmes. The focus of the programmes and The strategy for Lifelong Learning methodologies should be to ease foresees four different sets of the integration of immigrants into quality indicators for educational Maltese society, and help them initiatives targeting adults, which become self-supporting. The deal with different areas. programmes and methodologies - AREA A: Skills, competencies and should be tailored not only to attitudes migrant needs, but also their skills o Literacy and personal stories. o Numeracy Another envisaged measure is the o New Skills for the Learning Society development of a community o Learning-to-Learn Skills programme involving people o Active Citizenship, Cultural and regularly working with migrants. Social Skills The rationale would be to sensitize - AREA B: Access and Participation people and avoid the cultivation of o Access to Lifelong Learning xenophobic attitudes. o Participation in Lifelong Learning According to the programme, there - AREA C: Resources for Lifelong should be a number of partnerships Learning with both NGOs working in the field o Investment in Lifelong Learning of migration and with private o Educators and Learning companies. Particularly important o ICT in Learning would be the partnership with the - AREA D: Strategies and System General Workers Union, which Development would be an important partner for o Strategies for Lifelong Learning informing migrants about their o Coherence of Supply rights as workers. o Guidance and Counselling It would be also useful to ease the official process for recognizing

122 qualifications; this would not only most probably take some time, an increase the number of third- immediate measure to obtain country nationals in higher quality education should be to education, but also those employed provide funding for educational in skilled jobs. projects so that they will be Given the fact that the practical continuous and thus not hinder the implementation of the strategy will learning process of the students.

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POLAND

CHAPTER 1: Migration profile of Poland

Basic data on inflow and stock of immigrants in Poland

Although Poland was and still Policy), the issues related to the remains a country of net emigration, integration process and access to the inflow and stock of foreigners is the labour market are the slowly but steadily increasing. The responsibility of the Ministry of size of this population is still small Labour and Social Policy compared with other countries in (Department of Social Assistance Europe, representing less than two and Integration). In 2012, the percent of the population. Government approved the strategic Moreover, the inflow of foreigners document entitled "Polish in recent decades has been mostly Migration Policy - current state and temporary and transit. However, planned actions", which includes an given the stable development of the overview of the current state of the Polish economy in recent years, it is legal and institutional highly possible that Poland will soon developments, the principles and become an attractive destination priorities for further actions, as well country for more foreigners. The as the institutional structure and main groups of migrants staying in integration programs. Poland come from the neighboring Estimating the number of Eastern countries (Ukraine, Belarus, foreigners residing in Poland is not and Russia), the EU member states an easy task. According to the last and Asian countries (Vietnam, National Census of Population and China). Housing (2011), among permanent Migration policy in Poland has residents of Poland almost 99.7 developed dynamically over the last percent are persons with Polish decade. The milestone was the citizenship. This means that Poland Polish accession to the European is one of the most homogeneous Union (EU) and the harmonization countries in Europe in terms of process of legislation on entry, ethnic and cultural make-up. Among residence and access to the labour the population of foreigners market for foreigners. A key role in residing in Poland, the largest the creation of migration policy is groups are Ukrainians, Germans, played by the Ministry of Internal Belarusians and Russians. Affairs (Department of Migration

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The most important source of the most applications for a current data on the population of residence permit were submitted by foreigners in Poland is the database citizens of Vietnam (4.9 thousand), of the Office for Foreigners. China (3.7 thousand), Belarus (3.6 According to this data source, in thousand) and Russia (2.9 2015 (as at 1 January), 42.5 thousand). thousand temporary residence The data related to the first half permits were issued (about 10 of 2015 show that the number of thousand more than the previous foreigners holding valid document year). In 2014, a huge increase in the authorizing them to stay is 194 number of applications for thousand persons. This figure legalization of stay was reported: includes citizens of the European 65.1 thousand applications for Union (70 thousand) who represent residence in Poland were submitted 36% of the population of foreigners (50% more than a year before). (with the vast majority of them - More than twice as many people 58.8 thousand - in Poland on the applied for a permanent residence basis of the certificate of long-term permit (+ 104%), 60% more stay permit for EU residents. Most foreigners than a year earlier foreigners have a temporary applied for a temporary residence residence permit (60.8 thousand) or permit, and the number of people permanent residence (51.3 applying for long-term EU residency thousand). The biggest increase of increased by 9%. The citizens of foreigners residing in Poland are Ukraine submitted 28.9 thousand Ukrainians (+11 thousand people in applications for legal residence mid-2015), Vietnamese (+1.1 permit, which accounts for 44% of thousand), Germans (+0.8 the total number of applications of thousand) and Belarussians (+0.6 this kind. Besides Ukraine, in 2014 thousand).

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Figure 1. Population of foreigners in Poland (1 January 2015)

EU UKRAINE Series1; EU; RUSSIA Series1; OTHER; 38%; 32% 39%; 33% BELARUS VIETNAM Series1; CHINA Series1; CHINA; UKRAINE; 23%; OTHER 2%; 2% 20% Series1; VIETNAM; Series1; 5%; 4% BELARUS; 5%; Series1; 4% RUSSIA; 6%; 5% Source: own elaboration based on data of the Office for Foreigners

To sum up, nationals of the could turn into a stable migration three neighboring countries settlement in the near future. (Ukraine, Russia and Belarus), make Taking into account various up about half of the population of statistics, it can be assumed that the foreigners with residence permits in number of foreigners in Poland is Poland. The largest group of between 200-250 thousand people foreigners residing in Poland for (with residence permit to stay for many years are citizens of Ukraine. longer than 3 months) and about Ukrainian migrants are mainly 300 thousand foreign seasonal persons belonging to two groups: workers benefiting from the employees (including seasonal simplified system of employment workers) and students. However, an (to take up employment for a period increasing number of them apply for of 6 months per year). long-term residence status, which

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BOX 10: The dynamics and changes in the number of foreigners

The dynamic increase in the number of foreigners observed in Poland over the last few years is a result of several external and internal factors: the unstable situation (political and economic) of Ukraine, growing demand for the work of foreigners as an effect of the mass emigration of Poles after Poland’s accession to the EU and stable economic development, as well as the changes in Polish law concerning foreigners. These changes include, among others: the abolition program (2012), liberalization of rules for access of foreigners to the labor market (2012), adoption of the new Alien Act (2014), the harmonization of legislation on entry and residence of foreigners, and the new Law on Citizenship (2012). Migration policy in Poland has developed dynamically over the last decade, the milestone was the Polish accession to the European Union (EU). A key role in the creation of migration policy is the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Department of Migration Policy), the activities related to integration and the labor market correspond to the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy (Department of Social Assistance and Integration). In 2012, the government approved the strategy document entitled "Polish Migration Policy - current state and planned activities" which gives an overview of the current state of the legal and institutional principles and priorities, as well as main directions for further development of legislation, institutional structure and integration programs.

In summary, the population of categories of migrants will be foreigners in Poland, though still discussed in more detail, particularly small, is internally diverse. It given their right of access to the consists of such various groups as education system in Poland: temporary labour migrants, students, EU nationals enjoying the freedom of movement within the Asylum seekers and refugees EU Member States, third-country nationals of different residence The number of people applying status, asylum seekers those who for asylum in Poland is relatively already possess refugee status, and small (in comparison with other EU others. countries), but in recent months, a Below, due to the specific significant increase in the number of subject of the report, three applications for refugee status was

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noted. In the whole of 2014, there were a reported 6.6 thousand Repatriates and migrants holding a applications, and during the first six Card of the Pole months of 2015, there were 4.1 thousand applications for In 1997-2013, more than 7,000 international protection. people of Polish origin came into Traditionally, the Russian citizens Poland from the former Soviet were strongly represented – they Union states using the made more than half of the requests institutionalized system of involving 2.157 people (91% of them repatriation. Recent statistics, declared Chechen nationality). however, show a clear downward Second place is occupied by citizens trend in the use of the system of of Ukraine (1/3 of all applications), repatriation. According to the latest and third - the citizens of Georgia available data from the Ministry of (5% of applications). Besides the Internal Affairs by the end of 2011, groups mentioned above, numerous only 5,215 persons possessing other potential refugees came from repatriation status settled in Tajikistan and Syria. One can expect Poland.98 Much more popular an increase in the number of among the persons of Polish origin beneficiaries of international from Eastern states is the Card of protection next year as a result of the Pole. In 2007, it was introduced the ongoing refugee crisis in the EU. as a procedure aimed at foreigners Observing the recent trends in of Polish origin who are citizens of migration of people applying for countries of the former Soviet Union international protection, it is clear (the geographical scope is limited to that few of them decide to stay in 15 countries). The card of the Pole Poland. After obtaining a legal entitles, among others, to apply for residence status, they are leaving multiple-entry visa to Poland, Poland for other countries in provides an exemption from the Western Europe. The reason for this obligation to obtain a work permit, movement to other EU countries offers the right to establish a was that relative to Western company and the right to education Europe, Poland still has a lower on the same terms as Polish citizens. standard of living, limited In practice, the Card of the Pole opportunities to acquire attractive eliminates the most difficult legal jobs and more difficult problems of hurdles, such as the obligation of a integration. work permit and a common visa

98 Department of Migration Policy, Ministry of Internal Affairs. 2012. Polish Migration Policy - current state and planned activities. Warsaw.

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application procedure, and thus can recent years. In the academic year serve as a powerful incentive to 2014/2015, it reached 46 thousand study and work in Poland. The Card persons (i.e., 3.1% of all students in of the Pole is becoming increasingly Poland), 10 thousand more than in popular among people who are the previous year (2.3%). Therefore, ready to come and live in Poland. an increase of 28 percent in just one According to the Ministry of Foreign academic year was noted. The Affairs, from 2008 to the end of largest increase relates to students 2012, over 100 thousand Cards were from Ukraine, at present more than issued, including 46 thousand to 23 thousand Ukrainians study in citizens of Ukraine and 42 thousand Poland (30% more than in the to citizens of Belarus.99 About 90% previous year). They represent over of applications for the Card of the 50% of all foreign students in Poland Pole was submitted by the citizens (last year there were 8% less). More of these two states, much less by than 83% of foreign students came citizens of other countries, such as to Poland from European states. Lithuania and Russia. Most Besides Ukrainians, the largest applicants are young people, often group of foreign students in Poland students who use the Card as a tool consists of Belarusians (over 4 simplifying the procedures thousand), Norwegians (1.5 associated with the arrival, stay and thousand), and Spanish (1.1 study in Poland. thousand).100 In connection with the military conflict between Ukraine Students and Russia, Polish Ministry of To support education Science and Higher Education in migration (of students) and people 2014 announced the special of Polish origin is one of the main scholarship program offered for priorities of Polish migration policy. students from Ukraine of 2014-2015 In comparison with the number of - "Polish Erasmus for Ukraine" which foreign students in other European was addressed to 550 people.101 countries, their number in Poland Migration education and remains low, but the dynamic encouraging foreigners to enroll in growth is clearly noticeable in Poland is perceived as a very

99 The Upper Essambly of Polish Parliament (Sejm 100 Fundation of Education „Perspektywy“ 2015. RP), Informacje dla mediów: Informacja o 101 posiedzeniu Komisji Łączności z Polakami za Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Granicą [Information for media: Information on Polish Erasmus for Ukraine. Online: meeting of Commission on Communication with http://www.nauka.gov.pl/aktualnosci- Poles Abroad].Online: ministerstwo/polski-erasmus-dla-ukrainy.html. Http://www.sejm.gov.pl/sejm7.nsf/komunikat.xsp? documentId=E857DD88746F3186C1257D460024 BF7F.

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positive process, not only for the integration resulted in an absence Polish higher education system, but so far of any comprehensive action also as a response to the labour at the government level which market needs and demographic addresses non-beneficiaries of crisis. Some of the foreign graduates international protection, and no are expected to remain in Poland actions have been officially taken to after completing their studies and repatriate members of migrant take a job; the period of time taken families with residence permits. by their studies surely contributes to Despite the increasing number of their integration into Polish society. foreigners, Poland is still one of the few European Union countries Policy of integration tools and which lackp a systematic, long-term services integration policy. The initiatives related to the As defined in the document integration of migrants adopted by the government, implemented by the Polish legal and entitled „Polish policy of integration institutional system remain at the of foreigners - principles and minimum level required by EU guidelines”: Integration is a complex legislation. In the document and dynamic two-way process, entitled „The proposals efforts to involving both foreigners and the establish a comprehensive policy on host society, the aim of which is full the integration of foreigners in and equal membership of foreigners Poland”, published by the Ministry in the society of the host country. of Labour and Social Policy in The result of integration should be January 2005 (officially responsible that foreigners residing in Poland for integration activities) it is clearly could function independently, stated that „at present, the including in the labor market, and integration of activities in Poland, as the independence of immigrant part of a special integration benefits and social assistance.102 programs, focus on one group of Integration policy in Poland is foreigners - people with refugee 104 in the early stages of status“. .Since then the range of development.103. The small number beneficiaries of integration of foreigners that require programs organized by the state

102 The Ministry of Labour and Social Policy. 2014. 104 Ministry of Labour and Social Policy. 2005. The Poland's integration policies foreigners - principles proposals efforts to establish a comprehensive policy and guidelines. Warsaw. on the integration of foreigners in Poland. Warsaw, p.2. 103 Górny A. et al. (eds.). 2010. Poland: as an immigration country.Warsaw: Scholar Publishing House.

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administration has not changed. In language classes and adaptation 2013, the Working Party on courses, information campaigns, Integration of Foreigners was various intercultural education and established in the Department of training programs. This means that Social Assistance and Integration in practice the NGO sector is a (Ministry of Labour and Social partial substitute for the state when Affairs). The main objective of the it comes to the implementation of Group was to prepare a document integration policy. However, the "Poland's integration policies scope of activities of NGOs is limited foreigners - principles and in time (programs are funded for a guidelines". This document includes maximum period of one year) and a paragraph related to education of space (they mainly take place in foreign minors, but not to education large cities, where the NGOs are of adult migrants. active).106 Despite the generally passive Currently, according to Polish attitude of the Polish state to the law, there are integration tools and issue of integration of foreigners, a services directed only to foreigners more active approach is evident in applying for international the NGO sector.105 The interest of protection in Poland and to public organizations in foreigners already granted refugee implementing projects for migrants status or subsidiary protection. They and supporting their integration is can take advantage of the annual closely linked with the opportunity Individual Integration Program, for applying for financial support under which a foreigner receives from the EU funds (integration small financial allowances and projects were founded by the reimbursement of expenses European Fund for the Integration connected with learning Polish of Third-Country Nationals and the language, and also receives support European Refugee Fund, since 2015 in the areas of social assistance, from AMIF - Asylum, Migration and specialist counseling (including Integration Fund). The presence of legal, psychological and family EU funds in Poland since 2007 support). strongly influenced NGOs to apply Adaptation (integration) for funds to undertake various courses are addressed only to integration programs, including repatriates and members of their

105 Bieniecki M., Frelak J. 2007. Praktyka 106 Górny A., Grzymała-Kazłowska A., Kepińska E., funkcjonowania migrantów ekonomicznych w Fihel A., Piekut A. 2007. Od zbiorowości do Polsce [The functioning of economic migrants in społeczności: rola migrantów osiedleńczych w Poland], in: W. Klaus (ed.), Migranci na polskim tworzeniu się społeczności imigranckich w Polsce rynku pracy. Rzeczywistość, problemy, wyzwania [From group to community: the role of settled [Migrants on the Polish labor market. The reality, migrants in the formation of migrant communities in problems, challenges]. Warsaw. Poland]. Warszawa.

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families. They include Polish methods), vocational courses, and language classes (depending on the interpretation services. The above- level of proficiency from 30 to 100 mentioned activities of NGOs are hours), the course on basic primarily financed from EU funds. knowledge about Polish history and The results of the Migrant culture, the legal and education Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) system (rights and obligations), how which measures the openness of to seek employment and to start migration and integration policies of their own business (min. 40 hours). particular countries, show that Foreigners with refugee status can Poland continues to create more take part in courses to enable basic barriers against migrant integration understanding of the legal and than opportunities to access basic institutional system in Poland and spheres of public life, such as Polish culture.107 education, labur market, health care There is no system of and citizenship. In the MIPEX edition integration services supported by of 2015, Poland was ranked 32nd the state that address labour among 38 countries surveyed, migrants and their families. In receiving 42 points (out of 100). The practice, therefore, integration weakest evaluation for Poland was services and programs addressing in the fields of education, political this group are provided by non- participation and the labour market. governmental organizations (usually The greatest progress (in free of charge, or on the basis of comparison with previous editions partial payment), but their scope is of the survey) was seen in fields mostly limited to the big cities, related to citizenship, family where NGOs are active. Programs reunification and anti- offered by NGOs include legal discrimination legislation. advice, integration courses, Polish language courses (at various levels, Identification of educational from basic to advanced ones, which needs of adult migrants prepare for the exam in Polish language required when applying It should be noted that the for Polish citizenship), courses of education system plays an essential soft skills needed in the labour role in acquiring knowledge and also market (e.g. writing resume and acquiring formal and informal motivation letter, preparation for information on norms and values of job interviews, and job search the host society. Access to the

107 Stefańska R. 2015. Integration Policy and 2015/07. Online: http://interact- Activities in Poland, INTERACT Research Report project.eu/publications/

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education system is a prerequisite environment), as well as greater for faster and more efficient social acceptance for foreigners and integration of the two entities actions in the field of integration involved in this process: the carried out in relation to this group migrants and the host society. The of people [the foreigners]”. significance of educational policy for In the MIPEX index in the the integration of immigrants stems section “Education” Poland took from the basic assumptions of 30th place (out of 38 countries) creating equal opportunities for scoring only 20 points (out of 100). personal development, acquiring Low ratings in subsections mainly basic skills and knowledge, as well as focused on the insufficient level of professional qualifications. intercultural education for all, In the already mentioned access to which was rated at 20 official document “Polish Migration points (again, out of 100). The focus Policy - current state and planned on the further low ratings were actions” needs that are identified meeting the needs of immigrants are: “to take action to prevent any (23 points) and providing access to form of discrimination against education for migrants (17 points). foreigners in offices, schools, access The authors point out in to the labor market, health and particular the inadequate access to interpersonal relations. These and quality of language courses for activities should concern in foreigners which are available free particular schools, institutions of charge, access to courses in the providing extracurricular activities, native languages of migrants, lack of teacher training centers and these activities related to social offering training for teachers integration within schools and working with foreign minors and educational institutions, as well as other educational institutions that lack of elements of intercultural affect the education of children of education. The insufficient foreigners, as well as the mass cooperation of various entities and media (...) These measures should actors at national and local level have the nature of a program and (administration, local authorities, take into account the need to non-governmental organizations, acquire intercultural competence migrants, etc.) was also pointed out (ie. the awareness of cultural as a serious weakness.108. differences and the ability to Research on refugees in Poland function in a multicultural shows that besides the numerous

108 See: MIPEX 2015, Huddleston T. 2012. Praktyki integracji. Doświadczenia i perspektywy Rekomendacje dla polityki integracyjnej w Polsce [Practice of integration. The evidences and [Recommendations for integration policy in perspectives]. Warsaw: Caritas. Poland], in M. Bieniecki, M. Pawlak (eds.)

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vulnerabilities in the existing system resulting from insufficient of integration services, one of the educational services, which are most serious is poor access to addressed to him.”110 The language courses.109 This conclusion opportunity to participate in Polish also applies to other groups of language courses offered for free foreigners in Poland; proficiency in have been only offered to refugees the Polish language is a key element and unemployed foreigners in migrants’ adaptation to the labor registered at the District Labour market and to Polish society. This is Office.111 The foreigners with other even more important than in other status may take a part in courses nations when one takes into provided by non-governmental account the context of the organizations (if any) or other homogeneity of Polish society and commercial institutions (such as the small size of immigrant language schools). communities. Polish society can The need for extensive form a friendly environment to offerings of Polish language courses support the newcomers particularly also follows the legal requirements if they are competent in Polish relating to the conditions of language and culture. Knowledge of acquiring Polish citizenship. When the language is one of the most applying for naturalization as a important obstacles to the Polish citizen, the foreigners must functioning of foreigners in Polish demonstrate competency in the reality. As noted by the researchers, Polish language in the form of a "the reasons for this state of affairs certificate of completion from a should be sought both on the side of Polish school in Poland, schools foreigners themselves, and on the abroad (where the language of side of the State on whose territory education was Polish) or certificate they reside. It is a kind of vicious of knowledge of Polish language. circle - a foreigner manifests Such a certificate is issued by the reluctance to learn Polish language, State Commission for the

109 Chrzanowska A. 2007. Kulturowe barriers to integration]. Helsińska Fundacja Praw uwarunkowania funkcjonowania migrantów Człowieka. Warsaw. przymusowych na polskim rynku pracy na 111 Czerniejewska I. 2010. Cudzoziemiec jako uczeń przykładzie społeczności czeczeńskiej [Cultural i student. Integracja w obszarze poznańskiej conditioning of forced migrants on the Polish labor edukacji [A foreigner as a pupil and as a student. market as an example the Chechen community], in: Integration in the field of education in Poznan], in: W. Klaus (ed.), Migranci na polskim rynku pracy. N. Bloch, E. Goździak (eds.), Od gości do sąsiadów. Rzeczywistość, problemy, wyzwania [Migrants on Integracja cudzoziemców spoza Unii Europejskiej w the Polish labor market. The reality, problems, edukacji, na rynku pracy i w opiece zdrowotnej challenges].Warszawa. Online: [From guests to neighbors. Integration of foreigners http://interwencjaprawna.pl/docs/migranci-na- from outside the European Union in education, the rynku.pdf. labor market and health care]. Poznań: Centrum 110 Mikulska A., Pater H. (eds.). 2012. Bieg przez Badań Migracyjnych, p. 83. płotki – bariery na drodze do integracji [Hurdles -

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Certification of Proficiency in Polish in Poland and Ukrainians have as a Foreign Language.112This shown unequivocally that for both institution conducts examinations groups, among the issues that of Polish language at the level of B1, matter most to their daily B2 and C2 in various cities in Poland; functioning in the Polish society, is exams are paid - the cost is about 80 knowledge of Polish language.115 EUR. This exam is, however, Data collected by the Central assessed as suitable for students or Statistical Office also shows that not people of Polish origin, thus, it many of the migrants living in requires from “ordinary” migrants Poland know Polish at a sufficient participation in language courses level for ordinary daily and a long time of preparation to communication with Polish pass it successfully.113 The results of speakers. Difficulties in research on the integration of third- communicating were indicated by country nationals also include 30% of migrant respondents, and difficulties in accessing education only 19% of them declared a very programs. A real problem for good knowledge of Polish foreigners remains the lack of language.116 Also, it has to be kept in enough adequate Polish language mind that citizens of different courses for people working full-time countries have different needs with jobs. In terms of course content and respect to the use of the education manner of their organization, the system. Among the factors that courses should be conducted in the particularly determine access to evenings and/or on weekends. education are: the economic Another problem related to this is situation, membership in a the limited offer of courses for free particular ethnic group, social or for small payment.114 position in the socio-economic and The results of surveys employment hierarchy, family conducted among Vietnamese living situation and gender.117 The

112 www.buwiwm.edu.pl/certyfikacja/ w Polsce [Between unity and multiplicity. The integration of different groups and categories of 113 The Ministry of Labour and Social Policy. 2013. immigrants in Poland]. Warsaw, pp. 57, 60. Poland's integration policies foreigners - principles 116 The State Statistical Office. 2008. Informacja o and guidelines. Warsaw. badaniach zasobów imigracyjnych w Polsce 114 Czerniejewska I. 2010. op.cit., p. 97-98. [Information on research on stocks of migrants in Poland]. 115 Fihel A., Górny A., Kaczmarczyk P. 2008. Rynek Online: pracy a integracja cudzoziemców z Ukrainy i z http://stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/lud_infor_o_bada Wietnamu posiadających zezwolenie na osiedlenie n_zasob_imigr_pl_w_2008.pdf się w Polsce [The labor market and the integration 117 Szelewa D. 2010. Integracja a Polityka of foreigners from Ukraine and Vietnam with Edukacyjna [Integartion and Education Policy]. permission to settle in Poland], in: A. Grzymała Kazłowska (ed.). Między jednością a wielością. Raporty i analizy. Centrum Stosunków Integracja odmiennych grup i kategorii imigrantów Międzynarodowych. Warszawa.

135 educational system in the country of This level is the most open to residence should be sensitive and foreigners. prepared for such a diversification Taking into account the of migrants’ groups. specificities of the legal and Another important need of political system of Poland, the field migrants is access to vocational of migrant adult education will be courses that are tailored to their presented below. In particular, the needs, cultural and language skills. focus will be on the rules of access Their absence also prevents the to formal (system of education and possibility of changing a job, higher education) and informal promotion in the employment education (language courses, hierarchy. Consequently, migrants integration and professional, remain at the same (low-paid and training, etc). unstable) sector of the labor market.

CHAPTER 2: The access of adult migrants to the system of education in Poland

The education system of adult migrants in Poland

The basic legislation acts related to • Act Law on Higher Education of 27 education are as follows: July 2005 (No. 164 of 2005, item 1365 and amendments); • Act Education System of 7 • Law of Granting Protection to September 1991 (No. 256 of 2004, foreigners on Polish territory of 13 item 2572 and amendments); June 2003 (No. 189 of 2009, item 1472 and amendments).

Table 1. Scheme of education system in Poland

Nursery school (age: 3-6)

Primary school (6 classes, age: 7-12)

Gymnasium (3 classes, age: 13-15)

Basic vocational school (2-3 classes, age: 16-18) High school (3 classes, Technical school (4 age: 16-18) classes, age: 16-19) Complementary High Complementary School Technical School (2 classes) (2 classes) Final exams (matriculation examination)

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Upper Technical School (3 years of studies) Post-secondary school Full MA Program (5 years: 2+3) Complementary MA Program (2 years)

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BOX 11: Access of adult migrants into the education system in Poland by the Law on the Education System118

The law guarantees to certain categories of foreigners the right to education. The lifelong learning system1 includes centers for practical education, training and vocational training, in order to obtain and supplement general knowledge, skills and qualifications. The lifelong learning system is organized and conducted in: 1) schools for adults1; 2) lifelong education centers, practical training centers, training centers and vocational training centers. The foreigners, who can benefit from learning at public post-secondary schools, public art schools and other public institutions under the same conditions as Polish citizens are as follows: • persons who have been granted a permit to settle; • persons who have been granted refugee status and members of their families; • persons with a tolerated stay permit; • persons granted subsidiary protection, and members of their families; • beneficiaries of temporary protection; • persons who have been granted residence permit for a fixed period of time.

The basic criterion for seeking international protection access to the system of long life and their family members, 2) education for adult migrants is people already granted the status of residence. Listed in international protection and the Act of Education System members of their families, 3) categories of foreigners who persons having residence permit have a right to access the system for a fixed period of time or of long life education are limited permit to settle (e.g. long-term to three groups: 1) persons residents of the EU or having the

118Presentation of the provisions of the Act on the education system and the law on higher education based on: W. Klaus, Prawo cudzoziemców do edukacji w Polsce [The law related to foreigners’ rights to education system in Poland]. Warsaw: Stowarzyszenie Interwencji Prawnej; M. Żejmis 2008. Cudzoziemcy poszukujący ochrony a system edukacji [Foreigners seeking protection and education system], in: Jak pomagać cudzoziemcom poszukującym w Polsce ochrony? Poradnik dla instytucji publicznych i organizacji pozarządowych [How to help foreigners seeking protection in Poland? The guidebook for public institutions and NGOs]. Warsaw: Instytut Polityki Społecznej UW, pp. 89-106 .

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Card of the Pole). In other words, find a better job. None of the access to the educational system legal provisions apply directly to has been awarded these this problem, so it is not clear, in foreigners, who are entitled to this case, whether the education work in Poland. should be carried out free of The above mentioned charge or not. It is recommended entitlements also apply to family to supplement the provisions in members. Family members of a this matter and to allow adult foreigner are considered the foreigners use of education at spouse and minor children. They primary and secondary level free can use available forms of of charge. lifelong education on the same The Higher Education Act terms as Polish citizens. This guarantees certain categories of means the opportunity to attend foreigner access to higher schools for adults, as well as to education (studies, doctoral use various forms of practical studies and other forms of education and training. Other education, as well as categories of foreigners can participation in scientific benefit from learning at this level research). on a fee-paying basis, however, The following categories of in case of financial difficulties, it foreigners may take training is possible to apply for under the same conditions as exemption from these fees. Polish citizens: Other third-country nationals • foreigners who have been can benefit from education in granted the permit to settle; public schools and other • holders of the Card of the educational institutions on Pole; condition of providing payment. • foreigners with refugee A problem arises when an status; adult foreigner would like to • foreigners enjoying study in a school for adults but temporary protection on Polish needs to supplement his/her territory; education at the primary or high • migrant workers who are school level. This is a serious nationals of a Member State of problem for those migrants who the EU or the EEA, as well as their come to Poland half-educated. family members, if they live in This is a particularly important Poland; problem for refugees who need • foreigners with a to supplement their education at residence permit long-term the primary or secondary level to resident of the EU;

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• foreigners with a dormitory. The other third- residence permit for a fixed country nationals can benefit period; from education in public • foreigners who have been universities as scholarship granted subsidiary protection on receivers or on payment Polish territory. conditions. The above-mentioned The main condition of categories of foreigners are admission to university is to entitled to receive free obtain a matriculation education at public universities certificate. In the case where the under the same conditions as foreigner has not obtained a Polish citizens. This means that matriculation certificate in they are entitled to free Poland, he should provide education, provided they are equivalent evidence of formal admitted to the university as a secondary education obtained in result of the recruitment process the country of origin. under the same conditions as Access to schools and Polish citizens. They are entitled higher education for foreigners also to use all the privileges of various categories of available to students, for residence according to the example, all sorts of social above-mentioned legislation is benefits, scholarships for summarized in Table 2. academic performance, as well as accommodation in the

Table 2. Ways Foreigners can access the public education system in Poland.

Access to public education Act on Education System Act on Higher Education Public nursery Other Under the Under other schools, primary public same conditions as Polish schools, schools conditions as citizens secondary Polish citizens schools

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Lack of residence + - - - permit Residence permit + +/- +/- + for a fixed period Settlement permit + + + - Residence permit + + + - long-term resident of the EU Refugee status + + + - Subsidiary + + + - protection status Temporary + + - + protection status

+/- access with limitations Source: based on Dąbrowski P. 2015. Instrumenty prawne polityki społecznej i edukacyjnej a prawa cudzoziemców - obywateli państw trzecich [Legal instruments of social and education policies, and the rights of foreigners – third-country nationals] (expertise unpublished)

In summary, according to permit from an EU country, and the Polish law, every person has those people recognized as the right to an education. refugees. These foreigners can Education to the age of 18 is also learn at public universities mandatory for foreigners, without paying tuition fees and regardless of their legal status have the right to apply for while staying in Poland. All benefits (e.g. social stipends). foreigners regardless of their Foreigners with a nationality can take advantage temporary residence permit can of higher education, even also study on a fee-paying basis though the conditions for and cover the costs of admission vary. Only some maintenance with their own foreigners who stay in Poland on resources during the refugee the basis of a temporary procedure. But they must obtain residence permit may undertake permission to stay for higher education and study at humanitarian reasons or acquire universities (BA, MA or PhD a tolerated stay permit. level) under the same conditions as Polish citizens. These are people with a temporary residence permit, a foreigner holding a long-term residence

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Access to the system of and documents. The units recognition of qualifications conducting training in the and education relevant field (universities and other institutions of higher Higher education diplomas education) are entitled to issue issued abroad are not such certificates based on all the automatically recognized in documents submitted by a Poland. The procedure for foreigner. These documents may recognition of a diploma is often confirm the results of the required to confirm the different stages of education, educational qualifications of a obtained the qualifications or foreigner. The office responsible professional, or completed for this procedure of recognition professional training or (called “nostrification”) is the employment. In case of Office for Academic Recognition differences in study programs or and International Exchange in if it is impossible to determine Warsaw, subordinated to the the level of education, the Ministry of Higher Education. university is able to perform With the accession to the appropriate examinations. This EU, the Polish state refrained means, however, that the from several bilateral existing system of recognition of agreements signed with non-EU education and diplomas is time- countries which regulated the consuming. mutual recognition of diplomas It is problematic to obtain and certificates. After the the documents required by change of law in 2015, new those foreigners who were procedures were implemented forced to flee their country that were more friendly to without proper documents (due migrants and refugees wanting to war or conflict). Repossession to confirm a previously acquired of such documents may be level of education.119.If one has impossible if no contact with the 120 no graduation diplomas it is relevant institution is possible. possible to prove competences The process of confirming on the basis of other evidence professional qualifications in

119 Regulation of the Ministry of Science and 120 Bieniecki M. Kaźmierkiewicz P. 2008. Higher Education of 19 August 2015 on the Integracja imigrantów w Polsce [Integration of recognition of diplomas of higher education migrants in Poland], in: M. Bieniecki et al. obtained abroad and on confirmation of higher (eds.), Jak witać imigrantów w Polsce [How to education at a certain level of education. greet immigrants in Poland]. Warsaw: Institute of Public Affairs.

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Poland is time-consuming, and undertaken on the basis of sometimes also costly. The separate regulations adopted for request for initiation of each of these professions alone. proceedings on the recognition Recognition of qualifications in of professional qualifications all other regulated professions may be expanded. Such requests shall be under the general should be submitted to the system for the recognition of institution which is the professional qualifications. competent authority in matters In practice, this process is of recognition of qualifications to difficult and time-consuming, perform the job. Such an and in case of foreigners evaluation process usually takes possessing the documented three months and it is education and qualifications discretionary.121 The recognition often determines the possibility of qualifications in some specific of finding a job equal to the occupations (e.g. engineer, profession, and often of finding architect, lawyer, nurse, any job at all.122 pharmacist, doctor, dentist) is

CHAPTER 3: Developing and effective strategy of adult migrant education

Challenges and opportunities of adult migrant education in Poland - theory and practice

Poland has not developed a strategy of adult migrant education yet. Similarly, as in the case of an integration policy, the actions undertaken in the area of education can be defined as selective and limited. These actions are relevant to selected groups of foreigners, e.g. refugees. As a result, other categories of foreigners living in Poland, often more numerous and demanding integration programs, such as labour migrants or members of their families, are ignored. There is no strategic plan or open access to the educational system (formal and informal). Moreover,

121 Regulation of the Ministry of Science and [Involuntary choices. Barriers to economic Higher Education of 9 October 2008 on integration of foreign workers], in: N. Bloch, I. application forms for initiation of proceedings Main, K. Sydow (eds.), Nie dość użyteczni. on the recognition of professional Zmagania imigrantów na lokalnym rynku pracy qualifications. [Not quite useful. The struggles of migrants into the local labor market]. Poznań: Centrum 122 Czerniejewska O., Kochaniewicz A. 2015. Badań Migracyjnych, pp. 85- Niedobrowolne wybory. Bariery w integracji ekonomicznej cudzoziemskich pracowników

143 the main organizations which are active in this area are NGOs, rather than state institutions, and education and integration programs are funded by European funds. When analyzing the current formal and legal solutions in the education system (public and private) available to adult migrants in Poland, its accessibility and operation in practice, three areas that are crucial for the functioning of foreigners in Polish society and in the labour market can be pointed out. They are essential to the process of integrating foreigners into Polish society.

Availability

In Poland, only two categories of migrants are entitled to the integration courses run by state institutions: 1) foreigners with refugee status or subsidiary protection, 2) repatriates and their family members (including foreign spouses). Polish language courses for other migrants are not organized by the state institutions, although there is a wide range of such courses organized by NGOs, which are usually free (or available for a small fee to encourage foreigners to participate in these courses).

Language courses

The general standards for the conduct of language courses are described in the Regulation of the Ministry of National Education of 2011 on the framework curriculum and courses of Polish language for foreigners. It specifies that the courses should be tailored to the age, origin, needs and abilities of the participants. In practice, however, free courses of Polish language for foreigners are limited in time and are run at a low level. In addition, there should be a stronger emphasis placed on increasing the availability of Polish language courses for foreigners. Acquiring linguistic competency in Polish is essential for foreigners. Without it foreigners will find it next to impossible to find better-paid employment and to establish satisfactory relations with the local community.

Consulting and training

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Actions addressing foreigners in the field of education should include at least information about employment opportunities and ensure access to vocational training. Migrants often complain about insufficient knowledge related to the law and formal procedures, the labor market and employment opportunities, as well as about the lack of opportunities for participating in training programs, and insufficient offers of Polish language courses. Unfortunately, low awareness of their rights and benefits is common, as well as an inability to access employment opportunities. There are often major difficulties in getting Polish authorities to recognize their qualifications and certificates of skills which were obtained in their country of origin.

Examples of good practices

Courses of Polish Language

Foreign Language Teaching Foundation Linguae Mundi, project „General and specialist Polish language course for foreigners with elements of e- learning. “123 The main objective of the course is to increase language competence of foreigners, to familiarize them with the Polish culture, institutions, law and history, and, in this way, to facilitate effective functioning in Poland and integration with the Polish society. An additional important part of the course - introduced as a result of the evaluation survey conducted among immigrants - is Polish language courses with an emphasis on elements of business language (vocational orientation for migrants). Such an emphasis helps foreigners function better in their work environment. Polish language lessons are carried out by English, Russian and French language instructors in the Foundation and on-line (e-learning). The course prepares students for the state certificate examinations. A certificate in Polish as a foreign language issued by the State Commission for the Certification of Proficiency in Polish as a Foreign Language is necessary to obtain Polish nationality.

123 Information quated from: https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/intpract/general-and-specialist- polish-language-course-for-foreigners-with-elements-of-e-learning---kurs-jzyka-polskiego-ogolnego-i- specjalistycznego-dla-cudzoziemcow-z-elementami-e-learningu

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The main aims of the project are as follows:  Improve language competence to effectively function in Poland and to improve integration within Polish society, as well as to obtain an objective confirmation of the level of language proficiency by taking a state exam and getting a certificate in Polish as a foreign language;  To familiarize students with Polish culture and Polish reality (law, institutions etc.) which facilitates effective communication, getting a job, contacts with public institutions and social inclusion;  Preparing immigrants for education, self-education and the acquisition of new skills, familiarizing them with a modern educational tool in the form of e-learning which will extend the possibility of using various forms of support within the educational process;  Including language elements of a specialized field (e.g., business) in the course program allows for better functioning in the work environment, more effective cooperation and will increase motivation to find work;  Increasing the attractiveness of foreigners in the labour market in the eyes of employers due to the language qualifications documented by state language certificates.

The course program covers the following elements:  General Polish language lessons (8 months, 4 hours a week) conducted by English, Russian and French language instructors  Free of charge language consultations  Lectures on knowledge about Poland (Polish history, law and culture)  Cultural workshops, Movie evenings, Evenings of Nations, trips  Access to educational materials on the e-learning platform, activities online  Possibility of obtaining a state certificate in Polish as a foreign language, necessary to obtain Polish citizenship,  Additionally: Polish language course with elements of business language - on-line (participants of the course receive scripts supporting learning Polish with elements of business language

Courses and training

CeBam Migration Research Centre in Poznan, the project “AMIGA Active MIGrAnts on the local labor market”.124

124 http://amiga-project.eu

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Project Amiga includes activities for the integration of foreigners to improve their quality of life in the city. The aim of the project is to improve the social and professional integration of foreigners by raising their professional activity on the local labour market. The actions implemented under the project include, among others, organization and coordination of workshops for migrants (e.g. “Step by step to your own business in Poland”), individual counseling and Polish language courses. The project is implemented at the local level (city of Poznan), in partnership with other European cities (sharing of experience and best practices).

Foundation for Somalia, the project “Immigrants in action”.125

The main objective of the program is to support the integration and activation of foreigners seeking employment in Poland through supporting their entrepreneurship. The aim of the project is to allow foreigners to gain work experience consistent with their skills and qualifications (e.g. through the implementation of an internship program), to increase the qualifications of foreigners or to provide them with certificates that qualify them for skilled employment. The program includes projects aimed at foreigners – particularly, citizens of third- World countries. The “Active + Legally” project offers coaching (assistance in career planning in line with the interests and education), professional counseling and legal consultation (including training on how to start their own business in Poland). Among these are free computer training and courses in the Polish language.

Intercultural Center for Vocational Adaptation at the Institute of Social Prevention and Socialization (established in 2004, ended its activities).126 The aim of the project was to facilitate the process of entry to the labour market in Poland for foreigners entitled to work in Poland (repatriates, refugees, labour migrants). The main strategy for achieving this goal was to combat existing barriers, social exclusion and

125 http://pl.immigrantsinaction.pl/o-projekcie/ 126 Babis P. 2012. Wpływ Unii Europejskiej na budowę polskiej polityki integracyjnej [The impact of the European Union for the construction of Polish integration policy], in: M. Bieniecki, M. Pawlak (eds.) Praktyki integracji. Doświadczenia i perspektywy [Practice of integration. The evidences and perspectives]. Warsaw: Caritas, p.129.

147 discrimination. The activities undertaken by the Centre included courses and training, the organization of Advisory Center for Migrants and Refugees and providing assistance and intervention in critical situations. The courses conducted included career counseling, training in writing resumes and preparing for job searching. The courses were tailored to the needs of foreigners. One of the most interesting courses was for opening their own business because it is the easiest way for foreigners to find a job in Poland. This project was used as a good practice for other projects implemented in Poland in the following years.

Summary

To summarize the analysis of the education system in Poland as it addresses issues related to adult migrants, it should be emphasized that its development took place mostly during the last decade after Poland’s accession to the EU. However, there are still many gaps and weaknesses that require a more active role and more institutional engagement at different levels representing the public (state) sector, local government and non-governmental sector. It is necessary to develop a long- term strategy for developing the integration policy of foreigners and its framework for action in the field of education. This strategy should be based on the experiences of other countries and the potential implementation of proven programs and practices. The exchange of experiences between countries such as Poland, which are in the initial phase of developing an integration and education policies for migrants, and those EU nations that already have long-term experience in this area is urgently needed and important. One of the main gaps to be filled is the continuing poor access for foreigners to language courses public and free (or where foreigners are only charged a nominal sum). Polish language proficiency is a key determinant for finding migrants in Polish society and the Polish labor market, as well as being a necessary element in the process of acquiring Polish citizenship. Another weakness is the low quality of learning opportunities for migrants, its geographical limitation to the big cities and the lack of elements of intercultural education in the school system. Another important weakness is the insufficient cooperation of various entities and actors at the national and local level (administration, local authorities, NGOs, migrant associations). There is no institution supervising and coordinating the development of educational activities

148 aimed at migrants which are implemented in practice by many different actors. In practice, educational activities targeted to adult immigrants in Poland are carried out mainly by NGOs and financed from European funds. One can observe a certain vicious circle: NGOs implement educational programs, because those offered by state institutions are rare and inadequate, making them the most active player in this area, while state institutions feel therefore exempt from the obligation to take an increased role in this area which is dominated by NGOs. Another loophole, which requires the adoption of specific measures is validation of professional qualifications. I In Poland official determination of qualifications of foreigners is a lengthy and, sometimes also, a costly process. To date, Poland has not developed an integration strategy and adult education of migrants can be defined as selective and limited. Integration activities provided by the state are addressed only to select groups of foreigners (refugees and foreign family members of repatriates), leaving out other groups, often more numerous and demanding of integration programs, such as migrant workers and members of their families. It is also difficult to talk about the system's features and universal access to the education system (formal and informal). In analyzing the current formal and legal solutions for the education system (public and private) available to adult migrants in Poland and its functioning in practice, three main areas should be pointed out. These are: improving the availability and quality of educational offer, the organization of language courses and the development of guidance and training for foreigners. Solving these issues is crucial for the functioning of foreigners in Polish society and in the labour market. . They are also essential for the integration process and require active measures from the state.

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SPAIN CHAPTER 1: The Spanish migration background

Overview of the Situation of Immigration Dynamics and Migration Policies expectancy and good education Over the years, Spain has dealt and health level of the country. with high rates of immigration During the year of 2009, the and a large immigrant number of immigrants began to population. This trend has stabilize, and in 2015 the increased slightly since the 90s number of foreigners decreased until 2009. The reasons for by 229,207 people, while the immigration to Spain was due to, number of Spaniards increased among other things, the level of by 156,872 people (INE, 2015). human development, These variations are shown in particularly the high life the Table 1:

Population of Population in Population in Variation Spain 01/01/2014 01/01/2015 (%) Total 46.512.199 46.439.864 -0,16 population Spaniards 41.835.140 41.992.012 0,37 Foreigners 4.677.059 4.447.852 -4,90 Table 1. Source: National Statistics Institute, 2015.

The graph in Figure 1 shows the of Spanish people and foreigners change in the number since 2005 until the present.

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Figure 1: Changes in Immigrant population relative to Spanish population between 2005 and 2015. . Source: Statistics National Institute of Statistics.

The decline in the foreign governments had approved population is reflected in the extraordinary regulatory decrease of 101,068 foreigners processes, all of which led to a in the Social Security register and massive increase in applications, an increase of 82,530 of non- which could not be approved. Spanish EU citizens with family Therefore a plan was adopted, in members identified with non-EU which a variety of actions were nations. In the same year (2015), contemplated including 205,807 residents acquired regulatory, technical and Spanish nationality. This fact is management rationalization, made possible due to the “Plan leading to the digitization of Intensivo de tramitación de records and electronic expedientes de Nacionalidad” processing in order to speed up (Intensive Programme for the adoption process and to processing nationality requests), implement the legislation. through the Resolution of 6 April According to the data collected 2015. by the National Institute of The need for this plan was due to Statistics during 2013 and 2014, the fact that since 1995 the the main nationalities of the number of immigrants who foreign immigrants were wanted to obtain Spanish Romanian (with 29,968 arrivals nationality grew and successive in Spain during 2014), Moroccan

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(20,163 arrivals) and Italian (24.0%) were the countries with (14,955 arrivals). Among the 15 the largest relative increases in nations with the highest the number of arrivals to Spain immigration flow, Ukraine (41.2 (National Institute of Statistics, percent more than in 2013), 2015). Venezuela (34.9%) and Romania

BOX 12: Data of legal immigrants in Spain

According to the Permanent Observatory for Immigration (2015), the number of legal immigrants in Spain, foreigners with registration certificate or residence card stood at 4,925,089 as of 31 December 2014. Foreign nationals’ access to residence in Spain is defined by two legislative procedures:  The EU scheme is the basis for determining the legal status of foreigners. this applies to nationals of countries in the European Union and countries from other states that are party to the Agreement on the European Economic Area (Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway) and the Swiss Conference as well as their families and the families of Spaniards who are nationals of third countries.

On 31 December 2014, the number of EU citizen residents in Spain amounted to 2,403,127 and 370,580 in the case of family members that included third country nationals in Spain. Thus, the total number of foreigners from European Union countries stood at 2,773,707 residents. There has been an increase of 82,530 community residents (3.07%) annually. Romania was the country of origin for the largest number of immigrants with a total of 953,183 (i.e., 34.37% of the total number of foreigners). The highest absolute increases were observed in Romania, Italy, UK, France and Germany.  The General Board is the legal organization applicable to nationals of third countries, unless by reason of their relationship they can be processed through the Community Regime.

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The continent with the largest presence of nationals in Spain is Africa; this represents 44.95% of all foreigners in the country. The African country where most of the immigrants to Spain come from is Morocco,

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with 734,297 Moroccans, i.e., accounting for 75.96% of all African immigrants. Central and South America account for 31.15 percent of all foreigners in Spain. Ecuador (172,577), Bolivia (104,463) and Colombia (101,782) together account for 56.55 percent of the total number of immigrants from South America. The Asian continent is in third place with 361,554 foreigners, i.e. 16.81% of the total. Every other foreigner from Asia in this regime is a national of China which comprises 51.83 percent of Asian residents. Nationals from other European countries accounted for 6.21% of all foreigners in this regime. These include nationals of Ukraine (76,059) and Russia (33,709), which together account for 82.25 percent of immigrants of this area. North America represents a 0.84 percent, with a total of 17,974 immigrants, of which 10,832 are US nationals.

Figure 2: Nationality of foreigners residing in Spain shown by Geographic Area.. Source: Permanent Inmigration Observatory. Foreign residents in Spain, 2014.

Catalonia, where the percentage of foreigners exceeds 15% of the local population of the Another issue to remark is how autonomous region. Moreover, the foreign population is the number of foreigners is distributed in Spain, since there higher in certain areas such as are significant differences big cities, islands and the Spanish between regions. There are Mediterranean Coast, while several regions, e.g., Balearic other areas such as the Islands, Murcia, Valencia and peninsular northwest and less

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populated municipalities in the percentage of foreign population interior have lower percentages by province according to data of foreigners. In Figure 3 you can from the National Institute of see a map that shows the Statistics (2011).

Figure 3: Percent of foreigners by province.1. Source: Statistics National Institute, 2011. To conclude, we can say that distribution by region, it is according to Maria Dolores observed that foreigners tend to Garcia Barrera (2009), the causes settle in areas that have greater of migration to Spain are economic dynamism. different: economic dynamism has been visibly evident since the introduction of the euro and the appeal that this entails for migrants from Latin American The development of countries; linguistic and cultural immigration policies proximity of Latin American countries; geographical In Spain, legislation on proximity to North African immigration127 began with the countries near Spain. Spanish Constitution of 1978, . Regarding immigrant which stated in Article 149 that

127 For more, see: http://extranjeros.empleo.gob.es/es/normativ a/index.html

155 the State has exclusive created, a year later the competence to legislate and International Commission on determine nationality, Immigration was created and in immigration status, refugee and 1994 the first Plan for the Social asylum statusArticle number Integration of Immigrants was 13.1 established that foreigners approved, which incorporated would enjoy the public freedoms the Forum for the Integration of guaranteed and established by New Immigrants and the treaties and the law. Permanent Observatory of According to Delgado (2002: Immigration to Spain. 110), "although an upward trend Royal Decree 155/1996 of 2 is seen in the number of foreign February was the first to residents from 1978, when the introduce the permanent Spanish Constitution was residence permit and regulated adopted, it represents a the right to family reunification. negligible proportion in terms of Moreover, its third transitional population problems.” provision opened a third As Conejero (2012: 9) highlights, regulation: 24,691 irregular the migration issue has been migrants were regularized, with observed only by NGOs until the permits that were distributed as first law regulating this follows: work and residence phenomenon in Spain was permits (17,676) and residence passed. Organic Law 7/1985 of 1 permits (7,015). July on the Rights and Freedoms WWe should note two important of Foreigners in Spain, laws in the general framework of commonly referred to as the legislation concerning immigrant Aliens Act, as its title suggests, status in Spain : the Organic Law reveals the way in which this 4/2000 of 11 January on the subject matter was discussed rights and freedoms of and also reveals the ignorance foreigners in Spain and their surrounding the phenomenon of social integration, which has immigration at the time. been amended by other decrees; Until then, there were only a few the Royal Decree 1800/2008 of 3 regulations controlling the November regarding the conditions of entry and the implementation of the Royal granting of work and residence Decree-Law 4/2008 of 19 permits. September which allows advance payment and In 1991 the Foreigners’ Office cumulative unemployment and Migration Board was benefits to foreign workers who

156 have lost their job in Spain and To other regulations governing voluntarily return to their international mobility: Order ESS countries of origin. / 1571/2014 of 29 August which In 2005, the Support Fund for the established the amount of fees Reception, Integration and for processing administrative Educational Support of authorizations for international Immigrants and the Forum for mobility; and the Law 14/2013 the Social Integration of that supports entrepreneurs Immigrants, a collective body of and internationalization. consultation, information and ORegulations concerning the counseling (it is attached to the citizens of the European Union: General Directorate for the Royal Decree 240/2007 of 16 Integration of Immigrants) were February, on the entry, free created. movement and residence in Within the Secretariat of State Spain of citizens of the Member for Immigration and Emigration, States of the European Union there are also other corporate and other States party to the bodies such as the High Council Agreement on the European on Immigration Policy, the Economic Area. Permanent Immigration s for the reference to asylum Observatory and the Inter- legislation, Spain has the Law Ministerial Commission on 12/2009 of 30 October Immigration. The Superior regulating the right of asylum Council on Immigration Policy is and subsidiary protection; and the official body for coordination Royal Decree 203/1995 of 10 and cooperation between the February, approving the central government, the implementation regulation of autonomous communities and Law 5/1984 of 26 March local governments in activities regulating Refugee Status and affecting the policy of integrating the Right to Asylum a, amended immigrants. This Council by Law 9/1994 of 19 May. manages the Fund to support the There are several decrees reception and integration of regulating the free movement of immigrants and educational workers within the Union: the support. The Strategic Plan for creation of a European Agency Citizenship and Integration also for the Management of approved a budget of 2,000 Operational Cooperation at the million euros for the period of External Borders of the Member 2006-2009. (Conejero 2012: 18). States of the European Union which established the model of a

157 uniform format for residence Immigration and Emigration, an permits for third-country organ of the Ministry of nationals, drew the list of third Employment and Social Security. countries whose nationals are It supervises the Forum for the subject to visa requirements Social Integration of Immigrants, when crossing the external as an organ of consultation, borders and the list of third information and advice on the countries whose nationals are integration of immigrants. The exempt from that requirement council of advice is comprised of and a uniform format for visas is representatives of the established. government, major immigrant As regards asylum, the European associations, NGOs, trade unions Union highlights Regulation No and most representative 604/2013 of the European businesses and experts. The Parliament. The Council of 26 autonomous communities have June 2013 established the also created their own advisory criteria and mechanisms for forum (Alemán and Alonso, determining criteria that the 2012). Member State is responsible for Nowadays, the policy of examining an application for integrating immigrants carried international protection lodged out by the General Secretariat of in one of the Member States by Immigration and Emigration and a third-country national or a the Migration Board, aims to stateless person. promote the full integration of foreigners into Spanish society, Migrant Integration within a framework of Policies coexistence of identities and cultures limited only with At the state level, the state respect to the Constitution and immigration policy is attributed the law. to the Secretary of State for

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BOX 13: Funding

The Migration Board (General Secretariat for Immigration and Emigration) holds annual award grants for social non-profit organizations aimed at funding programs that promote social and labor integration of the immigrant population and covering various aspects:

 Comprehensive reception programs for the provision of basic needs and to support the integration of immigrants.  Programs financed by the European Social Fund under the "Anti- Discrimination" in employment program which encourages the incorporation of quality systems for the training and development of professionals and volunteers; awareness and advocacy programs of equal treatment and non- discrimination in the workplace  Programs financed by the European Fund for the Integration of Third-Country Nationals such as introductory comprehensive reception, first programs for care, guidance, counseling, and extracurricular education; programs aimed at promoting inclusion, promotion and prevention of health, encouraging participation, to promote equal treatment and non-discrimination in the host society with some programs aimed specifically at women.  Comprehensive intervention programs aimed at neighborhoods which have a significant presence of immigrants and designed to promote the integration of third-country nationals population, encourage dialogue, peaceful coexistence, social inclusion and diversity management in neighborhoods with social, demographic and economic characteristics and housing that could hinder a standardized social life. These programs are also financed by the European Fund for the Integration of Third-Country Nationals.

AGrants: there are two different could implement comprehensive types: programs designed to promote the integration of third-country  Grants to non-profit entities for nationals, dialogue, peaceful comprehensive intervention coexistence, social inclusion and programs in neighborhoods. diversity management in The purpose of these grants is neighborhoods with a significant that non-profit organizations, presence of immigrants. The NGOs and international programs are financed by the organizations based in Spain,

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Fund for Refugee Immigration programs to identify best and Integration. practices. The goal is to implement comprehensive programs that In the legal framework, the Law include character measures in 4/2000 of January 11 regarding the field of social integration, the rights and freedoms of aimed at all citizens and adjusted foreigners in Spain and their to the area where they social integration is most reside. These programs require a frequently referenced. good knowledge of the reality of Given the legal framework and the residential areas in which with the main objective to they aim to intervene and to strengthen social cohesion, the design plans for feasible Council of Ministers approved proposed actions that link the Strategic Plan for Citizenship multiple aspects of the and Integration 2011-2014 characteristics of the immigrants (Ministry of Labour, 2011). This and residents of the area that plan is supported by the process may be construed as obstacles to of consensus-based integration. development, having as  Grants to nonprofit participants the autonomous organizations for programs in regions, municipalities, social the area of the integration of agents, immigrant associations, immigrants. non-governmental organizations These are the programs aimed at and experts in the field of helping immigrants acquire academia. In addition, prior to its knowledge and skills necessary finalization, it was subject to the to function in Spanish society process of debate open to all (information, guidance and citizens and has been submitted advice on the host society, for consideration to consultative including programs for learning bodies on integration. Spanish or, when appropriate This plan was based on the regionally used languages. There assessment of the Strategic Plan are also programs for youth and 2007-2010 and was influenced children in the education system, by the changes in the migration specific programs on health, cycle in Spain, in the legal and programs aimed at specific regulatory framework of needs of women, promotion of immigration and diversity equal treatment and non- management and European discrimination in society and policies on immigration and asylum.

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The action areas are divided into of immigrants based on the specific issues (reception, equality of all citizens, an issue employment and economic that is central in the current development, education, health, political atmosphere.s. If we social services and inclusion, have a look at the Spanish mobility and development) and context from the international cross-sectional issues perspective, our analysis (coexistence, equal treatment supports this positive perception and combating discrimination, of the work in progress. children, youth and families, In fact, based on the results civic education, participation reflected in the Index for and gender). Immigrant Integration Policy128 It is important to stress that the (MIPEX, 2015), Spain is among European Fund for the the 10 countries where Integration of Third-Country immigrants benefit from Nationals among its specific favorable policies, together with objectives for the period of Belgium and the Netherlands, 2007-2013 (FEI) emphasizes the North America (Canada and the exchange of information, best United States), the Nordic practices and cooperation countries (Finland, Norway and between the Member States; Sweden) and Southern Europe development, implementation, (Italy and Portugal). monitoring and evaluation of policies and measures for the Changes in the context of the integration of third-country country are reflected by the fact nationals. The feasible actions that Spain has been a major for achieving these goals include destination country since 1990's, developing indicators and with 15% of residents born benchmarks for measuring abroad but it has low numbers progress at the national level and of 2nd generation immigrants; developing tools for monitoring thus, indicating the recent high and evaluation of high-quality rate of increase in immigration systems of integration policies to Spain. Also with the current and measures. (García, 2013: 8). economic crisis/austerity As we can see from these situation Spain has experienced strategies, initiatives and one of the greatest declines and programs, Spain is making a big now lowest levels of effort to achieve the integration employment in the EU. Despite

128 For more, see http://www.mipex.eu/spain

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the crisis, public attitudes in ES set-backs during the crisis may are still very positive towards have undone some basic immigrants (84% of nationals achievements that guarantee think legal immigrants must have equal protections for all the same rights as nationals, vulnerable groups in Spanish Eurobarometer 2012). Finally, society without providing responding to the crisis, the adequate replacements (e.g. number of new arrivals has labour market integration for decreased and shifted from non- unemployed non-EU citizens, EU labour immigrants to health entitlements, National immigration based on family Integration Fund, consistent reunion of children and spouses support in and outside school for of former labour and regularised pupils, Education for Citizenship migrants who want to settle and Human Rights). Data and long-term in ES or move on to evaluations are still being work elsewhere in the EU. collected in Spain, so it is difficult to say more about the The conclusion of the MIPEX effectiveness of many analysis of the 8 areas integration policies. monitored129in Spain is that, despite the crisis, many policies Identifying Educational were maintained and benefited Needs of Adult Migrants immigrants' social integration during tough times: the right to The results of some recent reunite with family, become studies, which may assist in long-term residents and, for identifying the profiles of adult those who arrive from countries immigrants who apply for with historic ties, to rapidly training educational programs integrate into the Spanish are given below. democratic community as full citizens. However, inaction and

129 MIPEX analyses 8 policies areas of reunion, access to nationality, health, integration: labour market mobility, education permanent residence and anti-discrimination. of children, political participation, family

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BOX 14: The case of female migrant students

In 2004, with the aim of meeting the needs, motivations and demands of immigrant female students in the centers of Adult Education and the satisfaction of the students in relation to the education they receive, a research project was developed using primarily qualitative instruments accompanied by quantitative. The fieldwork was assisted by the DGs responsible for Adult Education. It was carried out in Valencia Aragon with two “units” (or samples) and three units were studied in the community of Madrid. It was observed that there were more and more people over 16 years in the training centers and Adult Education programs. These centers faced the challenge of welcoming and responding to their educational needs. The research results cannot be generalized to the entire population, since the sample taken is not representative but it does allow us to obtain knowledge of the general problems facing the adult immigrant population. Elejabeitia (2006).

According to the author, the learning. Whatever their needs objective needs of the immigrant and their demands, the women population have focused on immigrants must adjust their "formal regularization," requirements to those offered at acquisition of the language of each center. The question in the country of their destination, Adult Education is complicated a job or sufficient economic because its original offerings means, an address and to be were designed for Spanish literate. However, different people and not for the academic situations, in this case immigrant population, and is that of immigrant women, leads also complicated by the lack of to educational needs that are protection and hence safety in beyond literacy or language which they live and which learning. Hence, the centers also hinders both the mobility of offer immigrant women access women particularly at night and to primary and secondary their confidence in expressing studies, vocational training and their needs. . non-formal teaching and

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Immigrant students are a strongly striated group: striated The profile of migrant students by age, gender, by culture, family in Adult Education centers. In situation, and work situation. 2007, the University of Lleida They are further striated by developed a study in which a diverse personal and migratory questionnaire was administered experiences and aims: one such to 52 teachers working in 30 need is to address the economic different adult immigrant needs of the family they left centers. The questionnaire were behind. Often only the married about aspects related with the couple migrate and relatives in characteristics of the centers the country of origin bring up where adult education is taught, some or all of their children. . the profile of students receiving Immigrants are also striated by such literacy and the profile of the vital moment when they teachers (Lapresta, Garreta, migrate and combine in a single Llevot, 2007). Based on the knot their apprehensions and results obtained in this fears, hopes and expectations. investigation, it can be seen that They are striated by the situation the characteristics of pupils in which they live: some come enrolled in literacy programs for alone others with family, some adults: 57.70% were born in with children others without; Spain and 42.30% outside of some have documentation and Spain. This latter group includes others don’t; some have jobs and those of North African origin (15, others are unemployed; some 60%), Latin America (8.30%) have minimum social networks origin, sub-Saharan origin while others have extensive ones (7.30%), non-EU European origin with other migrants either from (3.90%) and Asian origin (1 %). their country of origin or in the Considering the age, of migrant region or who share a common students, 34.30% are under the language and culture. age of 25 and 34.30% between The combination of all these 26 and 35 years. Most immigrant elements entails very different students (72.70%) had arrived in and at the same time greatly Spain in the last five years. changing situations among Within the training demands immigrant women and requested by immigrant determines in a personal way the students according to the study needs of each of them or, in each cited above, 73% were in case, those needs that are most language learning courses and pressing. far below that was computer

164 learning and English at (6.30%). integration, but the educational Vocational training (4.20%), level they have and the work general literacy (4.20%), experience they bring from their knowledge of society (2.10%) country isn’t suitable to apply for and cooking courses (2.10%) a job. The study stresses the were also courses of interest to great eventuality that marks students. their employment. (Grande and A conclusion of this study was Ojeda, 2012: 35) the observation that there were two parallel systems operating: Spanish courses for immigrants. one under public governance De la Flor (2009), in his article on and other independent of it; Spanish courses for immigrants, there appeared also a mismatch writes that knowing the between the two. The system language of the environment in not dependent on public which one lives is synonymous administration has more with participating in society. volunteers, fewer resources and Mastering the language is basic is devoted more to serve recent to not being isolated. In turn, he immigrants. explains that Spanish programs for foreigners contain common In 2008, the Board of Social themes regardless of whether Affairs of the City of Jaen they are addressed to published a research study immigrants. Due to the scarcity conducted by Belén Agrela, the of resources, and the professor at the University of precariousness of materials, Jaen, on "foreign immigrant responsibility for how to address population in Jaen. Needs and the issues and the decision to proposals". This is a qualitative add or avoid any incorporation study, based on individual and of resources into the course falls group interviews, and describes squarely on teachers. For the in some depth and detail the teachers working in classrooms needs and concerns of the for immigrants to Spain, immigrant population residing in language is viewed as the main Jaen. The administrative driver of integration. situation is the main concern, in some cases they need to As we have seen above, Spain regularize their situation. The has a significant number of integration into the labor market immigrants. However, the is one of the fundamental immigrant population varies elements for achieving social tremendously in demographic,

165 socio-psychological, and cultural difficulty reading-writing or with variables and, therefore, they numerical calculations; they may also vary in terms of educational not have a degree in or much needs. First we should knowledge of digital literacy and differentiate between using new technologies; they immigrants from developed may be self-taught without any countries and those from formal training, etc. Considering underdeveloped or developing the above, we can say that the countries. At the same time, it is educational needs that may important to know the culture of present adult immigrants, origin and that there are cultural among others, are: language; differences in how the world and cultural competency in the the predisposition toward culture of the country of learning and daily work is destination (ie., Spain); interpreted. Keep in mind that in knowledge of the country's order to define the particular educational system; preparation educational needs of each for the workplace; technological immigrant student, numerous knowledge; access to medical, individual, social and cultural police, and support services; factors are involved. knowledge of regulations, Within the set of educational procedures and services that needs, the main one is the regulate public life; and basic knowledge of the Spanish social skills. language, as this need affects From a pragmatic point of view, most of the other needs, it is generally accepted that because language competency linguistic integration is the first facilitates integration, as noted step for school, employment and before it is integration. We also social integration of immigrants. have to consider levels of In the earliest stages of linguistic competency in all of its education (kindergarten and aspects (oral, written, and primary) learning the language various relevant socio-linguistic of the host country is by codes). immersion and / or through To meet the needs any adult compensatory educational immigrant presents, you have to measures (including know the level of training they standardization of the language have already had. There are program design, pedagogical many possibilities in this respect: support, provision of services for they may not have been their support…). previously enrolled; may have With regards to secondary

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education, the issue is more missing “pedagogy in the host complicated and we have to language”. (Marti and Miller, recognize that we are still 2003).

CHAPTER 2: Adult migrant education in Spain

The Spanish Adult Education System and Infrastructure

To discuss the Spanish not replace, but it is rather a educational system, we must modification of the Organic Law refer to the Organic Law 8/2013, 2/2006 of 3 May, of Education. of 9 December, which targets the Figure 4130 shows the complete improvement of educational educational stages in the Spanish quality (LOMCE). That law does education system.

130 The picture is adapted and translated from http://www.mecd.gob.es/educacion- the original. For more details, see: mecd/mc/lomce/inicio.html

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Figure 2: The Spanish Education System. Source: http://www.mecd.gob.es/educacion- mecd/mc/lomce/lomce/itinerarios.html

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As shown in Figure 4, to Lifelong Learning (LL) is compulsory education ranges provided, among those features from 6 to 16 years. At After age pertinent to migrants are: Adult 16 adult education begins. training in Ceuta and Melilla, distance learning, possibilities The education system is for obtaining the titles of ESO comprised of a non-compulsory and Bachelor, Educational kindergarten and then free Resources, Awards and grants compulsory education covers for activities that promote from 6 years to 16 years, which learning throughout life and includes primary education (6 reduce the early leaving of years -12 years) and compulsory school. secondary education (12 years - 16 years), after reaching 16 years When at the website of the of age, the student may receive Ministry of Education, Culture a degree in Secondary and Sports, there is a section Education. After that non- specifically designed for adult compulsory education begins, education. which may include either Initial Vocational training or High In that paragraph the meaning of School. adult education is defined as follows: Everyone should have Spain has a new a Strategic Plan the opportunity to train over life, for Lifelong Learning (Ministry of inside and outside the education Education, Culture and Sport, system, in order to acquire, 2015). This plan proposes action update, complete and extend lines and objectives marked for their skills, knowledge, abilities, the period between 2014 and aptitudes and skills for personal 2020. Its purpose is to mobilize and professional development. education and training and thus to contribute to the Europe 2020 In short, it means the acquisition Strategy. of personal and professional skills as critical goals that when In the Spanish Ministry of achieved, improve the quality of Education website, there is a life. section devoted to lifelong learning. This Ministry is Through this portal for responsible for the training information and guidance is offered to adults and on this presented various training page useful information related

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options and existing paths eventually create a space for described as follows: self-learning which makes possible both the autonomous  he tool “Find out”, which is preparation of free access tests designed to accompany people and obtain official titles related through the process of guidance to such areas as the and counseling. It is also development of materials and intended to show the variety of resources for collaboration. itineraries. It is an informative complement and provides personalized and comprehensive  Information about the guidance. Interested persons can educational opportunities contact a network of counselors available and the connections who are in public institutions between the different teaching related to education, levels of the educational system, employment and social affairs. designed to be compatible with the different personal and professional situations of  Teaching materials include tools citizens. Requirements, for the development of duration, structure, outputs and educational content and centers where they are taught: orientation portals and other every key aspect is shown resources available to students, including requirements, families, teachers and, in duration, structure, professional general, for all those who need outings and institutes. to learn or accompany the learning of others. The aim is to

The pedagogical structure ofSpain’s national adult education system is described in Table 2 below:

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TEACHINGS OF NATIONAL ADULT EDUCATION SYSTEM

-Initial teaching in presence modality -Secondary Education for Adults (ESPA) in presence modality -Secondary Education for Adults (ESPA) distance learning

university university -Free tests for obtaining the Certificate in Secondary

- Education -Upper Secondary School in presence modality education -Upper Secondary School distance learning -Free test for obtaining the title of Bachelor

Academic non Academic -Test Access to University (PAU) -Test Access to University (PAU) for over 25s/for over 40 years/ for over 45 years

-Basic Vocational Training Classroom -Entrance examination to Intermediate Training Course - Intermediate Training Course in presence modality -Intermediate Training Course distance learning -Free test for obtaining the title of Technical Media -Entrance examination to Higher Level Training Course -Higher Level Training Course in presence modality or Vocational training Vocational distance learning -Free test for obtaining the title of Senior Technician -Certificate of Vocational Competence

-Official teaching in presence modality or distance University

Degree -Official Master's Degree teaching in presence modality -Official teaching distance learning Master's Degree

teachings -Doctorate -Graduate and university own titles

University academic academic University -Graduate distance -Senior university programs

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-Professional Plastic Arts and Design (CF Intermediate) -Professional Plastic Arts and Design (CF Grado Superior) gements -Sports Education Intermediate or Higher Level -Art Education Professional Music and Dance -Higher Artistic Education: Music, Dance, Dramatic Arts, Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Design and

Special arran Special Visual Arts

-Language Education in presence modality. -Language education distance learning -Free test language proficiency certificate

Language Language Instruction -That's Inglés! -Cervantes Institute

-Aula Mentor -Open Training programs modality in adult facilities -Training Programs Open distance learning in adult facilities -Adult Education

Open Training Open -Courses massive and open online (MOOCs)

-Military lessons for army and navy -NCO military teachings

Military Military teachings -Military lessons for Official

Table 2. Elaborated. Source: http://www.mecd.gob.es/alv/ensenanzas.html Foreigners under 16 who are in courses, to obtain the Spain have the right and duty to corresponding qualifications, education, including access to and apply for scholarships under basic, free and compulsory the same conditions as Spanish education. Those over 18 years nationals. (Alemán and Alonso, are also entitled to post- 2012). compulsory education; this right As shown in Table 2, there are includes access to the public many educational opportunities system of grants. Foreign for adults, but as we shall see in residents over eighteen years old the following pages the real have the right to access other possibility of access to adult post-compulsory educational immigrants are not as large as

172 was is theoretically presented; the integration and education of this is particularly so, if we adult immigrants. consider the difficulties that In the Organic Law 4/2000 of adult migrants have. 11th January on the rights and freedoms of foreigners in Spain Adult Migrant Education and their social integration we Policies find the right to education developed in Article 9 described According to Article 27 of the as follows: Spanish constitution of 1978, 1. Foreigners under sixteen have "Everyone has the right to the right and duty to education, education" and also "Education including access to basic, free shall be directed to the full and compulsory development of human education. Foreigners under personality on respect for eighteen are also entitled to democratic principles of post-compulsory education. This coexistence and the rights and right includes obtaining freedoms fundamental", "The appropriate academic public authorities guarantee the qualifications and access to the right of everyone to education, public system of grants and through general education subsidies under the same programming, with the effective conditions as Spanish nationals. participation of all sectors In the case of reaching the age of concerned and the creation of eighteen years during the school educational centers". year, they remain entitled to Through the Organic Law completion. 9/1992, of December 23rd, 2. Foreigners over eighteen who devolution to autonomous are in Spain are entitled to communities, which gained education in accordance with the autonomy by way of the Article provisions of the education 143 of the Constitution is legislation. In any case, foreign granted as a right. Specifically, residents over eighteen years old the attribution for legislative have the right to access other development and educational stages post- implementation of education in obligatory, to obtain the all its extension, levels and corresponding qualifications, degrees, modalities and and the public system of specialties are transferred. That scholarships under the same is, each region develops its own conditions as Spanish nationals. educational programs to ensure

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3. The public authorities shall of age, and teaching with promote that foreigners can telematics support (mentor receive teachings for their social classrooms). The actions carried integration. out for the development of 4. Foreign residents in Spain who training programs takes place in have children in their care at public schools whose ownership compulsory school age must belongs to the autonomous prove that schooling, in a report regions and municipalities or issued by the competent regional associations of municipalities authorities, applications for that signed the agreements. In renewal of its authorization or in Madrid, there are 69 special its request for long-term schools for adults. residence.

Therefore, adult immigrants are  Refugee reception centers entitled to access to national (CAR). They are public facilities education program throughout aimed at providing life. In other words, they have accommodation, food and the exact same rights to lifelong urgent counseling and primary learning programs as Spaniards as well as other social services to do. facilitate the coexistence and integration in the community to people seeking asylum in Spain Infrastructure of Adult or obtain refugee status or Migrant Education displaced in Spain who lack the financial means to meet their The centers where adult needs and those of your education is taught to family. In Spain, there are four immigrants are: refugee shelters statewide in  Centres for Adult Education Vallecas (Madrid), Alcobendas (CEPA). Centers and classrooms (Madrid), Mislata (Valencia) and for adult generally offer the Sevilla. following lessons: basic The stay at the centers will last education, Spanish for six months, unless prior to the immigrants, workshops and course of this period the initial vocational training administrative record is programs, professional technical resolved. In the case of refusal, lessons, preparation for the beneficiary will have fifteen entrance examination and days to leave the center. training courses for University Exceptionally and for reasons of for those who are over 25 years

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necessity, following a report of budding phenomenon. CC.OO. the technical team the school was then the first organization to management may propose to built a specific instrument for the General Direction of information and advice for both Integration of Immigrants Spanish and foreign authorization, one time only, for workers. Today, the CITE have an extension of stay until great social prestige and have notification of the resolution of consolidated 136 offices located the filing for asylum. Its duration throughout Spain. CITE will depend on the individual professionals are equipped skills characteristics of each case. The to receive and serve workers services offered include: free of charge. Migrant workers temporary accommodation and also visit CITE offices for support: information and advice information, guidance and on new situations: guidance for advice on all aspects that affect inclusion in the educational, them, whether by application of health and social system: the Aliens Act and its psychological care: social care implementing regulations or and specialized management of other legislative issues related to complementary economic aid: migration issues. development of courses for  Vocational training centers are learning basic language and under the Ministry of Labour and social skills: counseling and Social Affairs. mediation for vocational training  Civic centers dependent and job placement: occupational municipalities. An example and leisure activities and free might be belonging to the time: awareness and municipality of Valladolid, which dissemination of the CAR action also includes adult education targeting the host society. civic center.  Religious entities, such as  Associations, foundations, Caritas (catholic), which has NGOs and social initiative. An training centers intended for example would be Accem literacy, language, and school (information retrieved from reinforcement for the continued ACCEM website, October 5) training of professionals. which is an NGO dedicated to  Labor organizations, such as improving the lives of people Information Centres to Foreign who are more vulnerable in our Workers (CITE) were created society situation and especially over 20 years ago, when refugees, migrants and people at immigration in Spain was a risk of social exclusion. Since

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February 1991, Accem is independent institutions and registered as a Non-Profit centers target particular Association at the Ministry of initiatives which can serve to Interior with the number ID of give them an overview of the 97,521. However, its background situation. This more general and experience in the field of overview can serve as a support and assistance to framework for analyzing the refugees and migrants can be situation and needs of adult traced back to the 1950s. immigrants. Below some of Training is one of the these initiatives are foundations in the daily work of highlighted.The Institute Accem for social integration of Cervantes offers courses of migrant groups. Thanks to the Spanish as a foreign language training acquired, migrants in all its centers. It also has a increase their chances of finding Virtual Classroom through a job, a cornerstone in the which you can learn Spanish process of social integration of online through activities, refugees and immigrants. Accem forums, virtual tutors, chats has an important training and automatic tracking system. component adapted to the needs of people. It has  ACCEM offers many training comprehensive training programs; three of them are programs for immigrant women, described below: basic skills classes in the Castilian - The program of socio-labor language and culture etc. focuses on the integration of immigrants in Valladolid (Castilla Adult Migrant Education y León). This project is funded by Programmes and Methods Obra Social La Caixa. The program is aimed at increasing In Spain, there are no programs the employability of immigrants or general methods for the living in Valladolid. education of adult immigrants, - The Immigrant Education but there are some initiatives Program for adult is, devoted to undertaken by the institutions literacy in Spanish for social themselves. There are also integration (León, Castille and private centers that use different Leon). The objective of this tools, methods, materials, and program is to provide methodologies, but who do not immigrants with the necessary always respond to a common linguistic autonomy to also live legal framework. Rather these independent of outside support

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and communicate with the immigrant students by teachers general population easily. In the of Almeria, El Ejido and Cuevas classes the language system and (Andalusia). cultural issues are studied. Classes are divided into three levels: literacy, early and  Jclic: Spanish vocabulary by advanced. centers of interest. Prepared by - Socio-educational program for César Barbadillo Ramos, CRA immigrants’ training (Avilés, Alhándiga, The Maya-Salamanca Asturias). This program is funded (Castille and Leon). Interest by the Department of Social- fields are: media, transport, Welfare. The objective of this body, college, professions, program is to provide the animals etc. immigrant community of Aviles with comprehensive training  Social skills workshops offered resources and to provide useful by the Association “Cantabria tools in different areas of daily Welcomes”. The Association is a life that help migrants achieve civil, social and non-profit, Non- personal autonomy. The fields of Governmental Organization, health, housing, education, which is intended to employment, new technologies accommodate and to integrate and citizen participation are also immigrants into Cantabria of foci of this program. society both socially and legally. In their workshops, they focus on  Nahono is a method of literacy various areas of social life for immigrants of Arabic including the administrative language, developed by structure of Spain, rights and Professor Maria Eugenia Gomez duties as citizens, the health André, EPA public center (center system, legislation on of adult education and immigration, access to housing, promotion). The Regional the structure of the labor Government of Education and system, eating habits and so University Planning promotes on. Each workshop lasts 45 the publishing of the method. minutes and then includes a question and answer period of approximately equal length.  Spanish for you is a book with worksheets developed for

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CHAPTER 3: Developing an effective adult migrant education strategy

Challenges and Opportunities in the Adult Migrant Education

The main barrier that most adult acquire the rest of the curricular, immigrants face when they cultural, social and labor skills arrive in Spain is the language. necessary to live in Clearly, learning the official Spain. Teaching Spanish is a language of the country of great challenge when training destination is the first step adult immigrants. toward full socio-cultural As we have seen, there are integration. As we have seen differences in the rhythms and throughout this document, in forms of learning, depending on Spain there are programs to the country of origin. That is why overcome this language barrier, training is required to adapt to and all programs face this as the the specific characteristics of first point of intervention. Both each person, and it is, therefore, immigrant children and adults necessary to establish different need to learn the local language, levels of learning. and only after that can they

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BOX 15: Strategic trajectories of the Ministry

The training of citizens throughout life is one of the challenges of the political authorities. Education is the key to integration, coexistence and participation in the environment. The strategic trajectories of the Ministry are: - To provide widespread access to information, guidance and advice for all citizens who participate in lifelong learning - To improve the quality of lifelong learning - To encourage innovation - To adapt to the training of personal, social and labor supply needs of these citizens - To develop flexible systems and training pathways - To increase the percentage of citizens participating in educational activities and lifelong learning skills - To boost the effective stay of citizens in different forms of training

Specific actions that are being carried outare:

- TBoosting demand through - Educational action intended to providing information, guidance fit into labor market needs, and advice via the website of the detailing the level of Ministry of Education qualifications and skills acquired throughout life. through a national catalog. - The establishment of systems for - The recognition and disclosure of the validation of non-formal and actions taken by private entities informal learning for adults and and adult centers. also to access different levels of The objectives of the strategic qualifications and thereby plan for citizenship and further education trajectories of integration in the area of students. education are: - The improvement of the quality - To guarantee access and and effectiveness of training permanence in the educational through teacher training, system regardless of the origin of curriculum materials creation, citizens. self-assessment tools, etc. - To promote success at school (especially at compulsory levels)

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and to contribute to the the education and training of reduction of inequalities. immigrants. - To adapt and to strengthen the The assessment of that plan is a capacities of educational comprehensive, participatory institutions and communities to and formative assessment is foster the areas of social and performed in each of the areas intercultural coexistence. of action. Starting indicators are - To promote the integration of established (defining the starting schools with their environment position), progress indicators (to and community life. analyze and measure the yearly - To contribute to the civic progress), performance education of students to avoid or indicators (to analyze the drastically reduce incidents of effects) and impact indicators racism and xenophobia within are also present. the framework of a model of Through this plan an interim intercultural coexistence evaluation was carried out in founded on human rights. 2012 and an overall evaluation in - To strengthen the plurality of 2014. Finally, the Directorate of agents in the education system. Integration of Immigrants will - To improve procedures for prepare the report. professional recognition of Another issue to be assessed is qualifications and the Strategic Plan for Lifelong accreditations. Learning, in which adult education is included regardless Planning and Evaluating Adult sex, religion, culture, gender, Migrant Education Policies: etc. After that, we show Indicators of Development, evaluation indicators in each of Implementation and Evaluation the strategies mentioned above: 1. Widespread access to As we saw earlier, there is a information, guidance and national Strategic Plan for advice for all citizens to Citizenship and Integration participate in lifelong learning. 2011-2014. The plan envisages - Increase in the number of 2. Improving the quality of requests for information, lifelong learning. guidance and advice. - Increase in the number of - A number of new measures for educated professionals involved information, guidance and in specific training for lifelong advice have been proposed. learning.

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- A number of new planned tests due to easing criteria for actions aimed at improving the qualifying for them. quality of the educational - Improved performance of intervention. students participating in free - Increased rates of achieved tests. certifications and meeting 6. Increase the percentage of qualification criteria in courses citizens who participate in taught in the lifelong learning educational activities and program. lifelong learning skills levels of 3. Encourage innovation. these. - Develop a number of actions - Increase in the percentage of that recognize good practices, people participating in training innovation and are activities, both formal and non- transformative. formal. - Participation rates in teacher - Percentage of users who have training in new technologies and increased their level of innovative methodologies has qualification through increased. participation in educational - There has been an increase in activities (qualifications, the rate of new supplies for certifications and step to a teacher training. higher level). 4. Adapt the training to personal, 7. Boosting performance of social and labor supply of the citizens in different forms of citizens training. - Increased enrollment in - Increase in the number of training methods for specific shares created to enhance the groups with specific social, continuity of training. occupational or personal needs. - Decrease in those who drop out - Increased participation rates in of training course in the adult courses related to personal and education program. professional needs. - Decrease in number of - Completion rates in courses ineffective forms of training. related to personal and professional needs have also Moreover, each region conducts risen. its own assessments of plans and 5. Flexible systems and training programs carried out on the pathways integration and education of - Increase in the number of adult immigrants. The plans people involved taking the free must be based on the analysis of the initial situation, i.e., a first

181 analysis of needs and a plan to to collaboration between the provide solutions. After Administration and NGOs, in completion, the action plan must order to compensate for the promote a study showing differences between the two whether or not they have met types of organizations and the the objectives of the plan. actions carried out by them it is important to promote the Access to Quality Education achievement of common objectives, improve resources, To get a quality education it is training and thus the important to foster a culture of performance of both. equality among all citizens s we have seen, there are many regardless of race, religion, sex possibilities for adults, but the or age. Investing in education is disadvantages which immigrants considered an investment in the have and barriers to access to future, since education is the these programs and resources engine of the economy and of does not all them access to a social cohesion. national arena of genuine I Different regulations and plans equity. in the educational system are Also, after a literature review, intended to eradicate illiteracy, we can conclude that very few to suit the needs and try to solve studies analyze the quality of the the initial shortcomings of system of adult education, most migrants in order to integrate focus on results. On the other them into the system. hand, there is little research Do not forget that there is a focused on analyzing the correlation between low education of adult immigrants educational level and generally. There has only been unemployment. That is why some scatters research projects adult education, whether or not focused on specific groups. students are Spaniards or Ae We can conclude that easy immigrants, is a question not access to education is a necessity only educational in nature but for immigrants to have a good also for success in the labor chance at economic success and market. integrate fully in Spanish society. Collaboration between the Ultimately to achieve quality, a Ministry of Education, Culture system that addresses the needs and Sports with the autonomous of its recipients are required and regions to achieve the objectives must, therefore, be flexible and pursued is essential. In addition adapt to them. The

182 government's intentions are all strategies. Ultimately these must carried out by actual actions, promote and facilitate access to implemented through various educational training and programs and inclusion resources for immigrants.

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CONCLUSION

The detailed analysis of became members of the Union. migration policies and adult These countries face a growing migrant integration in Italy, number of immigrants, however, Cyprus, Lithuania, Malta, Poland they have rather young policies and Spain shows that some related to immigrants and their general trends and problems in education. Hence, some serious this field prevail. Education was weaknesses and obstacles occur mutually recognized as the main in their methods and measures. element of successful Poland is a transit country integration of immigrants and which has a homogenous the most important sphere that society. Therefore, migrant has to be developed. Although integration and adult migrant every country distinguished education policies are only at an particular features of their initial stage of development. migration system and policies, According to the MIPEX there are common issues that all evaluation, there are a lot of countries face and seek to find obstacles in this country that solutions for. It was mutually have to be faced by immigrants. recognized that one of the main The government is responsible reasons for the growth in for a lot of initiatives related to migration, followed by a need for this field but its actions are policies to integrate migrants rather passive. Non- into the country of their governmental organizations destination is in part due to the (NGOs) become main actors in creation of the European Union the implementation of and the Schengen Zone. In all integration and adult migrant countries concerned, it was also education policies, however, admitted that the EU not only their clout in changing the provides funding for migrant situation is. The main problems related projects, but also are related to accessibility of encourages society to education, recognition of understand the need of such previous qualifications (obtained policies. The greatest usually in the country of origin), development of migration and language courses and the issue migrant integration policies of obtaining a permit of were recognized once countries residence. The ‘good practices’

184 policy is maintained by the Card this tendency in the future is system which is a tool for expected to grow even faster. simplifying the procedures Due to this fact integration of associated with the arrival, stay immigrants is of vital importance and study of migrants in Poland. here and thus, a lot of policies As for Cyprus, this country is related to adult migrant expected to become more education are provided and attractive causing a bigger influx implemented. Italy encourages of immigrants. However, MIPEX the arrival of young people and evaluated Cyprus as not having a students. The government is favorable environment for responsible for education policy immigrants. On the one hand, and NGOs are also working in big problems surface in the field this field. Immigrants face of citizenship, the problems when it comes to implementation of policy that obtaining a permit of residence, facilitates the integration of recognition of personal migrants and which determine qualifications, accessing as well as shape the integration vocational training and of migrant children into the employment institutions that are public school system. Moreover, not working properly. They also limitations and hostile political lack knowledge of values, social forces prevail in the country. and institutional practices of Therefore, it is admitted that society at large. However, MIPEX Cyprus lacks a legal framework showed that there is a good for an adult migrant education environment for immigrants policy. On the other hand, the since Italy due in part to the Cyprus government not only flexible system of adult migrant admits the need for an adult education, local institutions, migrant education policy, but variety of courses and successful also is active in cooperating with project-based activities. NGOs on initiatives related to Furthermore, Italy is making immigrants. Cyprus is successful progress due to the return in implementing immigrant immigration policy, the credit integration policies at a system employed by the adult municipal level and involving migrant education system and teachers into the process which the rule that migrants are turns out to be a good practice. obliged to learn the native Italy is the country that has language. to deal with the biggest number Malta faces a growing of immigrants and the scale of number of immigrants not only

185 because of historical them with information and skills circumstances, but also because to enhance their chances at it became a member state of the achieving economic and social EU in 2004. The main problem success. Besides all the here is the temporality of mentioned problems and projects related to migrant challenges that Malta faces, the issues in which funding dries out good example of improving before the project is completed literacy can be found. or self-sustaining. The situation Spain can be maintained as is worsened by a complex a good example of migrants’ bureaucracy and discrimination integration and adults migrant in the society. Taken together education policies. This country local attitudes, the lack of finding has experienced a large number for projects, and the labyrinthine of immigrants even though it bureaucracy are big obstacles to faces a huge economic crisis. immigrants and hinder their MIPEX evaluated Spain with high successful integration into scores and thus its practices can Maltese society. Moreover, be perceived as a leading there are too strict rules related example for other countries. For to documents required from instance, programmes and immigrants and there are no language courses designed for specific measures for adult migrants are implemented migrant education. According to successfully. The regional adult MIPEX, Malta is evaluated as a migrant education system and bad country for immigrants. It the large number of scientific also has to be mentioned that studies are great facilitators in this country does not have a the process of integrating policy of adult migrant education immigrants. Moreover, Spain is and this likely results in even very successful at implementing more obstacles. The non- individual measures that match governmental sector is immigrants’ needs and recognized as an active player; encourages faster integration. however, NGOs are sometimes Furthermore, Spain has created incompetent since measures are a favorable environment for implemented by volunteers who asylum seekers. However, it has lack qualifications or skills. Also, to be admitted that Spain faces it was also noted that a more some serious challenges such as favorable environment was difficulties and uncertainty of created for refugees by NGOs adult migrant education, who protect them and provide limitations of citizenship and the

186 fact that the education system is organizations with no clear more suitable for Spanish frameworks that would allow for people. consistency in the workplace. As for Lithuania, It is Therefore, migrant’s needs are obvious that one of the main not matched and integration problems here is that policies becomes a huge challenge for and measures provided are not Lithuania. According to the implemented at the practical MIPEX evaluation, Lithuania has level. There are a large number not done enough to facilitate the of various documents and successful integration of strategies related to migrant migrants. Nevertheless, a integration, but usually, all of bewildering variety of successful them stay at a theoretical level. projects and initiatives taken by Most of the initiatives are non governmental organizations created and applied by NGOs, can be considered as a good while methods and goals of the example. government are reflected only in documents and strategies that According to MIPEX, the are not working in reality. best environment for Fragmented measures, immigrants is created in Spain citizenship problem, the lack of and Italy, while the worst management of migrants’ conditions for migrants are in policies are other obstacles that Cyprus. In the middle falls Malta impede progress. All methods and Lithuania, where migration and measures are taken policies are not working as well individually by different as they should be.

187

BOX 16: Main problems related to migrants’ integration and adult migrants’ education

Migrants related problems that all countries have to face:

 Passivity of the governments;  System of language courses is not flexible;  Lack of information;  Lack of monitoring and control tools;  Limitations of activities of non governmental organizations: funding problem and volunteering;  Measures and methods are not implemented in practice;  Negative attitude of society;  Difficulties in obtaining citizenship;  Migrants’ needs are not matched;  Limitations of vocational training.

It should be emphasized this phenomenon. Successful that even though all these adult migrant education would countries face some difficulties, allow migrants to learn the they are making progress in native language quickly and developing policies for the integrate into the labor market. integration and education of At present, migrants typically are adult migrants and their forced to work at unskilled jobs children. Economic growth, the because of lack knowledge of Schengen zone and the recent language and problems related (2004, 2007) admittances of new to vocational training and members into the EU caused an recognition of their increase in the number of qualifications (usually acquired migrating people to the EU and in the country of origin). thus all countries had to update Governments have provided their policies and laws related to legal foundation for immigrants’

188 integration, however, they still obtaining information about face a lot of limitations and their rights and available problems. As a result, non- resources, restrictions on the governmental organizations possibility of obtaining become main actors in citizenship and the lack of facilitating this process and agencies and migrants to be able implementing measures and to monitor and control their methods that would help status and situation. Limited immigrants to settle in. rights to learn the native However, their activities are language results in lost limited because of funding opportunities to seek citizenship limitations and volunteers that or to become qualified workers are not always suitable for and integrate themselves teaching language or other skills successfully into the labor professionally. All the authors market. Even though there are a discussed how their respective lot of goals and methods country faced problems related provided and a large number of to poor vocational training, related institutions created, a learning the native language, large number of measures are lack of knowledge of culture, lack not implemented. of knowledge of local systems for

189

BOX 17: Recommendations

 More activity by governments;  Flexible system of language courses;  Individual and specific measures and methods for teaching immigrants;  Teachers’ training;  Quality education;  More cooperation between non governmental organizations, governments and the private sector;  More research on adult migrants’ education;  Strict control of discrimination;  Stable funding;  Monitoring and control tools.

In conclusion, considering activities between public and the challenges that all private sectors. In order to mentioned countries face, some match the needs of immigrants, recommendations and advice individual measures and a better can be given. First, it is necessary spread of information have to be to create measures of guaranteed. Moreover, a larger monitoring that would allow number of scientific research on agencies and immigrants to migrants’ education, cutting red control whether or not all tape and better training for methods and goals are achieved teachers would be beneficial as and implemented in practice and well. Needless to say, society what goals still need to be plays an important role since its achieved, if any. Cooperation attitude towards immigrants is between non-governmental an important element in creating organizations and governments a good environment for is a must as well as joint adult immigrant integration. Since migrant education-related involvement of the society is

190 imperative, positive citizens’ success and continuity of attitude should be encouraged initiatives. Finally, quality and stricter regulation against education, in general, is a must acts of discrimination need to be in order to guarantee successful implemented. Stable funding for immigrants’ integration not only migrant related project would into labor market, but also into serve to promote the chances of society and culture.

191

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