6

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

2.1 History of Jewelry

The word jewelry means personal ornaments that are worn as an adornment that can enhance the beauty or the status of someone who wears it. The word jewelry itself was adopted from the Latin word jocale, which means "plaything," and the word jewel, during the 13th century was translated into English from the Old French word "jouel (dictionary.com, 2013). Jewelry can symbolize affection, wealth, loyalty, piety, grief, status, power, and it can even signify more complex emotion. Those functions has not change much since the discovery of jewelry; therefore this fact makes it possible for jewelry to be a timeless piece and a target for constant development and refinement (historofjewelry.net, 2013). The used of jewelry in its most basic form was known as early as the beginning of the mankind, along with knowledge of clothes and tools of the first mankind. It is believed that jewelry started out as a functional item used to fasten articles of clothing together, and was later adapted for use as an object for purely aesthetic decoration, spiritual and religious symbol, protection from the dangers of life or as a mark of status or rank (vam.ac.uk, 2013). During that time, jewels were produced from any kind of materials that were available, for example animal teeth, animal skins, feathers, bones, stones, plants, shells, wood, and semi precious natural made materials such as obsidian. In the late 1800s, British archaeologist Archibald Campbell Carlyle said of primitive man "the first spiritual want of a barbarous man is decoration"(F. Rogers, A. Beard, 1940). Therefore, mankind’s desire to admire the beauty in life is almost a constant reminder that differentiate us from the animal kingdom, just like a saying from Claudia Lady Bird Johnson “Art is the window to man’s soul. Without it, he would never been able to see beyond his immediate world; nor could the world see the man within.”(womenhistory.com, 2013) Moreover, the making of a more advance jewelry began with the ancestors of Homo Sapiens. Over 40,000 years ago as the early Homo Sapiens began to migrate from the cradle of civilization in central Africa to the Middle East, the Indus Valley, and to the continent of . As these early humans traveled the land they collected objects of curiosity, turning them into jewelry, which would tell the story of their journey 7

(allaboutgemstones.com, 2013). By 8000 B.C., as the ancient world discovers how to work metals, this event played an important stage in the development of the art of jewelry, which enabled craftsmen and artisans to start taming metals and precious gems into works of art that influenced entire cultures and many modern jewelry styles (vam.ac.uk, 2013). To know more about the origin and the function of jewelry this is a brief history of jewelry and explanation of how it has evolved from the early years of mankind up until today :

1. The Ancient World Before early human were able to shape metal or carve stone they adorned their bodies using simple beads made from seeds, berries and shells. By 30.000 BC huntsmen in different regions of Europe were wearing made form the bones and teeth of animal, possibly intended as a good luck charm for successful hunting as well as for decoration. The most common artifacts found as the evidence of the early settlements was beads. As technical abilities developed, jewelry variation increased. The next breakthrough in jewelry came when people learned to work with metals. Prized for its rarity, beauty, malleability, untarnishing gleam, and its ability to withstand fire, was the reasoning why was the principal metal used for jewelry in the ancient world. It was found in Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, and Anatolia, and further west in the Balkans, Spain and Ireland. Most early gold jewelry was made from thin sheets, hammered out between layers of leather or papyrus. The Sumerian civilization of the southern Mesopotamia has left some of the earliest examples of gold jewelry, from c. 2500 BC, buried in the royal tombs at Ur. The extravagant funerary customs of the court meant the entombment of servants, guards, and musicians along with the deceased, and large quantities of jewelry were uncovered. The most magnificent pieces were found in the tomb of Queen Pu-abi, who was dressed in a robe encrusted with beads and fastened at the shoulder with three gold pins. She wore necklaces, a belt and a garter all made of carved stone beads, large crescent-shaped , and a ring on each finger. By her side was found a complex headdress made form strings of tubular beads, gold and lapis lazuri discs and garlands of gold leaves, with a lattice of gold ribbons surmounted by a tall crest of three stylized gold flowers. Amongst her sixty-three attendants the women wore headbands of gold leaves, earrings, chokers, necklaces, bracelets, and rings, while 8 the man wore earrings, necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and pectoral ornaments.

Figure 2.1 Reconstructed Sumerian headgear necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi, displayed on the . Retrieved from http://jaspersgems.blogspot.com/2013/10/jewelry-through-ages-ancient-sumer.html

The discovery of the tomb of the boy king Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt reveals that at the time of his death around 1327 BC Egyptian jewelry was at its height. With its strong colors and highly developed symbolism it was the culmination of a tradition of jewelry making. Jewelry played a very important part at all levels of Egyptian life, adding color to the simple white linen costumes. It was also extremely important in rituals surrounding death, and this funerary aspect is the reason why so much has been preserved. Egypt and the land to its south were major sources of gold in the ancient world, so the royal mummies could be provided for magnificently. The dead were splendidly adorned, usually in pieces that they had worn while alive (although others of thinner gold were made specifically for funerary use), and their coffins were both covered and lined with gold. Even the poor were buried with simple necklaces.

9

Figure 2.2 One of twenty six pectoral ornaments or found in the tomb of Tutankhamun. Retrieved from http://www.greenandbenz.com/1606/a-journey-into- jewellery/

The Romans were influenced and adopted the jewelry style of the Etruscans and Hellenistic Greece. The Etruscans had settled in northern Italy by the late 8th century BC and later defeated by the Romans in the 3rd century BC. They mastered the difficult technique of granulation, which they used to create textured surface patterning on their gold work. Hellenistic is the period of ancient Greek and Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empires. One of the most distinctive features of Hellenistic jewelry is its polychromy, using specially cut panels of colored stones or glass and enamel. were frequently used, and even , amethysts and pearls towards the end of the period. Gem engraving reached increased levels of sophistication. During Bronze Age (1800 – 600 BC) new skills and styles of self-adornment arise as the ’s craft flourished. Although there were some distinct regional styles, basic forms common to widely different localities emerged during this period. In Ireland, two types of ornaments were made during the Early Bronze Age: large 10 discs decorated with a central cross, which were sewn onto garments, and crescent- shaped neck-rings or lunulae (literally little moons). In Central Europe a style of jewelry where both form and pattern were created from conjoined spirals of bronze or gold wire was established during the Middle Bronze Age: fine example have been discovered in Hungary and Germany. Bulky pieces like neck-rings and arm-rings were made in the same manner using thicker gauge metal. During the final centuries of the Bronze Age Ireland enjoyed a major cultural revival. In this later period, the typical pieces are dress fasteners with conical terminals: gorgets or ribbed crescent- shaped collars with circular bosses; and biconical ornaments of gold wire known as lock rings which it is thought were worn in the hair. During the Iron Age, Europe was dominated by the Celts. Two archaeological sites have given their names to the basic chronology and principal styles of decoration: Hallstatt in Upper Austria represents the simple configurations of triangles, arcs and dots of the 6th and 5th centuries BC; and La Tène on the shore of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland covers the mid 5th century BC until the Roman conquest. La Tène forms are more complex and, following Celtic activity in northern Italy, influenced by Greek Art. The most universal Celtic ornament was the , which also served as a garment fastener. Typically these are ached or bow-shaped with a prominent spring across one end, and a foot and catch plate at the other, which curves, back towards the bow (Phillips, 1996, pp. 7-32).

2. Byzantium and Early Europe The had originated with the founding of Constantinople on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium in AD 330 as the capital of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire, but it survived after the crumbling of Roman power in the West, long right through the until 1453. The Byzantine world was hierarchical and strictly regulated, and as jewelry conveyed status, there were attempts to restrict its availability through sumptuary laws. Every man and woman had the right to wear a gold ring, but the wider use of gold and precious stones tended to be restricted to the court and the Church. The Codex of Justinian, compiled in 529, ruled that pearls, emeralds and sapphires should be reserved for the emperor’s use.

11

Figure 2.3 The mosaic portrait of the Empress Theodora at San Vitale, Ravenna. Shows the magnificence of Byzantine court jewelry in the 540s. Retrieved from http://www.classicalmosaics.com/images/theo.jpg

Byzantine designers drew on their inherited Classical past, on Christianity which had been officially recognized under Constantine I, and on the oriental influences that came from their proximity to Asia. The decorative techniques used by Byzantine jewelers during the early period were largely adopted. Repetitive motifs were embossed on soft gold sheer using a die, while chasing with hand tools was used for more individual work. Another survival was the Roman love of colored stones, which were to remain characteristic of Byzantine jewelry. Color was also added to jewelry with enamels, cloisonné enamel being one of the finest and most distinctive features of Byzantine jewelry. The symbolism of Christianity pervades much Byzantine jewelry, and pendant crosses (some of which also served as reliquaries) were among the earliest and most popular pieces. During this period jewelry served a functional as well as a decorative purpose, and the most commonly found types are , clasps and ornate buckles, which were used to fasten garments before came into use (Phillips, 1996, pp. 33–52).

12

3. The Middle Ages In medieval Europe, jewelry continued to be worn by both men and women, and smaller versions of adult types, with colored glass rather than , were made for children. Although some might be purely decorative, many pieces like cloak fasteners and girdles were functional, and a large proportion had an explicit religious or heraldic significance. Medieval styles divide into three chronological phases. During the early Middle Ages, from 800 to the 13th century, the principal influence was the Byzantine court. Towards the end of the 13th century the Gothic style came to be reflected in jewelry. It remained fundamental to design throughout the rest of the medieval period, but from about 1375 a refining and softening of the forms and an increased emphasis on natural ornament are evident. The final phase remained current until at least the second half of the 15th century, when the influence of Renaissance began to spread from Italy to the rest of Europe, bringing with it new styles of jewelry. During this period, gold remained the most prestigious metal. The most valued stones were sapphires, emeralds, and red spinels, which were known as balas rubies. In the Middle Age, gemstones were not chosen simply for its color or rarity, but also for its healing and spiritual power that the society believe it has. For example, the sapphire grand many blessings on the wearer: protection from physical injury and from fraud, freedom from fear or envy, the power to release prisoners, it promoted peace and reconciliation, cooled the body and healed ulcers, eyes and headaches, cured stammers and ensured chastity. Not all the stones used in medieval jewelry were genuine. For sometimes, imitations were used legitimately in minor pieces, in children’s jewelry for instance, and also to decorate the funerary robes to royalty (Phillips, 1996, pp. 53-74).

4. The Renaissance to 1630 The Renaissance was a time of extraordinary splendor, and with new sources of gemstones, more jewelries was worn than ever before. Surviving pieces, most commonly rings and pendants, show the high levels of craftsmanship and the intricacy of deign that were achieved during this period, but it is through contemporary portraits that the full magnificence of court jewelry can be best appreciated. They illustrate the lavish quantities worn by both men and women, and the precise, naturalistic style of painting during this period means that it is depicted 13 in minute detail. Rubies were highly prized during the Renaissance, particularly the deep red variety from Burma. Emeralds and sapphires were also much used, and pearls remained one of the most costly and desirable gems. The production of imitation gems and pearls flourished with increased sophistication. As in the medieval period, colored stones were achieved with glass foils, and slivers of genuine made into doublets. Imitation were cut from rock crystal or glass. The medieval faith in the magical and medical qualities of particular materials had diminished but not disappeared completely, and narwhal (“unicorn”) horn was still prized as a detector of poisons.

Figure 2.4 The Ermine Potrait of Queen Elizabeth I. She wears the Three Brothers pendant oh her bodice. Retrieved from http://madamepickwickartblog.com/2011/03/spenser-and-the-poetry-of-opposites/

The concept of “Crown Jewels”, as distinct from the personal jewelry of a royal family, originated in the Renaissance. Pendants were one of the favorite types of Renaissance jewel. They were usually worn on long gold chains, but could also be attached to a lady’s bodice or sleeve. Although some pendants were obviously made to match a necklace or elaborate chain, they were usually individual jewels, and added variety and even humor to the more formal parures (jewelry set) (Phillips, 1991, pp. 75-96).

14

5. Baroque to Revolution The early 17th century witnessed the waning of Spanish influence over European court life, and the emergence of the French as the leaders of style. By the 1630s heavily embroidered and jeweled farthingales had been exchanged for flowing gowns with puffed sleeves and low necklines, and hair was arranged less severely in soft shoulder-length ringlets. This new look is familiar to us from the paintings of Ruben and Van Dyck. Quantities of pearls were worn with these new, softer styles, and indeed for a short time they appear to have supplanted other materials almost completely. Botany became a favorite source of inspiration, especially when coupled with new techniques in enamel. The growth of prosperous middle class during the 17th century, particularly in powerful trading nations like Holland, extended the wearing of jewelry to the bourgeoisie. The pearls that feature constantly in portraits of the 1630s were most fashionable when worn in profusion. Atypical arrangement would include a short necklace, large drops for the ears and a string of pearls for the hair. As earlier centuries, false pearls were used as a more affordable means of achieving a luxuriant effect. The Bow was one of the most popular motifs in Baroque jewelry, probably developing out of the ribbons, which were tied at the top of jewel as a means to securing it.

Figure 2.5 Necklace of enameled gold bow found in French in 1660s. Retrieved from http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O73161/necklace-unknown/ 15

The Rococo style originated in Paris in the 1730s and influenced the decorative arts throughout Europe. Its asymmetry can be seen in the jeweled flowers and feathers, and the leave inspired design, which remained prevalent until the 1780s, but abstract Rococo pieces are much more rare. Non-precious materials such as paste and cut steel reached very high levels of design and craftsmanship, and were even worn at court. In paste jewelry the glass stones are cut and polished like diamonds and then mounted individually in foiled closed-back silver settings. Semi precious stones were much used for pieces worn during the day. Mourning rings conformed to standard types in 18th century Britain: during the second quarter, a discreet band, often divided into five or six curling scrolls, was common-decorated with black enamel for those who were married and white for the unmarried, and inscribed in gold letters with the name, age, and date of death (Phillips, 1996, pp. 97-122).

6. Empire, Historicism and Eclecticism The making and wearing of jewelry in France was interrupted dramatically by the Revolution in 1789, before re-emerging with the magnificent Neo-Classical creations of the First Empire. Despite this hiatus, the French managed to retain their role as the leaders of high fashion, and such was their influence that even during the long period of hostilities between 1793 and 1815 Parisian styles were acidly followed in London. At the outbreak of the Revolution, jewelry suffered a dramatic switch of fortune, where it was once a dominant symbol of the monarchy and court. Its possession indicated aristocratic status, and during the terror, even a pair of fancy shoe buckles might be enough to sent their owner to death sentence. Those who supported or hoped to appease the revolutionaries gave their jewelry to the cause, while others hid their jewels or took them as financial security when they ran away. Meanwhile in Paris the only acceptable jewelries were historical or memorable, unrefined pieces, which some were made from stone or metal fragments of the Bastille. Most common were simple iron rings inscribed with patriotic phrases celebrating it’s storming, or stamped with portrait busts of heroes. With the proclamation of the Empire in the 1804 the Parisian luxury trades revived, especially the jewelers. Napoleon and Josephine had the state jewels 16 surviving from the former kings of France re-set in the Neo-Classical style, by that claiming a link with the empires of Greece and Rome, and emphasizing their imperial status. They also reintroduce the wearing of luxurious ornaments at courts. Josephine was to become a great leader of fashion and a major patron of the jewelry houses. Changes in costume, from stiff patterned brocades to fine plain-colored fabrics falling close to the body, called for elegant restrained hues, and provided an ideal background for colored stones. Although elaborate, designs of the period are not lively but have a cool, controlled air, with garlands of laurel leaves and bands of Greek key pattern arranged with geometric precision and balance. Patterns were taken from antique architectural detailing, as ancient jewelry was at this date largely unknown. Matching sets of parures were typical and a set of parures might include a necklace, a pair of bracelets, pendant earrings, a belt clasp and up to four hair ornaments. Parures might be entirely made of diamonds, but more characteristic are those made of large single colored gemstones, each one framed by a border of smaller diamonds. Parures set with Italian micro-mosaic plaques remained fashionable throughout Europe until the mid-1870s.

Figure 2.6 Princess Pauline Borghese wears a parure of engraved gems. Retrieved from http://www.gogmsite.net/_Media/1807-pauline-borghese-by-2.jpeg

17

The etiquette surrounding death became more complex in following century, with strict periods of mourning observed following the loss. By the 1860s a widow was expected to dress in black for a year and a day after her husband’s death, wearing minimal matt black ornaments, usually of unpolished . Gradually she was allowed more elaborate mourning jewelry, then diamonds and pearls, and finally colored stones. Jet, a black fossilized wood, was the ideal material for mourning jewelry. It was easily carved into elaborate designs, could be given a matt or polished finish, and was so light that large pieces could be worn comfortably. During this period, traditional materials were affected by the discovery of new sources of supply and advance in technology. The mid-19th century was a time of great scientific and mechanical advances. By the 1840s the unhealthy process of mercury gilding, which involved heating a mixture of mercury and gold until the mercury evaporated, had been superseded by electro-gilding. Crucial to the development of mass-produced jewelry was the application of steam power to stamping machines that punches out both the basic shape and the surface detailing of a piece in one rapid action. In Britain, copyright laws were introduced in 1842, which offered manufacturers protection for new patterns or technical processes that could have been copied by rival firms. Although never compulsory, the system was much used by firms specializing in inexpensive jewelry, and it now identifies precisely the maker and the date of design of many otherwise anonymous pieces. Up to the mid- 19th century, virtually all Western jewelry had been designed and made in Europe. Now new areas of the world were adding their own contribution, especially America and Australia (Phillips, 1996, pp. 123-154)

7. The Belle Époque: Diamonds, Art Nouveau and the Arts and Crafts Jewelry from around 1900 can be divided into three main strands. At the highest level of privilege and wealth, particularly in the courts of Europe, lavish quantities of formal diamond jewelry continued to be worn. In style it had moved gradually away from revived Renaissance motifs to lighter forms inspired by the fashion of Louis XVI and the First Empire. Secondly in more artistic or progressive circles in Europe the freer forms of Art Nouveau were being explored using colored stones and enamels. Thirdly, in Britain there was a revival of traditional crafts ad a reaction against mechanizations. Rejecting conventional attitudes to materials and 18 technical training, designers of the Arts and Crafts movement produced work that was characterized by the use of semi-precious stones and enamels and a hand-made look. Throughout Europe jewelers took different elements from each strand to create over-lapping national styles. Many chose semi-precious and non-precious materials for their color and texture in preference to more valuable materials. The Paris Exhibition of 1900 was at the center of this intensely colorful and elegant period, and the styles championed there continued with little change until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Fine jewelry was almost entirely white, based on a lavish use of diamonds and pearls. Settings were made in white gold, and then increasingly in platinum, either of which gave a sympathetic white settings of greater strength than had been possible with silver. The broad choker, which fitted closely around the neck like a dog collar was at its most fashionable around the turn of the century. Pearls were immensely fashionable, and remained extremely costly. Very good imitations were available, but of more lasting significance were the attempt by Kokichi Mikimoto of Japan to produce culture pearls form the 1890s.

Figure 2.7 Mrs. Jay Gould wife of an American Millionaire in the corseted fashion and formal “white” jewelry which is typical in the 1900s. Retrieved from http://memory.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3b30000/3b35000/3b35800/3b35841r.jpg 19

A new group of customers, wealthy industrialist and financiers, greatly stimulated the jewelry trade both in Europe and America at a time when many of the aristocrat families of Europe found their inherited wealth to be decreasing. They amassed both historic and new pieces. Many of the wealthiest Americans chose to buy their jewelry in Paris; otherwise Tiffany & Co, in New York were the most international and prestigious of the American firms. Their great contribution to ring design was the “Tiffany Settings”, developed in 1886 for diamond solitaires. In this the gem is supposed about the band of the ring by a circle of elongated claws; more light is able to pass through the stone, so it sparkles much more brightly. It remains the standard setting used throughout much of the world today. The Art Nouveau movement has left jewelry of breathtaking subtle and delicacy. Named after Siegfried Bing’s avant-garde Paris shop “ La Maison de l’Art Nouveau”, its vocal point was the Paris Exhibition on the 1900. Its influence was felt throughout Europe and America, where the decorative arts were transformed by extravagant swirling lines and graciously rounded forms. Sensuality was a dominant force, and image from nature were endowed with a romantic dreaminess.

Figure 2.8 René Lalique’s wasps pin made of gold, enamel, opal and diamond. He was the greatest jeweler in Art Nouveau era. Retrieved from http://www.lalique.com/media/Univers/Jewelry/Rene_Lalique_joaillier_avant_verrie r/Verrier_slideshow5.jpg

The Arts and Crafts movement was dedicated not only to reform in design, but also to the dignity of the individual craftsman as expounded by William Morris and John Ruskin in reaction to mechanization and mass-production. It encompassed 20 a variety of individual styles, but distinctive characteristics include hand-beaten metal surfaces, soft-colored cabochon stones, enamel work and a preference for decorative themes from a romanticized pre-industrial past (Phillips, 1996, pp. 155- 174).

8. From Art Deco to the 1950s The linear forms characteristic of the Art Deco style began to emerge in jewelry as early as 1910, but it was in the years between the First and Second World Wars that the style was at its height. The end of the First World War in 1918 had allowed a return to extravagance among the wealthy, but the mood of society had changed, and now stylized and geometric motifs emerged. High-value faceted gemstones returned in profusion as a major element of jewelry, and together with the vibrant color contrast of semi-precious materials like turquoise and coral created exotic effects far removed from the subtly shaded enamels of the preceding decades. Many influences contributed to Art Deco, including the geometry and abstraction of the Cubist painters and the linear forms of the Vienna Secession. The basic jewelry forms developed from pre-war models which had already shown how best to complement the straighter, looser, and now shorter fashions. The emphasis remained on elegant vertical lines: necklaces hung low, often with an elaborate jeweled pendant, while long earrings accompanied the new short hairstyles. Sleeveless dresses and the shedding of evening gloves encouraged the wearing of bracelets, especially gem-encrusted geometric link types which were remain in fashion until the outbreak of the Second World War.

Figure 2.9 A multi gem, gold and silver ring by Jean Deprès, one of famous Art Deco jeweler. Retrieved from http://www.fd-inspired.com 21

Lalique designed high quality mass-produced glass jewelry during the 1920s. Much of the naturalistic imagery Lalique had used in his Art Nouveau jewelry reappeared in this later work, but alongside were abstract Art Deco forms. A much starker and flatter geometric style of jewelry, dominated by the forms of technology and engineering, was the main alternative to colorful exotic pieces. Surface decoration was minimal, and the functionalism of the design was reinforced by the use of forms resembling machine parts. Accessories became an essential part of women’s jewelry, particularly decorated frames for evening bags, cigarette holders and powder compacts. Smoking and the wearing of cosmetics had only recently become acceptable in polite society, and the slight element of daring they retained ensured that both became fashionable. The geometric style of Art Deco was well suited to such functional items, and sleek boxes and vanity cases were made in enameled or lacquered gold, sometimes with decorative panels of carved hard stones and outline drawn in rows of tiny brilliant- cut diamonds. Less costly version favored such unusual materials as shagreen (the granular skin of the ray or shark which was polished and stained) and the coquille d’eouf (a mosaic of crushed egg shell). Between 1939 and 1945 the Second World War brought a large part of the jewelry industry in Europe to a break. The American jewelry industry had been far less affected than its European counterparts by the war, and encouraged by a very wealthy clients had evolved with increased stylistic independence. Most of the significant jewelry made in Europe and America from the 1920s to the 1950s had used precious metals and fine gemstones, and had required the most exacting levels of craftsmanship. Towards the end of the period, however, some notable alternative or artistic designers emerged (Phillips, 1996, 175-194)

9. Since 1960 Jewelry has undergone a dramatic change since 1960. During the time the major international houses have continued to work in precious materials following styles evolved from those of preceding decades, innovation has come in the main from individual artist-craftsmen trained at art school. Often approaching their work more as a means of self-expressions than as a commercial venture, they have challenged the notion of what jewelry is, thought the use of new materials or through 22 radically different forms A lot of new ideas have developed over a short period of time, some revolutionary in almost every respect, others in new styles but more clearly evolved from established traditions. Much of this work is still too recent for a definitive view to be possible on which new direction will have the most lasting importance. The new generation emerging in the 1960s and 1970s questions the nature of jewelry and its role in society, and as in other art forms, accepted conventions were pushed aside. Many of the most talented graduates rejected what they considered to be status labeled jewelry, bound by sexual stereotypes or contaminated by exploitation, in favor of the equality delivered by non-conventional materials. The boundaries where jewelry approaches sculpture, clothing or even performance art were explored, and it became a medium for artistic experiment rather than simple adornment. A wide range of new materials has been introduced to the jewelers. For example, the creative use of plastic by exploring its properties its own sake rather than in imitation of other more valuable materials. Paper, one of the most short lived materials, was used in the mid-1960s in Britain by Wendy Ramshaw and David Watkinds for a range of colorful jewelry called “Something Special” which was sold flat and assembled by the purchaser. In the late 1970s and early 1980s many jewelers looked towards textile fibers and fabrics as non-precious materials, which could create softer forms than metal or plastic. The use of discarded things is a natural extensions of the search for alternative materials, and as a form of recycling reflects current ecological concerns. The use of human body has been explored too. Examples from the 1980s include an cast from the lower half of an ear which slots perfectly over a real ear and a signet ding decorated with a real thumbprint. Body piercing in its various forms, long established in some parts of the worlds, also influenced jewelers’ work. Many artist-jewelers working since 1960 have preferred to express their ideas in traditional materials, developing different approaches and techniques for precious metals, often with less emphasis on faceted gemstones. There have also been influences from painting and sculpture, and Modernist ideas developed from the Bauhaus have continued to provide inspiration (Phillips, 1996, pp. 195-217)

23

2.2 History of Indonesian Jewelry

Ever since the pre historic time, human had known and worn jewelry. The relics from this era shows the human instinct to adorn oneself grow and developed along with the progress of the civilizations. In the history of jewelry in Indonesia, jewelries are not only worn as an adornment because the function can grow and develop due to the circumstance. For example in the book of Sumanasantaka (around the 12th century) it was mentioned that the prizes (bracelets, necklaces, rings) had been reserved for people who fully comprehend the skill leveled in the arts of music, dance, and satra (history-en.blogspot.com, 2012). Moreover, back in the early civilization jewelry serve its function to be more than just an adornments, jewelry have its supernatural function that can gain power and charisma of the wearer. In addition, jewelry can also differentiate the status of the wearer, for example it distinguished commoner with the royals or with the warlord. Traditional Indonesian jewelry had symbolic meaning behind its design, which usually used to pass on some supernatural message related to the custom, faith and believes of the society in each region. In the pre-classic period (500 BC - 500 AD) and Proto Classic (200-700 AD), copper ornaments, glass, and stone beads and gold funeral mask and gloves found in eastern Java, supposedly from a century 2 AD and the similar ancient ornament types were also found in the Southeast Asian region. A lot of jewelry in this pre-classical period seems to have an influence from Hindu and Buddhist theme ornaments. Strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence can be seen in the relief of the temples that shows the traditional costume and jewelry that was worn by the people in that time with the story background of their daily life. The statues of the Gods and Goddesses showed a high quality of wide variety of jewelry at that time. Bracelets, anklets necklaces, headpiece or crown was made from precious materials such as gold and gemstones. The shapes of Indonesian jewelry are varied based on the geographical and ethnical diversity in the country. Based on the motif, these shapes are differentiated into two categories, geometrical motif and representational motif. These are the shapes that were found in traditional Indonesian jewelry or fashion.

24

1. Geometrical Motifs Simple geometrical motifs or ornaments are already found in the late stone period. Geometrical ornament is often the outcome of technical factors. For instance, this shape can be the result of plating and weaving. There is a wide variety of geometrical ornament, there are : - Tumpal is the shape of isosceles triangle, usually found in textile or batik art. - Double Spiral is the shape of the letter S which came to Indonesia with the bronze culture - Meander, a Swastika with the arms moving clockwise. This shape was also found in Chinese art therefore this shape might come from the Chinese culture influence. - Swastika, symbolizes the rotation of the celestial bodies, specifically the symbol of the sun until generally became a lucky sign. - Hook or key design, associated with meander design this shape looks like the hook of meander design. This motif, on account of its rectangular form is especially appropriate for weaving and matting. - Kawung this shape is mainly found in textile or batik art. This motif consists of mainly circles placed in a row so that they partly overlap (Van Der Hoop, 1949, pp. 18-81).

2. Representational Motif This motif represents the natural objects that are holds an important role related to the customs and believes of the old society. These are different kinds of representational motif or ornaments: - The Human Body. This motif was found as an art design as early as the prehistoric and primitive era. In the old symbolical art of Indonesia the human body represents two ideas: protection against evil and the depiction of ancestors in which it can also be protective. - The Mask, separate body parts are also used in ornaments. The mask serves as protection against evil. - The Buffalo. The ancestors of Indonesians knew the buffalo or kerbau as a domestic animal as early as in the late stone age (neoliticum) and they worshipped it as a sacred animal. That is why 25

up to this day the motif of the kerbau’s head is found as a symbol of the fruitful earth and as protection from evil. The shape of its horns can also depict the kerbau as a mount of deceased person in the hereafter. - The Elephant, existed in Indonesia in pre-historic times and was used from time immemorial as a war animal and as a mount. It may also be depicted as a mount for deceased person. - The Horse, there were no horse in Indonesia in pre-historic period. The horse was brought to Indonesia in ancient times and has since become acclimatized. The horse often occurs in connection with the sun. - The Lion, has never been indigenous to Indonesia, but in ancient times it did live in India. That is why the lion as ornamentation arrived here from the Hindu culture. - The Stag - The Makara, this motif came to Indonesia with the Hindu culture. This motif is an imaginary animal having the shape of a fish and the trunk of an elephant: it resembles the dolphin in European art. - The Bird, symbolizes the soul of the departed. - The Hornbill, the symbol of death and resurrection. - The Rooster, the symbol of the sun, force, courage, and fertility. In the life economic, the rooster plays an important part in the cockfights also in sacrificial rites. - The Garuda, this bird came as part of the Hindu culture as it is the mount of Vishnu. It is also a sunbird or sun eagle. - The Peacock, in Indonesia is found in its wild slate, and also in this country’s art we find this very decorative bird. Peacock ornaments or motifs could be the result of influences from Hindu and Chinese culture. - The Parrot, In Hindu-Indonesia art the parrot is the bird of Kama, the god of love. - The Phoenix, a motif imported from China, so it is usually found in regions where there is a strong Chinese influence. - The Snake, it is a symbol of a lower animal and came to Indonesia 26

from the Hindu culture. - The Lizard and The Iguana, lizard sometimes may represent the incarnation of a deity. - The Shell, occurs mostly in the Hindu period, and is usually given wings as the symbol of Vishnu. - Vegetable Ornament, in prehistoric times we find no vegetable ornamentation in Indonesia, only later in the Hindu period this came into vogue, and since then it has become almost the principal part of Indonesian ornamentation. - The Tree of Life, the symbol if the highest unity, the totality, comparable to Brahman in the Hindu religion and the Tao in the Chinese philosophy. It is the source of all that lives, of all wealth and welfare. - The Landscape, found in Hindu-Javanese temple reliefs as well as Buddhist-Javanese temple reliefs. - The Mountain, the adoration of mountains was a general cult among the Indonesians. In the Hindu religion the heavenly mountain, the abode of the gods is known as Mount Meru. - Clouds, this motif originated under Chinese influence. This motif used in the art of Cirebon in a traditional manner. - The Solar Wheel, is a very ancient symbol of the sun. Came to Indonesia during the bronze period. - The Zodiac, was known in the Hindu period and originally gave them their Hindu names. - The Flame, is a symbol of magical power. - The Ship, in various parts of Indonesia once finds the idea that the soul of the deceased is transported to the hereafter in a ship. This ship of death is often represented in the arts, not only through objects that are used in the death ritual, but generally through objects that are used in the death ritual. - The Knot, already in a very ancient times it had magical and symbolical significance, more specifically in connection with love and marriage (Van Der Hoop, 1949, pp.92-315)

27

2.3 History of Minangkabau Culture

The ethnic group of Minangkabau or also known as Minang is indigenous to Minangkabau highland of West Sumatra, Indonesia. The first settlement of Minangkabau was in Nagari Pariangan Padang Panjang, and started there the Minangkabau spread to the three districs (luhak nan tigo), Tanah Datar, Agam and Limopuluah Koto (Ng, 2010). The origin of the name Minangkabau derived from a story of how a West Sumatran Kingdom won the fight against Majapahit Kingdom. Instead of a real war, both kingdoms went for a buffalo fight. The wise West Sumatran king used the strategy to win with a hungry baby buffalo. The king ordered his people to give him the strongest baby buffalo, and to separate it from it’s mother. They did not feed the baby buffalo for several days, which makes it very hungry. Later, the king took two sharp knives and attached them to the baby buffalo's horn. On the day of the fight the Majapahit soldier released a big and wild buffalo out of his cage. Soon after, the West Sumatran released the baby buffalo. After the release, the hungry baby buffalo ran fast towards the big buffalo and went straight under the big buffalo’s stomach to feed. The knives at the baby buffalo's horns cut through the big buffalo's stomach and tore it apart, resulting the death of the big buffalo. The result of the fight inspired the king to change the name of the kingdom into Minangkabau. The name Minangkabau means the "victory or winning" (minang) and "water buffalo" (kabau). That is why the buffalo because a sacred animal in West Sumatra and this can been seen from buffalo horns shape that can be found in West Sumatran houses roofs and also in the traditional headdress of the women of West Sumatra. The people of Minangkabau were accustomed to matrilineal culture, which makes properties and land inherited through the female lineage or the women in the family. This custom might be the result of a tradition called rantau, where young males are encourage to leave their family to seek for job, wealth, education and experience everywhere in the world but their hometown.

28

2.4. History of Minangkabau Jewelry

The most important component of the female ceremonial costume is the headdress. Based on the style and the material being used, the headdress divided into three different kinds, there are tanduak, telekuang and tengkuluak. Tanduak (horns) headdresses are usually locally woven, supplementary weft cloths or batik clothes tied in such a way that there are two bulges resembling the horn of the buffalo. Telengkuang (veil) headdress is a white cloth, which is sewn into a tube and embroidered at one end. The cloth is wrapped around the back of the head and the ends are crossed at the forehead and arranged over the crown. Telengkuluak headdress are worn in the same way as the telekuang headdress but different clothes are used. There are two types of Telengkuluak headdress, the tengkuluak kembang (blooming headdress) which is made from floral batik cloth, and the tengkuluak kecil (small headdress) which is made from a small narrow plain or printed cloth. (Ng, 2010) In Minangkabau tradition, bangles and necklaces are essential adornment in the female ceremonial dress. There is another additional function of the traditional jewelry, if the big bangles are not worn, it means that there has been a death in the lineage of the woman within the last hundred days. (Ng, 2010) Minangkabau culture is greatly influenced by the Chinese culture, brought by the Chinese traders. We can see this influence in the design and the color of the costumes and jewelries. This influence first come in the coast of the region then slowly reaches the inner part of the village.

2.5 Theory of Culture

In its early stages of study in the nineteenth century, culture was thought of as an idea or spirit that provided the foundation for characterizing a society, understanding its advancements and distinctions from other societies (Munch, Smelser, 1992). With an increase in differentiation in western societies, the study of Anthropology became a leading role in understanding and defining culture. Today culture encompasses characteristics of a people defined by, but not limited to language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts (Zimmermann, 2012). The biggest challenge is identifying the level of coherency within a culture. Some 29 cultures are very diversified in their beliefs and behaviors, while other cultures are very unified, remaining fairly consistent throughout the population. Cultures are often established within the family structure and further developed within the education system. Because culture is learned, it sets a foundation for a group of people to coexist in mutual understanding. As with anything that is learned, it can also be adapted, changed and even forgotten with time. Many suggest that culture is symbolic and that meaning is derived from those symbols. Culture sets ground rules that influence our daily lives with our interactions, preferences and daily decisions. In fashion, culture influences acceptable apparel, the way it fits the body, and how much skin is exposed. Culture guides our perceptions and feelings towards colors and shapes. Depending on the abundance of varying dyes and colors, some colors and patterns may be fairly common in some parts of the world, and very rare and highly sought after in other regions. As geographical borders decrease and international trade continues to prosper, cultures become intertwined, making it that much more relevant to uphold origins in the fashion industry.

2.6 Theory of Consumer Behavior

The “official” definition of consumer behavior is "The study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society” (Perner, 2010). This behavior helps marketers sell their products to the right customer by understanding the customers reaction towards certain stimuli in which resulting in the purchasing of the product by the customer. Marketers use PESTLE analysis (a concept in marketing principle) as a tool to help them plan or launch a new product, project, or service. PESTLE is a mnemonic, which consist of P for Political, E for Economic, S for Sociology, T for Technology, L for Legal and E for Environmental. This analysis gives a bird eye’s view of the whole environment from many different angles that one wants to check and keep a track of while contemplating on a certain idea/plan (pestleanalysis.com, 2014)

30

Figure 2.10 Consumer decision process model Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17089257

The decision process of a customer is differentiated into 7 different stages. The first one is need of recognition; this stage represents the reasoning to purchase a product. For example a customer want to buy a designer handbag to be able to show his or her social status and to be accepted in a social cycle. The second stage is search for information; this stage represents the research process before purchasing. For example, the customers who want to buy a designer bag started looking for more information about the specific bag, the material, and where to buy. The next stage is pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives; this stage is the continuation of the research process to reassure the customer to do a purchase of a product. For example, after finding the right bag to buy, the customer is looking for the other designer bag as a comparison to reassure his or her decision. The fourth stage is purchase; this is where the customer finally buy the product. The next stage is consumption; this is where the customer use the product. For example after buying the designer bag that he or 31 she wanted, the customer finally wears it. After consumption, there is a post- consumption evaluation; this is where the customer experiences some satisfaction or dissatisfaction from the product. For example after using the design bag for a regular day basis, the customer loves the product and planning to keep using it. The last stage, divestment is where the customer wanted to get rid of the product. For example after using it for a couple of decades, the designer bag that the customer bought became a classic must have and customer decided to pass it to his or her offspring.

2.7 Theory of Branding

The American Marketing Association defines a brand as a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors. A brand differentiates a product from its competition. These differences can be functional and tangible or they could be symbolic, emotional or intangible pertaining only to what the brand represents (Kotler, Keller, 2012). Brands identify the creator of a product and thereby holding their reputation responsible for the products performance. Brands are established through marketing campaigns as well as consumer’s experiences with the brand’s products. A brand offers a company legal protection with intellectual property rights and trademarks. Upholding a consistent level of quality creates a reliable impression with the consumer. This creates brand loyalty, which simplifies the decision making of the consumer. A high level of quality increases the potential for consumers to pay more for that brand. Associating a positive reputation with a brand can be a huge competitive advantage in the years to come. Branding associates products with the power of that brand and differentiates it from other competing products (Kotler, Keller, 2012). It is a firm’s responsibility to build a brand by informing customers what the brand is and why they should care. Providing meaning behind a brand creates an added value on products and services known as brand equity. Brand equity can be positive when consumers have a favorable response to the brand compared to the competition, and negative when that brand brings about an unfavorable response. Without a consumer’s brand knowledge, the only information guiding decision-making is price. 32

Branding can take years, and can also be very costly. However, the benefits of establishing positive brand equity can justify pricing and allow a company to prosper with a competitive advantage. Consistency behind quality and reputation, guided by the company values, can simplify consumer’s purchasing habits with a long lasting relationship.

2.8 Theory of Color

Color is the one element that plays a major role in the visual department. Colors can stimulate emotion, sub-conscious responses; we are conditioned to stop at red lights, we know pink baby clothes are intended for a girl and blue for a boy, and wedding gowns are white because they represent purity. This is all because us, humans are automatically assigns a specific feeling to a specific color without the person even being aware of it (breakawaygraphics.net, 2010). Therefore, it is crucial to have a good understanding on the effect of the colors in a design. Colors can even influence the customers’ buying behavior, based on a research that was conducted by the secretariat of the Seoul International Color Expo 2004 92.6 percent respondent put most importance on visual factors when purchasing products. Only 5.6 percent said that the physical feel via the sense of touch was most important. Hearing and smell each drew 0.9 percent. When asked to approximate the importance of color when buying products, 84.7 percent of the total respondents think that color accounts for more than half among the various factors important for choosing products (Morton, 2010). In this project, the writer use the color combination of gold that represent the traditional color of Minangkabau jewelry, transparent/clear color which represent the contemporary design twist of the collection, and brown from the recycled teakwood material that was used that represent the natural element of the jewelry. 1. Gold : The color of extravagance, wealth, riches, and excess, and shares several of the same attributes of the color yellow. Optimistic and positive, gold adds richness and warmth to everything with which it is associated as it illuminates and enhances other things around it. The color gold is a warm color that can be either bright and cheerful or somber and traditional. The brighter shades of gold catch the eye with their brilliance while the darker muted shades are deep, 33 warm and intense. The color gold is cousin to the color yellow and the color brown, and is also associated with illumination, love, compassion, courage, passion, magic, and wisdom. 2. Transparent/Clear/White : Inherently positive color, is associated with purity, virginity, innocence, light, goodness, heaven, safety, brilliance, illumination, understanding, cleanliness, faith, beginnings, sterility, spirituality, possibility, humility, sincerity, protection, softness, and perfection. The color of snow, white is often used to represent coolness and simplicity. White’s association with cleanliness and sterility is often seen in hospitals, medical centers, and laboratories to communicate safety. The color white is also associated with low-fat foods and dairy products. 3. Brown : The color of earth, wood, stone, wholesomeness, reliability, elegance, security, healing, home, grounding, foundations, stability, warmth, and honesty, is a natural, neutral color that is typically associated with the seasons of fall and winter. It is the color of our soil, growth, fertility, and earth, and it is associated the concepts of “all natural” and “organic.” Brown is the color of the Earth and is comforting and nurturing. Brown is believed to help create a wholesome feeling, a connection with the earth, and a sense of orderliness and convention (Bourn, 2010). Associated with the earth, wood, and stone, brown is a completely natural color and a warm neutral. Brown can be associated with dependability and reliability, with steadfastness, and with earthiness. It can also be considered dull. In design, brown is commonly used as a background color. It’s also seen in wood textures and sometimes in stone textures. It helps bring a feeling of warmth and wholesomeness to designs. It’s sometimes used in its darkest forms as a replacement for black, either in backgrounds or typography.