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Development of Indigenous Cucumis Technologies (Icts) to Alleviate the Void Created by the Withdrawal of Synthetic Nematicides from the Agro-Chemical Market

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Development of Indigenous Cucumis Technologies (Icts) to Alleviate the Void Created by the Withdrawal of Synthetic Nematicides from the Agro-Chemical Market International Scholars Journals African Journal of Soil Science ISSN 2375-088X Vol. 3 (8), pp. 161-166, August, 2015. Available online at www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. Review Development of Indigenous Cucumis Technologies (ICTs) to alleviate the void created by the withdrawal of synthetic nematicides from the agro-chemical market *Trevor Mixwell, Bokang Montjane and Pietie Vermaak Department of Soil Science, Plant Production and Agricultural Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa. Accepted 16 July, 2015 The ”Indigenous Cucumis Technologies” (ICTs) were researched and developed for the management of plant- parasitic nematodes, particularly Meloidogyne species, in an attempt to alleviate the void created by the withdrawal of synthetic nematicides from the agro-chemical markets and the drawbacks associated with the use of conventional organic matter as a nematode management practice. Currently, ICTs comprises of four technology types, namely (1) ground leaching, (2) nematode resistance, (3) inter-generic grafting and (4) fermented crude extracts. ICTs, in their various forms, consistently suppressed the nematode numbers and improved crop yields in experimental trials carried out in Limpopo Province, Republic of South Africa. The present paper reviews a decade of successful research and development in ICTs for the management of root- knot nematodes in low-input agricultural farming systems. Key words: Cucumis species, fermented crude extract, ground leaching technology, inter-generic grafting, nematode resistance. INTRODUCTION Worldwide, the withdrawal of highly effective synthetic Been estimated at US $125 billion prior to the final fumigants used in the management of plant-parasitic withdrawal of methyl bromide from agro-chemical markets nematode populations has had economic consequences in in 2005 (Chitwood, 2003). many crop production systems (Mashela, 2007, 2002; After having been relied upon for over 50 years for Mashela et al., 2008). Global crop losses per annum suppressing population densities of plant-parasitic caused by plant-parasitic nematodes have been estimated nematodes, the prohibition of methyl bromide fumigations at 12% (Ferraz and Brown, 2002), whereas the South left a serious void (Mashela, 2007; Mashela et al., 2008). African estimate is 14% (Anon, 2011). In crops like The research and development of alternative strategies to watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), of which no genotypes replace methyl bromide have since become indispensable resistant to root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species) in crop health (Bello, 1998; Mafeo and Mashela, 2009a, b, are known, crop losses from 50% to complete crop failures 2007, 2002; Mashela et al., 2008; Pofu et al., 2009). Much had been reported (Barker et al., 1976; Lamberti, 1979; work had been done to develop non-chemical and Oda et al., 1997). In economical terms, global annual crop environment-friendly nematode management practices, losses due to damage by plant-parasitic nematodes have such as the use of botanicals (Belo, 1998; Mashela, 2002, 2007; Mashela and Mpati, 2002; Mashela and Mphosi, 2002; Mashela and Nthangeni, 2002; Mashela et al., 2008; Rajendran and Saritha, 2005; Sukul et al., 2001) and *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] organic soil amendments (Nagesh and Reddy, 1997; Singh Trevor et al. 161 et al., 2001; Vedhera et al., 1998). tode suppression and improved crop yield. In South Africa, farmers have been arbitrarily classified The aim of this paper is to review a decade of research into household, subsistence, emerging and commercial and development in ICTs with the ultimate purpose of farmers in order to tailor-make and fast-track farmer- improving food security in marginal farming communities of support services for each group (Anon, 2009). Household the Republic of South Africa. and subsistence farmers in marginal communities rely much on low-input agricultural systems, with an inter- cropping sequence comprising, almost always, maize (Zea INDIGENOUS CUCUMIS SPECIES IN SOUTH AFRICA mays), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), watermelon (C. lanatus), pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) and other minor The overview of indigenous Cucumis species in South crops. Due to this traditional “monocultural system” which Africa presented here is limited to (a) their pharmacological is based more upon emotional than economical reasoning, properties, (b) presence of potent chemicals, (c) the population build-up of M. species in this farming attractiveness for use in nematode management, and (d) system, has since reached population levels that, in some their minimum bioactive concentration against selected cases, result into complete crop failure among components nematodes. of the system (Fourie and Mc Donald, 2003). Incidentally, when water is available, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris) crops are grown during Pharmacological properties the off-season for the main intercrops. However, most of the tomato and Swiss chard cultivars available for use in The Cucurbitaceae family consists of 115 genera (Pitrat et Limpopo Province (Republic of South Africa) are highly al., 1999), most of which have been widely used for susceptible to M. species, and therefore, further enhances centuries in African traditional medicine (Rimington, 1938). the population build-up of nematodes. Due to the existence South Africa is the centre of bio-diversity for wild of M. incognita races 2 and 4, along with M. javanica watermelon (Cucumis africanus) and wild cucumber (C. (Kleynhans et al., 1996), breeding for nematode resistance myriocarpus) (Kristkova et al., 2003). Crude extracts of C. for a small niche market like the one being described here, myriocarpus derived from fruits and roots, along with the is uneconomical. whole plant of C. africanus, contain pharmacological properties used in the treatment of liver damage, Traditionally, in low-input agriculture farming systems, weakening of the immune system, lumps, jaundice, acute farmers use organic amendments to suppress plant- and chronic viral hepatitis, hepatic cirrhosis, persistent parasitic nematodes and to provide essential nutrients dyspepsia, epilepsy due to wind-phlegm, cancer, (Mashela, 2002; Stirling, 1991). However, the use of gonorrhea, boils and infections by intestinal roundworms conventional organic amendments to suppress plant- (Anon., undated). parasitic nematodes has drawbacks which include: (i) excessively large quantities (10 to 250 t/ha) of organic materials being required to obtain nematode suppression, Presence of potent chemicals (ii) high transport costs to haul the materials from the planting/collection site to the decomposition site and Potent chemicals present in crude extracts of Cucumis eventually to the field, (iii) long waiting periods for microbial fruits have been isolated and identified as cucurbitacins decomposition, (iv) reduction in soil pH, and (v) often (Rimington, 1938). Plants belonging to Cucurbitaceae inconsistent results in nematode suppression (Mankau, family contain a total of 12 cucurbitacin types, with 1968; Mankau and Minteer, 1962; McSorley and Gallaher, cucurbitacin A in C. myriocarpus fruit and roots being the 1995a,b; Muller and Gooch, 1982; Rodriguez-Kabana, only one that is water soluble (Chen et al., 2005). 1986; Stirling, 1991). Consequently, most marginal farming Cucurbitacins are oxygenated tetracyclic triterpenes with communities can hardly afford the use of conventional glycosides and originate from the mevalonic pathway organic amendments in suppression of plant-parasitic (Inderjit and Malik, 2002). Cucurbitacins are used in plant nematodes. defence against nematodes, fungi and insects (Inderjit and The Indigenous Cucumis Technologies (ICTs) were Malik, 2002; Inderjit et al., 1995; Mashela, 2002). researched and developed to address the plant-parasitic Generally, cucurbitacin A, which had been widely nematode problems in low-input agricultural systems, investigated, comprises of two potent chemicals, namely, particularly for marginalised farming communities in South cucumin (C27H40O9) and leptodermin (C27H38O8) (Jeffrey, Africa. In particular, ICTs comprises of four technology 1978; Rimington, 1938), which have more or less similarity types, viz. (1) ground leaching, (2) fermented crude to basic molecular structures of aldicarb extracts, (3) nematode resistance and (4) inter-generic (C7H14N2O2S) and fenamiphos (C13H22NO3PS). Acute grafting. Some of the components of the ICTs have been in dermal toxicities (LD50) of cucumin have been established -1 existence for over 10 years with consistent results in nema- for rat and rabbit as LD50 = 0.5 and 13 mg kg , 162 Afr. J. Soil Sci. respectively, whereas those for aldicarb and fenamiphos reduced soil pH (Mashela, 2007). Most importantly, -1 are 5 and 9 mg kg , respectively (Mashela, 2007). suppression of nematode numbers was consistently achieved, regardless of the environment where the trials were conducted. Attractiveness for use in nematode management Originally, the fruit used for GLT were collected from the wild, but they were eventually collected from locally- Traditional practitioners orally-administered decoctions of propagated plants. The development of propagation crude extracts of C. africanus and C. myriocarpus fruits to protocols and fertilisation requirements of C. myriocarpus control intestinal roundworms in humans (Ascaris have been described by Mafeo (2005). 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