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Effects of Human Persecution on European Raptors

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Effects of Human Persecution on European Raptors EFFECTS OF HUMAN PERSECUTION ON EUROPEAN RAPTORS , by Ian Newton Institute of TerrestrialEcology 12 Hope Terrace, Morningside EdinburghEI49 2AS Scotland Abstract Persecutioncauses population declines only if it addsto the natural mortality and doesnot merelyreplace it. Largeraptor species with slowbreeding rates are lessable to withstandheavy losses than are smallspecies with fastbreeding rates. Over the last 150 years,persecution has eliminated some of the biggerspecies from large partsof Europe and is still responsiblefor restrictingthe distributionof others.In Britain over this peri- od, the rangesof severalspecies have contractedand expandedagain with the rise and partialdecline in gamepreservation, with temporaryexpansions during two warswh, en gamekeeperswere otherwiseemployed. Persecution is still restrictingthe breeding range of the Golden Eagle, the Buzzard,and the Hen Harrier in the British Islesto abouthalf the potential. In somelists of bountypayments, certain species declined or disappearedin the re- cordsduring the operationof the scheme,suggesting that the killing itself reducedor exterminatedthem. But in otherlists, no declinesin numberskilled occurredover a long period, suggestingthat hunterswere merely croppingthe populationand causingno long-termdecline. The importanceof deliberatekilling of raptorsis shownby the large proportionsof bandedbirds that were later recovered,and by the proportionsof these recoveredbirds reported as shot.Recovery rates were ashigh (or higher)for someEu- ropeanraptors as for many game-birdand waterfowlpopulations exposed to regular huntingseasons. Widespread use of poisonon meat baits has had the most damaging effectson Europeanraptor populations, often where the procedurewas aimed primarily againstwolves or foxes.In recentyears, the mostcommonly used poisons include strych- nine,phosdrin, and alpha-chlorolose. Introduction In recentyears the effectsof humanpersecution on raptorshave receivedmuch less attentionthan the effectsof toxic chemicalsand land-usechanges. Yet persecutionis still restrictingthe distributionof severalraptor-species in Europe,and in someregions is practisedwith little lesszest than at its peaka centuryago. This paperis concerned with the extentof thiskilling and with its effectson populations,and is aimedparticu- larly at the North Americanreadership. It is not concernedwith whetherthe killing is justified,for thisquestion involves value judgements, which incorporate vested interests and personalpreferences. Largeparts of westernEurope are privatelyowned, so control operations are usually carriedout, not by governmentagencies, but by thousandsof individuallandowners and their "gamekeepers,"as well as by the huntersthemselves and by stockfarmers. Per- secutionof raptorsis widely acknowledged(Bijleveld 1974), but little scientificdocu- mentationof its effectsis available,partly becausemost reduction of numbersoccurred 65 RaptorResearch 13(3):65-78 66 RAPTOR RESEARCH Vol. 13, No. 3 between 1850 and 1900, before biologistswere interestedin recordingit. In recent years,too, killinghas become illegal in manycountries so, practiced subversively, it has provedhard to study.Moreover, in their effortsto understandthe birdsthemselves, biol- ogistshave generallyavoided working on populationsthat they knew were beingheavi- ly shot. HistoricalPerspective In an attempt to protect domesticstock, the killing of larger raptorswas officially encouragedin partsof Europeas earlyas the sixteenthcentury by paymentof bounties. This seemsto havebeen sporadic, however, and had no markedor long-termeffects on populations.It waswith the risein small-gamemanagement in the nineteenthcentury that persecutionreached its peak and spreadto the smallerspecies. Game shooting in- creasedin popularitywith the introductionof Pheasant(Phasianus colchicus) rearing, and againwith the improvementin the shotgun,from muzzleloader to breechloader. The objectiveof totalelimination of raptorpopulations was soon achieved for somespe- ciesover large areas. In many countries,the destructionof raptorsbecame an acceptedrural practice.No onein hisright mind was expected to passup the chanceto kill a hawk.This attitude was reflecednot only in the lack of protectivelegislation but alsoin the widespread paymentof premiumsfor birdskilled and in the employmentof gamekeeperswith the specifictask of destroyingpredators. In Britain everysizeable estate had at leastone keeper,and someidea of their total numberscan be gainedfrom Castle'sFishing & Al- lied TradesDirectory (1910) which lists 1,600 registered gamekeepers. This total excludes underkeepersand othersconcerned with "vermincontrol." The sameattitude persisted well into the twentiethcentury but, with socialand economic changes, increasing edu- cation,and the riseof a conservationmovement, public opinion is graduallychanging. It hasso far beenreflected in the abolishmentof manybounty schemes and in the in- troductionin onecountry after anotherof protectivelegislation. At the time of writing, fourteenEuropea_n countries afford full protectionto all birdsof prey,sixteen afford partialprotection (certain species, certain regions, or certainseasons), while onecountry (Malta) givesno protection(Conder 1977). The specieswhich receiveleast protection over the Continentas a whole includethe Goshawk(Accipiter gentilis), Sparrowhawk (A. nisus),Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus), Buzzard (Buteo buteo), and Rough-legged Buzzard(B. lagopus),mainly as a resultof politicalpressure from hunters. In somecoun- tries, suchas Britain and France,legislation is still resistedor largely ignoredby the huntingfraternity. Effective law enforcementis difficulton privateland. Theoretical Considerations It is convenientfirst to considerthe conditionslikely to lead to reductionsin raptor numbers.The onlypermanent way to reducethe populationof anybird is to reduceits habitatand food supply. The alternativeentails holding numbers below the levelthat the environmentwill supportand removing birds year after year to counterthe effects of their breeding. Whethersustained killing leads to a long-termpopulation decline depends on wheth- er killing replacesthe naturalmortality, or addsto it. Thus,if the increasedmortality from shootingis offsetby reducedmortality from naturalcauses, so that the numberof birdswhich die eachyear is aboutthe same,the populationwill not decline.But if the mortalityfrom shooting,or from a combinationof shootingand naturalcauses, exceeds Fall 1979 Newton--Persecutionof Raptors 67 that which would otherwiseoccur from naturalcauses alone, the populationwill de- cline.In practice,much depends on whenthe killingoccurs. Its effectis likely to be minimalin themonths following breeding, for thepopulation is then at itsseasonal peak, with manyjuveniles that would die anywayor dispersebefore the nextbreeding season. In suchcases, shooting has to be exceptionallyheavy if it isto do morethan merely crop an expendablesurplus. The effectof killingis greatestif it is doneat the startof a breedingseason, for thepopulation is thenat itsseasonal low, after most natural morta- lityhas occurr•t. Shooting at that time not only adds to thenatural mortality, but also concentrateson the breedingadults, the mostvaluable sector of the population,so that declineis rapid.It wasthrough the annualdestruction of breedingpairs that the popu- lationsof severalspecies were wiped out overmuch of Britainbefore 1900. The tradi- tionalnesting places of thebirds were well knownto the landownersand their keepers, andmany Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) cliffs in the ScottishHighlands still show the re- mainsof stoneshelters, built by the keepersfor useas shootinghides. Probably some suchshelters are usedfor thispurpose today. The vulnerabilityof any raptoralso depends on how easilyit canbe killed.First, somespecies are fairly tame and easy to shoot;others use conspicuous perches and are easyto catchin leg traps;and yet otherseat carrion,so are easyto poison.Throughout Europe,it is the carrion-feedingspecies that have suffered most because they can be killed in large numberswith minimumeffort. Secondly.,large speciesare inevitably moresusceptible to the effectsof persecutionthan are small ones. This is partly because largespecies live at lowerdensities, but mainly because they have much lower breeding ratesand take longerto reachbreeding age (Newton1977). Following a 50% kill, a slow-breedingeagle population could take many years to recover,whereas a fast-breed- ing Kestrel(F. tinnunculus)population could be backin oneor two years.In the long- term,therefore, it is the small,fast-breeding species that are mostresistant to sustained killing.A thirdfactor influencing vulnerability is the sizeand distribution of the popu- lationto beginwith. Any smallpopulation which is localisedin a restrictedhabitat is moreeasily eliminated than a largepopulation that extendsinto remotecountry where it ishard to reach,Events over the last150 years have led to the fragmentationof many formerlywidespread populations. Such isolated remnants are vulnerable for anotherrea- son-namely,the reducedchance of immigrationwhich might otherwiseserve to counterthe effectsof, say,local persecution. Long-termTrends in BritishPopulations Thesevarious generalisations can be illustratedby referenceto the Britishraptors, whosehistory over the last 150 yearshas been well documented(Witherby et al. 1938, Baxterand Rintoul 1953, Parslow1967). Early in the twentieth century,five species were apparentlyeliminated completely for a periodas breeders.These
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