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FEEDING REQUIREMENTS OF GALLINACEOUS

UPLAND

by Ralph B. Nestler ^

W Í T H an awakened public interest in the preservation of wild life, more and more , 4-H Club members, and others are raising upland game birds. Also, more attention is being given to the right kind of feeding practices. This article discusses the feeding of these birds in the wild and in captivity.

THE iMPOiiTAxcE of a knowledge of gamo nutrition and satisfactory feeding practices is gradually being impressed upon game managers and others interested in ^-ame tliroughout the country. For more than half a century civilization lias been forcing game almost to exthiction. One notable example is the complete destruction of the , or eastern pinnated . At one time this was found in large numbers in Massachusetts, southern New Hampshire, Xew^ York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Its last stand w^as on the island of Martha^s Vineyard, Mass., where it existed for man^^ years after its extinction in oth.er sections of the comitry. In 1930, only one bird of this could be found there. In recent years, certain foresighted citizens have realized the need of help for wildlife. Through their efforts game refuges have been started, feeding grounds are prepared especially for the game, and artificial game propagation has become a business. The work of and replenishment by both State game commissions and private individuals has made such strides in recent years that it has passed the trial-and-error stage and reached the field of scientific research. This article attempts to sliow^ wdiat has been done in the field of nutrition and feeding of gallinaceous upland game birds and what still remains to be done. Because much of the w^ork on game to date has pertained to these species and because of space limitations, other kinds of game, including game mammals, marsh and aquatic game birds, pigeons, and doves, are not here considered. -' Ralph B. Nestler ii? Associate Biologist, Bureau of Biological Survey. Appreciation is expressed to H. W. Titus, in charge of Nutrition Investigations, Bureau of Industry, and Arnold Xel- '^on, Section of Food Habits, Bureau of Biological Survey, for their helpful suggestions, assistance, and constructive eritieisni of this article. (The Bureau of Biological Survey was transferred from the Depart- ment of to the Department of the Interior July 1,1939.) 893 894 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 THE UPLAND GAME BIRDS Gallinaceous upland game birds belong to tbe superfamily Phasia- noidea, of the . This superfamil}^ is di\dded into four groups—(1) grouse, ptarmigans, and the sage hen (the Tetraoni- dae family); (2) American and Old World (the Perdi- cidae family) ; (3) (the family) ; and (4) turkeys (the Meleagrididae family). The 13 most important species in continental United States on which some work has been done in captivity are , sharp-tailed grouse, prairie or pinnated grouse, sage hen, bobwhite , mountain or plumed quail, California or helmet quail, GambePs quail, scaled quail, Hun- garian , , ring-necked , and wild .^ Until very recently, only the bobwhite quail, the ring- necked pheasant, the Hungarian partridge, and the have been propagated successful^ in captivity to any great extent. Other species of quail also are now being raised in this wa^^ with success. GROUSE Of the Tetraonidae family, the ruffed grouse, commonly called partridge in New and pheasant in the southern AUeghan}^ States, is probably the best known generally, and is one of our most esteemed native game birds. This species ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada to the higher ground of the Southern States. In 1884-85, Pierre Lorillard turned ruffed grouse loose on the game reserve at Jobstown, N. J., with satisfactory results. Suc- cessful implantations were made in 1900 on a 1,500-acre tract on Washington Island, Wis., by William Barnhard. Birds shipped from Alberta, Canada, to an island in Puget Sound, Wash., in 1923, have also done very well. Game propagators have found that the proper care of ruffed grouse in pens is very difficult, induit native birds usualW are too wild for controlled conditions. On the other hand, propagated stock brought to maturity is usually too tame for planting in the wild. The sharp-tailed grouse is not so familiar to most people as the ruffed grouse, and it has not received as much attention from the game propagators. It is found in eastern Colorado, central Nebraska, eastern South Dakota, , Utah, northern New Mexico, and western Wisconsin. Changes in the center of the prairie chicken population as related to human settlement of this country are still in process. This bird formerly ranged throughout all the open country between the Appa- lachian and the Rocky Mountains and from Canada to the Gulf coast. As the country became more thickly populated, the prairie chicken has disappeared from man\^ regions, and the eastern limit of its range has moved westward. At the same time, the clearing of has provided much new open country that it lias been prompt to occupy. In this way, its range has extended westward and north- ward, and at the same time has been curtailed eastward. It is a ^ The scientific names of these species are Bonasa umbelius (ruiîed grouse), Pedioecetes phasianeUus (sharp tailed grouse), cupido (prairie chicken or pinnated grouse), uropkasiajius (sage hen), Colinusvirginianus{\iohv7hit^

TABLE 1.—Number of dealers in gallinaceous upland game bird species at close of 1938

Grouse | Dealers American quail Dealers ; Old World partridge Dealers

Number Number Number Ruffed 24 Bobwhite -_ - _- - 324 Hungarian 64 Sharp-tailed 8 California 118 Bamboo 24 Dusky 4 Valley-- _. -.-. - 116 Trancolin 6 Spruce 3 G amber s Rp.d-PTPstpir] Wnori 4 Sage 3 Mountain... 60 ; Himalayan Hill 3 Ptarmigan, rock 1 Scaled 59 ^ Tfixas hobwhite 32 Mexican bobwhite 22 Masked bobwhite. 17 Mearn's bobwhite 12

Pheasant Dealer? Wild turkey Dealers

Number Number Ring-necked 544 Eastern.. 60 Chinese 315 Rio Gran 9 Florida.-. 5

M. C. Wilson^ in charge of extension studies and teaching^ Extension Service, United States Department of Agriculture, has reports from 182 counties in various sections of the country, of 33,026 game birds produced by 4-H Club members during 1937; and from 167 counties^ of 213,374 game birds produced b}^ adults. These figures do not include game birds propagated by the various State game commissions or the Bureau of Biological Survey, whose contributions to our game resources are very large. PHYSIOLOGY OF UPLAND GAME BIRDS Like the barnyard and turkeys the majority of upland game birds are gallinaceous . They are mostly rather large. 141394"--39 58 898 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 heavy-bodied birds, with comparatively short wings, poorly adapted for long flights. The legs are adapted for running and for scratching the ground, wehere most of the food, which consists of seeds, worms, etc., is found. Food takes the following course through the digestive system of a gallinaceous bird {603):-^ Swallow^ed with the assistance of the tongue, the food is forced tln-ough the system by means of the muscles that line the digestive tract (fig. 1). If the bird has been without food for several hours, the first few mouthfuls go direct to the , the grinding organ of tlie body, witliin a few seconds. If, however, the has been feeding more or less continuously, additional food will be stored in the until the gizzard is emptied of a part of its contents. As the food passes from the storage pouch to the gizzard, it pauses for a short time in the proventriculus, or stomach. The rhythmic contractions and relaxations of the gizzard exert suf- ficient pressure to grind the food to a fine mass, which passes to the small intestine. There it is thoroughly mixed and brought into con- tact with the walls of the intestine. It then passes to the large intes- tine. Two blind pouches, called ceca, are located at the junction of the small and large intestines and open up into the tract. These pouches rhythmically expand and contract and thus receive and reject the intestinal contents. The remaining material, which is now in a semiliquid condition, passes through the large intestine to the cloaca, where portions of it are expelled at intervals. Titus points out (in an unpublished communication) that— digestion is extremely rapid in the domestic fowl. In as little as !}{> to 2 hours after the feed leaves the crop, an individual portion may be digested and the indigestible residue voided. However, for the complete digestion of a full meal, as little as 10 hours or as much as 18 hours may be required; the average time is close to 14 hours but may be appreciably less when nothing but a wet mash is fed. NUTRITIONAL DIFFERENCES AMONG SPECIES Even though the digestive systems of the various species of galli- naceous birds are similar and in many respects the nutritive require- ments are identical, nevertheless certain difierences are quite pro- nounced between the various families of the Galliformes order. The nutrition of the common chicken as compared with that of the domes- ticated turkey furnishes a good example. A laying diet formulated to meet the maintenance and reproductive requirements of the former will likewise satisfy the requirements of the latter, but this agreement does not hold true in regard to rearing diets for the growing birds. Turkey poults, because of their more rapid rate of grow^th, require about 4 percent-units ^ moi'e crude , two and a half times mo]e A, twice as much vitamin D, and somewhat more calcium and phosphorus than do chicks. Also, workers in California (679) have found that an acute dermatitis will develop in turkey poults as a result of vitamin G (riboflavin) deficieiicy, in spite of the fact that the diet contaijis ¿m ample supply of the ^'filtrate factor/^ which pre- vents dermatitis in. chicks. In turkeys this skin disorder is completely prevented by riboflavin. On the other hand, the symptoms of 3 Italic niiinbers in ])areiitheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 1075, - A percent-unit is the difference between two percentages. UPLAND GAME BIRDS 899

Vißire I.—Quail opened and viscera spread out. Digestive enzymes function in llie following tracts: 2. Undilated esophagus—ptyalin in salivary secretions converts slarcli into maltose; 4. proventriculus—pepsin in gastric juice converts proteins into proteoses and peptones; 6. duodenum—amylopsin in pancreatic juice converts starcfi into maltose; lipase in pancreatic juice converts into glycerol and fatty acids; and trypsin m pancreatic juice converts protein into proteoses, the latter into peptones and polypeptids and some amino acids; 7. small intestine (posterior part)—maltase in intestinal juice converts maltose into glucose; sucrase in intestinal juice converts sucrose into glucose and fructose; erepsin in intestinal juice converts peptone into aminono acids. ' ' (Photograph" ' from" Sloddard's" " " "" The Bobwhite~ . . . Quail;~ Its Habits, Preservationlion andi Increase, 1931, by permission of Charles Scribner's Sons, pubhshers.; 900 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 vitamin G deficiency in chicks are slow growth, diarrhea, and emacia- tion, without dermatitis. Among the game birds, differences in the types of natural food se- lected by the various species hidicate that nutritional variation also exists among related birds in the wild. The ruffed grouse, for in- stance, feeds almost entirel}^ on browse (leaves, buds, and tender shoots) and berries, whereas the California quail and wild turkey subsist mainly on seeds, grains, mast, and insects.

NUTRITIONAL STUDIES ON GAME BIRDS UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS TYPES OF FOOD UTILIZED Fairly complete investigations of the food habits of game birds in the wild have been made by the Bureau of Biologien! Survey (fig. 2). Some of the State game commissions also have obtained data along this line for certain local species. Inasmuch a*s a knowledge of the natural selection of foodstuff's is a key to the solution of the îiutritional riddle, some of the more pertinent facts are presented. Seven types of food material are utilized by the upland game birds: (1) Weed seeds,—With the exception of the ruffed grouse and the prairie chicken, game birds eat very large quantities of miscellaneous seeds, many of them being from obnoxious weeds. Seeds of beggar- weed, bushclover, Japan clover, butterfly pea, ragweed, pigweed, sheep sorrel, partiidge-pea, foxtail, smartweed, black bindweed, and lambsquarters are some of those found. (2) Animal food,—, crickets, , weevils, beetles, ants, flies, bees, earthworms, and snails. (3) Seeds of cultivated plants.—Grains: Wheat, barley, oats, buck- wheat, benne, corn, kafir, millet, sorghum, rice, and rye. Legumes: Soybeans and cowpeas. (4) Mast,—Seeds of the , oak, sweetgum, maple, and ash. (5) Browse (used espcciall}^ by the grouse).—Leaves of chickweed, field sorrel, fern, spruce, clover, woodsorrel, hawkweed, a]id mountain-laurel; twigs and buds of maple, mountain-ash, hazel- nut, apple, cherry, aspen, birch, American horjibeam, and American hophornbeam. (6) Fruit,—Blackberry, partridgeberry, sniilax, grape, sumac, blaclv cherry, dewberry, and red mulberry. (7) -V/i/ierr/Z.—Limestone pebbles, bits of shell, particles of sandstone, and quartz pebbles. FOOD SELECTION AND HABITS Table 2 shows in. general the food habits of adult upland game birds, though the figures given are far from conclusive. As averages, they merely indicate what certain species might eat at any one time. The food selection by individuals of a species may vary considerably from that of the species as a whole. For instance, when Kelso {615) analyzed the crop contents of Hungarian partridges, he found that 40 percent of the diet of one bird consisted of grasshoppers, whereas 85 percent of the diet of another was composed of coulee crickets. The nature of the flora on the local feeding groimd also influences the diet. In areas where there are large raspberry thickets pheasants UPLAND GAME BIRDS 901

Figure 2.—Crop contents of one ruffed grouse collected on the George Washington National , December 1935. TheSOfood groups were identified as follows: 1, Men- ziesia {MenzU-sia pilosa): 2, buds of pin cherry [Prunus pminsylvauica): 3. seed of witcli- hazel (Hamainelis virßiiiiana); 4, buds of trailing-arbutus (l-'.pißai'a rrpens): 5, bud» of hickory [Carya sp.); 6, buds of black guui, or túpelo (^yssa sylmtica) : 7, Canada licnd

Vegetable food

Species Birds Animal i studied food j '' Seeds, (Irit .\utl)ority Miscel- laneous ' weeds, j Ala.st Grain Fruit ! and grass ! _ . . _ r Nuiahtr Percent Percent Percent Perce at Percent Percent ! Percent 1 Percent Kiuj4-nockC(i p!)cas;uit-. 100 U.O 89.0 0.0 78.0 -M. il. tívvcnk (lll/f). 2 14 .1 99. 9 23.8 23.7 15.7 30.7 :V. M. Leíüngwell (673). 45 14. 5 85. 5 13.4 9.5 30. 7 5. 5 2(). 2 C. Oottaui (228). Bobwliito_. 16.7 83.3 50. 0 2. 5 10.7 10.0 F. E. L. Beal (71). 14. 5 85.5 47. 9 13.4 3.0 '4."3' 19.4 •5 3. 5 11. L. Stoddard (1W5), > Scaled quail 258 21.9 78. 1 59. 2 9.4 9.5 11. 0 Leon Kelso.' CD California quail 019 3.0 05. 5 5.0 25.0 2.3 W. L. Me A tee (7()H). Tiungarian partri(iç;e SO 0.0 94. Ó 5.3 20. 1 47. 9 20.4 40. 0 Leon Kelso (61 ß). O •■' 12 1.2 98.8 25. 3 10.3 38. 1 24.8 A.M. Leffingwell {67S), O Kiiiïed grousc_... •'80 100. 0 M4.2 78.0 7.3 7.9 Leon Kelso."^ 20« io.'iV 89. 1 .9 ¡LH' 18. 1 28. 3 i S. D. Judd (6W). Prairie chicken . 1Í) 15. 0 85. 0 15. 0 25. 0 10.0 . J W. L. Me A tec (706'). o"n 17 28.0 72.0 ' 27. 2' 5.9 13. 9 18.7 0. O ! Alfred Gross." 10 71 14.1 85.9 3. I 14.9 31.1 25.' 1 ' 11. S IS. D. Judd (ßOJ). > Wild turkey " 10 15.0 84. 1 1.9 12 20. I "i.'o" 24.8 33. 0 ; S. F). Judd mi). I O ' Percentage of total gizzard cont-ents. '' (^rop contents studied during October to February. '■> Some crops contained only a^trace of grit, others contained ;is mu(;h as l 5 per(;cni.. ' Kb^LSO, LEON, FOOD FOR SCALED QUAIL, I'RELI.MINAUY IIEI'OKT. Bur, Biol. Survey Wildlife a,ud .Maiiagcuieiil. Leallel, ti. S. yi, i» pp. |',»37. | \'l imc(igrai>lie.d.| cz ■' ("^rop contents studied during September, October, and Noveml)er. 73 " Crop contents studied during winter months. ' A mixture of twigs, fruit, seeds, and flowers. ^ KELSO, LEON, WIMTEK FOOD OF RUFFED GROUSE IN NEW Y(HIK. Bur. Biol. Survey Wildlife Research a,n(i Aianagemcut Lcatlel B. S. I, 3 i)p. liev. 1935. [MíUHM graphed.] '■' GROSS, .ALFRED O. PROGRESS REPORT OF TUE WISCONSIN PJíAIRIE CHICKEN INVESTIGATJON. Wis. Gojiscrv. (/omn. J930. [Typewritten.] •" Crop contents studied during October to April. '" Crop contents studied during February, March, July, September, November, and Uecember. 1Ï Contains small quantity of grain from 1 bird. UPLAND GAME BIRDS 903 feed extensively upon these fruits. Likewise, bobwhites in the vicinity of a pine grove will gorge themselves on the pine mast. Availability of the natural foods also has a marked influence on the food habits of birds. Drought, heavy snowstorms, and other weather conditions may have such an adverse effect on the supply of certain favored food material that the game may be forced to change their diet radically. For example, during a very severe winter, pheasants have been found with their crops stuffed with sumac berries, undoubtedly because there was a scarcity of more desired food material higher in nutritive value. It will be noted from table 2 that upland game birds are primarily herbivorous. During a year, animal food constitutes only about one-sixth of the bobwhite^s diet, one-ninth of the ruffed grouse's and the ring-necked pheasant's diets, and one thirty-third of the California quaiFs diet. Influence of Age and Season Game chicks are omnivorous, animal food predominating in theii' diet, especially during the first few weeks after hatching. Young California quail, for example, during the first week of life eat animal matter to the extent of 50 to 75 percent of their food, but after they are 4 weeks old they take little if any more animal food than the adult birds. Figure 3 illustrates this decrease and table 3 (llOô) shows the selectivity of young quail as compared with adults.

TABLE 3.—Principal foods contained in 154 crops and of adult bobwhites collected during the period that chicks are usually found afield {May 1 to November J), and those contained in 34 crops and gizzards of chicks varying in age from 2 weeks to 3 months

Article of food Adults Young Article of food Adults Young

Animal food: Vegetable food : Percent Percent Grasshoppers and related Percent Percent Fruit 30.85 16.78 insects 12.26 8.18 Grasses 18.77 36.12 Beetles 4.68 5.76 Legumes ._-.._. 6.30 4.97 Bugs _ -- - _ 3.07 4.68 Spurges --- ___ _-- 3.31 4.47 Bees, wasps, ants, etc .52 .24 Cultivated plants (except Miscellaneous insects .18 legumes) _ _ 2.85 1.88 Caterpillars, mofhs, and eggs_ 1.62 3.85 Partridge-pea and other sennas. 1.27 .03 Spiders and related insects. __ .47 .82 Slugs and snails .70 Total 62. 35 64.25 Miscellaneous animal matter.. .28 1.50 Total 22.90 26.91

The diet of any species varies considerably from month to month, as is shown in figure 4 for quails and figure 5 for pheasants. During the summer when insects are available, the proportion of animal matter in the diet increases ; harvesttime is a period of greater grain consumption; in the late fall weed seeds are a major article of diet; and winter brings increased nut consumption. New Foods and Poisonous Foods Stoddard {1105)^ in his work with the bobwhite, noted that the bird is very cautious about accepting new foods. While trapping quail for banding purposes, he used a mixture of several small grains as bait. The bobwhites were so attracted by the bait that they risked being trapped day after day to eat it. Two items of the grain mixture, how- 904 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

100

90

, 80

\ 70 \

\

\ O en 0>

\ PERCENT

40 1 ^ ^ \ 30 NJV V 20 N -^^

10

0 ^2 8 5 9 17 3 go NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED ^*"m .fvi^ tniO chO) IT)^ (O^ COW O^ CsJ(/) <í2m it^^ UJ^Ϋ^ ^I^ l^r.^ ^^^ ^^^ »^Z^ ^o^ i.i£> ^OliJ C£>PUJ OPUJ oPliJ OpUJ CDPUJ OOliJ oguj SJS^

60 50 1 MISCELLANEOUS SEED 40 30 .^ V .0^ 20 ^J> 10 "■ — 'X 60 50 FRUIT^i / 40 \ 1 30 / \ !i 20 / »V !0 \^ -L 0 ^ ^ ^"^ 60 50 GRA SSES AND SEDGES^ 40 V 30 /^ ^ 20 / V / N h^ ^ * f ^ *"' ^ ~ . 60 50 INSECTS 40 30 / .^^^^^ \ 20 Y/ \ 10 ^ ^^ \ 0 —■ 60 50 T 40 MAS 30 > "-"■"^ \ / V 20 N 10 \, / 0 \ ___£' / 60 50 1 LEGUMES - 40 y Kj 30 /^ N 20 ^^^V 10 V. 0 X —^ y^ 60 50 1 FORAGE 40 30 1 20 ^ 10 / 0 ■"*■■** - SBS— ^^^^^^^^ i—^ APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER Figure 4,—Variation in a quaii's diel throughout the year. (From A. B. Massey (764)^ by permission of the author and the American WildUfe Inslilu le.) 906 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

AUG. SEPT. OCT. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAY JUNE JULY Figure3,—\ arialion in a pheasam's diel tlirougbou t the year. (From P. L. Daike (248), by permission of the author and ihe editor of Ecology.) ever, buckwheat and upland rice, were left untouched. Both are con- sidered good quail foods in areas where they have been grown aiul harvested over a period of years. Stoddard found also that Florida beggarweed, a favorite quail food in southeru Georgia, was ignored b,y quail when used as a bait in a region where it is a rare plant. The time required for game birds to become accustomed to a new feed may vary considerably. It has beeu noticed that feeding plots of soybeans or sorghum planted in a section for the first time may not be frequented until the second or third season. Then they will be occupied by three or four coveys of bobwdiite almost simultaneously. On the other hand, bobwhite have been much attracted to fields of the gray winter pea dui'ing the first season that seed was matured. There is conflicting evidence as to whether game birds tend to discriminate against poisonous food or not. Stoddard {1105), in his food study on bobwhite, found that even though the seeds of the eofleeweed {Cassia tora) ai'e of an ideal size for quail and are very plentiftü m rich soils of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains, they ave avoided by quail. In an examination of the food material eaten by several hundred bobwhite, oidy one seed of the coñ'eeweed was found. Experimentation show^ed that this plant is liighly poisonous to cpiail. When a healthy, vigorous cock was forcibly fed 250 of the seeds, he developed a severe diarrhea wdthin several hours and was dead '2]'i days from the time of the feeding. This would indicate recognition of poisonous material, but McAtee points out a case where hundreds of pheasant chicks on the New^ Jersey Game Farm died of eating rose beetles, which contain a nerve poisoii affecting the heart action of certahi species. In a letter quoted by Leopold {677), McAtee says: We doubt if there is anything i^esembling avoidance of poisonous food by wild life ^ ^ * The genera] ride regarding choice of food is tliat an animal takes what- UPLAND GAME BIRDS 907 ever is most readily available, considering the size and degree of specialization in food habits * * * Jf something deleterious happens to occupy this position, so much the worse for the animal, but ordinarily this does not happen in a state of nature. DESIRABILITY OF PROVIDING FEED PATCHES AND SHELTERS Thousands of farms throughout the country are without sufficient food and cover to hold and support a good population of upland game birds throughout the winter months. Even where there is an abun- dance of wild foodstuffs, during late winter the supply may be exhausted or made inaccessible by ice and snow. The wildlife must either leave such localities for sections where food is obtainable or else face starvation. Bobwhites are far less resistant to starvation than pheasants, and cannot be deprived of substantial food for more than a few days at a time without danger. A food crisis that lasts a week may cause heavy mortality, and one of 2 weeks' duration may practically annihilate populations over wide areas.

Figure 6.—An eroded hillside. Soil losses are often hastened by pasturing on such vegetation as can grow under uncontrolled conditions. 908 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

ii, II HI.;M ''fe-^-f"''!/^Îàs^=^^%»:

Figure 7.—What could be done with the hillside shown in figure 6 by conserving soil through suitable plantings and fencing out cattle, sheep, and hogs. In the resulting cover, game can find a suitable habitat for nesting and feeding. If farmers do not wish the depletion of game from their farms, they must provide food on the home range during the season of short- age. This may be done by planting food patches, and by the estab- lishment of feeding stations during emergency periods. Few farms are wholly free from eroded or rough land unsuitable for cultivation. These waste areas are usually made totally barren by pasturing livestock on them. If natural vegetation were allowed to grow in such places, erosion and gullying would be stopped, and at the same time cover and food would be supplied to game (figs. 6 and 7.) The could assist nature by judicious planning and the UPLAND GAME BIRDS 909 planting of grasses, légumes, trees, shrubs, vines, and other erosion- resisting vegetation (26Î). Most State game commissions, the Bureau of Biological Survey, or the Soil Conservation Service are willing.to assist the farmer in such projects. Size/Location, and Crops for Feed Patches Feed patches are often maintained on cultivated land. These may vary in size from a fourth of an acre to several acres in extent. Under highly intensified agriculture, most farmers do not care to devote a large acreage to the supplementary wildlife food crops. It is of importance, therefore, that the plant selected for the food patch ranks high in its ability to produce heavy yields. A number of sorghums, Sudan grass, Minnesota sorghum, flax, sunflower, millets, buckwheat, and corn are such plants. In regions of severe winter weather, wheat, oats, barley, or buckwheat are not very effective, as they have weak stalks, incapable of holding the head of grain above the ice and snow. Thus their usefulness is limited to the fall and early winter months. Experience indicates that corn is by far the most important patch food. R. G. Hill of Michigan (613) points out that— a small patch of corn planted adjacent to permanent winter cover or near a patch of rye or sweetclover seems to fulfill the winter food requirements of most of our wildlife species which occur on the farm. An early maturing variety of yellow dent corn, such as Golden Glow, may be planted and cultivated at least two or three times, or a sufficient number of times to insure a good crop of ears. The crop should be planted and cared for the same as the regular crop grown for grain production. If cover is limited in the vicinity of the food patch, it is well to omit the last cultivation and allow weeds to grow and form a dense mat of ground cover. Corn is also outstanding for its resistance to shattering. Fry (400) points out that Gordon in 1937 found yellow dent corn to be the most palatable of 10 grains used in his observational food patches. The preference rating was as follows: 1, Yellow corn; 2, squaw corn; 3, soybeans; 4, German millet; 5, Siberian millet; 6, Japanese millet; 7, wheatland milo; 8, Greeley kafir; 9, Darso sorghum; 10, Minne- sota sorghum. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SHELTERS AND FEED STATIONS Permanent shelters where grain can be placed make good winter feeding stations for game birds. These shelters should be built close to good protective cover, in areas that are protected from drifting snow, sleet, and wind. Sufficient openings should be left so that birds can easily escape from predators (fig. 8). Stations should be started by November 5 or not later than Decem- ber 1, so that the birds will know their location and establish them within their regular daily feeding range. They must be visited regularly by the attendant, and provisions must be made for an ade- quate supply of grain. A few corn shocks provide the simplest yet probably one of the best types of stations which can be established. According to Grange (432), in areas where bobwhite or Hungarian partridge are abundant, one feeding station to every 40 acres is desir- able; otherwise, a station may be built near the thicket that a covey is known to use. For ring-necked pheasants, one eft'ective station 910 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

I'ijiitri' H.— Bird Ccediiif: station inaintaineil by llic Minnesola State Conservation l)f'|»artiiHMi( (luring the ^\ in Irr of 193J- 32, ulicre more than 2(M) plieasants and A'2 tjiiail were fed. The feeder in the renter was a lioine-iiiade device that kept a constant sujjply of seed before the birds. per square mile is sufficient for feeding; and for prairie chickens, one every 5 or 10 square miles is satisfactory. Although wild turkeys will come from considerable distances, it is best to provide feed in all the permanent winter headquarters that they are known to fre- quent. For ruffed grouse there is very little that can be done in the way of emergency feedhig. In the wild this species subsists pri- marily on browse and fruits, and althougli tliey relish grains in cap- tivity they are slow in learning to accept this diet in the wild. Work- ers in Wisconsin {211) estimate that the approximate quantity of grain needed to maintain one game bird a week in severe winter weather in addition to the wild food that may be picked up is as follows: Pheas- ants, 2 pounds; prairie chickens, 1 pound; Hungarian partridge, % pound; quail, Yi pound. In emergencies, feeding may be done wherever birds are found, including ditches, hard packed roads, haystacks, railroad rights-of- way, or any natural windbreak or shelter. The important thing is that the feed must be placed where the birds will find it. NUTRITION OF GAME BIRDS UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS In the endeavor to replenish the supply of game birds, artificial propagation of certain species, especially ring-necked pheasants and the bobwhite, is becoming a promising business in certain sections of the country. The changes in methods of incubation, broodhig, and feeding have been quite radical in recent yeare, indicating the transi- tion of the business from the pioneer stage to a more substantial basis. For example, 23 years ago, Oldys {871) gave the following information to pheasant breeders regarding the feeding of pheasant chicks: Young pheasants pick up many insects in the rearing field, but the supply must be supplemented. It is customary to depend on so-called ants' eggs (really the UPLAND GAME BIRDS 911 pupae of ants), maggots, , or finely ground . . . Mealworms are very satisfactory, but are difficult to raise in sufficient quantity. Maggots are equallj^ good, and enough can be produced cheaply. The customary method is to suspend a piece of meat, or the carcass of a dead animal, over a barrel or tub of bran. The flesh becomes flyblown and the maggots drop into the bran. Before they are used the maggots must be thoroughly cleansed or they are apt to cause purging. This is usually done by putting burlap or very fine wire in place of the bottom of the barrel or box of bran. They will work their way through the bran in search of food and may be caught in a receptacle below, all ready for feeding to the pheasants. This method is very offensive, and may be replaced by per- mitting a carcass to become flyblown and then burying it a few inches in the ground; the maggots will work their way to the surface where they can be secured by the young pheasants. To the untiring perseverance of the pioneer game breeders in their endeavor to improve the methods of propagation belongs the credit for the remarkable advance in feeding methods since Oldys' day. Research men in some of the State agricultural experiment stations have recently initiated studies in game nutrition. Notable among these are workers at Cornell University, Pennsylvania State College, Michigan State College, and Wisconsin University. The Federal Government, through the Bureau of Animal Industry of the Depart- ment of Agriculture and the Bureau of Biological Survey, also is planning research in this new field. NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF GAME BIRDS Like human beings and domesticated , game birds require a balanced diet for proper growth, maintenance, and reproduction. If there is a good choice of food materials available, the bird in the wild state will balance its diet successfully. In the captive state, however, the bird must depend wholly upon man to furnish it with sufficient quantities of the necessary nutrients. Water First, water is essential. Even though game birds in the wild seem to manage well on dewdrops and succulent material, in con- finement they require a more reliable source of water. Approximately 56 percent of a chicken's body and 72.5 percent of the contents is water. Water ranks far above any other substance in rate of turn-over in the body. It serves to soften the feed, aids in the processes of digestion and absorption of other nutrients, serves in transporting the end products of digestion from the digestive tract to various parts of the body, and assists in the elimination of waste products. Water also facilitates cell reactions, helps to regulate body temperature, aids in the lubricating of the joints, and acts as a water cushion for the nervous system. Seeds Seeds and their byproducts have a very important place in the diet of birds. For the feeding of birds in confinement, cereals are used instead of most of the seeds obtained by birds in the wild, because of their availability and comparative low cost. This feed material is considered valuable primarily because its content supplies the fuel for the body heat and is the principal source of energy. The grains also add bulkiness to the diet. There is some 912 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 evidence that the presence of a small quantity of indigestible and somewhat bulky material in the intestines facilitates both the digestion and absorption of the digestible portion. Other valuable properties possessed by the cereal foods are seldom considered by the average person. Cereal grains and their byproducts are the chief sources of vitamin Bi (thiamin) and vitamin E in a typical diet for birds. Vitamin Bi is essential for growth, main- tenance of appetite, and the prevention of polyneuritis ; vitamin E is vital for the production and hatchability of eggs. Certain cereal byproducts, such as rice bran and wheat middlings, have also been found comparatively high in manganese, which is very necessary in the prevention of perosis or slipped tendon. Yellow corn is prized as a fair source of vitamin A. Oats and their byproducts hold a special place among grains. Titus has pointed out that they are a good source of the anti-gizzard-erosion factor; they tend to prevent rancidity when finely ground and thus are valuable in the preservation of A and E; there is good indication that they tend to prevent a fishy flavor in a bird's flesh when cod- oil is fed; and they are reputed to be of high value in the prevention of cannibalism, toe picking, and picking. An intense study of this last char- acteristic has been made by Miller and Bearse of West Washington Experiment Station (789). Norris (8Ô6) in his work with pheasants found that wheat flour middlings when used as a large portion of the diet had definite perosis- preventing properties and promoted fair growth and good feathering. He noted, however, that the perosis-preventive property may vary considerably. Very little work has been done on the value of the various cereals in the diet of game species. J. B. Coleman, pioneer bobwhite breeder in Virginia, conducted an interesting experiment on his farm, in which he placed more than a score of seeds, including legumes as well as cereals, in separate containers, and studied the birds' selection. To his amazement, the birds practically avoided the legume seeds, which are found in large quantities in the crops of wild birds, and showed a marked preference for kafir and the millets. According to Coleman, rye, which is not a palatable feed for chickens, was eaten by the bob- white to as great an extent as oats, wheat, and barley, without causing any apparent digestive disorders. In similar work conducted in Wisconsin by Hawkins, Moore, and Leopold {2îî)j it was found that game birds like corn better than any other grain. The percentage of the other seeds consumed by the time all the corn was exhausted gives a good idea of how the feeds compare in palatability: Percent Percent Wheat and scratch feed 50 Sweet corn and Sudan grass seed_ _ 35 Buckwheat 45 Sorghum seed 25 White corn, popcorn, and barley__ 40 Soybeans, oats, and rye 15 At Missouri University, Nagel (834) made an interesting study on the relationship between diet and extent of parasitism in the bobwhite. From his data he drew the tentative conclusion '^that the presence of sorghum cane in the diet of bobwhite quail has a restraining effect on parasitism.'^ UPLAND GAME BIRDS 913 Protein Concentrates Proteins are indispensable constituents of the blood, muscles, organs, skin, tendons, bone, and , in fact, of all tissues of the animal body. The}^ constitute about one-fifth of the live weight of a chicken cind between one-eighth and one-seventh of the whole egg. Although some protein is derived from the cereals and green foods, the primary source is protein concentrates. There are two classes of these con- centrates, namely, those obtained from animal sources, such as dried skim milk, meat meal, and fish meal, and those obtained from plant sources, such as soybean meal, linseed meal, and peanut meai. Practically no work has been done on the comparative value of the various protein concentrates in the nutrition of game birds. Tlie Pennsylvania workers {Ï8ô) in 1933 believed that the use of ordinary commercial (55-percent protein) meat and fish meal in a high-protein mash permitted the development of an appreciable percentage of perosis cases, and recommended a meat scrap of a higher protein content (75 percent). Norris (859) of Cornell sought to determine the relative importance of dried skim milk, fish meal, and meat scrap in the best pheasant chick ration developed so far. These ingredients were progressively removed from the ration, first one at a time, then two at a time, and finally all three. He found that all three played an important part in balancing the diet, but his results did not clearly reveal the cause of the better balance attained. He has formulated pheasant diets in which he has included a mixture of soybean meal, vacuum- or steam-dried fish meal (60- to 65-percent protein), meat meal (75- percent protein), and dried skim milk. Apparently these diets have proved successful in pheasant production. Notable work has been done on the quantitative protein require- ments of pheasants and, to a lesser extent, of bobwhite. In 1932, Callenbach, Murphy, and Hillcr (186) pointed out that better early grow^th of pheasants was obtained on a diet containing a higher level of protein than is suitable for the domestic chick. The best growth and feathering and greatest feed consumption per 100 pheasants were secured through the use of a diet analyzing approximately 28 percent of protein. Beginning the same year, Norris and associates of Cornell Univer- sity, in cooperation with Bump of the New York State Department of Conservation (860), began a series of experiments to compare the eftects on pheasants of diets containing the following proportions of protein— 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, and 33 percent. The chicks were started on the diets approximately 24 hours after hatching and the experiment w^as continued for 18 weeks. After three difterent experiments it was concluded that a diet containing 24 percent of protein is necessary for rapid early growth of pheasants. This is about 4 percent more than the I'equirement of chickens. The maximum growth of pheasants was attained at 27 percent, while levels of 15 and 18 percent signifi- ca)] tly retarded growth and cannibalism and feather pulling were also more prevalent at these low-protein levels. The results of their third experiment are given in table 4. In his studv on the protein requirements of bobwhite chicks, Norris in New York* (55^) used protein levels of 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, and 36 per- 141394 «=—39- 59 914 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 cent on battery-reared birds. Two experiments showed that the bobwhite requires 27 percent of protein in its diet for rapid growth. However, the difference between the results at the 24-percent and the 27-percent level was not great.

TABLE -Í.— U eight of pheasant chicks at 4 and H weeks on six different levels of protein

Average \^•ei^ht ^ Averago weig'hr ' Prot.fiin in ration Protein in ration (percent) (percent) At l At 8 Initial At '\ ; At 8 weeks weeks weeks [ weeks

Grams Ora ms Grams ; Grams Grams 18. lir>. 8 358. 3 27, 18.0 ■ 153.0 ■ 444.4 21. 136.3 418. 6 30. 18.3 i 149.0 , 451.7 24. 157. 5 454. 3 33. 18.9 i 155.0 i 463.2

í Weighted for sex influence. An analysis of Coleman's quail feeds at the Poultry Nutrition Laboratory, Agricultural Research Center, reveals the following proximate protein content: Quail mash, 28.36 percent; chick seed- grain mixture, 14.02 percent; adult seed-grain mixture, 12.76 percent. Vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin A is essential for growth, reproduction, hatchability, and maintenance of health. It is found chiefly in materials of animal origin, such as livers of both mammals and fish, and in fish-body oils. Cod-liver oil, when properly prepared and stored, is a very rich source of this factor, containing from 272,150 to about 1,000,000 Interna- tional Units per pound. Sardine oil contains about 13.5 percent as much of this vitamin as cod-liver oil. Plant materials are the chief sources of vitamin A precursors—th.e substances that are changed to vitamin A in the animal body—of which carotene is the most common. Such green foods as fresh alfalfa, kale, and clover are excellent carriers. If alfalfa or clo\^er is properly dried and stored, it retains a great deal of the carotene. Oxidation and heat readily destroy both vitamin A and its pre- cursors. Because of this fact, cod-liver oil should be kept in closed, well-filled receptacles in a cool place, and should not be mixed with feed until a short time before it is to be used. Likewise, corn and alfalfa products should not be stored for long periods, for it has been found that in 1 year 50 percent or more of the carotene is lost. In hot weather these ingredients should be kept in a cool place. A bright- green alfalfa-leaf meal is preferable to brown ish-greeii meal, but the (^olor is not an absolute criterion of the vitii.min content. No work on the vitamin A requirements of game birds has been recorded hi the literature. Vitamin B^ (Thiamin) As was pointed out in the section on cereals, the ordinary diet, in which grains predominate, usually contains sufficient quantities of vitamin Bi (thiamin) for animal maintenance. This is true for some UPLAND GAME BIRDS 915 gaiiie birds as well as for chickens. The workers at Cornell (856) found that the quantity of vitamin Bi needed by young pheasant chicks is easily supplied by common cereals and their byproducts. How^ever, in their work with ruffed grouse, they noted symptoms of vitamin Bj, deficiency among the birds used in the 1932 experiment and corrected them by the use of a vitamhi Bi extract. Vitamin D Vitamin D is required for the development of a normal skeleton and for reproductioJi. Too nuich vitamin D, that is five or six times the quantity normally required, is as deleterious as too little. This factor is not found in the ordinary foodstuffs. For animals living in the open, this vitamin is manufactured in the body by the action of the ultraviolet rays of the sun upon certain vitamin D preciu^sors, such as cholesterol and ergosterol, present in the system. But when birds are raised and maintained under artificial conditions, another source of this factor must be used. Fish oils, such as cod-liver and sardine, are the best sources known at present. The vitamin D con- tent of cod-liver oil ranges from 38,590 to about 160,000 International Units per pound. Baird and Greene (54) foimd that pheasants require a minimum of approximately 225 to 275 International Units of vitamin D per pound of feed in an otherwise balanced diet. Norris (809) reports further investigations of the vitamin D require- }nent of pheasant chicks by F. D. Baird, which showed that 0.25 per- cent of fortified cod-liver oil containing 113,398 International Units of vitamin D per pound prevented the development of rickets during a test period of 8 weeks. This is about three times as much of the same oil as was found necessary to prevent a rachitic condition in ilomestic chicks fed a similar rickets-produchig diet. Norris' results are given in table 5.

TABLE 5.—Average weighty percent of bone ash, and bone structure of 8-week-old pheasant chicks fed eight different levels of fortified cod-liver oil

Average Average Fortified ; Average amount Average bone \ Fortified Average amount Average bone cod-liver \ weisjht of bone structure at S 11 cod-liver weight of bone structure at 8 oil (per- i at 8 ash at weeks i^ oil (per- at 8 ash at weeks cent) weeks S weeks i cent) weeks S weeks k - - - Grains Percent ii Grams Percent 0.00 0) . 1 0.20 356.0 39.1 Slightly rachitic. '.\05 ! (0 _ 0.25 408.1 46.9 Normal. 'MO ¡ 220.0 34. 5 Rachitic. : 0.30 359.7 47.4 Do. ij.lô \ 211.5 37. ñ Do. 0.35 389.0 45.7 Do.

■ All dead. Vitamin E Vitamin E is necessary for reproduction and hateliability of eggs. Greeu foods, such as alfalfa and clover, and the germs of grain are the best known sources of this factor, although it has beeu found widely distributed in nature. Under ordinary conditions, vitamin E is quite stable, but it is very quickly destroyed by rancidity. For this reason, feeds that are rancid, even very slightly, should never be used. 916 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 Vitamin 6 (Rihoflavin) Vitamin G is another factor essential for growth and for hatch- ability of eggs. Dried whey, yeast, dried skim milk, and liver are especially rich in it, and green foods are very good sources. Alfalfa- leaf meal from plants that have been properly harvested and cured contain more of this factor than the green alfalfa. Protein concen- trates from animal products are fair sources, but the grains contain relatively little. Studies by the Cornell workers (859) on the need of pheasants for vitamin G during early growth indicate that this is satisfied by the inclusion in the diet of 4 percent of dried liver, which is equiva- lent to about 20 percent of dried skim milk. This is 2 to 2.5 times greater than the requirement of domestic chicks for this factor. The results of these studies are given in table 6.

TABLE 6.—Average weight of pheasant chicks at 4 and 6 iveeks old fed diets containing eight different amounts of dried liver for the vitamin G content

Average! weight Averaee^ weight Dried liver in diet Dried liver in diet (percent) (percent) At 4 At 6 Initial i At 4 At G Initial weeks week? weeks weeks

I Orams Gra ms Grams i ¡ Grams Grams Grams 0 I 18.7 48.8 102.0 i 4 I 18.8 130. i 238.2 1 I 18.5 86.3 162.2 i 5 ! 19.9 142. 6 262. 5 2 : 18.8 110.8 203.9 '■ 6. ! 19.2 151. 0 281.9 3 ! 18.7 119. 5 228.2 i 7 ' 18.1 146.9 274.9

1 Weighted for sex influence. Other Vitamins Although present investigations indicate that the ordinary domestic chicken synthesizes sufficient for its needs, nothing is known about the requirements of game birds for this factor. Other less known vitamins, such as the factors that seem to prevent chick derma- titis, encephalomalacia (a brain disorder due to a nutritional defi- ciency), hemorrhage, and gizzard erosions are still too new in the knowledge of domestic-poultry nutrition to have received much consideration in studies on game-bird nutrition. Minerals Calcium, phosphorus, manganese, sodium, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, iron, iodine, copper, , and silicon are all known to be necessary for the maintenance of life and reproduction, and possibly cobalt should be included in this list. Man}^ of these elements are found in the ordinary foodstuffs in adequate quantities to meet the animaPs needs. However, there are certain ones, such as sodium, chlorine, calcium, phosphorus, and manganese, that may have to be be supplied as supplementary material. Sodium and Chlorine Sodium is Y&rj necessary for the maintenance of the acid-base equilibrium of the body, and chlorine is an important constituent of the digestive juices. As a rule, both may be furnished through the UPLAND GAME BIRDS 917 medium of common salt. For the domestic fowl 0.5 percent of salt in the chick diet and 0.7 percent in the mature-stock diet has usually been found sufficient. Norris (859) in his suggested pheasant-chick diet uses 0.5 percent of salt. Calcium and Phosphorus Calcium is one of the main elements involved in skeletal and egg- shell formation. It may be furnished to birds in tJie form of high- grade limestone, oystershell, or crab shel], nil of which are very good sources. Phosphorus works together with calcium in the metabolic processes of the body. It, too, is a characteristic constituent of the bones. An excess of either or both of these elements is to be avoided, since it has been found that an excess of inorganic phosphorus will considerably increase the incidence of perosis in domestic chicks. Usually for growing birds there is suiHcient phosphorus in the diet without any being added, but for laying stock it is sometimes necessary to supply extra phosphorus. When calcium and phosphorus are both required, steam bonemeal is fed as a part of the diet. Callenbach and Murphy of Pennsylvania State College in 1935 experimented with ring-necked pheasant chicks ke])t in battery brooders (data unpublished). These birds were fed diets in which the calcium content varied from 0.5 to 3 percent and the quantity of phosphorus ranged from 0.5 to 1 percent. The calcium-phosphorus ratio varied from 1:1 to 3:1. Their results indicated that for phea- sants reared in batteries a diet containing 1.50 percent of calcium and 0.75 percent of phosphorus gives satisfactory growth and sound bone development. lu very recent preliminary work by Skogland, also of Pennsylvania State College, six diets were used, the calculated calcium and plios- phorus contents of which are given in table 7.

TABLE 7.—Calculated calcium and phosphorus contents of diets fed pheasant chicks at Pennsylvania State College

Phos- Calcium- Calcium- Diet No. Calcium phosphorus Diet No. Calcium Phos- phosphorus phorus ratio phorus ratio

Percent Percent Percent Percent -i 0.72 0.73 1.0:1.0 4 2.00 1.00 2 0*1 0 o I. 00 1.00 1.0:1.0 5._ . . 2.50 1.00 2.5:1.0 3.. ]..=iO 1.00 1.5:1.0 6_ . 2.50 1 25 'i 0-1 0

The birds on diet No. 1, which contahied 0.72 percent of calcium and 0.73 percent of phosphorus, showed the best growth, consumed the smallest quantity of feed, made the most efficient use of the feed consumed, had the lowest mortality, and experienced the least occur- rence of perosis. On the other hand, the birds on diet No. 4, which contained 2 percent of calcium and 1 percent of phosphorus, showed the poorest growth, consumed the largest quantity of feed, rated fifth in feed consumption and efficiency, had the highest mortality, and experienced the greatest and most severe occurrence of perosis. In Norris^ suggested pheasant diets for growing birds the calcium content is kept at 1.6-1.7 percent, and the phosphorus content at 0.8-0.85 percent. 918 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 So far as is known, no work has been done on the calcium and piiosphorus requirements of mature game birds. Ma7i gañese Very recent nutritional studies with chickens have disclosed tiie fact that manganese deficiency and perosis are definitely linked together. Although perosis is apparently the result of a complexity of factors, the addition of manganese to a perosis-producing diet will decrease the malady considerably, if not eliminate it entirely, espe- cially if the percentage of phosphorus is kept at a low level. Chickens require at least 50 parts per million of manganese in the diet. In the case of this species, Titus advises the addition of 1.7 pounds of anhy- drous manganous sulphate or 2,5 pounds of manganous sulfate tetrahydrate to 100 pounds of common salt, for mixing with the diet. In the studies conducted by the woi-kers at Pennsylvania State College, there were between 36 and 40 parts per million of manganese to each diet. Perosis was prevalent throughout the experi- ment, and even with the diet containing only 0.73 percent of phospho- rus, there was one case of the malady. (64)y in his work with the bobwhite, is convinced that 40 to 100 parts per million of manganese in the diet will prevent perosis. Other Minerals The value of the addition of other minerals to the diet is doubtful. Recent work with chickens indicates that the addition of potassiuiif iodide, iron compounds, copper compounds, and possibl}^ sulfur to the diet of that species may be of value at times. The last-named ma- terial has little nutritional value, but may be of some use in combating coccidiosis, an avian disease affecting the digestive tract, especially thececa. Although charcoal is used quite extensively by wild-game breeders, it has little, if any, value nutritionally. Grit Work by poultry nutrition workers at the Agricultural Research Center has shown that gallinaceous birds can live without grit and even digest whole grain without its aid. Wheu grit is present, how- ever, there is more efficient utilization of feed, and less eitergy is re- quired by the gizzard for grinding feed. Tu the case of growing do- mestic chickens abscesses may occur in the gizzard lining if a finely ground, low-fiber diet is fed without grit. Leopold (677) pohits out that most game birds in the wild consume grit daity, pheasants particularly frequenting graveled roads at night- fall, presumably for this purpose. Titus is convinced that ^^it is a worth-while practice to supply grit to chickens so reared and kept that they do not have access to the soil.'^ However, he points out that it is higlily important that careful consideration be given to the kind of grit that is supplied. Probably the best grit one can obtain is river gravel or native pebbles, but any insoluble, nonfriable rock material may be used. Fine sand is of no value as grit because it readily passes through the gizzard, but very coarse sand may be used for young birds. UPLAND GAME BIRDS 919

DIET FORMULAS Because of the paucity of knowledge concerning the nutrition of çiame, there are very few recommended game diets. Xorris {859) suggests tw^o diets for young pheasants on the basis of experimental results and practical experiments (table 8).

TABLE 8.—Composition of two diets for young pheasants

Diet Diet Ingredient Ingredient No. 1 Xn. 2

Percent Percent Yellow corn meal Soybean meal 6.5 10.0 Wheat-flour middlings Pulverized limestone 2.0 2.0 Ground heavy oatS- Common salt 0.5 0.5 Dehydrated alfalfa n)eal (20 per- Cod-liver oil (So International cent protein) Units of vitamin D per gram)... ].0 J.O Dried skim milk Dried liver Total Meat meal (75 percent protein) __ Fish meal (60 to 65 percent pro- tein), either vacuum- or steam- dried

Articles in this Yearbook by H. W. Titus on the nutrition of the domestic chicken, entitled 'Tractical Nutritive Requirements of Poul- try^' and ^Tractical Feeding of Poultry/^ give information on the nutrition of domestic gallinaceous birds that may be applicable to the upland game birds. In the last-named article are some valuable tables on the composition of foodstuffs, including the mineral and vitamin content, and their digestibility.

FEEDING PRACTICES There have been two notable changes in the management practices of propagators of upland game birds: (1) From rearing and maintain- ing the birds on the ground to rearing and maintaining them on wire cloth (fig. 9, A); (2) from the custard-clabber feeding of game chicks to a more simplified and sanitary system of feeding (fig. 9j B). Until very recently, all breeders gave their chicks and mature birds access to runs planted to some cover crop such as clover, alfalfa, cereals, or grass. However, whatever benefits were derived from the green feed were nullified by the spread of disease, especially ulcerative enteritis or ^'quail disease," from the contaminated ground. Regard- ing this disease, Stoddard quotes from Dr. Morse: At the beginning of an outbreak the more susceptible birds may die suddenly without showing noticeable symptoms or the characteristic internal lesions. Less acute cases show ruffled feathers, dullness, droopiness, lack of appetite, increased thirst, and frequently diarrhea ... In chronic cases emaciation is extreme . . . The most characteristic lesions are numerous small, yellowish areas of necrosis in the wall of the intestine. These areas average about the size of a pinhead and ma}^ be seen through the peritoneal surface. Necrotic ulcers sometimes perforate the intestinal wall. Propagators of bobwhite and rufted grouse have found that such contagion cau be reduced considerably by rearing the young stock and maintaining the breeders on sun porches of wire cloth rather than on 920 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 restricted range (fig. 10, yl and B; fig. 11, .4 and B). They supply freshly cut green feed taken from nearby grass plots every day in special receptacles. The making of custard for game chicks is a laborious, unnecessary procedure that is rapidly losing favor with breeders, while clabber is apt to bring about parasitic infestation of birds by drawing hundreds of flies that arc carriers of disease germs. -

^

Figure 9.—A, Modern electrically heated quail brooder pens in Maryland. These pens will hold 15 to 30 quail chicks; B, quail feeding and watering devices. UPLAND GAME BIRDS 921 Feeding Chicks

Pheasants Smith (1006) reports the procedure that is iiseil successfully with pheasants on the Fisher State Game Farm in Pennsylvania as follows: Tlie chicks are fed the first 3 days on our 30 percent plieasaiit starting mash, with a little fine sand mixed in an

■ .\X()SYllOlS. II.\TCHIN<- .»Nil KEARINO RlNliNECK PHEASANT'«. Pa. Boar'l "f Oanie roinnirs.. I)iv. Pri»! nitral ion anti (îaïue Farms Kept, lli3r,. |M!nieo?raphe

Figun II).—. I, and l{, Uobuhile <|nuil in winter holding |>en, Pelergburg, Va., February 19.39. ((;r)iirl.-s> of Jaiiii-s SiliwcM.k.) 922 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

Figure 11.—A, Chiikar partridges in winter liolding pen. No difTicnlties have been encountered in maintaining rhukars on the ground. B. Prairie chickens in winter holding pen. liiihniond. \ a., February 1939. (Courtesy of W. IJ. Ci>lenian.) C, Male and female bobwhites in laying pen; , feeders, and waterer shown. (Courtesy of James Schwenck.) UPLAND GAME BIRDS 923 Bob white Quail For bobwhite raising, Coleman (132) of the White Oak Quail Farm in Virginia recommends that 1 or 2 hours after the bobwhite chicks are placed in the brooder, they should be given dry quail mash ad libitum in small trays, clean coarse sand, fresh tender greens, and water. The water used for the first few^ days is drawn several hours before using and allowed to warm to room temperature, to prevent chilling the quail. The greens (lettuce, alfalfa, or clover) should be fed at least three times daily from the first. They are cut fine with scissors and sprinkled on the water and in the sand tray until the birds are about 4 weeks old, w^hen they are old enough to pick at larger greens. On the fifth day from hatching, Coleman adds a little pulverized ovstershell and baby-chick size charcoal in the sand tray, mixing them with the sand. Several days later he adds baby-chick size oyster- shell. Coleman does not feed any tomatoes, cucumbers, apples, or carrots, having found them of httle value in the diet of either young or mature quail that receive a balanced diet supplemented with fresh greens. At the fifth week, Coleman feeds a chick grain-seed mixture, spar- ingly, in the afternoon, so that the birds will be forced to eat con- siderably more mash than grain every day. When the birds are 10 weeks old they are started on a grain-seed mixture suitable for mature bobwhites. During the laying period (fig. 11, O), Coleman believes that— it is very important to control the amount of grain-seed mixture given so that the quail are forced to eat the mash freely. The egg-producing ingredients are con- tained in the mash and if the birds are given all the grain they want they will eat little, if any, mash, and the result will be poor egg production. In the w^inter, especially during the severe weather, it is well to feed more grain-seed mixture than mash, but at no other time is it advisable to do so. However, as already emphasized, keep the mash before the birds at all times, for all ages; from the very first feeding. Of course, they are fed in trays (never on the ground) which are cleaned often. Consistency of Mash Some breeders may inquire: Is it best to feed mash wet or dry, as fine or coarse meal, or as pellets? The practice of feeding wet or moist mash is rapidly becoming obsolete. It requires extra time and labor and is messy, unsanitary, and unnecessary. Unless fresh batches onJy are kept before the birds and the receptacles are cleaned thoroughly every day, there is great danger of the birds eating sour, contaminated feed, that will be very injurious. Many breeders use a finely ground meal so that each mouthful of feed will theoretically contain all the ingredients of a balanced diet and the birds will not be able to pick out the more favored ingredients. Although undoubtedly these ends are achieved more or less by use of a powdery feed, certain disadvantages must be considered. Birds, both game and domestic, prefer discernible particles. Even with newl}^ hatched game chicks, Handley (Stoddard (1105)) points out that feeds— 924 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939 which contain some such ingredient as small flakes of wheat bran, are eaten by baby quail in greater quantity than are plain foods, apparently because of the presence of objects that readily catch the eye. Powdery feed irritates the birds' nostrils, often caking there^ and consequently may lead to nose picking and cannibalism by other birds. Feed pellets have become popular because they eliminate the bad features of both powdery and coarsely ground feed. Feed manufac- turers are putting both mash and pellets on the market. No study is known to have been made on these two types of feed for game birds, however. Work has been done with domestic fowls, but the results are not conclusive. One interesting stud\' conducted by the workers at Pullman, Wash, (i^^), showed that poults from 2 to 10 days old found the pelleted feed more attractive and palatable than mash. However, no significant difference was noted at 28 weeks in the body weights of either the hens or toms fed mash, mash and pellets, or pellets supplemented with scratch grain and green feed. Likewise, the lots fed mash, mash and pellets, and pellets alone ate practically the same quantities of feed during the 28 weeks. The lots of turkeys fed on pellets and scratch grain brought slightly higher returns over feed costs than those fed by the other methods. The amount and cost of feed per pound of gain were both slightly less in the lots fed pellets and scratch grain. "Cafeteria" Feeding The value of * ^cafeteria'^ or free-choice feeding of pheasants was studied by Callenbach and Hiller of Pennsylvania State College {185). The results indicate that this method does not give satisfactory results as measured by growth, feather development, or livability. Also it is necessary to supply somewhat more feeding space per bird than for ordinary grain and mash feed.