THE GORGE of SAMARIA Shelter for Life Den of Freedom 4

Home , Alikianos, Chania, Cretan literature, Cretan wildcat, Hora Sfakion, Kallikratis

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1Α 2

MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

HELLENIC REPUBLIC EUROPEAN UNION EROF

CO-FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN UNION

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1B 3

THE GORGE OF SAMARIA shelter for life den of freedom 4

Republication or reproduction of this work in whole or in part in any way, as well as its translation, adaptation or use in any way for any reproduction of a work of literature or art is forbidden in accordance with Law 2121/1993 and the Berne and Paris Inter- national Conventions, as ratified by law 100/1995. In addition, the reproduction of the layout, cover and general appearance of the book, through photocopies, electronic or any other means is forbidden, in accordance with article 51 of Law 2121/1993.

ISBN: 978-960-98552-2-8

THE GORGE OF SAMARIA shelter for life den of freedom

SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY PREFECTURAL ADMINISTRATION OF CHANIA

CHANIA 2008 6

Publication profile

EDITOR: TEXT EDITING (Greek): Emmy Papavasileiou, Department of Culture, Sport Giorgos Loupasis, Philologist, Athanasia Zotou and Youth, Prefectural Administration of Chania ENGLISH TRANSLATION: EDITORIAL COMMITTEE: Despina Christodoulou Emmy Papavasileiou COPY EDITING (english edition): Hariklia Kargiolaki Caroline Cooper Athanasia Zotou MAP DESIGN: Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki Irene Vlazaki CONTRIBUTORS: MAP DRAWING AND G. MANOUSAKIS LITERARY TEXT, PART I: The natural environment COVER DESIGN: Hariklia Kargiolaki, Director of Chania Forestry Service, Sophia Vlazaki, Painter and iconographer Vice President of the Samaria National Park Management Body, DPhil Forestry (Oxford University) PHOTOGRAPHS: Paraskevi Nousia, Chania Forestry Service, MSc Forestry Manolis Manousakas, Vasilis Kotrotsos, Anastasios Sakoulis, Giorgos Antonis Barnias, Samaria National Park Management Body, Ekkekakis, Kostas Gyparis, Kaloyerakis family, Sophia Pratsoli, Eftychis MSc Forestry Marakakis, Irene and Sophia Vlazaki, Theano, Fotini and Angela Boraki, Helen Karpathaki, Chania Forestry Service, Economist, Alkis Pentarakis, Manolis Manolioudakis, Theano Boraki-Mavridaki, Graduate of the National Centre for Public Administration Christos Aretakis, Alkibiades Geskou, Lykourgos Manousakis, Apostolos and Local Government Trichas, Ilias Iliades, Stefanos Alexandrou, Vanna Niniou-Kindeli, Katerinia Irene Vlazaki, Architect NTUA, Landscape architect Tzanakaki, Michalis Andrianakis, Aimilia Kladou-Bletsa, F. Angeliki- Athanasia Zotou, Philologist, MSc Philosophy, Fantaki, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh), Greek th Head of the Department of Culture, Sport and Youth, Mountaineering Club of Chania, Aeroclub of Chania, 25 Ephorate of Prefectural Administration of Chania Prehistoric and Classical Antiquitie, 28th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, PART ΙΙ: The Manmade Environment Hellenic Post Philately Section, Forestry Service, M.Toubis SA. Vanna Niniou-Kindeli, Archaeologist, 25th Ephorate FINANCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT: of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities Kostas Tyrovolas, Anastasios Diamantakis, Athanasia Zotou, Katerina Tzanetaki, Archaeologist, 25th Ephorate Emmy Papavasileiou - Chania Prefectural Administration of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities Antonis Barnias, Elpida Peroulaki - Samaria National Park Management Michalis Andrianakis, Archaeologist, Director of the 28th Body Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities SECRETARIAL SUPPORT: Aimilia Kladou-Bletsa, Architectural engineer Despina Kapadoukaki, Maria Psaroudaki, Maria Karvoulaki - Chania Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki, Graduate in Social Sciences, Prefectural Administration D.É.A. in International and European Studies, TEXT FORMATITING BIBLIOGRAPHY: Université Lille 2. Roula Oikonomaki Emmy Papavasileiou, Civil engineer, D.É.A. Géographie BOOK DESIGN: Evi Damiri de l’ Aménagement, Paris X (Nanterre) PRINTING - PRODUCTION: M. Toubis SA. PART ΙΙΙ: Protection and Management of Samaria PUBLICATION: Samaria National Park Management Body and Chania National Park Prefectural Administration, co-funded by the European Union Hariklia Kargiolaki ORAL HISTORIES: PAPER USED FOR THE BOOK AND COVER: Eftychis Marakakis, Kostoula Marakaki, Environmentaly friendly paper certified by the FSC Council Eleni Kokolaki, Ioannis Kaloyerakis, Filitsa Mantaka, Mathios Stavroudakis, Giorgos Tzatzimakis, Athena Y. Tzatzimaki, Aristea Koundouraki, Evangelia T. Stavroudaki. SELECTION OF RIZITIKA AND MANTINADES: Stamatis Apostolakis, Teacher, Folklorist 7

We protect what we love, we love what we understand.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau 8

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 10 CHAPTER 3. AGRIMI: THE WILD GOAT OF CRETE ...... 59 PROLOGUE BY THE PREFECT OF CHANIA ...... 12 1. The agrimi ...... 59 PROLOGUE BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE SAMARIA NATIONAL Origin and evolution ...... 59 PARK MANAGEMENT BODY ...... 13 Characteristics...... 60 INTRODUCTORY NOTES...... 14 Mating and reproduction...... 60 Biotope ...... 61 Introduction Population and dangers ...... 62 2. The agrimi in myth, prehistory and history ...... 62 Chania: Land of gorges...... 19 3. Protection of the agrimi...... 63 Early attempts at protection ...... 63 Part Ι Post-war international and Greek interest...... 64 THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Drastic protection measures ...... 64 The honour protocol ...... 64 INTRODUCTION The question of the EDA parliamentarians...... 65 The Gorge of Samaria: A profile ...... 23 Foundation of the Samaria National Park as a measure for protecting the agrimi ...... 65 Greece’s most important gorge ...... 23

Size and location ...... 23

CHAPTER 1. GEOLOGY...... 25 Part ΙΙ 1. Madares, or the Lefka Ori ...... 25 THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 2. The creation of the mountains, many years ago…...... 26 3. Rocks ...... 29 INTRODUCTION 4. Creation of the gorges ...... 32 Humans and Samaria: A unique relationship ...... 69 5. The springs ...... 33 CHAPTER 1. THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE CHAPTER 2. BIODIVERSITY...... 35 IN THE GORGE ...... 73 1. The Landscape...... 36 1. From the Prehistoric era until the Roman years...... 73 Terms ...... 36 The city of Kaino...... 73 The landscape of Samaria ...... 36 The ancient sanctuary of Samaria Park ...... 74 The landscape of Samaria from the perspective of the architectural landscape. . . 40 Ancient Tarra (Ayia Roumeli)...... 76 2. The Ecosystems...... 41 2. From the Early christian period until Venetian rule ...... 80 3. The flora of the Gorge ...... 43 Introduction...... 80 Trees of the Gorge...... 44 The churches ...... 82 Flowers of the Gorge...... 45 3. Through the yearas of Turkish rule (1645-1898) ...... 89 Medicinal and aromatic plants of the Gorge...... 46 Introduction...... 89 Endemic, rare and threatened plants ...... 48 Turkish fortresses (kules) ...... 90 4. The fauna of the Lefka Ori and Gorge of Samaria ...... 52 Invertebrates ...... 52 CHAPTER 2. PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES . . . . . 93 Amphibians and reptiles ...... 52 1. Towns and villages ...... 93 Birds ...... 53 Samaria...... 94 Mammals ...... 56 Ayia Roumeli ...... 98 9

2. Habitation: Structural details ...... 102 Part ΙΙΙ 3. The population ...... 106 4. Access and passage through the Gorge ...... 108 PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT 5. Samaria gorge: Toponyms and microtoponyms...... 111 OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK Toponyms...... 111 Microtoponyms...... 112 INTRODUCTION 6. Occupations of the people ...... 114 The declaration of Samaria as a National Park ...... 193 7. Social life ...... 121 8. The last families of Samaria...... 127 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION OF SAMARIA. . . . 195

CHAPTER 3. THE ROLE OF SAMARIA GORGE IN HISTORY . . . . . 129 CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL 1. Venetian rule (1204-1669)...... 129 PARK UNTIL TODAY ...... 197 2. Turkish rule (1669-1898)...... 130 1. Existing dangers and ways of dealing with them ...... 197 The Revolution of Daskaloyiannis (1770)...... 130 2. Recreational services for visitors ...... 200 The Revolution of 1821 ...... 131 3. Environmental education services ...... 201 The Revolution of 1866 ...... 133 4. Protecting biodiversity ...... 202 3. After the union of Crete with Greece (1913) ...... 135 5. The most impostant protected species (plants and animals) The 1938 movement...... 135 of Samaria ...... 203 Samaria during the Second World War ...... 136 6. Studies and works ...... 204 Occupation and Resistance ...... 136 The Civil War ...... 139 CHAPTER 3. THE SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY ...... 206 CHAPTER 4. THE GORGE AND THE WILD GOAT 1. Responsibilities ...... 206 IN LITERATURE ...... 141 2. The situation today...... 207 1. Folk poetry: Rizitika and Mantinades ...... 141 3. Prospects ...... 208 2. The wild goat in poetry ...... 142 3. The Gorge in prose ...... 148

CHAPTER 5. THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION ...... 161 APPENDICES ...... 209 1. Samaria Gorge: A tourism attraction...... 161 RULE AND REGULATIONS OF THE SAMARIA 2. Extracts from traveller’s accounts from the 15th NATIONAL PARK ...... 211 to the 21st centuries ...... 169 3. Tourism as an organised activity in the Gorge ...... 180 SOURCES...... 213 Early studies...... 180 1. BOOKS AND ARTICLES ...... 213 Contemporary tourism development in the region of the 2. STUDIES ...... 215 National Park and Ayia Roumeli ...... 184 3. SERVICE ARCHIVES ...... 215 10

Acknowledgements

The Prefect and Prefectural Administration of Chania, the President and the Board of Directors of the Samaria National Park Management Board, and the Editorial Team of this volume would like to thank publicly all those contributors and citizens whose voluntary offerings made this publication possible. More specifically, we warmly thank: Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki of the Editorial Team for her voluntary participation in the Team’s work, all the authors and, in particular, philologist Giorgos Loupasis for editing the Greek texts. We would also like to thank Aimilia Kladou-Bletsa, Dimitris Nikolakakis, Ar- gyro Kokovli, Marakakis, Theano Mavridaki, Yiannis Kaloyerakis and Yiannis Strongylakis for their invaluable contribution in locating bibliographical sources and rare photographs. For their oral histories: Eftychis Marakakis, whose profound knowledge of the region provided the basis for the following research, and the older residents of Samaria Yiannis D. Kaloyerakis, Kostoula Marakaki, Eleni Kokolaki and Aristea Koundouraki, for their invaluable interviews. For this same reason, we would like to thank Mathios Stavroudakis, President of the Municipal District of Ayia Rou- meli, Giorgos and Athena Tzatzimakis, and Evangelia T. Stavroudaki, residents of Ayia Roumeli. In addition, Filitsa Mantaka, for her invaluable contribution. For research in the archives of Ayia Roumeli Primary School, we thank the teacher Evangelia M. Stavroudaki, as well as the young pupils Michalis Smyr- lakis and Nikos Kotrotsos for their contribution in tracking down information. Kiki Karathanasi-Manousaki, for generously giving us the rights to reprint the chapter “The passage through the Gorge” from the work of her unforgettable late husband Giorgis Manousakis, The Travelogue of Sfakia, as well as the first edition of his unpublished poem “The snowy mountains”. All the authors, contemporary and earlier, literary and otherwise, from whose writings we have taken extracts, which contextualise and enrich, in an accompanying commentary, the main text. Giorgos Ekkekakis and Kostas Gyparis for providing us with rare material from their personal archives. 11

Manolis Manousakas; Vasilis Kotrotsos; Anastasios Sakoulis; Alkibiades Gesko; Vasilis Hadjivarsanis; the Damoulis Kaloyerakis family; Theano, Fotini and An- gela Boraki; Theano Boraki-Mavridaki; Sophia Pratsoli; Eftychis Marakakis, Alkis Pentarakis, Manolis Manolioudakis, Christos Aretakis, Michalis Andri- anakis; Lykourgos Manousakis, as well as Vanna Niniou-Kindeli and Katerinia Tzanakaki for providing us with photographs from their personal collections. The Greek Mountaineering Club of Chania, the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh), the 25th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, the 28th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, the KYDON channel, the Aeroclub of Chania and the Angelakis-Fantakis photography studio for permission to use photographs from their archives, as well as the Eleftherios K. Venizelos Nation- al Research Foundation for permission to photograph the painting Gingilos by Dimitris Kokotsis. Loula Ganadaki, Kiki Karthanasai, Iphigenia Agrafioti, Geor- gia Tzatzimaki, Niki Markaki and Artemesia Skoumbaki from the Port Authority and Magda Vlachomitrou from the Statistical Service. Aphrodite Maravelaki from the Chania GNTO office, Gina Kalligeri and Parisati Tsouktouridou of Hellenic Post, and Michalis Marketakis from the Technical Services Department, Panayi- otis Kaloyerakis from the Social Welfare Department for their help in locating information and printed matter. Petros Lyberakis and Evangelia M. Stavroudaki for the creative reading of the texts and their comments. We also would like to thank warmly the staff at the Chania Public Library, the Technical Chamber of Greece-West Crete Division Library, the Library of the Hellenic Parliament, and the Vikelia Municipal Library of Heraklion. Finally, we would especially like to thank Irene and Sophia Vlazaki, for their excellent work in designing the map and in illustrating The A-Z of Samaria, Despina Christodoulou for successfully translating this book into English, and the staff at Μichalis Toubis SA for producing an excellent and professional publication.

Chania, August 2008 12

Prologue of the Prefect of Chania

The Prefecture of Chania has the great fortune of possessing an especially rich natural heritage, which, along with its cultural and intellectual wealth, is the most valuable thing we can bequeath to our children. We know that we must protect it. Even so, we cannot claim that we have done all that we should have. The Lefka Ori – the White Mountains – and Samaria Gorge have a special place in the nature of Chania. The creation of the National Park Management Body is an important step in the right direction. Its successful operation is a venture that must be supported and achieved. It is for this reason that the Prefecture of Chania aims to support the Management Body, providing it with its staff and administrative framework, so that it can take its first steps and capitalise upon the funds made available through EU programmes. Within the framework of the Programme Contract, and on behalf of the Management Body, the Prefectural Admin- istration of Chania is currently implementing the following projects, funded by the “Environment” Operational Pro- gramme (EPPER) of the Ministry of the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works: ■ “Daily fire risk assessment study for the Lefka Ori” ■ “Study to observe the population and ecological needs of the Cretan wild goat in the Lefka Ori, with ensuing management proposals” ■ Study and installation of permanent sample plots in the Lefka Ori for documenting changes in biodiversity (flora and fauna)”, and ■ The publication of two books so that the broader public, Greek and foreign, can learn about the Samaria Gorge. These are a small book with the title The A-Z of Samaria and the present volume, The Gorge of Sa- maria: Shelter for Life – Den of Freedom. Responsibility for creating this book lies with the Department of Culture, Sport and Youth, whilst the responsibility for all the tender competitions fell to the Programming Department. Many of our fellow citizens worked voluntarily in order to gather the information and produce this book, in addition to the Prefecture staff and other regional services, and their contribution has enriched the final result. Within the pages of these two books the “Farangas”, the Gorge, is showcased differently in each. The Gorge of Chania and the world, the past and the present, in its local and international dimensions, through its timelessness. The purpose of this book is to get to know Samaria Gorge, its natural environment, the unique forms of wildlife that it is home to, its multi-faceted relationship with humans and their history, and its contribution to culture. Our purpose is to know the Gorge, so that we can protect it. We hope that, in the future, Samaria National Park will become as we all dream it. A place where people and nature meet, typified by respect and love, mutual acceptance and harmonious co-existence.

The Prefect of Chania Grigoris Arhontakis 13

Ρrologue President of the Samaria National Management Body

Today, more than ever, the need to save our natural environment has become urgent. This requires, on the one hand, the active and sincere participation of all of us, and on the other, the specialised scientific understanding of the problems of sensitive ecosystems, which will help us to combine the biodiversity, wealth, harmony and beauty of nature with modern technology, so as to achieve the sustainable development of our place’s heritage. Only in this way can we avoid causing irreparable damage and hand on to our children an environment healthier than the one which we inherited. It is upon these principles that this book, by the Samaria National Park Management Body, is based, a book which can provide a starting point for research by specialists, as well as a delightful and educational tour of the Gorge for readers and visitors. The persistent, three-year collective effort to establish the Management Body now offers the world community its first publication, and we hope that other scientific studies will soon follow. Morally, we feel justified in our choices. The President Antonis Vas. Galanis Agronomist

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Introductory notes

The Editorial Team1 responsible for the publication of this volume dedicated to the Gorge of Samaria, published as part of the EU “Environment” Operational Pro- gramme (EPPER), had the following significant challenges to overcome. 1. Defining the subject. The first thought was to focus on the Samaria National Park, specifically on the section that has already been established, i.e. its central core, independent of the plans that exist for the future extension of the Park to cover the whole area of the Lefka Ori. The weakness of this definition, however, is that it does not include Ayia Roumeli, which is not only an integral part of the nature of Samaria Gorge, as it linked to its exit onto the sea, but is a vital element of a unified human geography. For this reason, the GORGE OF SAMARIA was selected as the subject (and title) of this book, as this term is not binding, as is the administrative term of “National Park”. The subtitle “shelter for life – den of freedom” seeks to impart life in its biological meaning, which finds a refuge in Samaria, as well as the presence of humans on a spiritual and cultural quest. 2. The wide range and complexity of the subject. In addition to the basic search for sources relating to Samaria (from ancient texts to modern studies), the Gorge covers countless fields of specialist knowledge, making it impossible for a single author to write the whole book. We thus invited scholars who have conducted research on the region to write sections relating to their specialities, so as to ensure the quality and accuracy of the book. This resulted in a slight disparity in style – which we have attempted to minimise – as well as in terminology, which we have attempted to make more accessible to a wider audience with explanations and commentary. The Chania Forestry Service had scientific responsibility for the sections on the natural environment of Samaria, its protection and management (Parts I and III), whilst the sections on the manmade environment (Part II) and editing of the book were undertaken by the Department of Culture, Sport and Youth of the Chania Prefectural Administration.

1 The Editorial Team was established by the Working Group of the Chania Prefectural Administration, the Chania Forestry Service, and the National Park Management Body. The Working Group which is responsible for implementing various actions relating to the National park, within the framework of the Contract Programme for collaboration.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 2Β 15

3. The lack of research or studies in certain areas (whilst in others, such as development issues, technical infrastructure, etc. there was sufficient). Thus, in certain chapters on the natural environment, data relating to the whole of the Lefka Ori is used, as studies have not yet been carried out exclusively on the Gorge. In many chapters of Part II (Manmade Environment) oral histories collected from the region’s last inhabitants have been used, given the lack of historical and anthropological studies. Another difficulty was created by the discrepancy and even contradiction between official data, data collected in studies and reality (e.g. population censuses), which may lead to the wrong conclusions. The same is the case for the details provided by works already published on the Gorge. We simply note these discrepancies, as well as the unverified information. The texts on areas that have not been researched scientifically were written by staff of the Chania Prefectural Ad- ministration’s Department of Culture, as well as volunteers and external collaborators, with less stress on sources, so that readers can come to their own conclusions. The language of the sources – texts from earlier centuries – has been preserved, with the syntax and spelling of the original author. In addition, inaccurate information given in travellers’ accounts has not been corrected, so as to preserve the authenticity of the text. Within the limited and limiting frameworks of time, administration and procedure, efforts were made so that any weaknesses and lacunae be negligible. This book is not the conclusion of systematic research and study, nor does it seek to provide a full documentation of all data connected to the Gorge. This does not mean, however, that it is simply a presentation of material, without its own identity and viewpoint. The purpose of this book is to provide the wider public, Greek and non-Greek, with detailed information on all those features that make the Samaria Gorge unique, because when we come to know it we shall love it and protect it – that is the motto of this volume. In order to raise the awareness of the younger generations and “hasty” readers, we have also produced a briefer illustrated book, The A-Z of Samaria. The illustrations make it accessible and enjoyable even to the youngest readers. The paper used in the two books is ecological, as a book about the Gorge must, first of all, be environmentally-friendly. This publication would not have been possible without the contribution of a large number of people, who offered their assistance voluntarily and helped us in many ways. We thank them warmly. The Editorial Team will feel that it has accomplished its task if this book provides stimulation for further research and studies and, above all, work of quality. Through these, the Prefecture of Chania, its authorities and citizens shall show that they are aware of the importance of the Gorge for the Prefecture, and the necessity of respecting and protecting it. The Gorge of Samaria can show us the way to restore our damaged relationship with nature and the natural environment.

Chania, July 2008

The Editorial Team Emmy Papavasileiou Hariklia Kargiolaki Athanasia Zotou Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki 16

Sunset in the Gorge of Samaria (Chania Forestry Service archives) 17

INTRODUCTION 18 19

CHANIA, LAND OF GORGES

The Prefecture of Chania has been characterised by many, justifiably, as the “land of Text: gorges”, given that dozens intersect it. Small and large, they have marked the surface of Hariklia Kargiolaki the earth in a north to south orientation. In some places they are deep and precipitous, whereas elsewhere they are already eroding, simply forming a pass or a stream between low-lying rocks. The gorges of Crete have always provided a refuge in which various animals as well as plants find protection and food. They were and are oases where water is usually available, located far from the pressures exerted by a constant human presence. As such, some of Crete’s most important forests have survived in the gorges, whilst birds and several other animals build their nests in safety, in the steep rocks. Rare birds of prey at the top of the food chain nest here, even if their domains stretch over much larger areas. The difficulties in communications and the consequent isolation led to the emergence of several endemic plants and animals in the Gorge. Some even managed to survive and evolve in extreme conditions, with little space and almost a complete lack of water. These are the so-called “chasmophytes”, plants which grow in the small cracks of usually vertical rocks. Most of these species are valuable varieties, especially hardy plants, several of which do not grow anywhere else in the world. The gorges also have a significant cultural value. Chapels, ancient temples, oracles and sanctuaries all located at the same site are yet more evidence for human presence. The gorges of Chania have played an important role during major moments of local history. Each of the gorges of Samaria has its own particularities: in some forests dominate, in others water or climbing plants that hang from trees, whilst elsewhere the image pre- sented for the visitor is of precipitous, almost naked, rocks. The gorge of Ayia Irene, the Sfakiano, those of Imvros, Aradaina, Eliyias, Trypiti, Klados, Diktamos, Therisos, Seri- karios, Sasalos, Prasse, Kapnis, Ilingas, Asfendos, Kallikratis, Borianon and Katholikos, Satellite photographs of the earth, Europe, are just some of the many gorges of Chania. But none has the fame, the glamour and the Crete and Chania grandeur of one, the “faranga” of Samaria! (taken from the internet) 20

Mountain peaks in the Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Part Ι 21

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 22

Fig 1: Portes, engraving by Antonio Schranz, 1837 (from Τravels in Crete by R. Pashley) 23

INTRODUCTION THE GORGE OF SAMARIA: A PROFILE

Greece’s most important gorge “There is one farangas! All the others are farangia!” proclaims Sfakianos – and Text: of course he means the Gorge, the “farangas”, of Samaria, whose uniqueness has Hariklia Kargiolaki been recognised not only in Greece but around the world. The glamour of Sa- maria has spread within and beyond the country’s borders. It has been declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (1981) – a recognition granted internationally for sites which innovate and demonstrate approaches to conservation and sustainable development. It is also the only area in Greece to have received the Diploma of Protected Areas from the Council of Europe (1979). Both above distinctions are initially awarded after an on-the-spot inspection, with further inspections of the correct management of the region at regular intervals. Samaria’s international distinctions include the title of Biogenetic Reserve (from the Council of Europe), an area protected by the Barcelona Convention, as well as an Important Bird Area of Greece. As such, at present, it is the region of Greece with the most and most important international distinctions and titles. Fig. 2: Directions board at the entrance Samaria was declared a National Park in 1962. Moreover, it has been awarded the to Samaria (photo I. Vlazaki) National Diploma for nature protection (1971), declared a place of especial natural beauty (1973), a Wildlife Refuge and belongs to the EU’s Natura 2000 network of protected areas. The Samaria National Park Management Body was created in the past few years (2002).

Size and location The area of the National Park is today 48.480 square kilometres, and covers a spe- cially protected area, i.e. the core. The law establishing the Samaria National Park Management Body defines a larger area, which the Body is to manage. This larger area shall be defined with the conclusion of a Special Environmental Study (SES) for the National Park, evaluating a broader zone than the currently existing one and making proposals on its expansion. 24

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT (Aeroclub of Chania) Fig. 3: Omalosmountain range sheer vertical cliffs on cliffs sidesreachsheer vertical both up to around 100metres. doors”) are located 11.5kmfrom Xyloskalo. are They only 3metres wide, the whilst and are feature acharacteristic of gorges. At Samaria, Portes the or Sideroportes (“iron almost vertical,extremely rocks. narrow tall These are passes calledPortes (“doors”), Samaria village follows mostimposing the of route, the section passing through the until coming to old the village of Samaria, inapine set and cypress tree forest. After is particularly steep, continuing either parallel to or crossing river the times, several firstthe kilometres beyond Xyloskalo entrance), (north path the through Gorge the south entrance village to of coastal the Ayia 3,200metres. Roumeli For isafurther along borders the of National the Park is12,800 metres long. Thedistance from the The Gorge mountain Ori of Samaria islocated range, Lefka inthe route the whilst for nature and its components. and inclusion their into an area of development model activities, always with respect continuous human presence, zones the shallinclude agradual “lifting” of protection, settlementsdeveloped and natural the environment works incollaboration with the will belong to core the area of protection, full areas inthe whilst where humans have such away that so Gorge, the along with mostimportant the area Ori, of Lefka the It propose shallalso distinguishing on zones different based levels of protection, in 25

CHAPTER 1 GEOLOGY

1. Madares, or The Lefka Ori

The Gorge of Samaria is one of the gorges that cross the Lefka Ori from the north, Text: terminating at the sea and forming a distinct landscape in southwest Crete. Thanks Hariklia Kargiolaki to the particular conditions that prevail in these gorges, special climatic and soil microenvironments are created. The profound relief of the land and the continuous changes in the landscape result in a variety of ecosystems, which attract global interest from both nature lovers and scientists. The Gorge of Samaria is a refuge for people and other organisms that seek protection in its seclusion.

SNOWY MOUNTAINS

The peaks of Madara shine pure white.

They towered up to the sky, the snow they made into a mirror so that the sun can see in their whiteness its face Giorgis Manousakis (unpublished, undated)

This poem was found amongst the poet’s papers, undated, and has been donated for publication here by his widow.

Fig. 4: The Lefka Ori (Aeroclub of Chania)

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 3Α 26 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 3Β

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT compacting material.compacting overlying layers andthenatural with thehelpofpressure from the a loosedepositbecomes compact Diagenesis: by sanddiagenesis. Psammite: psammites. limestone, conglomerates and comprised ofalternating marls, byis characterised coarse sediments phase.cate It amarinesedimentary any speciﬁcrock butisusedto indi- Flysch: replaced by magnesium. the calciumofcarbonate is of mite. isformed It whenonepart posed primarilyofthemineral dolo- Dolomite: plant organisms theirdeath. after skeletal remains ofvarious animalor accumulation ofthe andcompacting be chemicalorbiogenous, from the positing ofcalciumcarbonate can posed primarilyofcalcite. The de- Limestone: thisterm doesnotrefer to sedimentary rock com- sedimentary sedimentary rock formed sedimentary sedimentary rock com- sedimentary aprocess duringwhich 2 1 form the Lefka Ori. ually into metamorphosed rocks, such limestone asthe and dolomite that today andfossil rudists alimestone skeleton formed grad- which asediment on bed the known Tethys asthe When died, organisms the they Sea. that with lived sea inthis Mesozoic Greece, period, including Crete, formed of of an bed asection the ocean If we were to turn back 225-140million years, to erawhich the scientists callthe 2. The Madares, . aka ad . Moody, J. and Rackham Ο. Madares, Ori. Theword or Lefka the derives from ancient the adjective “madaros” bare, (<μαδώ): treeless place, place, some of those which you will find in the widerregion inthe and yousome which of find of Selinos Sfakia. those will East Samaria, Eliyias, Aradaina,Klados, Kavis, Sfakiano, Imvros, Kapnis, etc. are just with Ori, anorth-south orientation. Lefka the Thegorges of Ayia Irene, Trypiti, teristic of region’s the relief many isthe gorges that cross mainly south the sideof gradients, and descends plunges into Themostimportant Libyan the Sea. charac- spread out over south inthe range, whilst the north, the with exceptionally steep rest of Crete, with shallow, poor, rocky and steep land. Numerous mountain peaks form aunique whole. Thewiderregion ismore mountainous than the and infertile Alpine zone above forest the and crops the near smallvillages, the bond together to withscapes unique characteristics. Forests, caves, gorges, streams, almostbare the mountain Ori The Lefka range by ischaracterised exceptional contrasts and land- greyish-whitethe rock that sticks out amongst vegetation the along horizon. the pure white from snow, the again appear they inother seasons whilst white due to reason were Ori,i.e. White the named Lefka the Mountains. In winter the are they appearThe peaks white throughout of almostallseasons year, the and for this of2,453 m,and peak isthe this of which hasan altitude of over 2000m).Thegreatest is Ori height Lefka inthe areas with an altitude of over 800mcover an area of km(14% almost591.40sq ing mountain range insizeand area inCrete, with many and gorges. peaks tall The ofparts Provinces the of Apokoronos Selinos, and Kydonia. It mostimpos- isthe Prefecture’sthe total area. cover They whole the of Province the of Samaria, and a west to orientation, east ending and Libyan inthe covering Sea almost40%of range and within Samaria the Gorge –plattenkalk limestone. formation of mosttypical the rock of group the that dominates mountain inthe to separation the of and African the Eurasian tectonic plates. Thisresulted inthe Thecreation of themountains, many ago... years s.v. G. Babiniotis, 1 or Lefka Ori, isamountain or Lefka range Prefecture inthe of Chania, with Lexicon of Modern Greek The making of the Cretan Landscape 2 160million years ago, quickly began ocean due the to deepen Pachnes , Athens 2002,Kentro Lexikologias, 2ndedition. , located nearcentre the of range. the (Manchester, 1997),p. 15. Table 1: MESOZOIC CENOZOIC PERIOD PERIOD Time chart of of geological the history Crete until human habitation (designed by A.Barnias) 1.81 millionyears ago ago –66millionyears 145millionyears QUARTERNARY CRETACEOUS 66 million years ago 66 millionyears ago – 23 million years – 23millionyears PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD 23 million years ago 23 millionyears ago – 1.81 million years – 1.81millionyears TRIASSIC PERIOD PALEOGENE ago PERIOD ago ago ago untiltoday 12,000 years Holocene 23 –6.3millionyears ago Miocene ago 6.3 million–1.81years Pleiocene Pleistocene Niocene conglomeratesNiocene Marls, psammites and 7000-4800 B.C. Νeolithic Age Dolomite limestone Crystallised limestone Plattenkalk limestone Plattenkalk Infusion) (Early andLate Quarternary years ago 1.81 -0.7million Early years ago 700,000-128,000 Middle years ago 128,000-12,000 Late PHANEROZOIC PERIOD from thesea. beginMountains to beformed andrise sea 30millionyears ago. of theCretan mountainrangesfrom the to acquire theirpresentstart form. Rise and mammalsevolve. The continents The firstlarge mammalsappear. Birds plants. million years ago. Evolution ofendemic ofCrete 1.2 New subsidence ofparts million years ago. andbecomes asaltlakearound 5.5 part ago, duringwhichitsubsidesagainin landapproximatelydry 5millionyears The istransformed Mediterranean into approximating to hispresent coastline. Crete begins to acquire something already settledinthisarea. fauna has Pleistocene eras. Aparticular Ice agesalternating withmid- 18,000 years ago. Glaciers intheCretan mountainsover Last ice age, 60,000to 13,000years ago. NIOMN HUMANS ENVIRONMENT Greece. ofCrete. Discovery Late Palaeolithic cultures incontinental island. Greece. Hunters andfishersvisitthe periodincontinental Mesolithic imported. wheat. Goats, sheep, oxen andpigsare inhabitants. They begin to grow First permanentsettlementsof

CHAPTER Ι | GEOLOGY 27 28

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Fig. 5: TheGorge of Samaria (photo: V. Kotrotsos) 3 limestonelised on Trypali and of schists phyllite-quartzite the group. In addition to plattenkalk the limestone there Ori, are of recrystal- Lefka the also it, at points certain along mountain the range, there are smalllayers very of flysch. stone and dolomites). Limestone plattenkalk inthe form dominates, above whilst The core of mountain the range iscomprised primarily of limestone (marble, lime- 3. ous cracks. upliftin the of some areas, subsiding the of others and creation the of numer- The great forces active during and geological the periods until today have resulted Crete from rest the of Greece. of earth’s the creating crust, trenches which resulted complete inthe separation of and movements resulted tension inthe and uplift the and subsiding of sections (2million yearsand of period beginning ago), Pleistocene the greater upheavals (3-4million years period ago).through At Pliocene the end of the Pliocene the only its mountain tallest remained peaks above level. Thissinking sea continued continent the end of period, Micoene the broke up and of parts it sunk. OnCrete, formed mainland aunified Aigaias, mass,the for millions of years. Towards the Crete, from bed, ago). rise ocean After their the Cyclades the and mainland Greece million years ago), ending inaround (25-10million years period Miocene the gradually bed The ocean rose at endof the Cretaceous (70 so-called the period

over centuries, the have created Crete’s detailed morphology. finely erosion the whilst and weathering of rocks, the aswell human asthe influence Op. cit., ■ ■ ■

Rocks At of Gingilos, peak the yellowish with schist layer athin of psammite cov- Another characteristic rock stromatolite isthe dolomite, aband of dark Plattenkalk limestone dominant isthe rock mountain inthe range, forming ers stromatolite the dolomite. forming stream inthe bed. boulders the foundbe inside Samaria the Gorge, particularly upper inthe and west part, tolites live who on water and without oxygen. of rocks are Sections these to rock with strips of iron deposits, created by organisms within stroma- the building material. ridge ofthe whole island. the It for wasused many years on island the asa p. 19. 3 Themountain were massifsand seas created by tectonic movements, now become bouldersat Samaria. from organisms that haveof theearth two billionyears ago! The ﬁrstoxygen of oxygen intheearth’s atmosphere decisive role intheinitialappearance oxygen into theatmosphere, played a solved oxides ofiron andwhichfree Stromatolite from asfarOmalos. Lakkoi limestone withholes encountered the plattenkalk ortheagglomerated peak oftheLefka Oriwhichcovers white limestone (marble)at the Trypali limestone: years ago. tonic plate movements millionsof tec- after and cameto thesurface from thesefossils at great depths Plattenkalk limestone was created today found embeddedintherocks! low. The fossils ofthesespongesare seabed whenitwas stillrelatively cation) are sponges that lived onthe Manoutsoglou, personalcommuni- according to researchers (Manolis white stripsorpieces ofﬂint, which, colour, blue-green acteristic with Plattenkalk limestone , whichabsorbsthedis- characteristic characteristic hasachar-

CHAPTER Ι | GEOLOGY 29 30

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Archive) in Samaria Gorge (Chania Forestry Service Figs. 6,7,8,9,10: Geological formations Geological made up only of plattenkalk limestone. about halfway the point of Gorge the until exit the at Ayia Roumeli are los and stromatolite the dolomite at endof the steps. the Therocks from dition to platenkalk the limestones, Xyloskalo, at lower the rocks of plattenkalk the limestone group. In ad- The route through Samaria Gorge from starts rocks the of Trypali at 4 Har. Y. Ori” of in Lefka the Fasoulas, Geology “The we encounter of schists the Gingi- Fourogatos, 4 54,July 2004. CHAPTER Ι | GEOLOGY 31 32

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Fig. 11: Geological formations Geological inSamaria Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos) these gorges. these Anumberfied. of process ledto creation the of ofThe secret formation their decodi- hasnot been foundsuch asthose insouthern Crete near Sfakia. of large numbers of gorges, one nextto other, the great, and are thus unable to explain existence the volume of water not appear does to have so been holdsdo not for know theory Crete, ifthis asthe ated eroded the when material isswept away. We rocks and of narrow seabed the streams are cre- from erosion. Large volumes of water eroded the Gorges are considered usually tohave resulted 4. 6 5 See Fasoulas. See and Rackham Moody, pp. 36-8. seen past the kioskat pastthe Gorgeseen the exit. metres deepand one metre wide, ascan clearly be its again and to form asmallergorge, around six waterthe wasforced to cut through depos- the lastupliftingthe of land the level) (fallof sea the at Portes and reaching asfar coast.During asthe outflowingera, the water deposited stones starting thatpears at end of lastmid-Pleistocene the the Samaria village and at exit the of Gorge. the It ap- gorge banks, creating raised areas, such asaround did not cut through but deposited material on the level rose, water sea the which the streams inthe during rocks.the In period, midPleistocene the ing cracks. Thewater followed, cutting through caused rocks the to break inmany places, form- islandthe wasuplifted, pressure the exercised creating mountain ranges. It that isbelieved when were they sea, the compressed, folded and uplifted, Creation of thegorges 5 After rocks the were formed within 6 33

5. The springs

The Lefka Ori, the main rock of which is limestone, The karst landscape is represent a typical karst landscape, with characteristic the result of the slightly acid rain, which creates formations of sinkholes or dolines (funnel-shaped de- cracks or openings in pressions that terminate below the earth as cracks and Fig. 12: River in the Samaria Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos) the limestone, forming springs). They are the largest water collector in the Pre- springs, underwater channels and caves. fecture of Chania and supply the underground water table with the water needs for a large part of the Pre- fecture. It is calculated that precipitation levels (rain) exceed 3,000 mm a year in the highest areas. The melting of the snow is delayed in the mountains, and at great altitudes there is often snow until mid-June. The waters from rain and melting snow are driven underground either towards the south coasts, where they appear in the form of underwater springs, or to the north coasts, where they appear in the form of freshwater springs (Ayia, Stylos, Armenoi, etc.). The tran- sient concentration of water in dolines and mountain ranges creates seasonal ponds, which are areas of particular ecological value and thus protected. The seasonal action of mountain streams (as they are transformed into streams) adds aesthetic value and diversity to the mountain landscape. The Gorge of Samaria is crossed by an unnamed river that appears and briefly disappears, to suddenly gush further down once more. The river is fed by scattered sources located in its drainage basin and which are known by various names:7 ■ Lenoseli, on the east side of Gingilos. ■ Lousopo, west of Volakia peak. ■ Potistira, approximately 900 m north of the Gorge. Fig. 13: Waterfall in the Miatouli and Vroula, sources which in the past supplied the upper village Gorge of Samaria (Chania ■ Forestry Service archive) of Samaria with water. ■ Perdika, Keroutsiko and Kefalovrysia, from where the community of Ayia Roumeli draws its water supply even today.

7 E. Manoutsoglou, E. Spyridonos, D. Mariolakos, K. Tzanakaki, H. Kargiolaki, T. Markopoulos and I. Mariola- kos, “The springs of the ancient city of Tarra, located in the Lefka Ori (Samaria Gorge) National Park, Crete,” in The undying water, November 1999, pp. 18-21. 34 35

CHAPTER 2 BIODIVERSITY

After the summit and signing of the Rio Convention8 in 1992 the term “biodiver- Text: sity” ceased being simply a title used in the biological sciences: it entered political Hariklia Kargiolaki discourse and became widely used. We can distinguish four different levels of bio- Paraskevi Nousia Helen Karpathaki diversity, each with a different meaning, although in practice they are all integral parts of a unified whole. ■ The first level is that of “genetic biodiversity”. Genetic biodiversity sig- Crete is one of the most important nifies the range of inherited factors of a particular species. The greater regions globally for its rich biodiver- this range, the greater the chances of survival of a species in relation to sity.* When researching its organ- external difficulties and pressures, such as epidemics, climatic adversi- isms, we find that its geographical position at the crossroads of three ties, lack of food, etc. continents is reflected in its species. ■ The second level of biodiversity is that of “species diversity”, flora and Most species, flora in particular, are fauna (plants and animals). This biodiversity is expressed through the found in the rest of Europe, whilst we also encounter Asian and Afri- number of different plant and animal species found in a specific area. can species, indicating the island’s ■ The third level of biodiversity is known as ecosystem or plant com- association with and isolation from munity diversity, indicating the ecosystems that are found in a spe- the three continents during earlier geological periods. Its geological cific area. evolution after breaking away and ■ The fourth level is that of landscape diversity, indicating the number the existence of large mountain or range of types of landscape to be found in an area or country. Arti- chains which are isolated by being surrounded by lowlands and the ficial as well as natural landscapes also make up the composition of a sea, as well as the presence of a wide landscape, such as crops and human settlements.. range of climate conditions, particularly microclimates, contribute to a Despite distinguishing biodiversity into various levels, its protection must be ap- rich biodiversity. The biodiversity of proached in a uniform fashion. Protection of each level depends upon the protec- Crete does not compare with those tion of the previous or following level. It must be emphasised that biodiversity on in parts of Central Europe, where the ice age during earlier geological all its levels, about which so much is said but so little done, is vital for the rational periods allowed only few species of and sustainable management of natural resources, and, as such, for the survival survive. of humanity. * N.J. Turland, L. Chilton, and JR Press, Flora of the Cretan Area: Annotated Checklist and Atlas, London 1993, HMSO.

8 The Rio Treaty, or Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted at the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, and is a watershed for global environmental policy. It was incorporated into Greek legislation Fig 14: Panoramic view of Samaria Gorge with Law 2204/94/Government Gazette 59/A. (M. Toubis SA) 36

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 10 9 which are: encounters adiversity of landscape features with particular The broader area of Samaria constitutes aclearly established and spatially territory. defined Within area this one of Samaria The landscape M. Antrop, “Background concepts for integrated landscape analysis”, in * For more information seewww.coe.int Convention butnotratified it.* on 1/3/2004.Greece hassofarsignedthe signed on20/10/2000andcameinto force astheFlorenceknown Convention) was The European LandscapeConvention (also Strasbourg 2000. Convention”, inthe * Council ofEurope, European Landscape “The great Oritoand theLefka avery degree. nition covers thelandscape ofSamaria or human factors.” andinteraction ofnaturalthe action and/ by people, whosecharacter istheresultof faceted concept as*“ Landscape Convention The Council ofEurope, in ronment and Public Planning, Athens 2008,p. 47. Update of Special the Environmental Study I,Contractor: OIKOM-Meletitiki Ori, Phase of Lefka the Perivalontos Ltd, Crete Regio ■ ■ ■ Thechapels, are which often found on same the Thevillage centre inthe of Gorge, the with old the The Gorge. site asancient temples. crops of people. the over man, and comprehends hisor herinability to control forces the of nature. population Thelocal feels apowerful of of coexistence the such an inhospitable landscape presence with the of humans, dominance the senses of nature landscape can powerfully comprehend its wildforms. He or sheisconsumed by of asense freedom, feels awe infront Gorge the Both and broader the Samaria region are powerful symbols. by Theoccasional passer through Samaria the 10 Formal Report andExplanatory . This generalised defi- an area, asperceived , definesthismulti- Antonis Barnias The European The European Text: , a complex whole which isfar greater than sumof the its (holism). parts itthough cannot into divided features, be characteristic but must considered be as view. Thisispartly due to its diverse natural and symbolic/conceptual al- aspects, inmany defined hasbeen ways,Landscape according to various the points of a bearer of multiple concepts, symbolisms, emotional associations and history. recognition,nificance and social as which acts complex and multi-levelled concept of major sig- ment or a symbolic aseither anatural isunderstood Landscape ele- entity. It isTerms an exceptionally 1. Thelandscape indivisible and whole, influences which and combine asthough linksinachain, but are fully homogenised, creating an in time. Landscape’s natural, do not and only cultural/social visualaspects coexist landscape in adifferent way, according to state their of mindat different moments of istransformed which intimeand each can person space, whilst understand the featureticular of landscape the isthat it constitutes adynamic entity, content the Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 77 characteristics of ecological characteristics ■ ■ ■ TheGorge’s biodiversity. special of Theruins ancient the city of Tarra. above Thecastle Samaria, at Gorge the exit. , 2000,pp. 17-28. is influenced, shapesis influenced, and isshaped. and cultural value, some of n, Department of Envi- the experience. within aspecificspace createavisual which ontheirown orby interacting environmental factors andelements total oforganic andnon-organic ment: on theprotection oftheenviron- 2, paragraph 16onLaw 1650/1986 sponding term isoutlinedinarticle GreekIn legislation thecorre- Landscape: Every dynamic 9 Onepar- 37 BIODIVERSITY | CHAPTER 2

sense of pride, strengthening the sense of the landscape which is deeply rooted Fig. 15: 1st kilometre on the footpath of the Samaria National Park within them, and constantly hammering out their character within the presence (photo: V. Kotrotsos) of such an imposing landscape. Just as people’s characters are the result of social, cultural, intellectual, psychologi- cal, aesthetic and economic factors, and this synthesis provides a comprehensible image of their personalities, so the landscape of Samaria is the comprehensible sum of factors and values, which are attributed to it by people.11

11 E.A. Maria and A. Barnias, “A Comparative Approach of the Meaning of Landscape and its Legal Aspects in the European Landscape Convention”, in Proc. of the International Conference ‘Protection and Restoration of the Environment VIII´, Chania – Crete – Greece July 3-7, 2006.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 4Α 38

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 4Β (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 17: (photo E.Pratsolis) Fig. 16: Samaria Gorge Mountain ridge inSamaria landscape, either functionally or visually, key wasthe to survival. their exploitation, physiognomy that the hadearly on preserving asthey realised of the fered. With for respect nature’s offerings, humans excluded any form of excessive ing, organising and satisfying needson their basisof the that place which the of- inhabitantsthe of Samaria built lives their around core the of “nature” thus shap- concept much-discussed the of incontrast sustainability: with today’s meaning, relationship contains an understanding that may constitute an early expression of inhabitants of Samaria hadwith place and this with what it provided This them. village, oil press, chapels vines,preserved declare powerful the relationship that the inhabitantsthe of Samaria have on left this today’s presence of humans and asobservers/walkers historical inthe imprint that intense interaction humans between and nature. Thisrelationship in existsboth The mostimportant characteristic, however, of landscape of the Samaria isthe space. The traditional habitations of of habitations traditional The space. 39 BIODIVERSITY | CHAPTER 2

Fig. 18: Balcony in the Gorge of Samaria (photo V. Kotsotsos) Fig. 19: A little before Portes (photo S. Vlazaki) 40

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT tools offered by acollaboration of landscape architecture with other sciences. Gorgethe demands of methods intervening most of which willact allwith for respect landscape, the of with use the landscape that surrounds him.Therealisation of above the and any other goals for showcasing the and protection of descent and ascent of Gorge, the and create walker inthe agreater feeling of and security familiarity with imposing the and interestsdifficulties willnot (which necessarily cross whole the length of Gorge) the can organise paceof the the itself asan exclusive goal isat root the of feelings. these Astudy visualpoints of new certain and routes of various “descent” (without many too people, without timeconstraints and with lighting). sufficient The crossing of Gorge the promise hegave hedecidedto cross when gorge. the happens Andthis conditions when even amore permit relaxed nature’s elements, are his“rivals”, constantly pressuring himto proceed faster, able asto be to so free from himself the descent the starts into Gorge the of of Samaria, sense the timechanges dramatically. Theenvironment, along with Another important parameter ishumans and way the understand landscape. the they inwhich As walker asthe soon with mountain the that surround peaks it. with its observed, limits be also correlating can unity visualperspective) closed (the points inred). The“closure” of Gorge the visible areas are indicated inwhite and the Gorge, yet are which not non- visible (the identified within boundaries the of the deemed suitable for showcased being are points on main the route where areas the Fig. 21: of to adverse areas winds. exposed Fig. 20: Visual studies from pre-existing Physical relief orientation map Irene Vlazaki Text: concentration of tourists, areas of etc.; fire risk, ever, inidentifying vulnerable areas that require protection (areas with ahigh and, more generally, creation the and attribution of its identity. It helps, how- also in uncovering its uniqueness, valuable the identifying elements that comprise it, andscape help with the of and amorphological environmental result analysis will Reading landscape the of Samaria from of perspective the architectural the land- landscape of of thearchitectural from Samaria The landscape theperspective of such spots, asaroute; (documenting visitor’s the from visualperspective spot aparticular or collection naturalthe relief, cultural the heritage, of old uses land, aswell asvisualstudies tion of individual landscapes contribute to analysis, this with criteria arising from andflora fauna, natural formations, etc.). Thecreation of units and defini- the of showcasing development and further (abandoned crops, protected of species fig. 21 ). fig. 20 ), aswell worthy asthose 41

2. The Ecosystems

The particular relief of the Gorge and its altitude gradation create natural environ- Text: ments, each of which has its own environmental characteristics, i.e. its own non- Hariklia Kargiolaki living environment. These, in combination with the effect of human activities, Paraskevi Nousia Helen Karpathaki some of which continue to be practiced until today, contribute to the creation of an especially rich mosaic of ecosystems. Of the characteristic ecosystems encountered in the Gorge, there are some in particular which give the overall tone to the BIODIVERSITY vegetation and are the ones that the visitor shall clearly remember when he looks back on his descent into the gorge. | Looking onto the Gorge from Xyloskalo, we can see that the dark green colour of the cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens) forest dominates. These trees are found CHAPTER 2 at an altitude of approximately 500-1400 metres and, as we descend, merge with forests of Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), which at some points form unadulterated clusters. The ecosystems located along the first kilometres Ecosystem* is a term used “to de- are, due to the steep slopes, less scribe a discrete unit that consists of living and non-living parts, inter- disturbed than those located acting to form a stable system.” It is, near Samaria village, where hu- therefore, a natural unit that is com- man influence is clear. Isolated prised of living organisms (plants and animals) and the non-living envi- olive trees as well as olive groves ronment within which they live (light, can be seen from Ayios Nikola- water, air, etc.). An ecosystem can be os downwards. Vines and other a forest, a lake, etc. cultivations can be found in the * M. Allaby, Oxford Dictionary of Ecology, characteristic terraces, creating 1994, Oxford University Press, p. 136. a special environment near the village. On the footpath, we shall even encounter holm and other oaks (Quercus spp.), which form clusters at points of the Gorge, sometimes along with Cretan maple (Acer sempervirens, 900- 1200 m altitude). Unexploited caves at points along the Gorge create superb ecosystems with typical organisms, some of which are unique and endemic. Looking at the peaks opposite the footpath at Fig. 22: Samaria ecosystems (T. Borakia-Mavridakis collection) 42

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT grow literally are stuck looking asthough they to earth, crawling, the existhere. region. Thorny bushes, plants with leaves dense and thick hair, or plants which adaptation and evolution of resistant organisms, endemicand often unique to the The extreme environment incombination with over-grazing, hasresulted inthe are clear areas, inthese able are and to survive these now unique and endemic! ular, forest the hasended, and mountain conditions desert prevail. Few organisms tions just become about bearable for organisms. the Thevegetation here ispartic- an altitude of now the 1300-2400m,we see Alpine plain, asenvironmental condi- of rocks that rolled together) rolled that rocks of or broken scree(deposits of loose rocks, groups debris limestone stable relatively the is Gorge Yet inthe ecosystem another characteristic

(photo: V. Kotrotsos) var. horizontalis) Fig. 23: ient organisms, “chasmophytes”. the ating of ecosystems exceptionally certain resil- on slopes of vertical the Gorge, the survive cre- Finally, plant particular organisms manage to ing existence the of water. landscapethe its characteristic colour, indicat- and oleanders ( orientalis nus riverside vegetation, such asplane trees ( wards, creates conditions the for characteristic The water, appears which from one point ones aromas of various strengths and types. most of plants the alongside footpath the releas- ous aromatic plants, and slightest the touch to up tosea, 1100m.Most are comprised of vari- appearsBrushwood also of on surface the the characteristicthe colour of limestone. to Xyloskalo where it and with glistens Lenoseli, footpath, it and see opposite also entrances the counter nextto scree the usaswe go down the Cypress tree in the Gorge inthe (Cupressus sempervirens sempervirens (Cupressus ), chaste trees ( Nerium oleander Nerium Vitex agnus castus ( fig. 10 ). These give). These ) . We en- Plata- ) 43

3. The flora of the Gorge

The importance of the Lefka Ori for the biodiversity of Greece and the world has Text: been recognised internationally.12 The region’s flora is characterised not only by Hariklia Kargiolaki the wide range of plant species, but also by the presence of many endemic species. Paraskevi Nousia Helen Karpathaki The isolation offered by the Gorge has contributed to the creation of such forms. There are no precise numbers for the plant species of the Gorge, as a full catalogue has not yet been compiled given the particular conditions of the area (inaccessi- Fig. 24: Cluster of Turkish pines (Pinus brutia) in the Gorge BIODIVERSITY ble, adverse weather conditions, etc.). (photo: V. Kotrotsos) | CHAPTER 2

Endemism*: The situation in which a species or other taxo- nomic group is restricted to a particular geographic region, owing to factors such as isolation or response to soil or climatic conditions.” Such a species (plant 13 or animal) is called an endemic The latest studies make mention of 172 endemic Greek taxa (= classification species of that region. units, i.e. species and sub-species) in the region of the Lefka Ori. More specifi- Species found exclusively in one cally, 23 are found only in the Lefka Ori, 96 are endemic to Crete, 12 are endemic relatively small area are known to Crete and Karpathos and, finally, 172 are endemic to Greece. Of these, 15 are as stenotope endemic species. stenotype endemic species exclusive to the area in which they grow, and which have found refuge, survived, and evolved only here, not existing anywhere else in * Allaby, p. 141. the world! Many of these endemic species are rare and believed to be endangered, and for this reason are protected by national and international regulations.

12 Α. Strid, “Phytogeographical Aspects of the Greek Mountain Flora”, in Frag Floristica Geobot Suppl. 2, 1993, p. 411-33. 13 OIKOM Update, p. 47. 44

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT in the Gorgein the (Chania Forestry Service) Fig. 25: in the Gorgein the (Chania Forestry Service) Εικ. 26: Cretan maple Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) (Acer sempervirens)

14 foundcies can be Cretan under the maple, understory. so-called the metres and crown their iseither umbrella-shaped or spherical. Rare endemicspe- grazing, Cretan maples have a bushy shape, height their reaches whilst up to five clusters on its own or with cypress the and Kermes oaktrees. Dueto long-term Gorge,in the and reaches boundaries the of forest, the it found whilst isalso in The Cretan maple ( Cretan maple Samaria, such asPrinari. conditions, even growing inrock cracks. It can found be at various locations in grow into amagnificent tree. TheKermes oakisatree that can tolerate difficult in which it grows. It can crawl on ground the inconditions of intense grazing, or The Kermes oak( oak Kermes gather on ground, the significantly increasing during fire risk the summer. touched surface of the earth, means that many pine needles dry containing resin The temperature conditions for Gorge, inthe wood incombination with un- the cially placed containers. The signs of old resin collection are apparent even today. forused extracting resin by cutting into bark the and collecting resin the inspe- usually traditionally lumbered for woodwork and firewood. They were also often purelyther of pine or along with cypress the tree. Turkish pine tree forests were that isdifferent from pine the found rest inthe of Greece. It forms forests ei- In Samaria, just rest asinthe of Crete, of Turkish atype pine ( Pine 500 years old. and adiameter of rings of the 2.3m,whilst another indicated that it wasat least It issaid that in1989one of with was35mtall, acircumference these of 7.11m onecan find of mostimposing the clusters of cypresses, with giant, ancient trees. almost vertical ( ter rest inthe of Greece. TheCretan variety hasoutspread branches, are which The cypress tree of Samaria cypress isnot tall which we thin, the often encoun- Cypress Trees of theGorge Rackham and Moody,Rackham p. 84. made from the cypress. cypress. the from made shipbuilding, and it isevensaid that columns the of palaceat the Knossos were 14 Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis sempervirens Cupressus Since antiquity, of in cypress wood the the used tree hasbeen Quercus coccifera Acer sempervirens ) varies inform analogous to environment the ) grows locations at tall very (800-1700m) ). At Ayios Nikolaos we Pinus brutia ) grows

Carob The carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is a legume tree that is self-sowed or planted. There are carobs near the village of Samaria. In the old days, the seeds were collected and used as animal feed, and in difficult eras even eaten by the people, who would make flour from it. Lentisk The lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus) is usually a bush, but it can also evolve into a small tree. It produces an unpleasant tasting resin and grows at middle and low alti- BIODIVERSITY tudes. It is considered a medicinal plant. | Myrtle

The myrtle (Myrtus communis) is a plant encountered at various points in the CHAPTER 2 Gorge. Its medicinal qualities have been known since antiquity. Dioscurides used it for illnesses of the bladder, and for spider and scorpion bites.

Fig. 27: Cephalanthera cucullata Flowers of the Gorge in the Gorge (MAICh) Samaria, and especially the clearings such as that at Ayios Nikolaos, is home to many species of wild flowers, creating a feast of colours for most seasons of the year: Fig. 28: Endemic mauve Petromarula pinnata in the Gorge (MAICh) ■ the Cretan white peony (Paeonia clusii), beautiful, with brilliant white, petals, yellow stems and a red pestle, linking its name to the ancient divine physician, Paeonias, ■ the imposing dark purple, almost black, drakontia (Drancunculus spp.) with its characteristic unpleasant smell, an invitation to pollinating insects, ■ pinky-purple marjoram (Origanum microphyllum) with its wonderful aroma and medicinal qualities, ■ red, purple and white anemones (Anemone sp.), ■ white asphodels (Asphodelus sp.), ■ yellow agarathus (Phlomis fruticosa), ■ endemic pink ebony (Ebenus cretica), which hangs from the sheer slopes of the Gorge (its flowers are used to fill pillows), ■ the also endemic purple Petromarula pinnata, which we find in the rock cracks, ■ irises in the spring, ■ the snow crocus (Crocus sieberi) of the mountain, which appears with the snow, giving a sense of life under its white sheet, ■ the orchid (Cephalanthera cucullata), found near Ayios Nikolaos, one of the protected species of Samaria, and many others which live in harmony with the rest of the flora and fauna. 46

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT grazing. are They valuable plants for beekeeping. family, says one whilst that theory its essential oils provide aresistance mechanism that so plants the over- can survive and have infood, seasonings also medicinalqualities. Most aromatic herbsbelong to mentha the or mint ( we trample on bushes, the or inour we them when take hands). Theessential oils give aromas usspecial and tastes as us of presence, their glands, their which co when especially A walkinSamaria isaccompanied by and fragrances aromas. Thyme, savory, ladania, oregano and marjoram remind It to distinguish category this isdifficult from previous the one, given that aromatic allthe plants are beautiful flowers. andaromaticMedicinal plants of theGorge Theophrastus, those struckby thearrow. anarrow eatittheyeject withthearrow istrue,said thatthestory thatif the goatsgraze onitbecause theylike it. Itisalso rare astheplace whereitisproduced issmalland Dittany isaplantthatgrows onlyinCrete… itis BC: century Theophrastus On Plants,On , father ofBotany, wrote inthe4 9, 16,1. th th ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Fig. 29: in the Gorgein the (Chania Forestry Service) The cals combine it with malotera to make atraditional tea. hemiplegia, dizziness,epilepsy, loss,colds and anorexia. memory Lo- considered one varieties. of mostselect the loss and asadeodorant. its is pollen harvest who Thehoney of bees Alpinethe zone and for isused toothache, coughs, bronchitis, hair drink, good for vessels. good blood drink, the the entrance to the Gorge. Astimulating, palliative, restorative, peptic the ladaniathe plant region inthe (especially of Sisses inRethymno). form.final Today it iscollected on leather strips that are over passed beards of goats, where it “sits” graze, and asthey to iskneaded its take mentionsments. Dioscurides that on ladano feet the and wascollected and soap making. Theancients it used and asincense invarious oint- duces the ladano, atypeof resin that is used today still in perfumery Marjoram with significant antioxidant properties. Used greatly by Romans. the it asaspice whilst isused incooking, and larynx, the heals difficulties savory Pink Thyme Malotera character.excitable restorative should avoided drink be by people with hypertension or an all coffee houses. Attention, warming, however: this stimulating and leaves of which are to make used “Greek the tea” in which isserved Sage Oleander Oleander ( ladania Salvia fruticosa and Salvia pomifera),

ntain volatile essential oils, are (by crushed our steps, as (Corridothymus capitatus), (Corridothymus (Nerium oleander) or or ( Origanum microphyllum) ( Mountain Tea Satureja thymbra Satureja or or angisaros

( ( Sideritis syriaca subsp. syriaca Cistus communis Cistus ), the drink of drink ), the which improves hearing

which grows from up sea the to is good foris good neuroses, headaches, a honey plant, dried the ) is the plant) isthe that pro- Labiatae

). Found at ) 47

Other plants ascribed as medicinal from the time of Dioscurides, the greatest doctor of antiquity, are the carob (Ceratonia siliqua), lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus), agarathus (Phlomis triloba), chaste tree (Vitex agnus castus) and the oleander (Nerium oleander). The “great centaurean” of Cheiron, teacher of Asclepius and tutor of Achilles, was used as a great medicine for wounds. In the Gorge there is an endemic centaurea (Centaurea redempta).

The most celebrated of Cretan herbs, dittany or erontas (Origanum dictamnus), Fig. 30: Malotera (Sideritis syriaca) BIODIVERSITY has not been located on the Samaria footpath. It perhaps exists in one of the gorg- in the Gorge (MAICh) | es that contribute to the central one, and has not been located as the area is inac- Fig. 31: Pink savory (Satureja thymbra) cessible. It has small, round leaves with a hairy surface, a particular aroma and in the Gorge (MAICh) CHAPTER 2 bunches with pink buds. Fig. 32: Dittany (Origanum dictamnus) (M. Toubis SA archive) 48

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT In the Lefka Ori National Ori In Lefka the Park threatened plants Endemic, rare and 15

H. Fournaraki, P. Gotsiou and P. Galani, “Flora, fauna, endemic,endangered, rare and protected species,” OIKOM inthe Update, which bloomswhich earlier. There are also prisca near Ayios Nikolaos, and the blossomthey toward endof the May (threatened), mostimpressive when as orchids ened plants of Greek the such flora, visitor can encounter rare and threat- Samaria the specifically Gorge, the (vulnerable) near Xyloskalo, Cephalanthera cucullata Orchis 15 and and

plays hostto atotal of 12endangered Crete. TheSamaria National Park West of gorges the from only known after Samaria village, are rare species, sultan-hassei Sesleria doerfleri Sesleria the species species the gorges asis Ori, south of Lefka the (vulnerable), endemiconly to the Crete, the islandsthe of South the Aegean and panula laciniata impressivethe plants, cliff the Eryngium ternatum Eryngium , which we encounter Helichrysum heldreichii (rare), endemic to and the Euphorbia Euphorbia Cam- . The

the protection of the plant. plant. the of protection the on microreserve up the set for Service boards put up by Chania the Forestry you information special shallsee law, and inthe area where it grows protected by Greek and international and sphaciotica Onobrychis kakiskalae, the as such Gingilo, to on route the species from Xyloskalo visitor can encounter some of these The Greece. of Plants Endangered of accordingspecies, to RedBook the Centaurea baldacii pp. 83-99. . The first is . Thefirst Bupleurum Bupleurum

49 BIODIVERSITY | CHAPTER 2

Fig. 33: Campanula laciniata (MAICh)

Fig. 34: Bupleurum kakiskalae in the Samaria National Park Park (photo: A. Sakoulis)

Fig. 35: Mullein of Sfakia (Euphorbia sultan-hassei) (MAICh)

Fig. 36: Helichrysum heldreichii in the Gorge (MAICh)

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 5Α 50

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 5B 51

Fig. 37: Oregano (Drancunculus vulgare) (photo: H. Kargiolaki) Fig. 38: Paeonia (Paeonia clusii) (www.natura.pblogs.gr) Fig. 39: Cretan ebony (Ebenus cretica) (MAICh)

In the wider region of Omalos and a few metres from the entrance to the National Park (garden of the Samaria National Park Information Centre at Xyloskalo), the walker will come across one of the world’s 16 rarest trees, the Zelkova abelicea, which is considered to be a living BIODIVERSITY fossil. It can take the form of a large tree with a rough and grainy | bark, which resembles the elm. It produces plenty of sucker growth. Because of the flexibility of its branches, even this exceptionally rare tree is used to make traditional walking sticks (katsounes). This tree CHAPTER 2 is under threat from over-grazing as well as the manufacture of these walking sticks, which are sold illegally to tourists. Such walking sticks should definitely not be purchased. Traditional walking sticks are also made from olive tree17 and holm oak wood, which are just as impressive and usable. There are many other endemic plants in the Samaria Gorge, such as the Ebenus cretica, Inula candida subsp. candida, Centaurea argentea subsp. macrothysana, Securigera globosa, Ricotia cretica, Galium fruticosum and Verbascum spinosum.

The great value of preserving all these endemic organisms lies in the fact that they comprise a unique gene pool. If they are lost then this is forever, without the possibility of bringing them back, as they are products of the long-term evolution of organisms which have perhaps been lost good. The majority have evolved so as to be able to survive in very idiosyncratic and diﬃcult environments. Research into their products and their survival methods may be the key to discovering new natural products and methods, crucial in ﬁghting current and future diseases. This is a natural resource that we do not have the right to lose. The creation and management of the Na- tional Park must contribute to their protection and preservation!!!

Fig. 40: Abelicea (Zelkova abelicea) (Chania Forestry Service archive) Fig. 41: Ricotia cretica (MAICh) Fig. 42: Galium fruticosum (MAICh) Fig. 43: Verbascum spinosum (MAICh)

16 Rackham and Moody, p. 96-8. 17 Ch. Fournaraki et al., pp. 83-99. 52

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT (photo: A.Sakoulis) Fig. 45: (photo: A.Sakoulis) Fig. 44: in the Lefka Ori. Themostimportant Ori. Lefka characteristicin the of invertebrates the Studies exclusively looking at Gorge the have conducted, more not the been and we shall discuss general so situation Invertebrates Dragonfly in the Lefka Ori Dragonfly Lefka inthe Butterfly inSamaria 1200m:119, 1600m:94,2000m:59). Crete inparticular. Ori ingeneral and Lefka the we Thehigher number the get, so of declines (800m:150, species Hariklia Kargiolaki Paraskevi Nousia Helen Karpathaki Text: 19 18 Isolated islands, such asCrete, present form aparticular of evolution, zoological chapter, consist of non-domesticated the wildfauna which lives region. inthe The animals and birds and Ori Samaria the Gorge, of Lefka the of subject the this 4. Three species of amphibians species Three Amphibians andreptiles water Ori. Lefka inthe Greece. Therelatively low number of is due surface infrequency of to the species of Thethree species Ori. amphibians Lefka in the are common to continental ■ ■ ■ ■ OIKOM Update, p. 100. andRackham Moody, pp. 63-73. As As for of Three species The fauna of the Lefka Ori and Gorge of OriandGorge Samaria The fauna of theLefka Cretan ( Three further species are species endemicto Crete.Three further Eupholidoptera cretica, E.latens Samaria inthe Nationaltified Park and surrounding region, of which the Ori. Lefka recognised inthe are around of 244species can foundthey be at altitudes as2000m.Moreover, ashigh although there Although scorpions prefer land and warm conditions, dry Ori Lefka inthe that Crete isisolated from other of parts South the Aegean. anding Analyses 40%of of terrestrial species. molluscs their beetles show for example, beetle the of level endemismapproach- high have aparticularly Arthropods tains of Crete are refuges for terrestrial snails. southwestalmost 33%of inthe species the are Themoun- Ori. of Lefka the Terrestrial molluscs the wildcat.the other wildanimals, such wolf asthe or fox, most aggressive the whilst animal is of Cretesence other species. hadindigenous hasnever wildcattle, and wildboars wein which distinguish presence the of strange animals and complete the ab- orthoptera Euscorpius carpathicus, Mesobuthus gibbosus Mesobuthus carpathicus, Euscorpius are another group encountered of Ori.Some these, Lefka inthe scorpion (grasshoppers, have crickets, iden- etc.), 25species been present level of an increased reaches endemismwhich and and spider have been found in the Lefka Ori, specifically have specifically Ori, found been Lefka inthe 11 species of reptiles 11 species and and on island, the only have 102species been 19 E. pallipes is the high levels of high endemismapparent isthe in are endemic to the Lefka Ori. Ori. are Lefka endemictothe have been documented have documented been and and Iurus dufoureius Iurus ). 18

The 11 species of reptile are common throughout Greece. Species diversity on Island biogeography: an ecological term Crete is greater for the Mediterranean house gecko (the three European species relating to the development of particular organisms (animals and plants) in isolated are here), less for lizards and snakes (there are only three species of each) and areas, such as islands, gorges and moun- very small for turtles (one species of sea turtle but no land turtles). This is most tain peaks. The relative lack of communica- probably related to island biogeography (the isolation of Crete has prevented tion due to island biogeography leads to the development of particular organisms, new species from settling here) and the large number of rock formations, which such as endemic ones. are ideal for geckos. BIODIVERSITY

Fig. 47: Common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus Α) | (photo: A. Sakoulis) CHAPTER 2

Fig. 46: Balkan green lizard (Lacerta trillineata) in the Lefka Ori (photo: A. Sakoulis).

Birds

There are 199 bird species in the Lefka Ori, whose environmental needs can be Habitat: the place where an organ- satisfied by the local habitats. The majority of these (108 species, primarily waders, ism lives. The organism is adapted forest birds and species that live in meadows) pass through here every spring and to the particular environmental conditions that exist in its habitat, e.g. a autumn during their annual migration, as Crete is located on the migration routes lake, a bog, etc. of birds crossing the Mediterranean along a broad front and hosts the types of habitat that these species require (wetlands, forests, meadows). Only 67 species nest in the Lefka Ori and West Crete (49 permanently and 18 as summer visitors), whilst another 24 species hibernate here. A number of birds of prey are included in the reproducing species (bearded vulture, griffon vulture, common buzzard, golden eagle, Bonelli’s eagle, common kestrel, peregrine falcon) as are species that nest in rocks (owl, swift, crag martin, blue rock thrush, black-eared wheatear, chough). There are also many species which survive upon sparse bushes and rocky slopes (chukar, quail, crested lark, wood lark, tawny pipit, Alpine accen- tor, black redstart, common stonechat, northern wheatear, rufous-tailed rock thrush, warbler, sombre tit, woodchat shrike, corvidae, goldfinch, linnet, corn bunting). 54

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Vasilis Hadjivarsanis) Fig. 48: picks up asit against rubs limestone the rock, ahabit that hasnot unravelled. yet been The breast and stomach of adult the are usually orange, due to “makeup” the on its effect wings from iron the oxide it where cliffs, tall it lays two although eggs, only one baby vulture from which nestinJune. flies the survives, reaching up to 2.80mand with alarge rhomboid tail. It tems, with unusual behavioural features. It of isaspecies vultureThe bearded isone of rarest the birds of prey inEurope, and an exclusive inhabitant of mountain the ecosys- vultureBearded ( largestOri The three birds of theLefka It prefers soft the parts of animal, dead the with aparticular fon vulture feeds upon medium- dead and large-sized animals. (passivetionary thus flight), covering large distances. Thegrif- streams, to achieve height, and with wings their glide then sta- aroundusually fly inlarge, wildcircles, exploiting warm the air throughrily its short tail and broad wings. Griffon vultures griffon the During flight, vulture can distinguished prima- be wings) or chick (long, brown wings). wings that we can distinguish bird ifthe isan adult (short, white short wing covert at of base the neck. the It isthrough collar the 97-104 cm.When it with roosts, its aruff can seen baldhead be bird of prey, with awingspan of 2.60 m and length of abody most of we which encounter inCrete. AIt islarge and heavy there are fewer than 400pairs of Griffon Vultures remaining, mostcommonThis isthe of type vulture inEurope. In Greece, Griffon Vulture ( Bearded vulture Bearded (watercolour by Gyps fulvus Gypaetus barbatusGypaetus ) ) of Chania, there are two of three the reproducing pairs of Greece islands and mainland. Today, inCrete survives alone. species the In Prefecture the The bearded vulture wascommon inGreece, and lived throughout almostallthe bird hasnocompetitors. resolved,been are nutritious these avery easily food, stored and over which the culiar, but from moment the problem the when of digestion the of bones has the contains digests fluids, easily. them powerful gastric habit pe- Thisdietary seems ing from marrow. the It swallows smallbones whole the and its stomach, which have completely been broken, and bearded the vulture eats then bones start- the after pieces the inaspiralling descent. Thisprocess isrepeated until bones the ing bones by throwing from them agreat height onto steep, rocky slopes, going shepherds on Crete callit Kokkala have (bones), asthey it long break- observed It only isthe creature world inthe to feed almostentirely on bones (70-90%).The nests between December and December nests between January insmallcaves found on vulture more reminiscent of agiant falcon, with awingspan . 55

Fig. 49: Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) (photo: A. Sakoulis)

Fig. 50: Bearded vulture BIODIVERSITY

(Gypaetus barbatus) | (www. nigeldennis.com)

Fig. 51: Bearded vulture

(Gypaetus barbatus) CHAPTER 2 (www.ebd.csic.es) 56

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT (www.sdgfp.info) Fig. 52: 20 Mammals As for Ori. have mammals, 32species identified Lefka inthe been 30-40 km,but it can reach also up to 200-300km. animal (cow, horse, etc.) inthree to four hours. Thearea search inwhich they for usually extends food to aradius of of pollution. of 60-80griffon Aflock vultures can consume asheepcarcass infive to ten minutes, or alarge hoofed before to rot, start bodies they inwarm climates something particularly beneficial where animals dead sources can be preference for innards. the Its vision, sharp skillat and, flying above all, its behaviour enable it asaflock to locate OIKOM Update, p. 106. Golden Eagle Eagle Golden Chiropteran: species of batsspecies horseshoe ( The mostcommon European isthe species free-tailed bat, followed by bats of the positionsThese are within boundaries the of upland the with villages, olive where coexist they groves and buildings. documented inareas with plenty of trees, independent of whiskered)mouse-eared may bad, live widerregion inthe of mountain West Crete. Most of bat species have been region,in the on whilst criteria the of existing the habitats, (serotine, species four Geoffroy’s further bat, greater (Aquila chrysaetos) (Aquila chrysaetos) bat bat Rhinolophus spp.Rhinolophus Golden Eagle ( Eagle Golden live,find it wildfood, feeds upon smallsheepand goats and on animals. dead mountainthe slopes, forest clearings and uncovered, open stretches. When it cannot pigeons, wildpigeons, choughs, hares partridges, and which in it eventurtles, seeks The dietof agolden consists eagle of birds and mammals, medium-sized such as wood a great height and swoop then down, with feathers their bunched up. establish boundaries of the characteristic, they territory. when their Thebirds pto fly It hunts usually inpairs. Thegolden eagle’s pre-reproductive inthe flights are season speed. great at ground the on pounce prey, of to able bird mobile particularly a is it small circles, from its whilst front, the wings, ifobserved form aV-shape. For its size, aroundThe golden flies eagle much like griffon the vulture, but faster it and flies in withdark white body “stains” on wings, the and awhite zone around tail. the light-coloured on strips chickshave its eagle Golden tail. and ablack head nape, a dark colour wings the whilst underneath, are lighter coloured on top. There are also The adult bird golden and hasacharacteristic head nape. Its and wings body have a length of 75-90cm.When its it golden-yellow flies, and neck long seen. can tail be The mostpowerful bird of prey inGreece, with awingspan of 1.85-2.20mand abody ) are more rare. Aquila chrysaetus the treethe (Turkish pine, cypress, oaks,cultivated olives). 20 ) In total, of 11species bats have documented been (Common name: Pipistrellus genus Pipistrellus Vichila ) , whilst the three the , whilst 57

Although Crete has been cut off from neighbouring continents since the Lower Pliocene (five million years ago), it has only one endemic mammal species, the Cretan lesser white-toothed shrew. This is perhaps due to human settlement and the species that people brought with them either by choice (domestic species, such as the nanny goat) or involuntarily (e.g. rodents). Of the mammal species in the Lefka Ori, seven subspecies are endemic to Crete: the hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor nesiotes), weasel (Mustela nivalis galinthias), beech marten (Martes foina bunites), Eurasian badger (Meles meles arcalus), Cretan wildcat (Felis silvestris cretensis), dormouse and wild goat. The subspecies of Crete are smaller than those BIODIVERSITY Fig. 53: Mustela nivalis galinthias | of continental Europe, with the exception of the weasel and the Cretan wildcat, (photo: A. Sakoulis) which are larger than their European sub-species counterparts.

It appears that the spiny mouse was transported involuntarily by man to Crete CHAPTER 2 (hidden in animal feed transported by ship). There are indications that the diversity observed amongst the spiny mice of Crete is not a result of on-the-spot selection, but that it reflects the genetic diversity of the populations from which the individual mice were transported to the island. The agrimi or wild goat, the proudest animal of the Gorge, shall not be discussed analytically in this chapter, given that a chapter is dedicated to it (Chapter 3).

Cretan wildcat (Felis silvestris cretensis) The Cretan wildcat is a mysterious creature,21 which humans cannot easily set eyes upon. Shepherds and hunters talk of it, and nights in the Samaria Gorge are “en- livened” by its cries. In 1996, Italian researchers working with the Natural History Museum of Crete succeeded in capturing a live Cretan wildcat for the first time. The wildcat (not an ancestor of the domestic cat) is indigenous throughout the whole of continental Europe. The earliest known cat remains on Crete, perhaps domesticated, come from a disturbed archaeological layer at Knossos, with finds from the Bronze Age and the Roman period. Cats appear on Minoan wall paintings and seal stones, along with azure monkeys, lions and other exotic animals The presence of the Cretan wildcat in the Lefka Ori 22 was confirmed by a dead cat found in 1997, living within a habitat of Kermes oak forest and Mediterranean Εικ. 54: Cretan wildcat shrub mixed with sparse trees at an altitude of 900-1200 m. The Cretan subspe- (Felis silvestris cretensis) cies (F. s. cretensis) is larger than those of neighbouring regions (F. s. silvestris, F. s. (photo: A. Trichas, libyca). It is present only at great heights, because, as it seems, it requires particu- Crete Natural History Museum) larly large (approximately 4.2 sq. km) and untouched territories.

21 Rackham and Moody, p. 64. 22 OIKOM Update, p. 120. 58 59

CHAPTER 3 AGRIMI:THE WILD GOAT OF CRETE

1. The agrimi

“Agrimi” is the common name for the male wild goat 23 in Crete, whilst the name Text: “sanada” is used for the female. It is the largest wild mammal on the island. The Hariklia Kargiolaki greatness it emits, its gallantry, its ability to observe without being seen, its speed Paraskevi Nousia Helen Karpathaki and impressive horns, are characteristics which have become loved by the island’s inhabitants, making it the symbol of Crete, of the free Cretan soul.

The name “kri kri” is often incorrectly used Origin and evolution for the agrimi. In the early 1950s a Cretan, Eftychis Protopapadakis, gave a gift of an The agrimi belongs to the taxa of even-toed agrimi to the then president of the United ungulates, animals with an equal number of States Harry Truman. He even took it him- digits (hooves). Even-toed ungulates first ap- self to Washington. Because he would call it by saying “come, my kri-kraki”, the Ameri- peared in the Mediterranean region during the cans, combining his words with his Cretan Palaeocene era, a geological period dating to origins, called this particular argimi “kri kri”. 55 million years ago. Antonis Plymakis, 2001

A. Plymakis, The agrimi of Crete. Capra Aegagrus Five different subspecies are found in nature, Cretica, Chania 2001, p. 205. with a different natural spread:24 ■ Capra aegagrus ssp. cretica (Crete). ■ Capra aegagrus ssp. aegagrus (Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Russia, Turkey). ■ Capra aegagrus ssp. blythi (Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkmenistan). ■ Capra aegagrus ssp. chialtanensis (Pakistan). ■ Capra aegagrus ssp. tourcmenica (Iran, Turkmenistan). There are, however, scientists who do not recognise the species Capra aegagrus and consider it synonymous with the Capra hircus, which describes the domestic goat.

Fig. 55: Agrimi (Capra aegagrus cretica) in Samaria (photo: A. Sakoulis)

23 Aigagros (wild goat): aix, aigos (goat) + agros (wild), s. v. Babiniotis dictionary. Fig. 56: Agrimi (Capra aegagrus cretica) 24 Dr Petros Lyberakis, biologist, Natural History Museum of Crete. (drawing by S. Vlazaki) 60

PART Ι | THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Summer hair. (photo: A.Geskou) Fig. 58: cretica Fig. 57: ) (www.flickr.com) Little chewing. Summer. agrimi ( Anagrimi Capra aegagrus 25 tenderness, dedicationtheir towards and self-sacrifice young. their protection by of kidsisundertaken females, the the are who distinguished for around and do not leave her side till around six months. Care for the growth and April and May. Only afew hours after kidscan the birth, their follow mother their “harem” of two or more females. give They to birth one, rarely two, kidsbetween ture malesbattle each other for females the of choice, their and victor the forms a enough to reproduce at ages four to five, and females the at two to three. Thema- Agrimia mate inlate to early October November. are Themaleagrimia mature reproduction and Mating years.fifteen two or three others, rarely inlarger groups. Thewildgoat usually lives ten to are larger innumber than female the ones. Theelderly live males alone or with youngthe malesfollow of fema flocks the Excluding of reproduction, period the male front part of legs. their another linethat reaches asfar stomach. asthe Black appear designs also on the from shoulders nape their are upper the of tothe tail, whilst part the with crossed itmale agrimia turns white. have They ablack linedown backs, their stretching summer, winter inthe whilst it thickens and turns abrownish-black. Onelderly beard, rarely which appears on females. the Theirhair isbrownish-red during the backwards.horns (up have also to curve 90cm),which They characteristic the easily becalculated as distinct annual much larger than females. the Allhave horns, from which animal’s the age can Agrimia are distinguished noticeably on Features Crete Neolithic inthe around period, 9,000years ago. that mostlikely agrimi the originates from nanny goats humans which brought to strating hybrid their relationship. Recent genetic analyses to conclusion lead the now Thetwo continue, extinct. species however, genetically to be close, demon- goatthe evolved side-by-side asdifferent with acommon species, ancestor is who wild early prehistoric inthe era.In contrast, others that and believe agrimi the lieve that originate they from semi-domesticated goats were who returned to the Scientists have expressed various asto origin the of views be- Some agrimi. the OIKOM Update, p.107. rings are formed. Themaleshave larger gender lines.First of all, malesare the les or elderly males. The male flocks les or flocks Themale elderly males. and female agrimia live apart. Only Only apart. live agrimia female and 25 61

Biotope Until the early 20th century, the agrimi lived in three mountain complexes of Crete (Lefka Ori, Psiloritis and Dikte). Today, it is limited to the Lefka Ori, although there is some evidence for rare appearances in Psiloritis. The natural biotope of the agrimi is mountain areas, particularly brushwood and rocky caves. It prefers regions near coniferous forests (cypress and pine), great slopes (over 30%) and lots of rocks (30%). Fig. 59: Agrimi and young female It eats mainly upon ground flora and tender bush vegetation, although in periods during the period of reproduction. where they are lacking it eats most of the plants in its biotope except the thorny and Winter hari (photo: A. Geskou) poisonous ones. Fig. 60: Male agrimi at Samaria. Automn (photo A. Geskou) AGRIMI: THE WILD GOAT OF CRETE WILD GOAT THE AGRIMI: | CHAPTER 3

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 6Α 62

PART Ι THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 6Β | of Prehistoric Antiquities) and Classical (archiveca 1450BC of Ephorate 25th the from Minoan the settlement inChania town, Fig. 62: (photo A.Geskou) Fig. 61: silent, mobile, flighty, light ofthepeaks. bleat andto dittany. Present andfleeing, to theblossomoforegano, to theinvisible mists. The wildgoat! Who goesandcomes more escapes. Adream, arifle, atrace that animal ofthesky, butalsoarock that allthe scatters itsaromas into theethers. An Truly arrow-like, amoving wildherbthat or ethereal? Hehasalways confused us. by theshotsofhunter. Isheindigenous Who isvisited andfound, occasionally, only absolute, theimmobileandprecipitous. difficult to withthe findfood, whoflirts who displays hiswealth inhismeagre and the chasmandismeasured by thewind, immobile. The wildgoat whomeasures Ethereal, inapproachable, untouchable, Chaniotika Nea Y. Kokkinakos, monias(second reading),”“The in Divinity and Cretan goat, clay seal Rushing goat at edge the of Park the , 26/01/2008. , 26/01/2008. Y. Kokkinakos,2008 Athanasia Zotou Text: 26 tion. The coins of Tylissos image hadthe of ahunter on one of sidewithhead the adoptedimage hasbeen emblem asthe of for Greek the Nature Society Protec- coins on from BC 4th-century seen The Cretan Praesos. This can be agrimi also Tarra (Ayia Roumeli), gold and silver, bore of head the awildgoat on one side. of Elyros and Hyrtakina, ancient cities of southwest Crete. Thecoins of ancient of animal whole the body the or just its wasstamped on head coins from cities the of abound agrimi the on Minoan later pots, whilst Hellenistic inthe years either The first tracesof wildgoat the appear around Bronze the Age. Representations represent herwith feathers and associated herwith fertility goddesses. Amaltheia. She wildgoat wasthe worshipped inMinoan Crete. People would father Cronus, hid him inPsiloritis, where hewasreared by awildnanny goat, Myth holds that inorder Rea, to save from Crete-born mania the Zeus of his 2. The greatest threats population to agrimi the are: Park Management Body, is an attempt to cover lacuna. this Administration of Chania, after aProgramme Contract with Samaria the National tematic conducted. study been hasever Thestudy announced by Prefectural the (Forest Ori area of Lefka the Research Institute, 1996)isnot known, and nosys- precise number of animals that Samaria existinthe National Park and broader the on demographic statistics. The great dive populationtheir isestimated at 500to 4000animals, although isnot this based in population once Samaria wasobserved The population in1952wasestimated at (perhaps strictly) too 100.Anincrease Ori. Lefka the disappearance from some of parts Crete. Already from 1913it wasfound only in intervention are main the causes for population decline the agrimi inthe and its troduction and spread of firearms) and changes the biotope inthe due to human Intensive hunting during first five the decadesof century (with in- 20th the the Population dangers and OIKOM Update, p. 119. Τhe agrimi inmyth, prehistory andhistory Τheagrimi ■ ■ ■ ■ Inbreeding (asaresult of smallpopulation) the Fragmentation of habitats their with construction the of roads Hybridism with domestic goats Death, shootings, illegalhunting rgence inestimates underlinesthat the was proclaimed aNational Park. Today 26

an agrimi in his right hand and a bow and arrow in his left.27 The plethora and variety of finds demonstrates the very close relationship between humans and the agrimi.

3. Protection of the agrimi

Many personal testimonies, such as that of Aubyn Trevor–Battye, prove that agrimi Text: hunting was done freely at the beginning of the previous century, a natural act for the Athanasia Zotou inhabitants of Samaria. The same was true for game hunters. Yet, this almost led to the extinction of the species, as the numbers of agrimia declined greatly.

Early attempts at protection [S]o now I gazed up into the mountains expecting to see them on It is a noteworthy fact that the first people to get in- some ledge of rock. But seeing nothing, I asked the men, “Where volved with protection of the Cretan wild goat were the are the agrimia?” And they showed members of the Chania Hunters Association. In 1928, me the point where the woman stood with the goats. I realized at the Association: “Received from the shepherds of Sfa- once that the two little kids she was OF CRETE WILD GOAT THE AGRIMI: feeding on leaves were none other kia, in exchange for payment, small agrimia which for | than the young of the so-called many years it raised at the Souda Garden Farm with Cretan ibex. A tame black common goat was standing with them, but a its own funds and in collaboration with the Forestry glance was suﬃcient to show they

Service. It subsequently transferred them to the islet CHAPTER 3 were not hers … The woman said her husband had of Ayioi Theodoroi, also known as Thodorou, where shot the mother in March, so the kids were now only three months it founded the first and largest Cretan wild goat farm old … in Crete.28 This initial action was followed by other [A]fter a long discussion I made a bid for the kids which overcame organisations, local and foreign, as well as by private her resistance, and she consoled individuals. The efforts of Theodoros Viglis who, al- herself, saying “Ah, well, he will get me some more next spring.” The though he lived in Athens, attempted with all his abili- kids were mine! The bargain struck included the old nanny-goat, with ties to mobilise Cretans around the issue of protecting the undertaking that the shepherd the agrimi are especially touching. would come to Canea with me, being responsible for the safe journey Fig. 63: Thodoris Viglis with his little of the animals to that town … On 23 April 1935, at the festival of Ai-Giorgis Samaria, agrimi (from The agrimi of Crete, It was dark. I stopped all talking Viglis proposed to the worshippers that they should A. Plymakis) lest voices should alarm the kids; only the shepherd’s voice sounded swear on the icon of St George that they would not continuously, calling “Ela, éla,” into touch another agrimi for the next four years and that the night. He could not see the kids, he only knew when they were by they should notify the police if anyone violated this the goat’s side by feeling with his hands. principle. The vow was faithfully kept to until the difficult days of the Second World War.

A. Trevor–Battye, Camping in Crete, with Notes upon the Animal and Plant Life of the Island, London 1913, pp. 226-227, 230. 27 Plymakis, The agrimi of Crete, p. 147. 28 A.H. Makridakis, Samaria. The Kingdom of the Cretan agrimi, Chania Hunters Association: Athens, 1961, p. 32. 64

Post-war international and Greek interest After the war, international interest for the protection of the Cretan wild goat was revived: “…in the issue for the 6-1-1953 of the Ayios Nikolaos of Lasithi newspaper it is noted in the headline: ‘Foreigners show great interest in the Cretan agrimi,’ wherein is discussed the work of Farmar [Hugo Farmar, British scholar] as part of the missions of animal organisations from Britain and America to study how the agrimi can be protected… Organisations from the United States took part in efforts to protect the agrimi in this period … [as well as] the international society for the preservation of nature [and] the British Fauna Preservation Society…”.29 In the March 1954 issue of To Vouno, published by the Athens Mountaineering Club, it was announced that the Forestry Directorate of the General Ad- ministration of Crete had decided in May 1953 to appoint a guard at the Lefka Ori to protect the wild goats. This was an act of goodwill on the part of the authority, although lacking for various reasons. “If the Cretans do not become serious about protecting this unique species of wild goat themselves, then there are not many hopes for its survival,” the article’s author noted.30

Fig. 64: Maria S. Vigli with her child Drastic protection measures and little agrimi (from A. Plymakis, The agrimi of Crete) In the September 1956 issue, however, in an article with the title “Lively movement recently on Crete for the protection of the wild goat,” mention is made of the activities of the Prosecutor of the Crete Court of Appeal, specifically the Deputy Prosecutor Georgios Yiannakopoulos, who published [in 1955-1956] a series of circulars, orders, and guidelines for authorities, associations, local schools, etc. on the protection of the agrimi.”31 This article also discusses the meeting held on the initiative of the Chania Prefecture and the Deputy Prosecutor on 15 September 1956 on the same subject, as well as the awareness campaign amongst the inhabitants of the Sfakia villages. Special leaflets on the wild goat and its protection were also published in 1957 by the Chania Union of Naturist Mountain Climbers.

The honour protocol The above actions were accompanied on 27 July 1957 by the signing of an honour protocol by the inhabitants of Ayia Roumeli. In this document, the Ayioroume- liotes publicly declared that protection of the wild goat was for them a matter of honour. This agreement was the forerunner of a wider-ranging protocol signed on 7 April 1960 by the inhabitants of the villages of Ayia Roumeli and Samaria, Sfakia. We include an extract from this protocol, as published in Antonis Ply- makis’s valuable book on the agrimi, as an example of a written/unwritten law: “WE GIVE OUR WORD OF HONOUR that not only will we not hunt this animal but, on the contrary, we will protect it, and we shall report anyone who at-

29 Plymakis, The agrimi of Crete, p. 113. 30 Op. cit., p. 113. 31 Op. cit., p. 115. 65

The most eﬀective measure, however, tempts to kill it to the relevant local authority. for the saving of the Cretan wild goat, In closing, our signatures seal the word we have known as the “agrimi”, is the founda- 32 tion of a National Park in the Gorge of given.” This was followed by 31 signatures. Samaria, regarding which we submitted a report last year. In that year, a specialist section leader was sent to gather The question of the EDA details for conducting a broader study on the above matter. So far, however, parliamentarians nothing has been announced, and this evidently because the matter stumbles Even before the signing of the above protocol, on the issue of locating money for ex- efforts to protect the wild goat had already propriations, in the region of around reached the Greek parliament. On 4 March four million drachmas. 1960, the junior minister for Agriculture D. A. Bletas, Chania Forest Ranger, 1961 Thanopoulos, in response to a question from A. Bletas, Year Book of the Chania Forestry Serv- ice for the administrative year 1961, Chapter 8 the EDA (United Democratic Left) parliamen- (Thera). tarians I. Kontoudakis, K. Hiotakis and G. Pa- Fig. 65: Postcard from the Hellenic Post, 1970. Year of Nature pageorgiou regarding protection of the Cretan (Hellenic Post Philately Society) wild goat, and following a special study and report of the Chania Forest Ranger A. Bletas, concluded: “The Service would not object to the declaration of this region (Samaria Gorge, etc.), where the wild goat lives, as a National Park, in application of Law 856/1937. The matter is not, however, so simple… as it is connected to 33 Fig. 66: Agrimi on the islet of Thodoros, other, more serious social issues.” These issues concerned the inhabitants of the at the Cretan wild goat farm region and their use of the land. (Chania Forestry Service archive)

The foundation of the Samaria National Park as a means of protecting the agrimi Almost three years later, on 6 November 1962, Paul, King of the Hellenes, signed Royal Decree no. 781 “On the foundation of a National Park in the Lefka Ori of the island of Crete”34. The Cretan wild goat was thus the primary reason for the creation of the National Park. The creation of the National Park gave the Cretan argimi its place back, far from illegal hunters and the danger of interbreeding with the common goat, where it can live securely.

32 Op. cit., pp. 117-8. 33 Papers of the Parliamentary Debates, Period V, Assembly II, 64th Meeting, 15th March 1960, Athens 1961, pp. 277-8. 34 Government Gazette (Issue 1), 1962, p. 1709. 66

Samaria village, 2008 (photo: E. Marakakis) Part ΙΙ 67

THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 68

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (Mountaineering Club of Chania archive) Fig. 1: Man and nature 69

INTRODUCTION HUMANS AND SAMARIA: A SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP

The great tectonic activity and geological transformations that created Crete, its Text: mountains, coasts and gorges are lost in the mists of time. For millions of years, Emmy Papavasileiou the island was not inhabited by humans, only by prehistoric animals and plants. Crete did not have an autochthonous population. It is assumed that the earliest visitors were hunters and fishers, who discovered the island in the Mesolithic period (ca 10,000 BC). The first people settled on the island permanently later, in To the tectonic forces that shaped the Neolithic period, bringing domesticated animals and new crops with them. the topography, the Pleistocene fau- Towards the end of the Neolithic, they also brought the olive tree with them, now na that shaped the vegetation, the Cretan people who shaped the land- closely associated with the Cretan landscape. Since then, the environment was scape. shaped not only by the forces of nature but also by human activity. Despite the Each without the others would have fact that humans had only inhabited the island for a brief period, they played a resulted in a dramatically diﬀerent decisive role in shaping it. Crete. Humans and Samaria have a special relationship. The Samaria Gorge, despite its Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Moody, 2004 wild nature, is not an unapproachable, unsurpassable gorge. It is the only gorge in 35 Chania to have been systematically inhabited. The village of Samaria was created Rackham and Moody, intro pages, p. XII. at its heart, and that of Ayia Roumeli at its exit. Within this closely intertwined relationship, the natural environment of Samaria has had a decisive influence in many ways on the lives of the people and the shaping of their culture. In turn, humans, through their activities in various historical periods, have left, and continue to leave, their traces upon it – from antiquity until today. These bonds changed in the final years of the 20th century due to two important events: the declaration of the Gorge as a National Park, which prohibits permanent residence within the Gorge (not, however, at Ayia Roumeli), and by the dramatic growth of tourism. It is easier to process statistics than to attempt to understand life. The full protection of the Gorge from human activities has preserved the natural environment, but it has had other consequences, such as being estranged from the Guy Burgel, 1965 inhabitants of Samaria (whilst the bonds with Ayia Roumeli are still alive) and G. Burgel, POBIA, Étude Géographique d’un the transformation of their relationship with the place. The growth of tourism has Village Crétois, 1965, Centre des Sciences So- raised the region’s economic indicators, but it has also changed the experiences of ciales d’Athènes.

35 A further village, at the exit of Trypiti gorge (to the west of Samaria), was abandoned most probably in the 17th century (see Rackham and Moody, p. 127). 70

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT For publication, this greater emphasis given has been to historical the dimen- received the same kind of protection as the natural, would have been made clear. Gorge.the In way, this wealth the of manmade the environment, hasnot which would have given us a more satisfying image of human particular this presence in lackofthe archaeological, geographical, anthropological and other studies, which The search for information publication inthis to use problems highlighted the of outlook for relationship the of people the of place this with “faranga”. their tion by to allfields interdisciplinary groups of and specialists, developing anew For above allthe reasons, it isworth systematically studying Samaria’s contribu- naturalthe protection of park the and sustainable development. developing an economy almostself-sufficient with activities that have resulted in humansbetween and nature. Humans have lived within and around Gorge, the 5. It isaliving example of aharmonious relationship throughout centuries the most popular sight on island the after Chania old town. only to the growth of the economy of Sfakia but of the whole prefecture. It isthe 4. As atourist attraction over pastdecades,it the hascontributed significantly not ronmental maps. until our days. It Samaria isthe Gorge that puts Crete onto international envi- 3. It isan internationally recognised “sight”, with areputation from antiquity Samaria Gorge. course the ofdefined island the would have same result hadthe were it not for the for revolutionary activities. It isnot clear that many of historical the events that of Crete, and of Greece asawhole, providing refuge, asafe passage and abase 2. It hasplayed an important, leading, role even history earlier and inthe modern and Crete ingeneral. and gallantry ifies love of freedom, values that represent Prefecture the of Chania Samaria hasacquired isidentified, which an emblematic and significance person- lore narratives aswell asof values. Thefree and life ascetic of wildgoat, the with 1.It culture local the hasinfluenced inte inmanystage areas: for rare and endangered wildlife, it hasplayed an important role on abroader ince. Not only isit of great important for world’s the natural heritage, asarefuge Yet, Gorge the not does belong only to smallgeographical the unit of Sfakia prov- form of development, have these applied. not been tant studies have conducted for been amore and environmentally-friendly logical habitat and environment of Ayia Roumeli. It isinteresting that, although impor- visitors now asmasses burdening descend, landscape the and downgrading the rms of mythological, religious and folk- 71

sion of the development of these phenomena and in presenting as many sources as possible which would help compile a more satisfying image of life during the period when people had a close relationship with the Gorge, as over forty years have already passed since its last inhabitant abandoned it. This is why so much evidence comes from the oral histories of the old inhabitants of Samaria and Ayia Roumeli, as well as from works generously produced by people who, voluntarily and through a love of the place, have attempted to save whatever can be from oblivion. The agrimi was once able to unite the inhabitants of Samaria and Ayia Roumeli with an honour protocol for its protection. The Samaria National Park warrants being the reason for a new honour protocol, to be given by the younger generations for a new relationship with the Gorge and with the natural environment in general. Fig. 2: A harmonious relationship (photo: C. Aretaki) HUMANS AND SAMARIA: A SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP AND SAMARIA: HUMANS | INTRODUCTION 72

Fig. 3: The village of Lower Samaria (photo C. Aretaki) 73

CHAPTER 1 THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE

1. From the Prehistoric era untl the Roman years

The securest evidence for the first settlement of humans on Crete dates to the Neolithic period (6100-3500/2900 BC), and is connected with the organised development of pastoralism and agriculture. The first presence of man on the Lefka Ori, the mountain range that also hosts Samaria, is certified by the interesting rock paintings found at Skordylakia, near the village of Asfendo in Sfakia, although these have not been definitively dated. This was followed by the Bronze Age (3500/2900-1100 BC), which is associated with the important, brilliant Minoan civilisation, the traces of which have been located and uncovered all over Crete. Fatal developments, most likely natural, ushered in the so-called Dark Ages, otherwise known as the Geometric Period (1000-680 BC), when the population shrank and many settlements disappeared. From the evidence uncovered so far during archaeological excavations in the sanctuary, the first traces of human activity within the Gorge date to the 6th century BC (archaic period), with an unbroken continuity until the 3rd century AD (Roman period). At the exit of the Gorge, where the ancient city of Tarra stood, the ancient finds date from as early as the 8th century BC, whilst the life of the city continued throughout all the following periods (archaic, classical, Hellenistic, Roman).

The city of Kaino Diodorus Siculus, the 1st-century BC historian who has given us much valuable Text and photographs: information on ancient Crete (Book V, 76, 3-6), cites the city of Kaino as the Vanna Niniou-Kindeli birthplace of the goddess Britomartis, believed to be an earlier incarnation of Artemis, although without noting the city’s precise location.The 19th-century British traveller R. Pashley locates Kaino in the interior of Samaria Gorge,36 and Britomartis, who is also called Dik- gives two possibilities as to its precise location: the hill Ellenes and the spot of tynna, the myths relate, was born at Ayios Nikolaos. Kaino was not one of the large cities of Crete, nor did it mint its Kaino in Crete of Zeus and Karme [8], own coins, something which would have indicated its political autonomy. the daughter of Euboulos who was the son of Demeter… Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 5, 76 36 R. Pashley, Travels in Crete, vol. ΙΙ, London 1837, pp. 267-70.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 7Α 74 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 7Β PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT sanctuary, 1991(photo: V. Niniou-Kindeli) Fig. 4: worship. will uncover evidence ofeven earlier research not impossiblethat further BC,althoughitis the 6thcentury The earliestfindsso farbelongto the Animals),whomshesucceeded. Potniaof theMinoan Theron (Mistressof andhasthefeatures Artemis, sical deity isidentifiedwiththeclas- Diktynna deity belonged to Kydonia. The prehistoric Spatha, whichuntiltheRomanperiod at today’s sanctuary Diktynnaion Cape created andthe thegoddessDiktynna her intheirnets, their “diktya”. Thus was into thesea,where fishermengathered She, despondent, fell from therocks by herbeauty, pursuedherpersistently. withMinos, who,Britomartis charmed West Crete linkstheCretan nymph noan period, asoneofthemyths from Worship dates ofDiktynna to theMi- BRITOMARTIS DIKTYNNA From excavations the at the time. Thiswasfollowed in1991by brief archaeological by 25 the survey Parkthe and at spot the of Ayios Nikolaos, antiquities were found were first the In 1990,during work on central the by footpath Forestry the Service that crosses National inSamaria The ancient sanctuary Park further below. associated inmythology with isalso gods Tarra, these both discussed asshallbe siblings, Apollo and were Artemis, worshipped at same sanctuary. the Worship of sought forbe area. inthis Pashley mentions atemple of Apollo at Kaino. Thetwo Siculus, atDiodorus one least of Britomartis more goddess the sanctuary should on central hillinthe the of section Gorge the could well Kaino. be According to largethe city-states of broader the region. Asite with building remains uncovered It wasinstead mostlikely asmallcity, which belonged administratively to one of temple popular especially inCrete hadbeen from asearly Minoan asthe period, open,place and inthe existence the of atemple wasnot of essential. Thistype of physical the environment played adecisive role it its creation. Therituals took Part of form wasfound, the inwhich an of open-air sanctuary atype sanctuary of Antiquities with assistance the of Forestry the Service. th Ephorate or at alarger least sanctuary, dedicated two wider locale. tothe inthe gods aries of Apollo Peloponnese. inthe It possible that there very was atemple, isalso made exclusively had been forthey votive insanctu- aphenomenon use, seen also and iron tips of arrows and spears prevail, smallsizeof the which indicates that and afew bones, mainly from sheepand goats). Amongst votives, the bronze the next to rock, the within which were remains the of burnt animals (ashes sacrificial formin the of human roughly Asmallcircular hearth, figurines. made, wasfound stone,and semi-dressed for depositing votives, such asclay and vessels clay idols lower An“anderon” surface. was (terrace) Worship wascentred around large the rock with anatural cavity/depression on its relief representations –indicating that ritual the perhaps took place at night. c.AD):bronze –4th Roman (1stc.BC coins, period clay cups, used lamps with The largest number of votives uncovered during excavations the date from the covered with cypress tall trees. many centuries, wasfounded of aspart tradition, this on bank the of river the with approaching “divine”. the of Samaria, Thesanctuary which functioned for ritual worship, which hasadirect relationship with nature and, at same the time, way,this and dedication the sacrifices open-air rituals, of with fiery votives form a fear of earthquake, destructive comes which the from bowels the In of earth. the to fertility and “magical” the alternating of seasons, the or with danger the and recall the need of the simple folk to appeal to the powers of nature relating either conductingwhen rituals within nature wasacentral tenet of religion. the They subsequently built for it from undressed (photo: S.Alexandrou) Fig. 6: (photo: V. Niniou-Kindeli) Fig. 5: in the sanctuary (photo: sanctuary S.Alexandrou)in the Fig. 7: Bronze idol of aram Theopen-air sanctuary Bronze votive weapons found found weapons votive Bronze

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 75 76

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: E.Papavasileiou) Fig. 8: Site of ancient Tarra Katerina TzanakakiKaterina Text: Its geographical position wasknown from the and east the west of mouth the of river the that crosses it. at exit the of Samaria the National Park, direction inthe of Libyan the and to Sea In ancient times,asmall but autonomous city with name the of Tarra waslocated Ancient Tarra (Ayia Roumeli) found notraceof Buondelmonti’s ruins. site the Pashleylish traveller identified as that R. of ancient Tarra, he although ofruins marble temples, pieces of statues and idols. Much later, Eng- in1837,the today’s Ayia Roumeli wasparticularly visited southwest Crete in1415.Theimage hesaw asreached coastof assoon the eller to area the Middle inthe Ages, Franciscan the monk Buondelmonti, who The earliest description of ancient the settlement isperhaps that of trav- first the (today’s Loutro), lying at adistance of six“stadia” from each. c. AD),wherein we read that Tarra waslocated Poikilasio between and Phoenix Stadiasmos of the Great Sea impressive: monumental buildings, wells, 37 (6 th

may have functionedasastop-off network inthe of maritime routes by used com- Communication city the between and outside the It world sea. viathe wassecured most months of year. the tions were by supply the eased of plentiful water from Samaria the forest during fortificationsgood to protect it from frequent the pirate raids, living whilst condi- was obliged to many facethe dangers exclusively on its own resources. It thus had out accessto hinterland, easy the cultivated which afact its autonomy. Thecity environment. Although it it hadaccessto wasessentially sea, the cut off and with- Tarra wassituated within acharming but at same the timeinhospitable natural city of Tarra by the Caucasus, acolony of Cretans City of Tarra …of Crete, wherein Apollo Tarraios ishonoured. There isalso another mentionedeven that acolony of same name the wasfounded Caucasus: inthe many temples and votives, main the worship that being of Apollo Tarraios. It is In written the tradition city the ispresented asaDorian religious centre, with mercial ships sailing to and from North It Africa. isnot impossible that it also hadsome facilities port also that may have destroyed been after great the earthquakes that pounded the eastern Mediterranean during late antiquity, that suddenly rose of earth inparticular the AD365.Thisiswhen by four metres along whole the of Sfakia coast,thus forming today’s impressive of Ayia beach Roumeli. TheEphorate of Underwater the earlythe archaic mostlikely at period, endof cen- the 8th the tury BC. We BC. tury know Tarra that BC, early century inthe 7th had Tarra, archaeological asthe ev an ancient shipwreck inAyia Roumeli bay. Antiquities not exclude does of existenceof possibility the the contacts with cities the of Messara and later with of parts the on the other. the on 38 37 the bee on one bee the sideand of head the Cretan the wildgoat Aegean,eastern Corinth, Attica, Rhodes, impor- etc. Also minted its own coins Hellenistic inthe which bore period, (today’s Tocra inLibya) and Alexandria Thecity inEgypt. such asTeucheirafrom BC, century 6th the inCyrenaica tant were its relations with cities inNorth already Africa, S. Grammaticus (Byzantius), An undated guideto Mediterranean the and Rackham Moody, coasts.See p. 187 neke, pp. 604-5. Ethnika (epitome) . idence shows, wasfounded in 38 , Berlin-Reimer 1849,publ., Berlin-Reimer A.Mei- (photo: I.Iliades) onused a ritual fire, late 3rd BC Fig. 9: Heraklion, 1996,pp.Heraklion, 310-12(inGreek). N. Psilakis, as many days andnightstogether… rise, amightthat hadlasted after aslong god woke up. The sunagainbeganto whatknow to do, untiltheenamoured rivers froze, andpeoplegodsdidnot beganto shudder,light, theearth the world, from east to west. Thus, without thus beginhislongjourneyaround the the horsesonto thesun’s chariotand and didnotwake upintimeto yoke tiful nymph, losthimself inherembrace the godApollo, captivated by thebeau- According to onemythological tradition, A NIGHTFILLED WITH LOVE… Pausanias Papahadjis X,16.5.See Philandros the founders ofElyros, Phylakides and at thehouseofKarmanoras were born at Akakallis Tarra, andfrom theirunion Apollo fell inlove withthenymph AND AKAKALLIS THE ROMANCEOFAPOLLO performed at the performed Tarra sanctuary. son why catharsis andlustrations were catharsis ofApollo Tarraios istherea- thedeath ofPythos.puriﬁed after The the late prehistoric period, soasto be ﬁer andcelebrated manofreligion in Karmanoras in Tarra, puri- alegendary sought refuge at thehouseofpriest and Apollo. Pausanias says that they Tarra withArtemis iscloselyconnected PRIEST KARMANARAS APOLLO ISPURIFIEDAT TARRA BY THE 1974 (inGreek). . sanias’ Tour ofGreece Pausanias N.Papahadjis, II,7,n.3.See Trefoil (winejug) oenochoe Cretan Mythology , Ekdotiki Athinon, , Ekdotiki , Karmanor: , Karmanor: op. cit. Pau-

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 77 78

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: S.Alexandrou) almonds found to close it which perhaps contained carbonised the Fig. 11: Compass with astopper, Αncienne, Macon 1890) Numismatique delaCrète (Ioannisside abee Svoronos, letters and on TAR, other the ofhead awildgoat with the of Tarra. Onone sideisthe Fig. 10: Silver and bronze coins coins bronze and Silver the Corning Museum Corning the of Glass. workshop, vessel glass excavated with of support river east to the the from bed, American archaeologistthe G.D. Weinberg, to inherefforts locate an ancient however provided important some very information on ancient Tarra. In 1959 Only two excavations small-scale have conducted been at Ayia Roumeli, which ** Grammaticus, p. 604. * P. Kroh, a grammatical work ( ofsayings that onhisjourneys,lection hehadcollected onApolloniusRhodius, acommentary The grammarian Lucius, orLucillus (caAD100)was from Tarra. Hewrote col- athree-volume LUCIUS, ORLUCILLUS Psilakis, p. 326. tests ofDelphi. at themusicalcon-victor encomiast ofApolloand of Karmanoras, whowas an with Chrysothemis, theson Tarra was alsoassociated CHRYSOTHEMIS (members of an delegation) official to Delphi. ies with Euemenes IIof Pergamon In sent same “theoroi” era,they the in183BC. Poikilasio. Thename of Tarra ismentioned Treaty inthe drawn up by Cretan cit- summer of 1970by DrG.Tzedakis, an ar archaeologicalThe second excavation, an emergency one, wasconducted inthe foundations may which have belonged to an ancient temple. church of Panayia the to west the of river, the shebrought to light some impressive graves, primarily of classical those the and Hellenistic From periods. the beneath covered of ruins the an ancient settlement, some fortress works, the and surveyed forclear evidence an workshop organised Weinberg glass locale. inthe un- finally AD). Yet, are they not workshop waste, existence the of would which have been fragments collected and studied date primarily to Roman (1st-2ndc. the period Byzantius.** when the old the when village of Ayia Roumeli moved hadto be it when wasdestroyed by Lexicon derantiken autoren Technika a flood at Gialos, on west the a flood bank of river. the Alarge section of the main cemetery ofof ancient the main the cemetery city wasdiscovered, which wassurrounded,which south inthe at by least, astone , Stuttgart, 1972,s.v., Stuttgart, Lucius. surround wall. Thelack of time, however, meant that the boundaries of ancient the were not cemetery located. A ) andawork on Thessaloniki.* Tarra were Elyros, and Hyrtakina, Phoenix Lissos, west edge of island. the Theparticipants along with most likely late inthe at 3rd south- the century BC monwealth”, afederation of Cretan towns formed Tarrasame period, of waspart “Mountain the Com- mainthe occupations of inhabitants. local the In the representationsThese are connected seemingly with 39 Corning Museum of Glasslocated inCorning, New York State, and focusing on development the artistry. of glass 39 Theresults were not anticipated. Themany glass chaeologist from ephorate, local the

Heisdiscussedby Stephanus 40 wasbuiltfloors to west the of river. the AD, an Early Christian basilicawith mosaic 1970. Afew centuries later, century sixth inthe uncovered during excavations the of 1959and can dated be with was certainty to period this is strengthened by the fact that nothing that mercial and economic level. Thishypothesis most cities inwestern Crete on com- asocial, AD 365and dramatic the changes it brought to catastrophic consequences of the earthquake of c.AD).Thiswaslargely (4th period due to the shrinking should dated be to late the Roman The abandonment of city the and its gradual Romanthe period. until from early the BC century 7th cemetery demonstratingods, continuous the of use the archaic, classical, Hellenistic and Roman peri- the from however, found, dating, were idols significant number of clay and vessels finds, Bibliography: Bibliography: (Heraklion 1996),Heraklion 2000,A3,pp. 249-61. in matic relationship of halfof second the 3rd the century AD”, M. Stefanakis, “Polyrrhenia, Oreioi and Kandanos. Anumis- 23 April 2000),Athens 2004,pp. 341-56. the tures from region the of Mountain the Commonwealth”, in V. Niniou-Kindeli and K.Tzanakaki, “Pottery fea- with local G.D. G. K. K. cal Institute (forthcoming). loquium Crete in the Geometric and Archaic International periods, Col- 6-13 April 1997),Athens 2000,pp. 17-24. Tarra,” 1960, pp. 90-108. Proceedings of the the of Proceedings Tzanakaki, “Ayia Roumeli 1970(Tarra): ancient the tombs,” Tzanakaki, “Ceramic groups of ancient from cemetery the Tzedakis, VI Academic Meeting on the Hellenistic Period Weinberg, “Excavations at Tarrha (1959)”, V AcademicV meeting Hellenistic on Ceramics (Athens, 27-29January Archaeologi- 2006),German Archaiologiko Deltio Archaiologiko VII International Cr 26,1971,Β2,511(inGreek). etology Conference etology (Volos, 17- Hesperia (Chania, 40 29,

(archive of 25 the workshop of classical period the Fig. 12: and ClassicalAntiquities) Clay votive from an Attic th Ephorate of Prehistoric

periods (archiveperiods of 25 the clasp from classical and the Hellenistic Fig. 13: services in honour of the dead. inhonourofthedead. services custom isassociated withmemorial tained vessels andfruitremains. This found nearthecistgraves, whichcon- burial customs. Traces ofﬁre were tion provided regarding thecity’s interest istheinforma- particular Of (photo: S.Alexandrou) Fig. 11A: of Prehistoric and ClassicalAntiquities) Silver jewellery, aring and hair Exaleiptron, early 3rd c.BC th Ephorate

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 79 80

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Numismatic Society) by K.Gyparis of Hellenic the (photo: E.Marakakis, identified Found region inthe of Samaria eraofthe doge Marino Grimani. with alion, dating to 1595-1605during Venetian stamped –asesino period Fig. 14: Metropolitan coin from the Michalis Andrianakis Michalis Text: Apokoronos granted by and hadbeen of emperor part Selinos the AlexiosKomnenos authenticupon specific Byzantine texts. From we that learn these region the of Sfakia, information comes of from forged aseries are documents, which nonetheless based shorethe of and Libyan the wherelived Sea, healso for Ournextsnippet awhile. of os Pavlos, asmall cross-in-square church with adome that stillstands today, along Roumeli, Here, ashiswilltestifies. along absolutely the hebuilt beach, deserted Ayi- searching for serenity to site the of Panayia at Myriokefala and other monasteries and churches inWest Crete –came In around Cretan 1030the monk Ioannis Xenos –founder of Monastery the of the cated to Panayia, the Virgin, the wasbuilt over of basilica. aruined sanctuary the Tarra (Ayia Roumeli) century, 15th inthe where asmallsingle-aisled church dedi- it was simply a display of for respect old the places of worship. Thishappened at also not clear spark ifthis wasassociated with resettlement the of coasts, or the whether erectionthe of small, single-aisled churches over sanctuaries the of basilicas. It the is were created. Aspark of life century, can 14th inthe noticed again be by asevidenced saferthe hinterland where mostof agricultural settlements the that today existeven lapidated due to abandonment. Cretan the period, population During this moved to of ruins the alarge number of Early Christian basilicas,which gradually di- became which must have caused by been frequent the Arabic naval in raids. seen This can be not appear to have lasted for long, of asalengthy followed, total desertion period greatlyThe southern coastsflourished during century AD, 6th the although does this vastgrazingnear the areas Ori. of Lefka the summermonths inthe whilst would sea, they the move to mountain the settlements, as it wasup until only afew decadesago: winter inthe months would they live by that wasorganised life inSfakia Early inmuch inthe Christian period same the way intwo differentdiocese towns –mountain Aradenaand Phoinika –indicates coastal of Phoiniki, or Aradeni”, asit isknown to usfrom sources. the Thelocation of this foundation of Episcopal In mountain the dioceses. region of Sfakia “Diocese wasthe Prefecture of Chania, more became formalised with the Early inthe Christian period historicalThese units, approximately covering area the of five Provinces the of today’s Commonwealth”, which included towns intoday’s Provinces of and Selinos Sfakia. ic and political characteristics distinguishable, hadbecome such “Mountain asthe as early Hellenistic asthe specific period, went particular growth during High the Roman and From Early Christian periods. asitsya), with Gortyna capital. Thisappears to explain why south the coastunder- In Roman the Crete province period, wasaunified along with Cyrenaica (today’s Lib- Introduction 2. From the Early Christian period until Venetian until From period Christian theEarly rule Opiso AiyalousOpiso geographical units with common econom- , ashort distance to of east the Ayia to flourish. flourish. to Indeed, town coastal the of Tarra situated at exit the to Gorge the continued thatlieve life here stopped or that something hadchanged inrelation to past. the Nonetheless, have identified. far been so there period tian isnoreason tobe- No signs of satisfactory settlement Samaria inthe Gorge during Early Chris- the were built of ruins inthe and earlier 14th centuries. basilicasinthe 15th tioned sources, inthe smallchurches the whilst of Hosia Maria and Panayia the settlementsthe of Samaria and Ayia Roumeli already are existed, asthey men- (“Sfakians, peoples”) military over Ori. It wasusually inscribed Lefka the seems cessible mountain region. Onmaps of phrase erathe the insubordinate character of Sfakians the incontrolling and difficulty the inac- this During Venetian the Sfakia enjoyed period aform of autonomy, thanks to the inces, lying outside of of an perimeter sanctuary Early the the Christian basilica. ments claim that possessions of the Skordylis the family extended over three prov- system active which wasespecially during years the of Venetian docu- These rule. ilies that to posted Crete hadbeen from Constantinople, creating apowerful feudal to aristocratic the Skordylis family. TheSkordylis family wasone of twelve the fam- Sfaciotti popoli belicossi Fig. 15: Ayios Antonios on Ayia Roumeli (photo V. Kotrotsos)

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 81 82

The churches The Koimesis of the Theotokos at Ayia Roumeli The site of an ancient temple, perhaps that of Apollo Tarraios, was taken over by the medium-sized, three-aisled church of the Panayia, as it is known to us from the later, single-aisled chapel on the site of the original sanctuary. The basilica survives to a great height, and is of particular interest for this reason. Large hewn structures of local grey limestone can be seen in situ over a large area of the south side, beneath the south wall of the church. These formed the crepidoma of the ancient temple, from which also survives a large number of other hewn elements, which had been reused when building the stylobate of the basilica. The basilica had three aisles, a wooden roof with a narthex and a sanctuary flanked by two orthogonal auxiliary spaces forming the side chapels, the pastophoria. To the east the large, semi-circular apse behind the altar, which tapers gradually, survives complete. The

Fig. 16: The Koimesis of the Theotokos original bifora window, which was later sealed and converted into two small sky- (photo: V. Kotrotsos) lights, survives in the centre of the apse. The tripartite narthex lies to the west, 1995 by Ephorate 13th then the of Byzantine Antiquities. have seriously damagedwhich survived been by fire. Thedecoration was uncovered during conservation work in The wallpaintings church inthe of Panayia the are inaparticularly ruinous condition, sections even those whilst typical structure, similar to dozens of others allover Crete, which are of interest mostof allfor wallpaintings. their Dormition of Virgin the –wasbuilt and hadits walls painted on site the century. 15th inthe of sanctuary the It isa other basilica inCrete. Asmall, single-aisled, barrel-vault basilica was abandoned at some point and gradually fell into ruin, albeit still remaining inbetter condition than any active century ADwasalso here. 6th the Thebasilicaat Ayia basisofOn the above, the that it workshop surmised canthe be of mosaic active artists inCrete and Argos during can compared be with similar at floors Souyia, Frangokastelo and peninsula. the and aband interlaced with knots. Themosaic isof arelatively quality high and intersecting semi-circles and rectangular borders intersecting with scales, circles, are geometric, amongst border aperimeter comprised which candiscerned be of vive, asit wasdug up to accommodate subsequent burials. Themosaic designs The church originally hadamosaic floor, of which today only sur- afew sections age of Early Christian the period. an arch over it, mostlikely which contains remains the of adistinguished person- rooms, with decorative pointing. To south the agrave of basilicasurvives the with of ancient the temple. of Also interest simple isthe wallconstruction between the tions In survive. amongst building the materials large, liethe orthogonal structures Thechurchsurvive. isdivided into three aisles by built stylobates, founda- whose tral aisle and isdivided by stylobate the of icon the screen, foundations the of which openings with central the church. sideof occupies east the cen- the Thesanctuary which isseparated from church the by awalland which communicates viathree ed church dedicated to Koimesis the of Theotokos the –the Roumeli dated It isalso to period. this appears that this Fig. 18: Fig. 17: Hora-Sfakia-Samaria drawing by N.Hadjimichalis and of Koimesis the of Theotokos the TheKoimesis of Theotokos, the The mosaic floor of church the Themosaic floor Pan. Matalas from study the (photo: M.Andrianakis) , 1966-1967)

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 83 84

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Hora-Sfakia-Samaria Pan. Matalas from study the drawing by N.Hadjimichalis and Fig. 20: Egyptianthe 2008(photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 19: drawing no. 53) Thechurch of Hosia the Maria, Thechurch of Hosia the Maria , 1966-1967, , 1966-1967, well, which are numerous and uncommon. In dome the there isaportrayal of salt One can crystals. still, however, distinguish the iconographical subjects quite wall paintings badcondition, inavery survive alarge being covered section by inside withfilled wallpaintings dating to first the halfof century. 14th the These and covered with domes, without any decorative details. Thesimple building is Hosia Maria isbuilt typical inthe architectural of style West Crete: single-aisled perhaps got name their (from corruption the of “Hosia Maria”). Thechurch of Venerable,the or Hosia, Maria of from Egypt, nearby which the village and Gorge The smallchurch, with dimensions of 2.50x3.40m,isdedicated of to memory the Hosia Maria theEgyptian and including ones. secondary forthemes churches region, inthis omitting major from scenes life the of Christ and interesting their iconographic subjects, which differ from usualrange the of ing first halfof the century, 14th the ar church of Hosia the Maria, work the of afolk artist active inwestern Crete dur- is common remote inthe areas of Sfakia and The wallpaintings Selinos. inthe Communion. Alittle after Hosia the this, Maria died. Worship of two the saints end of herlife, shewas found offered who by Holy herthe hermit the Zosimas, lived incomplete isolation Jordanian inthe for desert 47years. Here, near the ing church the of Holy the Sepulchre. She invisible power prevented herfrom enter- where, ofsalem, because herlife of sin,an turned after to asceticism a visit to Jeru- lived awanton century. life 4th inthe She from TheHosia monk the Zosimas. Maria Maria of receiving Egypt Holy Communion wall there isarepresentation of Hosia the crowned by anSt on George horseback seen can being be angel, whilstimprinted on cloth. the wall, north Onthe on thepanel is the Holy south Shroud, with Christ’s head twothe zones of apse the cylinder. In the depictionsbody of hierarchs in seen can be and St John Baptist. the Half-body and full- a supernaturally-sized inbetween smaller-scaled the Christ entreating Panayia In the quarter-sphere of the sanctuary apse is a representation of the Deesis, with Supper,Baptism, Last the and of Presentation Raising the the Lazarus, of Christ. angels.the Alongside of Flight scene the isthe this into followed Egypt, by the infantthe and, athoughtful to left, the Joseph conversing with shepherds the and looking up at three the Magi, inherarms. To of right the scene isthe bath the of The Panayia isseated centre inthe of stable the with infant the is who Christ, rion Longinus. Thisisfollowed by arepresentation of of Birth the Christ. groupbetween the of women, with Panayia, the young the St John, and centu- the simple the survives representation with of on Christ Crucifixion, cross the the in standard Byzantine manner, with descent the of into Christ Hades. Next to this gel seated nextto empty the tomb of and Christ, Resurrection, the rendered inthe Above Ascension isthe sanctuary the of followed Christ, by with Rock, the an- the “glory” Elijah between and Moses, with three the disciples fallenlow on floor. the This isfollowed by Metamorphosis the of isrepresented who Christ, with double Betrayal,the with Judas rushing up to and Christ Peter cutting off Malchus’s ear. e distinguished for decent their quality (photo: E.Marakaki) Fig. 21: From lintel the of Hosia the Maria EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 8Α

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 85 86

Fig. 22: Chapel of Ayios Nikolaos (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

Fig. 23: Ayios Georgios (M. Toubis SA archive)

Fig. 24: The Metamorphosis of Christ (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 8Β the Parkthe date also to century. this to to village of Ayia Roumeli hasanother single-aisled barrel-vaulted church, dedicated was commonly up used until recently, es known dateswhich wasalso Early inthe Christian period, to Venetian the eraand tombs form inthe of survive arcosolia tomb (the isarched). of Thistype burial, century.16th In south the walland cemetery, inthe which surrounds church, the church with deepdecorative facade, east dishesinthe possibly dating glazed to the (Holy Trinity) condition. inagood survives Thisisasingle-aisled, barrel-vaulted maria village. In old the village of Ayia Roumeli, church the of the century,sometime mid-18th inthe similar as wasthe church of vaulted church of Near entrance the to Gorge the we encounter small, the single-aisled barrel- Other churches Ayios Georgios Ayios Ayios Nikolaos Ayios and built during century. 18th the Theremaining chapels in , set within, set abeautiful landscape. It wasbuilt pecially inthe regionpecially of Sfakia. Theold Christ Ayia Triada inSa- (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 26: Christos (photo: I.Vlazaki) Fig. 25: Thechurch of Afentis Christos Interiory of church the of Afentis

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 87 88

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (archive of 28 the Fig. 27: likely dates to early the Ottoman period. gravel, isconstructed Venetian inthe although style it most the on alone stands also which Ayia of Roumeli, bridge ond Ayia Triada, isolated today Thesec- due to earlier floods. to south the of alittle church the further survives riod of An impressive single-arched bridge from Venetian the pe- Fig. 28: Single-arched bridge at Ayia Roumeli Ayia Triada inAyia Roumeli (photo: E.Papavasileiou) th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities). 42 41 by Turks the area inthe were fortresses, the kules, the revolutionaries.the Samaria played same the role revolutions inallthe that followed. Theonly characteristic tracesleft Turks p.130), in1770(see started, during Gorge which the wasarefuge for non-combatants the and ahiding place for Yet,period. it wasfrom here that first great the revolution against the Muslims, and enjoyed arelative autonomy, asit Venetian hadinthe tians and Muslims. Theprovince of by Sfakia settled hadnot been a wave of anarchy, and crime long-term enmity Chris- the between Ottoman when tury power to began collapse. Crete into descended of late the Venetian Conditions period. worsened cen- 18th inthe of first the Ottoman can barely period distinguished from be those bled Byzantine the one more than it Venetian. didthe Thebuildings with western Europeties were not cut systemresem- Thefeudal off. its institutionspreserve untouched. almost Theisland’s commercial of Ottoman the During first the period empire, Crete continued to Introduction 3. and Moody,Rackham p. 5. Kules, Through the years of Through theyears Turkish (1645-1898) rule network that permitted sending of the smoke signalsfrom one to other. the Turkish for castle. 41 42 or kouledes as they are known, which formed awell-organised sand from aday’s journeyaway… dilapidated churches to usetheirstone, would bringwater and Bulgarian andArmenianbuildersto thetown, down knocked wouldfacturers burn. The Turk would Hebrought notturn back. setﬁre tolimekiln, thebushesandshrubsthat thelimemanu- all day, down thebuildingwhere knock theycould, wreck the to prevent theconstruction. They would shootat thebuilders Cretans, now andlater at Lakkoi at theisland, didalltheycould whichwasfrom to bebuiltineachprovince. thekisla,* The trumpet, sothat theycould gethelpuntilassistance arrived Between themselves, thekuleswould have communicated by ** P. Prevelakis, * Kisla , a Turkish word meaningbarracks. Deserted Crete Deserted by K.Gyparis) (photo: E.Marakakis, coin identified 1867), found inSamaria Gorge (1808-1839) or Abdülmecid I(1840- from reign the of either Mahmud II with Islamic the year of 1837or 1841, Fig. 30: (photo: A.Kladou-Bletsa) Fig. 29: Coin from Coin Ottoman the period, Inside Tower the , 4thedition,Athens 1945. Pantelis Prevelakis, 1945**

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 89 90

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: A.Kladou-Bletsa) of Ayia Roumeli Fig. 31: 43 Rackham and Moody,Rackham p. 253. TheTower (kules) Aimilia Kladou-Bletsa Text: forest vegetation incontrast were with they timewhen the built The condition are which of old, castles, the today not demonstrates very spread the of Hora Samarias. site of Pyrgos, above village, the and which hasvisualcontact with Xyloskalo and over area, the and asmallone up). higher Another kules islocated inSamaria, at the above the coastal village (Pyrgos, which is good still condition inavery and towers (alargetrict one low down and asmallerlookout up) higher and two on height the province, up set four they kules inAyia Roumeli. Two were Angelokampi inthe dis- in November 1868.To control Gorge the and passage to west the the and Selinos hideout, Samaria the Gorge, twiceduring revolution, the summerof inthe 1867and The Turks disembarked and fire to Ayia set Roumeli, exit the to revolutionaries’ the from hinterland the along roads, and military the by ship from sea. the to ensure continuous surveillance, and were now able to receive supplies comfortably tion of 1866-1869.With construction the of towers, these Turkish the forces were able of fortress towers, mostoften small, built by Turks the to put down Cretan the revolu- The Turkish kules tower over mostprominent the points of are Sfakia. These aserious Turkish fortresses (kules) . 43

Fig. 32: TheTower (kules) of Samaria (photo: C.Aretaki)

CHAPTER Ι | THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCE IN THE GORGE 91 92

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Fig. 33: Thevillage of Samaria, spring 2004 (Chania Forestry Service Archives)(Chania Forestry Service 93

CHAPTER 2 PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES

1. Towns and villages

Two villages are an integral part of the human geography of Samaria: Samaria, Text and data collection: located within the Gorge, and Ayia Roumeli (old and new villages), built at the Emmy Papavasileiou exit of the Gorge onto the Libyan Sea on the site of ancient Tarra. The ties between the two villages were always very close. They were greatly interdependent on each other for economic, security and communications issues. The abandonment of Samaria village when the Gorge was declared a National Park in 1962 created an imbalance in the system of the two villages, which had learnt to live with each other over the centuries, under difficult conditions, with Samaria providing con- Fig. 34: The positions of Samaria and tact with the hinterland and Ayia Roumeli with the southern coasts. Ayia Roumeli villages (plan of proposed works for the study Sfakia-Samaria, 1966) 94

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 45 44 47 46 Samaria Athens 1971, Vardinoyianni Bros reprint, p. 19. (1877), ofSfakia G. Papadopetrakis, History revolutionaries into theGorge. order to ofthe prevent theentry atowerstructed alongsideit, in built for itself asapass, anditcon- which the Turkish army recently famed Xyloskalon [wooden stair], meliotes. Above thevillagesis economic life withtheAyiorou- 13 families, whoshare acommon inhabited village ofSamaria, by thecoveIn ofthisGorge isthe Antonio Trivan: aVenetian documented, who officer amongst other things, villages allthe of Chania before coming the of T the F. Barozzi, Descriptione dell’isola diCreta (1577/8). Francesco Barozzi: Venetian nobleman and distinguished scholar Georgios P. Portalis of Chania, 1930,unpublished. Vari cose di Candia 1182-1669:Narrative on various events in Crete from the year 1182until 1669, editing, commentary and translation into Greek by Stephanos Kaklamanis, Vikelaia Municipal Heraklion, 2004. Library: philosopher, advocate of hermeneutics, one of last the of Christ. of and other the opposite village, the church inthe of Metamorphosis the church of Hosia Maria of waswashedaway which (asection by floods), properties. Oneof village’s the two cemeteries waslocated nextto the houses, and for wasused which surround walls,to distinguish between manner. Animpressive network of stone around wallsgoes village the narrow, buildings the are laid out inan open and completely scattered homicide, which forced its inhabitants to leave. Although spaceis the Lower Samaria, wasabandoned which of 1920sbecause inthe adouble until lastmoment. the down Alittle to south the further are of ruins the borders,in the and almostflat, from cannot main seen the footpath be from entrance the to Gorge the at Xyloskalo. It islocated within ahollow The village islocated at an altitude of 350metres and adistance of 7km here, waspermanenttled residency their and continuous. summer months) Even are so, difficult. from moment the that set- people all, complete isolation from rest the of world, the during inparticular the midity, terrain, little access,difficult cultivable difficult land and, mostof livingas the conditions, from (limited allperspectives sunshine, great hu- Gregorios Papadopetrakis, 1877 by Francesco Barozzi, ten sources with name the Samaria of Sfakia isfirst mentioned writ- inthe The village of Samaria province inthe teristics of settlement are this teristics unique, there permanently.settled Thecharac- within Gorge, the subsequently who tiated by people seeking protection of ancient Tarra, and wasperhaps ini- within Gorge the took place after that 1182-1669). A geographic and archaeological description of Crete during the Renaissance years Antonio Trivan homines universales 47 Permanent settlement born inRethymnoborn in1537.Afamed mathematician, geographer, co 46 ( of late the Renaissance period. Vari cose di Candia 44 in1577, 45 by Antonio Trivan, public notary, translated into Greek by and and urks in1645. , with an introduction, smographer and 95 PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI SAMARIA6. ROUSSOS VIGLAKIS BEQUEST M - FOOTPATH VILLAGE7. ROUSSOS VIGLAKIS BEQUEST Δ - TWO-STOREY CURRENT CONDITION 8. EVANGELOS IOSIF VIGLAKIS Ε - RUINS OF PROPERTIES 9. IOANNIS DAMOULIS KATSENAVAKIS ΜΕ - SINGLE-STOREY RUIN 10. IOSIF THEODOSIOU TZATZIMAKIS ΔΕ - TWO -STOREY RUIN 1. ROUSSOS VIGLAKIS BEQUEST 11. KALOGERAKIDES 2. EVANGELOS GEORGIO VIGLAKIS 12. KALOGERAKIDES 3. STYLIANIS VARDI VIGLAKIS 13. KALOGERAKIDES 4. EVANGELOS VARDI KALOGERAKIS 14. KALOGERAKIDES 5. DESPINA GEORGIOU VIGLI 15. CHRYSI DAMALI KATSENAVAKI

Fig. 35: Samaria village, present condition (1966-67) and general plan, Nik. Hadjimichalis and Pan. Matalas (from the study Hora Sfakia-Samaria, 1966-1967, vol. II, drawing 055) 96

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: F. Borakis) Fig. 37: (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 36: Samaria inautumn Wall network inLower Samaria tion and conservation work didnot immediately begin on houses once the doned it, Lower whilst inruinous condition. Samaria hadseven, Restora- Upper Samaria hadaround twelve lastinhabitants the houses when aban- chora and Aliakanos –wascompleted. habitants of Samaria hadmoved to earlier, such asAyia Roumeli, Palaio- Prefecture –primarily to areas where relatives their and other former in- process the when of expropriation and transfer their to other of parts the and declaration the of aNational Park. Thelastinhabitants in1965, left Samaria wasexpropriated in1962,for complete the protection of Gorge the souththe exit. foundbe within Park. the There acave isalso dedicated to Ayia near Zoni The churches of Ayios Nikolaos, Ayios and Georgios Afentis can Christos 97

the village had been emptied, and so these houses too became dilapidated. In the past few years, the Forests Directorate has begun to restore and reuse some of the houses of Upper Samaria, for its staff and for environmental training activities (see p.201.). In this poor village I saw many strange things: all the houses were In addition to Samaria village, there is one more site with ruins that indicate the covered in mud or with large stone presence of an earlier, permanent or temporary, settlement. This is Hora Samaria, slabs. A bridge, the only passage from the opposite riverbank to the located above the village at an altitude of 670 m and which takes an hour to climb village, is made of wood. It is around up to from the village.48 The identification of these ruins remains problematic five metres wide and, as you step on even today (see p. 170.) and we can only guess as to their date. Oral histories the cypress beams, which sway and rub continuously, your heart leaps, mention that in the past – not today, however – there were also traces of human however brave you may be. habitation at the site of Upper Hora, which is today located at an altitude of 1450 m and requires a 4 hour climb from Samaria village.49 The village children, however, run barefoot over the “wood bridge” and race against the kid goats and the lambs! I admired a wooden duct, which brings the water from the spring to the village! In this duct you can see the intelligence and simplicity of the inhabitants. They have cut many straight cypresses, carved a channel into them – “deflated” them – and placed a cypress in the spring in such a way so that the duct fills with water. Where the first cypress

ends, they place a second one right TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT

below, and a third and a fourth, and | so on, in exactly the same way, so as to transport the water from very high up in the village a distance of

80-100 metres! CHAPTER ΙI

The products of civilisation, cement, iron, ceramics, etc. are unknown here. The people are self-sufficient. They live within a beautiful nature. This is what they love and are satisfied with. They are indifferent to civilisation and its comforts.

V. Antourakis

V. Antourakis, “Samaria” in Kritki Estia. Meniaion Periodikon en Chaniois, Issue 184, July 1968, p. 300. The article may have been written earlier, as the inhabitants had already left by 1968.

48 G. Patroudakis, “Hora Samaria”, Kritiko Panorama, issue 15, May-June 2006, pp. 26-34. 49 Op. cit.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 9Α 98

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 9Β open from 1899to 1967 School, such Primary infrastructure, asthe had abasicsocial Ayia Roumeli, seat of asthe Community the of same name, the 1867 and p. 1868(see 133.). tant role inCretan history, fire to twiceby wasset Turks, the in to of east the Gorge the exit. Thevillage, which played an impor- and followed west the bank of river, the except for Pera Banda, acharacteristichoods, of Sfakia the villages, which grew linearly The old village, today abandone The village of Ayia Roumeli closely bound with isalso Gorge. the Ayia Roumeli 50 Details fromDetails research by teacher Evangelia Stavroudakis, Directorate Edu- of Primary cation, Chania. and town planners Nikos Hadjimichalis and Panayiotis Matalas of ancientered cemetery the Tarra. Thestudy by architects the Tzedakis in 1970before settlement at site, new the which uncov- Ephorate25th of Prehistoric and ClassicalAntiquities Yiannis excavationAn emergency wasconducted by of head the doctorsthe surgery). year until June it 1989,when building (the closed today houses constructed, first tothe be operating from 1967-1968school the that still holds today. (1959-1960)was School The Primary new stream,the 1970s,and inthe especially on linesof the atown plan ants. village thus Thenew to began develop on west the bank of inhabit- almostallthe ameasure victims, benefited which flood ated 21,500square metres of Gialos the coastto give land to the oldthe Welfare village. of In Social Ministry 1957,the expropri- On 12November destroyed 1954alarge houses in several flood called Mesa Ayia Roumeli and today known as Old Ayia Roumeli. sitethe of Gailos, 20minutes on foot from old the village, then Today’s Ayia Roumeli wasbuilt on west the bank of ravine, the at otokos p.80). (see Near old isthe church beach the of Koimesis the of The- the churchthe of Ayia Triada village’s (the patron, with acemetery). and Ayios Antonios (within acave), inside village whilst the is villagethe are churches the of Ayios Georgios, Ayia Paraskevi Station near –and Also Gendarmerie the beach. Offices near the 50 - which now -which Community housesthe d, wasdivided into neighbour- were the Batoudianoi. light duringthesummer. The mostprominent familyhere andothers. Sfakians This villageonlyhas4-5hoursofsun- were always shipbuilders, alltheboats constructing for the banks oftheheaving river, various trees andplants. They various birds. They alsohave roofs, handicrafts, etc., from ﬁshing, huntingtheagrimiand of sheepandgoats, bees, etc., from wood for shipbuilding, habited by 35families, wholive from comfortably ﬂocks the gorge, where liesthevillageofAyia Roumeli,now in- From themouth,however, itismany milesto thebedof ** Papadopetrakis, p. 18. Tzangarolok andBishop ofIeorsiteia. * Gregorios ofAyia Papadopetrakis, AbbotoftheMonastery Triada ton gardens and watermills by the gardens andwatermillsbythe Gregorios Papadopetrakis,* 1877** 99

AYIA ROUMELI GENERAL VIEW CURRENT CONDITION NEIGHBOURHOODS Α - CAVE Δ - NEIGHBOURHOOD BEYOND Β - MIDDLE NEIGHBOURHOOD Ε - YIALOS Γ- LOWER NEIGHBOURHOOD ΣΤ - TARRA PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI

Fig. 38: (Old) Ayia Roumeli, present condition (1966-67) and general plan, Nik. Hadjimichalis and Pan. Matalas (from the study Hora Sfakia-Samaria, 1966-1967, vol. II, drawing 057)

Fig. 39: The village of Ayia Roumeli (M. Toubis SA archive) 100

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Kotsifaki, chemical engineer; Katia Pavlaki, Katia chemicalengineer; geologist. Kotsifaki, searchers: architect; Christina AimiliaKladou-Bletsa, Community ofAyia Roumeli,Chania,May 1995,Re- consequences, * (photo: E.Papavasileiou) Fig. 41: Study* drawing 8). (sketch: Water A.Kladou-Bletsa, Supply after installation the of adrainage system old Ayia Roumeli village road with tarmac, Fig. 40: Water supplyofAyia Roumeli:Study ofenvironmental have today. the inhabitants, itbecametheschoolwe of this moneyandthepersonaleﬀorts dent Emmanuel Viglakis. Indeed, with was given by thethen Community Presi- the founding ofanewschool. The land sumavailablea generous for monetary saw thecondition oftheschool, hemade dent ofthearea, Georgios Xenoudakis,** house. When arichbutbenevolent resi- school inourplace was inadilapidated now obligedto attend theschool. The ﬁrst the Greek state.* All thechildren were founded, theteacher was appointed by children’s parents. When theschoolwas beach into aschool. Hewas paidby the who hadtransformed hishouseonthe Emmanuel Papadakis, sonofGeorge, the years 1870-1880theteacher was Prior to theschool’s foundation andin The schoolwas founded in1899… review ofeducation inCrete alsoP.G.Roumeli, 1961.See Kassimatis, ofAyia School ofthePrimary textbook the history 1964, entitled oftheschool”, history “The from and headmaster oftheAyia Roumelischoolin *** From apiece by Georgios Tzanakis, teacher tion ofschoolsinallthecommunities ofSfakia. will hebequeathedalarge sumfor theconstruc- ** Georgios Xenoudakis, lawyer from Imvros. his In 1913). * Presumably hemeanstheCretan State (1898- Roadto OldAyia Roumeli today Proposal for of surfacing the the Prefecture ofChania Technical Service, Tzanakis Georgios, 1964*** , Athens 1953,p. 91. Historical The care shown by isapparent locals the gardens inthe and paved lanes. notdoes fit with either natural the environment or architectural local the style. freestanding buildings, mostof are which as hostels for used tourists. Theirdesign as aroad by population. local the Today’s village iscomprised of alarge number of The old and villages new are the connected by apaved area, which istoday used postdating than 1830”). 1469/50, “On protection the of category aspecial of buildings and works of art ral beauty ( asan characterised areabeen of archaeological, historical and outstanding natu- of church perimeter the the of Panayia. the TheTarra area and Gorge the have for around Gialos, extends of to east stream the the at Azoyromouri, aswell as sites. Thestudychaeological applied. wasnever Thearchaeological area, except zone facinga specific onto green areas, sea, the aswell showcasing asthe of ar- continuationthe of village the along bank, the development the of tourism in extensionas the of natural the axisof Gorge, the would which have permitted p.180)(1966-1967, see foresaw development the of village the to asfar east, the Government Gazette 1242/8/16-10-73)and islegally protected (Law 101

Many studies have been written in the past twenty years, the 1990s in particular, on the technical infrastructure of the village – transport, water supply, sewerage, biological treatment, design of the common areas and other village infrastructure.

Of these studies, only some have been partially applied, such as two jetties from the foreseen port facilities, a heliport and the partial construction of the common areas. The biological treatment studies and the integration of the water supply network (which starts from the Kefalovrysia spring within the Gorge and reaches as far as the village, negatively affecting the natural landscape) within the natural landscape were never applied.

To make Ayia Roumeli energy independent, especially after an increase in energy needs with the rise in tourism, in 1984 the Public Power Corporation installed a photovoltaic solar power station at the site where the heliport is today. The station did not cover all needs and was moved two years later to Gavdos. In 1986, after a protest by residents, the area was supplied power through an average voltage line, via Hora Sfakia and Vamos. Fig. 42: The little port of Ayia Roumeli and heliport (M. Toubis SA archive) PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI 102

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: C.Aretaki) Fig. 43: Stone house inLower Samaria 53 52 51 folkSfakian architecture hasaprofound and idiosyncratic character. 2. environment of Gorge the and village. their strong can instinct, an take active role survival inprogrammes to upgrade the have suffered wear and tear have altered. not been clever and Thelocals, with a ver, many of the structures of the old village still exist, which, even though they that hostsit. Even so, not that much irreversible done. damage Moreo- hasbeen It that isafact contemporary the urban environment isnot worthy of area the tally-friendly, long-term investments. ment.” Aconvincing would orient policy inhabitants the towards environmen- bility for and infrastructure the initial the interventions for develop- necessary The Hadjimichalis-Matalas study proposed that: “the state responsi- undertakes examined. and should stakeholders be services thatcases one exists,within avirgin area and with coordinated the action of all ernment, central and to local, implement acomplete, integrated study, rare inthe Greece, and factors the which distort development. Theinability of Greek gov- examplegood for study the of mechanisms the upon planning which in depends ed. For reason, this and of because its geographical isolation, Ayia Roumeli isa such concern waspresent studies, inthe but have implement- they been never concern of any primary should the be outside intervention. It isof interest that for beauty the others. of Securing landscape the and protecting environment the Today’s Ayia Roumeli isessentially atourism resort that could asamodel act Rackham and Moody,Rackham p. 245. K. Lassithiotakis, tural engineer, Kostas Vardakis, President, Technical Chamber of Greece-West Crete Division, Chania 1970. Proposed housing for types the new village of Ayia Roumeli, Habitation: details Structural slabs, and beams and planks for flooring. the without an arch or along beam long the axis,with aflat roof linedwith mud or At Samaria, not house asingle hasan arch. Thehouses are two-floored, narrow, villages. coastal was not necessary to use an to arch use was not to necessary provide internal support for beams. the owntheir houses. Theavailability of long tree isperhaps trunks reason the why it found over mostof province the of Sfakia, central entrance and an internal dividing arch (“kamarospito”) and aflat roof is terranean. TheSfakian stone, rectangular, detached one-roomed house with a one of mostcharacteristic the forms of dwelling inGreece Medi- and Eastern the Sfakian houses , Kalokairinos: Heraklion 1958,p. 15. Technical AimiliaKladou-Bletsa, architec- Report 52 with variations mountain inthe and 53 The locals themselves built usually Thelocals 51 It features 103

The construction of the house of the hainis54 Kaloyeroyiannis by crafts- men from Selinos in gratitude for him having relieved the province of Selinos from the cruel janissary Vergeris55 (see p. 123.) may indicate an association between Samaria and the builders of Selinos.

Fig. 44: Houses of Samaria (N. Hadjimichalis and Pan. Matalas, from the study Hora Sfakia-Samaria, 1966-1967, vol. II) PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI

54 Hainis: revolutionary, guerrilla, fugitive; s.v. A, Xanthinakis, Lexicon of the west Cretan idiom, Heraklion: Cretan University Press 2001. 55 Oral history of Yiannis N. Kaloyerakis of Samaria, descendant of Kaloyeroyiannis. 104

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (plan from book, the Fig. 45: Samaria, Matalas from study the (drawing by Nik. Hadjimichalis and Pan. Fig. 46: 2nd edition, 1976) D. Vasileiades, drawing 179,Athens: Estia, Thehouse of Archonto Delaki House at Ayia Roumeli shore 1966-1967,vol. II,drawing 060) The Cretan House Hora Sfakia- by by 58 57 56 architect Demetris Vasileiades’ book The house of Archonto hasan Delaki impressive simplicity, and isfeatured in asanpreserved, outstanding example of folk architecture. In study, their Hadjimichalis and Matalas p. (see 180.)proposed that it declared be house, resembling houses of the Obrosoyialou of Hora (aneighbourhood Sfakia). The P. Marinakis residence isconsidered arepresentative example of Sfakian the tecture more. Their designs were by influenced Hora both Sfakia and Anopoli. The houses of (old) Ayia Roumeli followed of Sfakian typology folk the archi- See p.Lassithiotakis, 15. D. Vasileiades, implemented. at folk local same the timepreserving architecture forms. Nor study wasthis needsof inhabitants the dences atmodern the would Gialos. These serve whilst architectthe to AimiliaKladou prepare astudy for designof resi- the new the landscape the tect and architecture local of Ayia Roumeli, in1970commissioned The Technical Chamber of Greece-West Crete Division, inits efforts to help pro- the rest of the family sleep. loft wherewooden parents the sleepand inan to left, the L-shape, aledge where Proposed housing for types the new village of Ayia Roumeli. Anopoli house, Anopoli The CretanThe house, 58 57 with an internal arch and asofa on one side. To right the isa Athens: Estia1976,2ndedition p. 150. The CretanThe house. 56 It resembles typical the 105

Fig. 47: The Marinakis residence in 2008 (photo: E. Papavasileiou)

AYIA ROUMELI THE HOUSE OF THE MARINAKI BROTHERS GROUND FLOOR - FIRST FLOOR 1. ENTRANCE 5. OVEN Α - YARD 3. BALCONY 2. BALCONY 6. FIRE Ε - ENTRANCE 4. ASCENT 3. TERRACE 7. HOUSE 1. SCALES 5. ROOM 4. JAR 8. SCALES 2. CHAMBER 6. DESCENT PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI

GROUND FLOOR FIRST FLOOR

Fig. 48: Lower neighbourhood of Ayia Roumeli, Marinakis residence: façade, 1966-67, Nik. Hadjimichalis and Pan. Matalas (from the study Hora Sfakia- Samaria, 1966-1967, vol. II, drawing 060) 106

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 64 63 62 61 60 59 of Greek the state) The permanent population wasmuch larger in1961. Since 1920details are provided by censuses of official the Na the N. Stavrakis, S.Spanakis, Towns and villages of Crete over centurie the This isnot apermanent population, village asthe isnolonger inhabited. Thepermanent population in1994,according to details the (collected through aquestionnaire) Development of Local the Progra Ottoman period) 1881 Egyptian rule) 1834 all the censuses. individualsof are whether permanent residents or visitors. for Details permanent the and population legal through qu collected Prefecture of Chania Statistical Service”, is attributed to time of the census the inrelation to tourism the season. ment Association (May 1994),came to 160residents (78men,82women), a figure that appears much to closer reality. Thediffer 1920 census, Cretan State) 1900 61 (Stavrakis census, (Census during (Census (1st census (Island of Crete YEAR SAMARIA AYIA ROUMELI COMMUNITY/ MUNICIPALITY/ COMMUNITY/ PREFECTURE AYIA ROUMELI SAMARIA YEAR 984 123 41 1928 912 139 145 5 21 39 1961 1951 1940 Statistics of the population of Crete population of the of Statistics 2001 60 91-62 - 1981 1971 1991 40 (all Christian) 10 families 75 (34 men,33women) 67 (20 men,20women) (38men,37women) Concise Geographical Lexicon of Greece , Paligenesia: Athens, 1890. TABLE 1:POPULATION DETAILS the changesthe government to local over years, the table. inthe ascan seen be northwest,in the belongs which province), to Selinos and have accompanied it inall Park, belong administratively to province the of Sfakia (asidefrom asmallsection The inhabitants of villages both are Sfakia 3. 62 - Thepopulation - - s, vol. II,Heraklion: Graphikes Technes G.Detorakis, 1993,p. 694. (65 men,54women) 119 (all Christian) 38 families tional give They Statistical the real population, Service. a (93 men,86women) 179 (79 men,66women) 145 4 121 (22 men,14women) (65men,60women) 7 36 93 64 OldAyia Roumeli 63 OldAyia Roumeli Ayia Roumeli Ayia Roumeli , M.Stamatelatos and F. Vamvas, Hermes: Athens 2001,pp. 9and 675. 155 Prefecture of Rethymno Municipality of Ayia Roumeli, Province of Sfakia, Province of Sfakia of Province Municipality of Ayios Ioannis, Province of Sfakia Municipality of Ayios Ioannis, Province of Sfakia Prefecture of Chania of Prefecture Municipal (Capodistrian), Municipality District of Sfakia, Community of Ayia Roumeli, Province of Sfakia, Prefecture of Chania Community of Ayios Ioannis Province of Sfakia, Prefecture of Chania ns. Thevillages, and whole the area of the 59 t the timeoft the census, the regardless » See also “Census also details See of the ence between two the counts estionnaires donot existfor mme of Sfakia the Develop- » » » » 107

The above table contains many interesting details and poses a number of ques- The site of the small village is exception- tions, which require systematic research, as local specifics mean that population ally romantic, but the inhabitants are deprived of the beneﬁcial sun, which the changes cannot be interpreted in the same way as for the rest of the Prefecture. surrounding mountains take from them. For example, revenge between two families through the vendetta, usually ending In the winter, the village only sees three hours of sun, in the summer four and a in tit-for-tat murders, and which is also found in other parts of Crete, is often half. And with all the fevers that aﬄict the reason for dramatic population declines in Samaria, as whole families were them, they remain rooted to their place. If you happen to ask anyone if they have forced to flee. been to Chania, they will say: “And what would I want in Chania?” The migration wave from Crete that had begun in the early 20th century, pri- M. Defner, 1918 marily to America, does not appear to have affected Samaria much. One case of M. Defner, Travel memories from Western emigration that we can record is that of the Kaloyerakis brothers to Argentina. Crete, Athens: Syllogos pros Diadosin Ofeli- mon Vivlion, n.d., p. 210. When they returned to Samaria, one of the brothers, Damoulis V. Kaloyerakis, went back to his birthplace and, using the experience he had gained, contributed decisively to the development of a basic processing system there (construction and operation of hydraulic log splitters and olive presses). In the 1960s, with the new wave of migration to European countries, again there were only a few migrants from Samaria and Ayia Roumeli. Of interest are the testimonies of travellers who found that, when asked, permanent residents would say that they had no reason to go to Chania and were worried that afterwards they might not want to return. Samaria experienced its greatest population fall after the Second World War as a result of the destruction wrought TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT to the infrastructure and traditional way of life. | The population of Ayia Roumeli also fell greatly between 1900 and

1920, but since then has remained stable, reinforced by the mi- CHAPTER ΙI gration from Samaria. Its greatest fall was between 1961-1971, as locals preferred to invest the money that they received from the expropriation of their homes in a new house in another part of the Prefecture. Later, the children of former inhabitants started to come to Ayia Roumeli to invest in tourism. The population decline in this period may also be associated with the delay in approving the town plan for the new village – finally ratified on 23/4/1973 – as well as with the rise of internal migration. The increase in population figures for both genders in the past few decades (taking into consideration the research results from 1991 but not the census) is due to the great tourism activity that developed in this period and to the return and “permanent” settlement of those working in tourism, mainly descendants of the former in- Fig. 49: Damoulis Kaloyerakis, habitants (2001 census permanent residents: 119 at Ayia Roumeli and four at Old son of Vardis (1890-1943), (D. Kaloyerakis family archive) 108

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT lis, Trochalia: 1994,p. 173. by G.Morag- translation andcommentary Bérard, V. shore. Andwhat aroad! once more for andthenorth Lakkos that ledushere andwhichwe take entrance to istheroad thefortress port. valley andSelinos The only path to passthrough to Kandanos To thewest, acrack permitsagoat dammed by rocks andpilesofearth. a narrow stream, tippingonallsides, as thesouthshore. isnothingbut It the sideofcliﬀ, continuing asfar made by humanhand, hungfrom its namesuggests, awooden stair, From thewest, Xyloskalo isnot, as Les Aﬀaires deCrete , 1898,Greek V. Berard, 1897 67 66 65 Xyloskalo (pieces of nailed wood to precipice the to form astairway lakethe and streams along with wouldn’t animals, their they so get frightened. happened afew years ago. Thepeople would go inwith donkeys their and cross lake wasformed at Halasmena Gremna, st streams and passes the make shift In more passage even 1926,awhole difficult. systematic cleaning and maintenance year. every brought Rocks down by gushing footpath that crosses Park the from Xyloskalo asfar asAyia Roumeli requires oldin the days, from waseasier south asaccess the to shore. sea the Thecentral (altitude 0m).Even so, access from opposite the direction wasmore common rain, from Xyloskalo (altitude 1227m)until at of surface the sea the Ayia Roumeli The natural direction through Gorge the isthat which follows slope the of ter- the miliar with area. the sages, which are however to negotiate difficult and knownfa- only very to those other communication channels through adjoining smallergorges and other pas- better. locals the toChania and closer served leads ThereThis passage are also from the Porias area, east further of Xyloskalo, was still by used the inhabitants. and Ayia Roumeli on Libyan the (south) side. Until Sea entrance 1960s,the the The Samaria Gorge hastwo main gates: Xyloskalo on side, Omalos(north) the 4. Ayia Roumeli A. Makridakis, Samaria. S. Spanakis, Prefecture of Chania Statistical Service. through marriage with menfrom elsewhere. living conditions were tougher for women and would they leave Park the area that ifween, even might war expect would bring adifferent result. Thisisbecause censuses for we which have information, this isgreater than number the of wom- Of interest breakdown isthe according to gender, number asthe of men,inthose only isalso ting). open during Thedoctors tourism surgery the period. pharmacy, etc.) or daily boat connection (three times a week, weather permit- office, not villagethe (post does have either (since1989)or aschool basicservices Into October). winter, the population the not does exceed twenty inhabitants, as 1976. Access through thegorge andpassage repairs, until reaching its current appearance. Until German the occupation there sioner Prince George could visit Gorge. the Ottomanin the and repaired period by Cretan the State that so High the Commis- Crete , vol. II,Vangelis Sfakianakis: Heraklion, p. 283. 65 ). Yet, isnoted increase this only (March during tourism the season The kingdom of the agrimi of Crete aying that way for two years. Thisalso , p. 13,Athens: Chania Hunters Association, 67 Since then, it Since then, hasundergone many 66 ) wascreated 109

had been a footpath from Xyloskalo to Lakkoi, when the first road was opened using forced labour. The road network grew from this first layout, sections of which are still being completed today. Prior to the road connections, transport in Chania was done with animals, primarily donkeys, and the journey to Chania town took one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half days, nights being spent at villages along the way. The road today crosses the Omalos mountain range,68 another reserve of great natural and historical value in Chania Prefecture, which reaches as far as Xyloskalo. Ayia Roumeli, although it had basic port facilities, communicated with the other villages on the southern Cretan shore by boat (the best-known being the historic ARKADI (see p. 134). This maritime connection did not exist in all eras (travellers in the 1930s, for example, would go to Chania from Ayia Roumeli via Xyloskalo, see p. 165.). Construction of today’s port facilities started in the 1960s, based on studies by the Chania Port Office.69 Two jetties were built, one in front of the village, the other at Masali to the west of the village for ferry boats and passenger car ferries serving the south coast. Repairs were carried out from time to time by the Port Office, as wear and tear and the weather would make the jetties unusable. Transport by sea is today operated by ANENDYK (Southwest Crete Shipping Societe Anonyme), a collectively- owned company founded by residents of Ayia Roumeli in 1982. Overland connections between Ayia Roumeli and Aradaina and Anopoli were – and still are – along footpaths. Connection by road is not possible. A heliport has been built at Ayia Roumeli, to cover emergency transport needs. This was completed in 1994 and handed over to the Municipality in 1997. The lack of coordination and communication between the parties involved, however, even today prohibits the issuing of an operations licence from the Civil Aviation Authority and, by extension, operation of the heliport.

68 The Omalos mountain range belongs to the Municipality of Mousouros, in the broader Gorge area. The particular architecture and its unique landscape have been the focus of several studies. 69 Details from the Chania Port Office. Fig. 50: Xyloskalo (T. Borakis -Mavridakis archive)

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα10Α 110 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 10Β PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Samaria Gorge (Chania Forestry Service) Fig. 53: (photo: Em. Papavasileiou) Fig. 52: archive) Chania of 1960s (Mountaineering Club Fig. 51: Helicopter landing padwithin The of port Ayia Roumeli Thebus asfar goes asLakkoi, 111

5. Samaria Gorge: Toponyms and Microtoponyms

Aside from the basic toponyms (village names), in the Gorge every speck of earth, for those who know the place, has its own name. Of the microtoponyms we shall mention the best known, in such a way as to further our knowledge of the Gorge.70 The microtoponyms and, to a certain degree, the toponyms, are common in other parts of Crete and Greece.71 The determination of their etymological origin is a difficult task, requiring long and systematic research by specialists.72 We present all the interpretations that have been given so far, many of which are not widely accepted.

Toponyms Samaria The prevailing view, also adopted by Nik. V. Tomadakis,73 is that the toponym originated from the name of Hosia Maria (the Egyptian), to whom the chapel at the centre of the Gorge, built in 1379, is dedicated. Hosia Maria > Sia Maria > Samaria.74 The philologist Ioannis Moralides (1984) believes that the name derives from the Homeric word amari (Φ 259), Doric amara (Theocr. 27.53) (amal: with, simultaneously + reo, roos: water stream). The original name of the Gorge is believed to have been Amaria faranx (water stream gorge), which over time, with the addition of the “s” and the shift in the accent, became Samaria. Tarra Paul Faure,75 suggests that it derives from the root tal-tar-taur, which means “gorge with a river at its depths”.76

Ayia Roumeli Fig. 54: With Gingilos as background (photo S. Pratsolis) According to Papagregorakis (Kritiki Estia issue 58, 83), this is an Arab toponym, from the words “aia” (water) and “rumeli” (a Greek name meaning “Greek water”, “Rum” being a former term for Greek).77 Defner believes that the name comes from Ayia Roumilia or Roumina, a Roman goddess equivalent to Britomartis, to whom the temple of ancient Tarra belonged.

70 The classification used here follows the categorisation proposed by C. Haralambakis, linguistics professor at Athens University, in The Cretan Toponyms. Pro- ceedings of a two-day conference, vol. II, Historical and Folklore Society of Rethymni: Rethymno 2000, pp. 351-3. 71 Y. I. Loupousis, “Microtoponyms and macrotoponyms: the example of Chania Prefecture,” in Kritiki Estia 8, 2000-2001, pp. 207-21. 72 Cf. Loupousis, “Etymology of toponyms from Chania Prefecture,” The Cretan Toponyms. Proceedings of a two-day conference, vol. II, pp. 389-401. 73 N.V. Tomadakis, “Linguistic stromatography in Crete in the toponymic and naming tradition,” Modern Greek Essays and Studies, vol. III, Athens 1992, p. 405. 74 Spanakis, Crete, vol. II, p. 330. 75 Paul Faure: Professor of Greek language and Greek civilisation, Université Blaise Pascal-Clermont Ferrand. He dedicated many years to studying the historical geography of the Mediterranean, Crete in particular. 76 Spanakis, Crete, vol. II, p. 371. 77 Op. cit., p. 32. 112

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Fig. 55: Kefalovrysia (photo: S.Vlazaki) 81 80 79 78 Azoyromouri Trees and plants, and wild cultivated dark. Dasos Mavros Earth cover Potisteria: water and dry. isnever Vrysi, Kefalovrysia waterthe from melted snow. saywhich locals refers to astream that broad endsinthe courtyard (avle), collecting Avlemonaria, Avlemonakas Natural irrigation, running water and springs Volakias: Geology Kerama Natural forms Microtoponyms thenatural with associated environment: Microtoponyms Spanakis, Ancient: I.Prombonas, Homeric “The apax halkeo enkeramo and today’s Cretan toponym of keramos,” Halases, Halase Halases, Gingilos unstable. isthus namedrock the isvery because ably acave wall. Halikas: where, asmentioned above, alake wasformed past)hasasimilar in the meaning. S.v. two-day conference two-day Xanthinakis. tree root (riza). Platanaki, Prinias spring): (vourlo) bulrush the grows at points where there iswater. height, smallhill. Azoyromouri =prominent spot with stinkbush. large stone mass. stone large ladic name deriving from Gilgilo, Paul which Faure suggests means Korifi Spathi point where streams the cross, including that of : augmentative of keramos (tile),keramidi, cave. volax-volos Crete generic, from “volakas”: large stone, rock. stone, large “volakas”: from generic, place with loose stones place with loose (halikia). watering can , vol. II,p. 136. : azyoros =Mediterranean stinkbush, : Black Forest, meaning adensity of trees, analogous inmany to cases , vol. II,pp. 207-12. , massof compact earth. : points hasfallenor where slid. earth the 80 :

(sword tip) Sapimenos tap, indicating main the water source, one supplies which much Krygios Aeras Krygios Neroutsiko: . : generic, area where holly (prinos) grows. (names widespread of peaks): toponym inMadares , Portes (kremnos) or : cold air coming from cracks inrocks, mostprob- diminutive of water (nero), indicating volume. (doors) Sapimena gremna , Honos: Sideropoulos funnel 81 79 mouri =piece of jutting earth, Halasmena gremna gremna Halasmena Gingilos Sideropoulos, Speliara, Speliara, Sideropoulos, 78 .

Kolardachtis Kolardachtis

: the steep: the slope of Riza sykias: sykias: Riza , in the central, inthe stream), : possibly apre-Hel-: possibly Proceedings of a a of Proceedings Vroula Gerero, (name of the fig (sykia) (sykia) fig (a site (name of i.e. a a i.e. 113

Animals Lagoudolivada: the meadow (livadi) here has many hares (lagoi). Perdi- kas nero: partridge (perdika) water (nero). Microtoponyms associated with human activities: Farming the land and other agricultural tasks: Mesa Abeli (Mid Vineyard), Pano Abeli (Upper Vineyard), Abelaki (Vineyard), Melissokepos (Bee Park). Communications Poria: place with a pass (poros), crossing.82 Fortresses, lookouts, watchtowers, etc. Veranda, Exedra (balcony), Pyrgos (tower). Houses, construction Kalyvaki, Lousopo (name of spring): probable corruption of lithopo, a place with rocks, stony. Mitatoulis (name of a spring): diminutive of mitato.83 Xyloskalo: wooden (xylino) ladder (skala). Religion and churches Afentis Christos, Ai Giorgios, etc.: names of all the churches in the Gorge.

Ethnic names TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT

Helleniko: in contrast to property that belonged to non-Greeks, Hellenes | (from Hellenes? Possible corruption by foreign travellers). Lenoseli (El- leno-seli): the neck between two mountains, where, according to mythol-

84 CHAPTER ΙI ogy, the kings of Crete gathered to offer their sacrifices to the gods, seli: Fig. 56: Azoyromouri, at Ayia Roumeli clearing, level peak. Barbarigo, tou Bey o chonos: small gorge like a cone (photo E. Papavasileiou) (Turkish). Tou Saracenou i Skala (Arabic). Folklore: Daimonospelios: Devil’s Cave. Tou Digeni i pate: Digenis’s footrack. Toponyms associated with people: Angelokambi or Angelokamboi or Angelokambia: possibly the first com- posite name to refer to the name Angelos or the surname Angelakis. Stsi kalogres to agrimi: edge, peak. Tchi kalogres to spelio (see p.130). Stou Katsia, Stsi Kontares tou Platano, Tou Mantaka I kalyva (see p. 135.).

82 Op. cit. 83 Mitato: summer flocking station, with facilities for making cheese. 84 K. Psarakis, “Samaria: place of mystery and worship”, Chaniotikia Nea, 28/08/2000. 114

6. Occupations of the people

In the past, the local economy was based on various activities, on a limited scale of course, but covering a wide range of the primary, mainly, sector (pastoralism, farming, logging, beekeeping, fishing). This was a self-sufficient and autonomous economy. Ayia Roumeli’s economy today is dependent and based almost entirely on tourism, with other activities gradually dying out.Prior to expropriation, the nanny goats in the Gorge were privately owned. Land was sold by private agreement, in the presence of witnesses. The Historical Archive of Crete holds a number of “contract” documents from the 18th and 19th centuries.85

Fig. 57: The sheep head for the shade… (A. Manousakis archive)

Pastoralism Pastoralism was the main occupation of the inhabitants of Samaria. All families had flocks of sheep and goats, which they grazed around the village at Prinia and Lagoudolivada. The village had two mitata, at Ayios Nikolaos, where sheep and goat milk was collected separately and cheese produced. They would make myzithra cheese from goat milk and cheese and yoghurt from sheep milk, and sell them in the

85 Z. Semanderaki, “Toponyms in private contracts of the 18th and 19th centuries,” En Chaniois 2007, Munici- pality of Chania Annual Publication, pp. 51-68. 115

surrounding villages and in Chania. Sheep wool would be used to make woven …leaving these precipitous parts of textiles, which were processed in fulling mills (see Manufacturing). The Ayioir- both villages, where most risk their oumeliotes would produce their dairy products at the mitata of Gingilos. Hunting lives on their crags … the agrimi and other animals (birds, hares, etc.) was another basic occupation of the people of the Gorge. In the 1930s, efforts to raise awareness were made and the Gregorios Papadopetrakis, 1877 first agrimi protection measures implemented. Papadopetrakis, p. 19. PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | Fig. 58: Mitato at Ayios Nikolaos (photo by Hadjimichalis and Matalas), from the study Hora Sfakia-Samaria, 1966-1967,

vol. II, drawing 053) CHAPTER ΙI

Fig. 59: The mitato, in the service of environmental protection (forest guard house) (photo. T. Borakis) Crops The main crop of the villages in Samaria and Ayia Roumeli was the olive (there are still around 750 olive trees in the Park). In the 1920s Damoulis Kaloyerakis opened the first olive press in Samaria (which today houses the Samaria Museum “Man and Samaria”), whilst at Ayia Roumeli there were two olive presses, one of which is in good condition. In the old days there were also wheat crops, which began to be limited in the 1930s. Around Kolardachtis they grew wheat mainly for animal feed (primarily barley). Each family would grow its vegetables on terraces above the village. Toponyms such as Pano Abeli, Mesa Abeli and Abelakia show that there were vines here in the old 116

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Information Kiosk, 2008 now Man houses the and Samaria Fig. 62: (photo: I.Vlazaki) Fig. 61: 2008 (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 60: TheKaloyerakis olive press Small olive grove inSamaria, 2008 Inside Kaloyeraki the olive press, 87 86 Beekeeping intraditional “kofinia” Beekeeping tors and travellers gardens the describe, of houses were of flowers. full days. At Ayia Roumeli, inaddition to vegetables, grew and, citrus they fruits asvisi- Oral history ofOral history Georgios Tzatzimakis. Melissokofino: madefrom beehive woven material (reeds, wicker) and resembles which abasket. clay and and red earth, covered with pieces of pine bark, which didnot rot easily were constructed using osierbranches plastered on inside the and outside with a waxpress (manual honey extractor) for producing honey. Thehives area inthis would exchange inorder to obtain times. other basicfood occupation,os. DuringGerman the honey wasone of products the that locals the farms atbee many points Park, inthe best-known the that being at Ayios Nikola- from planks of until European wood, modern the hive wasadopted. There were The signs of chopping are still apparent on many trees. The hives were later made 86 was very widespread, and wasvery many had houses 87 . 117

Forest produce Logging and forest products were another main occupation for the locals. The chopped tree trunks from the Samaria forests would be transported by loggers to Ayia Roumeli via the streams, where they were loaded onto ships to be sold as either raw or lightly processed wood (see above unit). Another forest product is pine tree bark, “pitykas”, which the locals would collect and sell. Pitykas was used to produce pitch, used to make caique boats waterproof and in tanning to dye leather. It does not appear as though the locals were systematically involved in collecting resin, at least in the final years. A company,88 most probably from an Aegean island, which had a long tradition in resin collection and perhaps with a licence from the Ministry of Agriculture, brought in workers in 1937 and 1938 to collect the resin. In the past, resin had many uses, from a well-known “white spirit” to the traditional additive in retsina. The local inhabitants also worked in resin collection, and the incisions can still be seen on some trees.

Fig. 63: Samaria Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos) PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI

88 The company was perhaps owned by Kassiotakis and represented by Perikles Konstantinides of Piraeus (who baptised Aristea Katsanevaki in Samaria). 118

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT coal tradecontinued until 1920s. the in large piles at Ayia Roumeli and from there transported by caiques invarious sold to be regions, The Africa. even There were many also using coalfurnaces holm oaks,which give quality agood coal, Gorge. inthe wasgathered Coal by to sold being neighbouring villages (Karanos, Skines, etc.). of itemscarving of daily (e.g. spoons) wasyet use another of occupations the that asupplementary secured income, as resin gathering, done from May to October, clear forest. helped of the risk, fire increased aperiod Woodcutting and lection of pine bark for making torches central (the part dr The work required for making forest products provided also a“natural protection” for forest. the Coppicing and col- 92 91 90 89 which run continuously. mills andhave plenty on occasion take water. They power to whichtheponente galleys would Ayia RoumeliandAyios Pavlos. Rivers Oral history of Mathios history Oral Stavroudakis, President of Ayia the Roumeli Municipal District. Rackham and Moody,Rackham p. 251. projectSchool (unpublished) for Technology the class on Hydromilos the watermill, by Nikolaos Kotrotsos, Akonpetro, known also asNaxia stone. Chania 2003,p. 177. Chania asforeigners sawit,Chaniotika Nea V, 1969,p. Heraklion 38,andM.Gregorakis, Spanakis, Regno diCandia Pietro Giustiniano. St. See in 1630to thethenCapitan Generaledel engineer Francesco Basilicatasubmitted onCrete from thereport by the Extract Souda Middle 2007-2008. Souda School, poli, AiYiannis, etc. – would grain grind inth cordsthe (ifit isahydraulic log splitter). Theinhabitants of surrounding the areas –Ano- axle, rotates which vertical upper the of apair of millstones (ifit mill)or isaflour moves piece. It isemitted from here, and pushes sails of wooden the ahorizontal on mill, set a water fallsalmostvertically, into like afunnel a“chimney” ending inaslanted mouth- channelstructed and directed towards mill, the which isbuilt at alower point, that so the How Samaria the watermills operated: water from astream wascollected inasmall con- tions of the watermills today. can seen stillbe Prinia was used toPrinia cutting whet wasused tools “akonia” with so-called the grindstones. mills with chimneys, Monuments ofCretan History Fransesco Basilicata, 1630 of good waters, ofgoodwaters, 92 the majoritythe near Ayia Roumeli. of Theruins founda- the , vol. : lic logsplitters. textiles (fulling mills)and hydrau- feed mills),for (flour processing to grain grind used and animal were Basilicata. They esco from asearly as1630by Franc- here weremills mentioned region of Samaria. Thewater- for basicmanufacturing inthe streams provided foundation the ofThe use waterpower from the Manufacturing 89 There were limekilns for also Stone same purpose. the found area inthe of e flourmills ofe flourmills Ayia Roumeli, using animals 91 There were 14water- ied pine asatorch tree wasused trunks or tinder)aswell 90 channel water supply (from Fig. 64: (from magazine the Fig. 66: Fig. 65: des jeunes et delaculture de Romans Bourg-De-Peage The making of the Cretan (photo: E.Papavasileiou) Section of Section awatermill, landscape Dilapidated watermill showing how it works at Ayia Roumeli, 2008 Hydraulic logsplitter sail chimney stationary willstone stationary by Rackham Rackham by

and Moody) mou

th supply funnel rotating willstone La maison ). 119 PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT

At many points further down to transport it here. The grain given to the inhabitants as food aid by UNNRA was | from Samaria village you en- also ground here.93 counter the famous hydraulic log splitters. In the old days,

Heavy woollen materials, rugs and clothes were processed in the water-powered CHAPTER ΙI these constituted a form of primitive industry, where the fulling mills (“rassotrives” or “nerotrives”). The water would fall onto them with plentiful wood of Samaria was great force, so as to tighten their weft, making them waterproof and softer. Textiles processed. The river water was were also cleaned and dyed in the fulling mills. To chop the tree trunks and produce used to generate power. planks and poles of various thicknesses, the inhabitants would use hydraulic log V. Antourakis, 1968 splitters: wooden constructions with a cord, which were rotated by the water. An- Antourakis, p. 301. other hydraulic log splitter known as the “fabrica” was later set up near Portes94 Sifis Viglis’s attempt to operate a hydraulic log splitter with a diesel engine never came to fruition, as the Second World War broke out (this machine still stands unused outside Samaria village). The Germans requisitioned this hydraulic log splitter during their occupation, sending wood to Chania.

93 United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. 94 Photograph of a hydraulic log splitter from La maison des jeunes et de la culture de Romans Bourg-de-Péage, which also announces the screening of a colour film from the mission of five speleologists to Crete (Quinze spéléologues en Crète). 120

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT flame andeat immediately. the otheringredients. Remove from the hasseparatedliquid from theyoghurt from with theflour, stirwell untilbubblingandthe strained whichhasfirstbeenmixed yoghurt, removing from theflame, addaspoonfulof til cooked, keeping thesauce. A littlebefore evaporates, andthenonanormalflame, un- flame at firstsothat theliquidfrom themeat Fry themeat withthespringonion,onalow spoonful offlour. chopped, salt, yoghurt, pepper, olive oil, Ingredients: WITH YOGHURT SFAKIAN YIACHNI tray likebaking halvas. andserved cooking. canalsobeplaced ina The pastry into ballsandeat withoutfurther the pastry cloves orany herbsofyour preference, shape and becomes doughy. Add cinnamonor houmeli, continuously stirring, untilitrises browns allover) andgradually pourinthe Roast theflour(preferably intheoven, soit meli. petimezi grape syrup, are ashou- known several hours. The remains, adarkliquidlike the honeyhasseparated inacauldron for honey from it. Heat whatever remains after from thehoneycomb, having strained the ley flour. To thewax getthehoumeli,knead Ingredients PACHOUNTAS Paliochora, former inhabitantofSamaria : Houmeliandwholemealbar- Goat meat, springonionfinely inhabitant ofAyia Roumeli Athena G. Tzatzimaki, Aristea Koundouraki, Aristea Koundouraki, 101 100 99 98 97 96 95 (kapes, uses heavy was one of main their occupations. Using wool, would they produce materials for The women were involved inallfarm work aswell asdomestic work. Textiles Cottage Industries ders for “bondelia”, In 1952acompany represented by Yiannis Bonatos of Aradaina placing began or- 104 103 102 Kapa (sing.) or kapoto: thick woollen overcoat with ahood, Spanakis, ofOral history Giorgos Tzatzimakis of Ayia Roumeli. Manarokopos: a“manara” woodcutter uses who (large axe), -ia:roofingBondela, columns ( characteristics. rated walls. the Kouvertorio: decorative cover bed madewith long, round stitches on loom. the Kilimi: or handmade rug cover, without nap (pile), typical of Anatolian and textiles, Balkan Sakouli (or vourgia): small, woven bag. Patania: blankets wool, fine madefrom with many very patterns fitted during weaving and with strong local Pantas: asampler, madeof material fine with decorative patterns or words (“Good Morning”) which deco- oil with yoghurt. led to creation the of a recipe for Sfakian yiachni casserole which substitutes olive occupation, German the there waslittle olive oil but more cheese. Thelack of oil “pachountas”, and flour barley with houmeli wholemeal (honey water). During goatfried with olive oil inaclay dish.On They would also make foods that were stored naturally, such as salted pork and Omalos), flour, sardines rice, and herring. large quantities of that food would lastfor long such aspotatoes periods, (from atchases point the of production or from ships docking at Ayia Roumeli with Winter supplies food were acquired inOctober. would Thelocals make pur- their were noedible snails inside Gorge, the although there are around Ayia Roumeli. typical of Cretan the diet,donot feature dietof inthe Samariots the asthere milk, olives, olive oil, greens and were fish produced foodstuffs the locally. Snails, purchase of other types material and clothing from Chania. Meat, honey, cheese, Despite written the references to shipbuilding by inhabitants the of Ayia Roumeli, there is no actual evidence (traces or (traces testimonies) for evidence there isnoactual activity. this inhouse construction, used to be marketing region inthe them of Messara. Crete , vol. II,p. 32. 99 95 sakoulia, i.e. beams 2-2.5mlong from loggers local and “manarokopoi Italian puntello 100 kilimia, =support), 101 s.v. s.v. s.v. patanies, Xanthinakis. e delicacy usually madefore delicacy children was Xanthinakis. Xanthinakis. 102 pantes, 103 s.v. kouvertoria), and Babiniotis. 97

98 96

121

Fig. 67: “The magazaki” today, after renovation (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

Social life

Social life in Samaria, as expected, was not particularly rich. During the win- I WISH ONCE, I WISH TWICE TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT ter, the village was cut off from Xyloskalo because of snow and from Ayia I wish once, I wish twice, | Roumeli because of the gushing streams. News from the outside world would I wish three and ﬁve times, come via Ayia Roumeli and from Samariots who had gone to Samaria or the I wish to go overseas, to foreign lands. Mountains do not snow over, gorge do not dew, surrounding villages (Karanou, Omalos, Lakkoi, Skines), when the weather until I have gone far, gone and returned. CHAPTER ΙI had improved. Visitors, seasonal workers and mountain climbers were anoth- But overseas took me. er source of information. Beyond the Samaria bridge there was a spot known Performed by Katina Stavrou Viglaki as “magazaki” (little shop), This was an open area which every visitor, hunter Song documented by Samuel Baud-Bovy in Ayia Rou- meli in 1954. Performed by Katina Stavrou-Viglaki. See or rambler in the Park would have to pass by, and where all the inhabitants S. Baud-Bovy, A. Ayoutanti and D. Mazaraki, Chansons would gather to talk to him, to learn the news or just look at him, since he Populaires de Crète Occidentale, ed. Minkoﬀ, Genève 1972, p. 203. was a stranger. There was no wireless in the village, just a gramophone player, on which they would play records and listen to music. In the evenings the Samariots would have evening parties, lighting up the place with torches of flames. The men would discuss the wars and the women bustled around the house. The children played the traditional games of hide-and-seek and “it”, as well as improvised games with natural elements (wood, fruits, wool)105 or with the little orphan goats that the locals would take into their homes and raise.

105 Kostoula Katsenevaki-Markaki oral history.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 11Α 122 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 11Β PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT of Christos (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 70: (photo: E.Papavasileiou) Fig. 69: 3/2/1962. Principles Nationalof Radical Newspaper Daily Pan-Cretan National Fig. 68: archive ofhisfather’s SiﬁsSmyrlakis. From research inthe Smyrlakis by thepupilMichalis Thechurch and cemetery the Thecross of Ayia Zoni Publication from newspaper the , Chania 111 110 109 108 107 106 hisheromandelo with each around fireplace, the women were home already earlier. Themenwould gather inahouse, sit inacircle happenedThe evening also parties at Ayia Platanos, Vikelaia Municipal Heraklion. Library: School project School by Evangelia M.Stavroudaki. Katsanevaki-Kokolaki Eleni oral history. Giorgos Tzatzimakis oral history. Tobacco wasgrown at Aradaina and AiYiannis. Heromandelo: handkerchief, incontrast scarf. head with the E. Platakis, “Terrible names sounding of and Cretan scary caves” in or Xontikospelios hotbed. (Andfor reason which cave the at Gingilos isknown asDaimonospelios spread Prefecture inthe scare according them, to which Gingilos wasasatanic Park’s terrain, would multiply, creating pandemonium) or superstitions the wide- (gushing winds,streams, noises from shots or falling rocks, given which, the Gorge.the Neither quirks didthe or nature, inwinter, especially frighten them It isparticularly interesting that inhabitants the were not afraid to live within weatherbecause conditions meant it wasnot herto to hospital. possible take with oil, hot etc. drinks, Awoman would dieinlabour Samaria inthe of 1930s the andno doctor would nomedicines.They only use practical medicine –rubbing dren), helping other. each Ofcourse, asthere death the rate high, was was very Women would give to birth many children (there were families with 14-18chil- match-making, making “dowry” their wasone duties. of primary their equal education. accessto primary From of beginning the 1950s,however, the girlsat the Ayia Roumeli hadalmost otherthe children, youngest the daughter may have able to been go to school. it”. There were, of course, exceptions: if etc). The girls, as a rule, wereetc). Thegirls,asarule, not permitted to to read, learn winter, family close two asthe villages connections hadvery (siblings, cousins, at School Ayia Primary the Roumeli, where stayed they with relatives through the Customs asthroughout strict, were Samaria very province. Theboys would go to started, with the discussion focussing on focussing problems serious discussion with the the started, of survival. cigarette, visitors the would, each insuccession, offer tobacco, and cycle new the fer tobacco to visitor each inturn. When lastone the smoking his hadfinished rettes. Thehost,inaritualistic manner, would off hisheromandelo take and of- and cut up pieces of paper (usually from anewspaper) with which to roll ciga- 111 ). 110 Ofcourse, allgirls were through married Roumeli, usually with men,asthe the the olderthe sisterswere after already looking Eilapine 106 (handkerchief) with tobacco (handkerchief) , vol. I,volume inhonour of N. 109 as“they don’t need 108

107

123

Sometime on the eve of the war – I was a child then – in our neighbouring village of Panayia some women had symptoms of a strange illness. All day they would shout and hit, but disappear all night. In the morning they would return and claim that the demons that entered them came at night, lifting them into the air and taking them to their hideout at Gingilos, to the devils’ cave, the Daimonospelio … They would then leave. They would stroll all night long and in the early morning hours, before daybreak, they would go and get them back … And the people believed all this … As children we were afraid to step over the threshold of our houses, in case we encountered these strange women, inside of whom the demons hid… Now I’m afraid here. My mind is filled with the things I heard as a young child: in Gingilos gorge … the devils…. And what blasphemy: “All the devils will get you, they’ll lift you up and take you to Samaria Gorge”, young and old would utter… Now I’m here: at Gingilos … there where the devils’ home is … I would like to escape these thoughts. But, however hard I try, they won’t leave me. I can’t. “You’ll go out on patrol with Electra after midnight” … How I wished to avoid this mission! I don’t dare say anything, though … We started to proceed slowly, slowly. Pitch black. We proceed amongst the giant rocks, thick bushes, tall cypresses and pines. With Gingilos to our left and in front of us, frightening us in the wild night. Our hearts were beating with fear and our eyes able to see much more powerfully. You thought that any minute now you’d encounter the terrible evil, and we wouldn’t be able to fight it. We had no other hope other than our strength to complete our mission. Some rocks above came loose, they rolled with a crash to the bottom of the Gorge. Who let them loose? We were patient and waited for the worst: to see the demons in front of us. To see two fiery eyes looking at us … We moved away. We proceeded two or three kilometres. We looked around us in case there were any enemies. And then we started to return, relieved. We reached the guard post. Took a deep breath. Not because we didn’t encounter the enemy. But, most of all, because we didn’t see any devils living in Gingilos … And I was here other times. I undertook solitary missions. And, yet, neither during this first mission or any time after did I see anything to confirm what I heard the old village ladies saying, when they believed that there are devils in Samaria Gorge.

Argyro Kokovli, 2002

N. and A. Kokovli, There was no other road, Polytopo: Athens, 2002, p. 199. PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI

Fig. 71: At the Gingilos edge (photo: H. Kargiolakis) 124

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Folklore Archives, p. 64) Asia Minor Studies, Melpo Merlier Musical 1953-1954, vol. I,Athens 2006,Centre for Mazaraki, Bovy, Aglaia Agioutani and Despina mourning (photograph inSamuel Baud- black kerchief without fringes, signifying Fig. 72: jutting section. Onlythebirds … jutting section. the Gorge, asnoonecould approach this pulling herhair, butfrom theothersideof widowout. His mothergrieves for him ofthecliffjutting when stuckonasection only son,whenhuntinginyears pastfell the mountainscannotalways avoid. An woodcutters andhunters goingthrough itants talkofdeaths from falls, whichthe the nightinthere. The stories ofitsinhab- lying at theroot of asteep cliff, andspent alos we went again, into sunlessSamaria ers coming into themountains. From Om- Gorge, forms atrail that assiststhevillag- string from thepeakto thedepthsof that theboundtreewhichhunglike bark, andPapadakis explained Korkakas to us astonished theforeigners. Ontheway Gorge, where themagnificent wildnature Here we cameto Omalos, through the Plymakis, Plymakis, Diomataris Tzatzimos with a Diary ofManousosR.Koundouros (1890) Diary Musical Documentation in Crete The agrimiofCrete , p.. 105. , 114 113 112 comprehensivelyhas been studied. pastwaswidespread inthe which isolated inthe villages of Sfakia province and tributed to the social phenomenon of the of death hasresulted dirges special inthe of Samaria. Many deaths are at- also mals or hunting, withered when trees are cut down or from lightning. Thistype Many violent deaths are caused inSamaria from either fallswhen grazing ani- to visit Gorge the and (and help with otherwise, even the of Arab states). mours of other hiddentreasures region inthe have many led “gold diggers”, Greek The legend of “Goldilocks” p. (see 124.)with “golden the loom” aswell ru- asthe zone protected from spirits... evil the another cross on lintel the of houses of the old the village, inorder to create a cated to Ayia Zoni, near Gorge the exit, would across rock, carve inthe and then However, for better or for worse, Ayiaroumeliotes, the starting from cave the dedi- 115 Centre for Asia Minor Studies, Melpo Merlier Musical Folklore Archives, pp. 61and 113. S. Baud-Bovy, A.Agioutani and D. Mazaraki, See A.Tsanteropoulos,See Evangelia T. Stavroudaki oral history. Mathios Stavroudakis oral history. Bovy in1953-1954. Bovy Roumeli isincluded interesting inthe study by musicologist the Samuel Baud- or performed agricultural or tasks weaved. Information on singers the of Ayia Song inhabitants’ wasthe permanent companion, herds grazedtheir they when Weddings, baptisms and festivals were opportunities for partying and revelries. rated donkey and through passed Portes with whole the wedding entourage. as abride in1949.With herwhite wedding dress, sheclimbed onto deco- the held. Mrs Kostoula Katsanevaki-Marakaki went from Samaria to Ayia Roumeli at front the would proceed to groom’s the house, where celebrations the were wholethe wedding with streamers and musicians the playing instruments their and equivalent the surnames of Damoulakis, Diomatarakis). service, After the ofparts Province the of Sfakia (Damoulis, Diomataris asopposed to Diomedes, interest found can be asthey only here, inother assurnames them we whilst find yardsheld inthe of of houses. Some inhabitants’ the forenames are of particular Baptisms took place churches, inthe perform services. although weddings were villages hadapriest until 1960s,and the priest the of AiYianni would come to Despite existence the of many churches Gorge inthe area, neither of two the took place in1949. from demons. the to greaterexposed dangers on mountains, the luck asagood wishand protection signs form inthe sew ofalso across onto men’s the clothes and were bags,asthey The vendetta in contemporary in mountain vendetta CreteThe 113 115

Musical Documentation in Crete 112 114 vendetta unit (see on Thepopulation), The last vendetta around vendetta Thelast Ayia Roumeli Ever Maundy Thursday women the would , Plethron: Athens 2004. , 1953-1954,vol. I,Athens 2006, 125

Fig. 73: From the baptism of Damoulis and Pagona Kaloyerakis’s baby. Photograph taken outside the Kaloyerakis olive press, 1950s (Kaloyerakis family archive)

Fig. 74: The same place, 2008 (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

Fig. 75: Baptism of Yiannis Mavridakis in the Samaria river, 1988, (T. Borakis-Mavridakis archive) 126

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT between stonedams, an He accompanied usunderthemoonlight. Streams in exiled here at theendofworld for two years now. commander ofthegendarmerieisacharmingCretan, by foot,Sfakia to take hisgoat herd. The squadron omedes (or, Diomataris) Tzatzimos hadgoneto Hora here ispurely vocal … We learntthat oursinger, Di- of beinginthehandsinstrumentalists, much who knows how to improvise. This isbecause, instead tell usandnot, asincentral andeastern Crete, one is onewhohasagoodvoice, agoodorganism asthey well itvery …Here a and heperformed “good singer” sang “Anantranisa, my eyes” whichhasadifficulttune thatit was we withdifficulty convinced himto sing. He er, whoistrulyagoodsinger. Hewas inmourningand Koukos inthevillage. We found thepresident, howev- president, 53-years-old. Unfortunately, we didn’t find kos, andhisbrother, Diomedes Tzatzimos, thevillage ers at Ayia Roumeliare Sifis Tzatzimos, asKou- known violins andlutes from KissamoandSelino. sing- Good instruments at Ayia Roumeli. At weddings theyinvite trench coat andwe sleptontheshore … There are no looked us. after They eachgave usablanket andhis received acircular from theGeneral Administration, gendarmes at theStation, whointhemeantimehad good singers. We arrived at night. The villageslept. The Ayia Roumeli,whichtheytold uswas avillagewith Loutros andfrom there by motor boat we setofffor to two hourswe reach one-and-a-half littleLake In now others drink. now othersdrink. theangel.now others act AtthefountainwhereIdrank, a melancholymantinadacouplet: who willwinyou? animalandhiswife: of aparty carefully. content Its was like thegoodbye to thelife out, hesangusafinalsongthat hehadchosenvery including hisown wife delicate withthevery features, aroma. Then, hehadonce after more sentthewomen, and red honeyfrom hisbeehives, withawonderful butter usdinner:threehe served eggswithaselect sometimes makes hisvoice hoarse. After three songs, himself ready that to theKudelski* sing, alittleangry eating asweet andexchanging questions, hedeclared in anorganised anddisciplinedfashion.Aswe were cient bronze sculpture ofawarrior. Everything isdone a nice, well-groomed beard. Hereminds meofanan- cuted inthewar), rather pronounced and cheekbones eyes (hehaslostthree brothers, orexe- eitherkilled clothes, slim,broad andhadavery nose, lively yet sad barefoot, resting from hisjourney. Hewore black gathered to welcome thetravellers. Hehimself was a lightonin Tzatzimos’s house:thewholefamilyhad a few dogswelcomed us. To there ourgoodluck, was area to grindit… The wholevillagewas asleep. Only in thepasttheywould bringallthewheat from the ed for itsquality. astheNagra. cinema,itisalsoknown In audiorecorder* Kudelski: invented by celebrat- Stefan Kudelski, To whichhe added, asaconclusion, abandoned wate Wretched, false world, First Iwas theangel, Baud-Bovy, 1953-1954 rmill where rmill where * Baud-Bovy etal.,* Baud-Bovy de Crète Occidentale Fig. 76: Musical score from Chansons Populaires by Samuel Baud-Bovy* At fountain the where Idrank water, others now drink. Once Iwasan angel, now others like the angels act Chansons Populaire , p. 280 Fig. 77: 1950s,Evangelos Viglis, Damoulis Kaloyerakis, Yiannis Viglis, Viglis, Sifis Michalis Kaloyerakis (Kaloyerakis family archive) 127

8. The last families of Samaria

In 1965, three years after the declaration of the Gorge as a National Park, the expropriation procedures were completed and Samaria was abandoned by its last inhabitants. The Viglis, Kaloyerakis, Bilalis, Katsenevakis and Sperelakis families are the last families documented as living in Samaria. Family members are today found in Chania, Palaio- chora, Souda, Alikianos and Pervolia. The oral histories of many of those who were born and lived in the Gorge have been a valuable source for this book. Although the Gorge is associated with a difficult time in their lives, it fills them with nostalgia. The Katsanevaki family was the last to leave the Gorge, whilst Vangelis Viglis was the last person to have lived his whole life in the Park. He was one of those former inhabitants who, after his family had left the Gorge, returned to work as a guard in the Park until his death. PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES IN MODERN HABITATION PERMANENT | CHAPTER ΙI

Fig. 78: Damoulis Kaloyerakis the younger, with his sons Yiannis and Michalis (Kaloyerakis family archive)

Fig. 79: The sisters Eleni Katsanevaki-Kokolaki and Kostoula Katsanevaki-Marakaki, June 2008 (photo: E. Papavasileiou) 128

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT because Itoo wasabird, and anightingale amongst Fig. 80: and of the falcons Iwasalso aperegrine, Little birds, chirp asyou have learnt, Scece from Scece Samaria village 1950s(Kaloyerakis inthe family archive) peregrine and Ichirped. the nightingales, the Performed by Diomataris Tzatzimos Op. cit. p. 176. 129

CHAPTER 3 THE ROLE OF SAMARIA GORGE IN HISTORY

The existence and formation The Gorge played an important role during all the Text: of this Gorge contributed to historical events of Crete. It was a hideout for revo- Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki the Greek Orthodox population of Crete, during its 700 lutionaries and a refuge for the persecuted. Its inac- years of slavery to the Vene- cessible land and physical isolation offered protection Fig. 81: Sfakian revolutionary guarding tians and Turks (1204-1898), and helped in preparing for action. It was also a place Portes, 1896 (The Illustrated news, being able to survive, strug- Man. Manousakas archive) gle, and keep its language, where military equipment could be stored. Moreover, religion, customs and tradi- the natural bay of Ayia Roumeli could be used as a tions Greek, and ﬁnally being liberated and uniting point for receiving supplies by sea. The above natural with Mother Greece. advantages were exploited b the people of the island

P. Kelaides, Ancient cities in Sfakia, during all the rebellions, movements and revolutions. Karavi and Toxos: Athens, 1982, p. 106. 1. Venetian Rule (1204-1669)

The period of Venetian rule in Crete began Of manliness the honour and the struggle. Castle door, of Samaria’s Gorge immediately following the Fourth Crusade You were never trodden on through the passage (1204). The island passed in the hands of the of time by Anatolians, Venetians and Franks. Venetians for the “1000 silver marks” that they had paid to Boniface of Montferrat, the Crusader leader. Enrico Dandolo, Doge of the Serene Republic of St Mark, “purchased” the island, as he had realised that it was held an important position as a centre of sea communications and trade. The island passed completely into the hands of the Venetians in the late 13th century, and the possession was named the Regno di Candia, the Kingdom of Can- dia. The Cretans did not accept Venetian rule without complaint. Until Turkish conquest of the island in 1669, 27 large and small revolutions are recorded as well as man smaller local movements.116 The Venetian sources reveal that the Sfakians participated in and instigated rebellions.

116 T. Detorakis, History of Crete, Athens 1986, p. 173. C. Maltezou, “Crete during the period of Venetian rule (1211-1669)”, in Crete. History and civilisation, vol. II, Union of Local Authorities of Crete: Heraklion 1988, p. 125. 130

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (M. Toubis SAarchive) (Anopoli, Sfakia 1722–Heraklion 1771) Fig. 82: 2006, p. 48. of Samaria”, in ** A.Plymakis, “Goldilocks inthemysterious land 77, andKelaides, p. 105. landscape, people, events, legends p.184.* Deotarakis, alsoL.Petrides, See t’armi”kalogres (thenun’s loom).** gres ospelios” (thenun’s cave) and “tchi to the legend,nected suchas “tchi kalo- loom. There are stillplace namescon- was buriedthere alongwithhergolden and,self to God asthelegendgoes, she was ahermitatdedicated Samaria, her- campaignwas over.until themilitary She family to theGorge, where sheremained cal event says followed that Chrysis her subsequently “woven” around thehistori- the wholegarrison.* The legendthat was theperpetratorgarrison, andkilled and to wash away theshame, attacked the him. The large Skordylis family, inorder plait withhissword, andtook itwith andloppedoﬀherbrightblonde gry resistedChrysis andhithim.Hegotan- oﬀ hishorseandattempted her. to kiss met by leader, theGarrison whojumped with theothergirls. Ontheroad, shewas the daughter went water to collect along blondehair.sis, withwonderful Oneday, lis familyhadabeautifuldaughter, Chry- Tradition Skordy- holdsthat thepowerful Ioannis Vlachos, Daskaloyiannis Kritiko Panorama , issue15,May-June , Athens 1963,p. Crete: Crete: June 1771and death suffered at ahorrific Heraklion. Daskaloyiannis, inorder to Turkish calmthe rage, handed over himself on 17 get to Peloponnese the and Kythera. others Some managed to to Gorge. escape the destroyed. No Russian assistance came. women Some and children managed to potential Turkish TheTurk raid difficult. was counting on Russian help that and fact inaccessible the the terrain madea ternal reactions and organised movement the at Sfakia spring inthe of 1770.He subjects. Daskaloyiannis that believed uprising the waspossible, heovercame in- Greatthe of Russia, wasinstigating who rebellions amongst Sultan’s the Christian travelled, came who into contact with Theodore Orlov, envoy the of Catherine Ioannis Vlachos, known asDaskaloyiannis, 1770Revolution,the known Revolution asthe of Daskaloyiannis after its leader. One important fits which even, into general the historical context of time, the was (1770) of Daskaloyiannis The Revolution by Ottoman the administration. tions and movements documented were responded to inaviolent and harsh way did not prevent rest the of Christian the inhabitants from uprising. revolu- Allthe alive from Cretans. the of Thecases conversion to Islam, purposes, for survival revolutions to started break out, with vision the of freedom always remaining ous one, wasequally hated by indigenous the population. From century, 18th the Sultan. conqueror, Thenew although initially lessauthoritarian than previ- the of Crete wasaheavyblow for Serene Republic, the and agreat for victory the War, by Marinos described Tzanes inhishomonymous Bounialis Theloss poem. (September 1669).Thisimportant event hasgone Cretan down asthe in history (today’s Heraklion) ending began, with handover the of city the after 21years andto east the took Chania on 22August. After three years, siege the of Candia Turkish conquest of Crete TheTurkish wasbeginning. troops proceeded steadily In early summer1645a large Turkish regiment disembarked at Kolybari. The 2. Turkish Rule tion broke out throughout region. the Defence wasorganised within Gorge. the Venetian Skordyli. to Chrysis leader garrison Theuprising spread and aRevolu- Sfakia inthe garrison.settled Theimmediate cause of shameful wasthe act the The general cause wasbadgovernment and harsh the behaviour of Venetians the In 1319arevolution broke out at Sfakia known “Goldilocks asthe Revolution”. Revolution Skordylis The (1669-1898) ish reaction wasformidable. Sfakia was was arich Sfakian ship-owner, well- 131

In the “Ballad of Daskaloyiannis” Barba Pantzelios eloquently THE BALLAD OF DASKALOYIANNIS describes the effort the Sfakians made to save the women and The Turks are capturing many shores, children hidden in Samaria.117 Daskaloyiannis’s revolution may They’re going to Ayia Roumeli / And the families are leaving, they get out at Linoseli. / They go to enter the Gorge have had this tragic outcome. It was recorded, however, in the At the bottom of Samaria, / At Portes they found Yiannis the memory of the Cretan people as a symbol, and had a significant Good. / And they battled with him and made him turn back They passed Eligia and he still drew them near. function in all the Greek liberation struggles that followed. But others who came straight in from Xyloskalo, And all those who found families turned them upside down. Few were saved and suddenly they fell upon them The Revolution of 1821 And only at Neroutsiko did they arrive and shore them up. Because the Sfakians didn’t care that they couldn’t enter The Cretans participated in the Revolution of 1821, although through there / There were a few with a heavy fate and where conditions were particularly unfavourable. The memory of the would they go ﬁrst! / And when they suddenly learnt that destruction of 1770 was still alive in memory. The complete lack they were taking their children, / The sweat ran from their brow to their knees… / They reached Xyloskalo, they battled of military supplies, the fear of reprisals, the large proportion of with him / But of the women and children none caught up the Turkish population and the distance from mainland Greece, with him. Barba Pantzelios, lines 455- 470 the centre of the Revolution, were deterrents. Despite all this, they dared. The official start of the Struggle is considered to be 14 June 1821, after Assem- blies had been held at Glyka Nera (7 April) and Panayia Thymiani (15 April). The vengeance was fierce. Slaughters, pillaging, hangings. Mehmet Ali of Egypt rushed to the aid of the Sultan (1822). Egyptian troops disembarked on the island, whilst the revolutionaries had no assistance.118 THE ROLE OF SAMARIA GORGE IN HISTORY THE ROLE OF SAMARIA

The fierceness of the Egyptian army and internal conflicts amongst the Greeks led | things to a dead end. The arrival of the Hydraiot Emmanuel Tobazis as Governor in 1823 – sent by the central revolutionary administration of mainland Greece 119 – raised morale, but did not prevent the negative outcome. The large Egyptian CHAPTER III army, its equivalent ferociousness and Tobazis’s inability to act effectively led to the failure of the Revolution and thousands of victims all over the island. In March 1824 the Egyptian army with Hussein invaded Sfakia. The memory of 1770 was strong. Just as then, some entered the ships and emigrated and others sought refuge in the Gorge. Tobazis left the island and the Revolution petered out. Some were determined to continue fighting a bandit war.

117 Barba Pantzelios: the Ballad of Daskaloyiannis, Heraklion 1947. The Ballad of Daskaloyiannis is a poem describing the events of the 1770 Revolution and Daskaloyiannis himself. It is a source of information on the customs and traditions of the Sfakians. It is of great literary value and is reminiscent of epic poetry, medieval Cretan literature and demotic poetry. It was dictated in 1786 by the cheese-maker Barba Pantzelios (from Mouri Sfakion) to the literate shepherd Sifis Skordylis in moments of rest from his cheese-making activities in the Sfakian open-air cheese-makers. The Ballad of Daskaloyiannis has been set to music by the composer Nikos Mamangakis. 118 Detorakis, p. 333. 119 He was accompanied by a Volunteer Corps, a small naval squadron and British philhellenes. 132

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (from and Cretan woman by Antonio Schranz Figs. 83a&b: sitting rooms, whichstillstandstoday. two downstairs areas andtwo upstairs built ahousefor himandhisfamily, with and incollaboration withthemthey Omalos to theinhabitantsofSamaria, gaveheroic theSeliniots act, halfof agestureIn ofgratitude for Kaloyerakis’s June 2008. astold to EmmyOral history Papavasileiou, Travels in Crete Engravings of aCretan man by Pashley) R. Yiannis D. Kaloyerakis 124 123 122 121 120 met, and meeting the endedup inafight. Kaloyeroyiannis accepted and went to Selino, crossing ravine. the Thetwo men wanted to keep hislife. Vergeris replied with an invitation: infamous ofbloodthirsty the these, Vergeris, telling himto stop violence the ifhe wild janissaries plagued area. the who Kaloyeroyiannis sent aletter to most the ince of neighboured which onto Selinos, Gorge, the attacked wasbeing by the guerrilla/fugitive) Yiannis Kaloyerakis (Kaloyeroyiannis) of Samaria. Theprov- The Turks waged awhole campaign to capture great the Kaloyeroyiannis pines. cedar and hardships,the deprivation, the cold the and hunger. the fed on They wildacorns river!the Many of women the and children sought who refuge there diedfrom mysteriousthe and formidable ravines of Samaria and infinite meandering the of dopetrakis’s position, says that were they frightened by “God-built the fortress”, The “combatants” didnot enter Gorge the end. inthe Psilakis, referring to Papa- ants”, creating timefor women the and children to escape. were They allsaved. withhad not 32menand to scene the rushed intercepted “wanton the combat- giorgis from Mouri (the Mouriotis) and Anagnostis Manouselis from Kallikrati outflanked and women the and children would have slaughtered been ifHadji- “non-fightingthe crowds” timeto hideinside Gorge. the Thisbody, however, was 300 Sfakians attempted to hold enemy the back on sideof the Aradaina, to give sufferings of fleeing,”the those historian the writes, recounting how of abody Turkish-Egyptian army to enter Gorge the isdramatic. “No quill can describe Vasileios Psilakis’s description of invasion the of and of efforts Sfakia the the Psilakis, p. 1561. V. Psilakis weapon the identifies asaknife, Y. Manousakis apistol. (Turkish: Zefkaki: revels, zeyk), entertainment, Marti =goat. V. Psilakis, trapped wounded the hainis two of between sets gunfire. holds managed that to killhimnear they astounding Gorge”, organised acampaign were against they afraid him!Because of entering “into that withnis escaped awounded leg.TheTur History of Crete of History 120

we can slaughter amarti 124 , vol. III,Minotaur: Athens, n.d., pp. 1850-3. Come, Yianni Kaloyere, to down the house they lay they inambush at its entrance for along time. Tradition s.v. Xanthinakis. Xyloskalo, “through deceit”, having en- 123 121 ks of and Selinos Chania went wildand Vergeris waskilledand Kaloyeroyian- have some zefkaki have some hainis (revolutionary/ 122 133

The Revolution of 1866 Hark! what is that sound, that pre- From 1866, Cretans had started to assemble with the purpose of working against vails o’er both [night and its silence]? the Ottoman empire. The cause, the undying desire to be freed. Now, however, – a human voice exclaiming, “The Ar- cadi – the Arcadi!” and Appleton ap- there was an added cause, the demand for unification with Greece, which had pears, announcing more deliberately been an independent state since 1830. Immediate causes, taxes and monastic that the Arcadi had made a landfall problems. The countdown that followed was dynamic and decisive. The revolu- here, and would remain but an hour longer. tionaries’ slogan, “Union or Death”. By pure providential favour it seemed to have come, oﬀering, when least Sfakia, and the Gorge in particular, were often at the centre of operations. The expected, the means we had been so Turkish army reached Ayia Roumeli by boat at the end of December 1866, and wearisomely questing of return… I have only to add that, by the aid of even bombarded it. The revolutionaries found themselves in a very difficult po- an obliging Rumelian, a short walk sition, as they also had to deal with the problem of the region’s non-combatants of twenty minutes down the water- who had fled to the coast, awaiting Greek and European ships. course brought me again to the har- bour-side, thronged with πατριώται On 7 January 1867, and whilst the Turkish army was camped at Ayia Roumeli, [It is by this word the Cretans (and, indeed, I think the Greeks generally) the revolutionaries attacked them from the surrounding heights. The Turkish address each other], gazing at the soldiers were surprised. Many were killed and the river ran red. When they man- beneﬁcent little bark that had come aged to regroup, they responded with firepower with the support of a Turkish to succour them… Boats were yet plying between the frigate which started to fire cannons. The Sfakians were able, however, to hold vessel and the shore – landing goods their positions on the heights. The enemy, and taking away poor heart-wearied finally, departed from Ayia Roumeli, but émigrés – all which I stood for some time watching, loth to be an impedi-

the hostilities were not over. Two other ment to these latter, whose claims GORGE IN HISTORY THE ROLE OF SAMARIA campaigns came the following year. During were of so much more moment than my own; and might thus have re- | the first (June 1867), the province was de- mained, in sooth, till the “phantom stroyed. The second (31 July), focusing on bark” had given its valedictory whis- tle, had not a stout seaman caught

Omalos and the Gorge, failed. CHAPTER III me up in his arms and carried me Of note was Turkish persistence in captur- bodily into the boat. The night was moonless, but starlight. ing the Gorge of Ayia Roumeli. There is, In half an hour afterwards we however, an explanation: the boats “Panel- weighed anchor, and, under the com- linion”, “Arkadi” and “Enosis” would steer mand of the brave Captain Courenti, - who was destined a few weeks later towards Ayia Roumeli, bringing food and to preside (after a gallant encoun- military supplies to the revolutionaries. ter)* over the destruction of his vessel, - made a fair passage to Syra: Also, the Committee of the General Revo- for which, and all His other mercies lutionary Assembly was established at Ayia throughout the journey, I oﬀer my Roumeli, after Koutsoyerako. The revolu- hearty thanks to Almighty God.

tionary Press was established there, as was Edward Postlethwaite, 1868** the Temporary Government. * He refers to the steamship “Arcadi” running aground at Palaiochora. See immediately below, however. ** E. Postlethwaite, A Tour in Crete, John Cam- den Hotten: London 1868, pp. 114-116.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 12Α 134 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 12B PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (K. Gryparis archive)(K. Gryparis Fig. 85: (M. Toubis SAarchive) copperplate, Library, Gennadios Fig. 84: food, lead, dynamite andskins. there itwould unloadallitscargo …of moor third (at Ayia at Sfakia Roumeli), plies andfood, thesteamship would was agreat sup- It necessity for military Ibid. p. 2226. Card of Cretan the State TheARKADI steamship V. Psilakis, History of Crete ofCrete History Venetians and Turks. action for central events, asit haddone during earlier revolutions the against the lastrevolutionThis wasthe Gorge the inwhich of Samaria asasite functioned of lost, however. TheRevolution diedout three years later. wandered survived who Gorge inthe for quite awhile. Thesupply ship hadbeen aiochora (7August 1867).Thisledto significant lossof life and materials. Those Captainthe Kourentis Anastasios aground decision torun at the took nearby Pal- Itnoeuvring. wason its own and couldn’t stand up to Turks. the It that wasthen “Intzedin”and cruiser the and came underattack. It attempted to escape by ma- brought along with volunteers. the It wasnoticed, however, by enemy the ships When it reached little the it port, began route. On4August 1867it sailed from Syros to Ayia Roumeli for lasttime. the The island wasregularly supplied by “Arkadi”, the covered which Syros-Crete the The lossof thesteamship “Arkadi” onto heightsinfront thesea,withrocky andthecannonballsfallingonto otherhighandsteep rocks. This villagewas deemedsuitablefor thetimebeingby theAssemblyas, although coastal, itisnotexposed V. Psilakis, History ofCrete History , vol. IV, Athens, Minotaur: n.d., pp. 2258. to material unloadthe assistance it had V. Psilakis, History ofCrete History 135

3. After the Union of Crete with Greece (1913)

The 1938 movement On 29 July 1938 the only organised act of collective resistance against Ioannis Metax- as and the 4th of August dictatorship took place. Old politicians and officers who had taken part in the 1935 Movement and been discharged pushed for the restoration of democracy. They published a revolutionary proclamation, also transmitting it from the radio station they took over. The dictatorship responded swiftly and the movement, not well planned or organised, collapsed. 125 The politicians leading it fled Crete. Its military leader, General Emmanuel Mantakas,126 refused to exile himself and became a fugitive. As might be expected, arrests and many convictions followed. This little movement functioned, perhaps, as the seed for the resistance against the German invasion three years late, in May 1941. General Mantakas fled to the Lefka Ori via Lakkoi, his village. He was sentenced in absentia to life impris- onment, and remained in hiding in the Gorge at the spot now known as Mantakas’s Hut, until the proclamation of war. He himself later said: “I held on. I saw my children and wife and so many other relatives take the road to THE ROLE OF SAMARIA GORGE IN HISTORY THE ROLE OF SAMARIA exile with great pain. Only God knows with what difficulty I spent two winters in the Fig. 86: Mantakas (sketch by mountains of Crete. But, unfortunately, events showed that I had to persist.” 127 D. Megalides from the book | The anti-dictatorship movement of Crete by V. Hadjiangelis)

We lived in Athens. In the summers we went down to Chania and stayed in my father’s paternal home at Lakkoi. I was a small child. In the summer of CHAPTER III ΄38 my father wasn’t with us. We children didn’t know where he was. Later we learned he was a fugitive and was in hiding. Our grandmother Trian- tafyllia came and found us. She was old, but vigorous. She was anxious, though, and was constantly discussing with my mother. My father was then hiding in the mountains and moving between Omalos, Samaria and Ayia Roumeli. He was being hidden by our family friends the Viglides. I remember Giorgis and Yiannis Viglis coming to the house. They had nice horses and mules. The colourful woven covers of the animals made an impression on me. There was a little tree outside the house, and they tied them there. They would bring us children honey pies. They brought my mother letters from father and oral messages. I also remember seeing a walking stick ﬂickering sometimes in the mountains opposite. At ﬁrst, I didn’t understand. Later, however, I realised that it was my father getting bolder, approaching us and making signs so we’d know he was there. They later arrested mother and us and exiled us to Melos … * Oral history of Philitsa Mantaka, daughter of Emmanuel Mantakas

* Oral history given by Philitsa Mantakas to Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki in June 2008.

125 Detorakis, p. 467. 126 Emmanuel (Manolis) Mantakas (Lakkoi, 1889-1968): a volunteer in the Greek army, he took part in the 1912-1913 wars, during which he was wounded. Participated in the Thessaloniki movement (the “National Defence”) in 1916 as well as in the First World War. Studied at the École Militaire in Paris and served in the Greek army in high positions. He quit the army with the restoration of the monarchy in 1935, took part in the Chania anti-dictatorship movement and was condemned to life im- prisonment and the stripping of his rank. During the occupation he joined the left-wing EAM, and was made Secretary (Minister) of Military Affairs in the mountain government. He was subsequently exiled to Makronisos and later, voted twice as parliamentary deputy for Piraeus and Islands with the United Democratic Left (EDA). 127 V. Hadjiangelis, The anti-dictatorship movement of Crete, Chania 1986, pp. 138-9. 136

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT of Samaria (photo: V. Kotrotsos) todaywhich doctor’s hoststhe surgery Fig. 87: Thehouse of Rousos Viglis 129 128 grazed allaround were them, theirs to make mostof. the hide and given be hospitality, sheepand the whilst goats of Viglis the brothers, which asahideawayhistory of national the resistance fighters. Here would guerrillas the Yiannis –at Poria, outskirts on of northeast Gorge, the the and hasgone down in organisations. Themitato, factory, cheese the of Viglis the brothers and –Thodoris inhabitantsAll the of Samaria village were of part or national the helped resistance ganising resistance the against conqueror. the asaplaceacted of refuge, protection, preparation and salvation for patriots the or- The German occupation of Crete endedin1945.Throughout its duration Gorge the allied troops southern Crete. left The top-ranking politicians Twenty left. also New mediately after, accompanied by conqueror’s the reprisals. same Onthe day last the able to resist weight the of raid, the with German occupation the im- beginning important events of World Second the War. Crete on 30May, succumbed not being Battleish soldiers. Thiswasthe of Crete, hasgone which down asone of most the was followed by epic the resistance of island’s the inhabitants, with help the of Brit- mainland. raid from TheGerman started air the on morning the of 20May. This without equipment. Thesoldiers of Crete 5th the Division were cut off from the there after fallof the mainland the Greek front. The Greek powers were few and were supported by soldiers few of the British the Empire transferred hadbeen who ing of part Greece and continental Europe (23April 1941).Theisland’s defences government of Emmanuel Tsouderos onlyremain- toCrete, wasthe free which fled A little before Athens wasoccupied by troops, German King George IIand Greek the The departure of and theking theGreek government World duringSamaria theSecond War Oral history of Argyro Kokovli, of Argyro history Oral told to Emmy Papavasileiou, June 2008. A. Regos, The years crucial , 1935-1941,vol. II,Papazisis: Athens 1995,p. 273. Levides. deros, Prince Peter, Minister the Varvaersos and chamberlain soldiers accompaniedZealand George, Prime Minister Tsou- Occupation and Resistance and Occupation hosts the doctor’shosts the of Samaria. surgery ship and to Alexandria. taken Today, Rousos Viglis’s house British a by up picked were they where from Ayia Roumeli, house of Rousos Viglis. reached same evening, Onthe they reachedit. found They Samaria, where they hospitality inthe dares, and from Poria into descended Gorge the and crossed 128 They hiked asfar They asPerivolia inThersianes Ma- 129

137

“We turned our backs on the field of battle, where the fierceness had died down, or at least lost its spectacle, now that the sea battles were over, when other parachutists weren’t falling and not many planes were landing. Bolanis went ahead, leading us directly to the crest of the Lefka Ori. “… After having past one point, which the young guide called Poria, our course became easier. We passed a mountain edge and came down on the south side of the range, passing through a cedar forest, reminiscent of the Indus valley in Kashmir. The king explained to me how this was all that was left of the large cedar forest where the Byzantines got their wood supplies from. When we reached a river with clear running water, and as the sun was setting, I stopped and had a bath. Revitalised, I ran to catch up with the others who had gone on a head, and soon met up with them stopped outside of a village, relatively large for this side of Crete. This was Samaria, and the inhabitants had gathered along the length of the river, armed with rivals, and asked us threateningly who we were. “Tsouderos took the initiative and spoke to them in the Cretan dialogue. He told them who we where and that they should let us proceed. Reluctantly, because the suspicion that we were Germans was still strong, they lowered their rifles and allowed the Prime Minister to approach the men at the front. A discussion followed, after which we all relaxed and they announced to us that we could enter Samaria. They took us to a house whose owner … gave us hospitality. “All those who hadn’t washed cleaned themselves. They did not, however, have a razor with which to shave and the only one was mine. So, they all used it. It was a good job I had taken it with me. As I was washing, a Cretan in local costume suddenly arrived, having entered Samaria from the south. He was General Haywood’s messenger, bringing news, according to which the general was at Hora Sfakia along with the staff of the British embassy, and was moving in the direction of the coast of Ayia Roumeli, as we were. We had thus restored contact, and Colonel Blunt was thrilled. “After the meal brought to us by the villagers – we had abused their hospitality as there were many of us whilst their village was poor – we set off again. With great difficulty we descended a deep ravine towards the south, from where a series of tall rock walls starts, the Fig. 88: Prince Peter famed Gorge of Samaria, of which I had heard much. The spectacle was most impressive. If (photograph from the book GORGE IN HISTORY THE ROLE OF SAMARIA the war hadn’t intervened I may have never visited this isolated natural sight. Only a small War Diaries by Prince Peter) | part of the blue sky was visible, a strip along the length of which from time to time we could see an aeroplane passing. “… Near the beach we encountered a few gendarmes who belonged to the forces at the Ayia

Roumeli station, Admiral Turk, as well as the British ambassador and his wife, Sir Michael CHAPTER III and Lady Palairet. The ambassador looked completely exhausted – as he most probably was – but not his wife. On the contrary, she got to work immediately, lit a fire and prepared an impromptu meal for us, which was most welcome. Many planes passed us overhead, but thankfully they didn’t notice us. “There was a hut on the beach, which had been taken over by the team that was waiting for us. We also went inside, but the atmosphere was foul – we were at sea level – and a swarm of flies was buzzing annoyingly. I preferred to get out and lie on the sand. I must have fallen asleep when I was suddenly surprised by the presence, next to me, of Admiral Turl, who was gazing at the sea and making signs with a torch. In the distance, far off, a light could be seen in the dark. When I asked him what he was doing, he said he was trying to communicate with the ship from which he believed that the light was coming.”

Prince Peter,* 1941**

* Prince Peter (1908-1980): son of Prince George, High Commissioner of the Cretan State (1898-1906), and of Princess Marie Bonaparte, a close collaborator of Sigmund Freud. He studied Law and Economic Sci- ences, and had an interest in anthropology. He wrote the books The Eternal Question (1932), Απ΄ Αθηνών εις Καλκούτα (From Athens to Calcutta, Athens 1940) and The Science of Anthropology (1969). During the proclamation of the Greek-Italian war in 1940, he was conscripted and appointed aide to George II, king of Greece ΄, whom he followed to Crete and then to the Middle East. ** Prince Peter, War Diaries, 1940 – 1941, vol. I, Idryma Goulandri-Horn: Athens 1997. 138

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT they mightdie. fearing that theywere going to transfer themto theRussianfront, where gestured to them.One, withtears inhiseyes, said “Russia, Russiakaput,” half anhourtheyhadgathered alltheirthings. are“Where you going?” I the boat, Yiannis Vailakis ofLoutros, told me “we’ve come to getthem.” In out to themintheirlanguageandtheyran to theguardhouse. The manin oculars. The whoaccompanied German, themalways, shouted something the guardhouse at Loutros. They saw alittleboat coming through theirbin- to bethere. They were anxiousbecausetheirphonecouldn’t with connect that theirtroops to were withdraw starting from thePrefecture. Ihappened AyiaThey left RoumeliinSeptember 1944. This was oneofthefirstsigns got from Koutsoyerakos, suchasmatches andblankets. food stores, etc. Duringtheirstay, theytraded thebooty, theloot, theyhad maria for several days, where theyrequisitioned several houses, created After Koutsoyerakos andLivada were setfire to, stayed theGermans inSa- get helpto him. to getthem.Hefell offtherock edgeanddied, before oneofhisaidescould He forgot hisbinoculars at Prinia oneday, andwent onhisown day the next as plectrums. themandstuffthem. kill The lute players would usegriffon vulture wings agrimia, bearded vultures, griffon vultures. Hewould filmthemandthen The officer*, German who was interested inanimals, putusto work catching (housed intoday’s Prefecture building).I saw themleaving twice. for moments ofneed, whichcovered theAyia Command Roumeli-Chania guardhouses at Loutraki andAyia Roumeli,andtwo trained carrierpigeons by plane. theirparts ers, transporting The hadatelephone Germans inthe tractor to theregion “off-road”, asthere was noroad, andlater brought oth- of themountainrange, sothat planescould land. They brought thefirst los sotheycould plantpotatoes andrye. They alsoflattened alarge part grinding chores. Oneofthejobswe didwas to clearalarge area at Oma- ter, becausetheyneededwood to sendto Chania. They madeusdoallthe patrolled theGorge. They requisitioned the “fabrica”, thehydraulic locsplit- The hadapermanentguardhouse Germans at Ayia Roumeli,andconstantly themgreat distancesand carry withthemonfoot. Their thesacksandwood lossmeantthat we ourselves, hadto carry often we hadandwhichweonly meansoftransport moved thingsaround on. mals. The biggestblow was therequisition ofourmules, whichwere the them pillaged–ourharvests, oilandhoneywere missing, aswere ourani- first squadron hadgone, ofGermans we returned to ourhousesandfound foronto themwhenhewas food looking to quenchhishunger. When this theyoungstering thisfirstraid theykilled Stavros Y. Viglakis whostumbled they would constantly setoffexplosions andcreate pandemonium.Dur- remainedGermans inthevillagefor four days. To terrorise uscompletely from elderlyKyriakos thevery Speralakis, whocouldn’t come withus. The tered thevillage, Samaria. We villagershadallhiddeninthecaves, aside when theyraised flagover theGerman thepeakof Volakia. They thenen- boastedOn 4September1941theGermans that theyhadconquered Crete, ages of13-15,told to Emmy Papavasileiou, June2008. of ** Oralhistory Yiannis D. wholived Kaloyerakis, theabove experiences from the ter 5.1. * The Germanofficer andzoology professor Part II,chap- See HorstSiewert. Testimony of Yiannis DamoulisKalogerakis** the concentration camps, from where theydidnotreturn… realisingthe Germans it. The remaining prisonerswere sentto Germany, to passed Aradaina seven peopleescapedwiththehelpoflocals, without They thentook themenonfoot to Chania,to sendtheminto exile. When they dressing himupinwomen’s clothing. The villagewas besiegedfor 63days. visit them.Duringonesuchvisit, Kalliope Viglaki managedto save ayouth by itants andlocked themenupinchurch. They allowed onlythe women to and Livada andthenwent to Ayia Roumeli,where theyrounded uptheinhab- at Achlada and Voukelasi. reprisal, In setfire theGermans to Koutsoyerakos erakos, where many were [23-25]Germans killed. There were thentwo battles … The Ayioroumeliots helpedtheEnglishin1943sabotageofKoutsoy- mountains andtherest handedthemselves over. meli. They triedto eliminate them. The leaderwas oneescapedto killed, the to theGorge. The found Germans themhere whentheytook over Ayia Rou- Easthadremainedto theMiddle inarea, hidinginacave at theentrance … Australians andNewZealanders whohadnotmanagedto betransported usingboards.Portes theyalsomadeanairlift operated themselves, astheyneededwood that theygotfrom theGorge. At shots. They requisitioned thehydraulic logsplitter, whichtheysometimes instil fear before entering thevillage, theycreated pandemoniumby firing darmerie station. The day next theyproceeded to and, Samaria inorder to When took Ayia theGermans Roumelitheysetupaguardhouse inthegen- July 2008. * ofGiorgos Oral history Tzatzamiakis, astold to Argyro Smyrlaki-Chaniotaki, (F. archive) Borakis Fig. 89: Snow inSamaria Giorgos Tzatzimakis* 139

The Civil War After liberation, Greece was dragged into a tumul- tuous and rending civil war. Its effect was smaller in Crete, without this meaning that the island did not suffer. The Gorge of Samaria was the safest refuge for the guerrillas. Only in this wild place, with its unsurpassable chasms, could the guerrillas rest, breath. Yet, this place was to be their grave too. In June 1948, the final battle, the Battle of Samaria, took place, between the last guerrillas remaining in Crete and government forces. Yiannis Viglis of Samaria saved the main group of the hunted, by leading them through a difficult passage between Prinia and Tripiti, to a safe place above Koutsoyerakos. Without Viglis’s help, the exodus of the 104 guerrillas through the cordon Fig. 90: Thodoros Viglis would have been completely impossible.130 The epi- (photograph from The civil war in Crete, logue of this fratricidal war was written at Samaria. by L. Iliakis, Chania 2002) Fig. 91: Yiannis Viglis (photograph from The civil war in Crete,

by L. Iliakis, Chania 2002) GORGE IN HISTORY THE ROLE OF SAMARIA

We hid in the inaccessible slopes and the opponent left empty-handed … For sure, he was better prepared than us. He had the ability to surround us, to | keep us hidden and force us to hand ourselves over or die form hunger and thirst. … At daybreak [4/6/1948] ... gendarmes, MAY [Outdoor Defence Units], soldiers and conscripted villages moved together towards the Gorge. They take Gingilos from the west. From the north, Omalos, Xyloskalo, Poria, Melintaou and Psari, and more to the east Angelokambi. Many forces disembarked by sea at Ayia Roumeli. We were completely encircled. On the 5th of June mortars and heavy machine guns fire and comb the land … Aeroplanes drop tons CHAPTER III of hot lead onto the steep ravines, the slopes and the peaks. Stones leave their eternal resting spots and, along with the steel roll down, you think, without end. The Gorge shakes, growls … With nightfall, all dies down … At dawn, and throughout the day, hell once more … … Within a wild Gorge, invaders on one side, thousands, with all means … and on the other a few dozen barefoot, naked … hungry and thirsty, calculat- ing their bullets one by one … The Gorge passes hold strong … The guerrillas fight … How much, however? And, until when? One noon, everything is lost. A combined attack from the Lagoudolidaves passage breaks our own resistance. Later, at Ai Nikolas, Poria and Angelokambi … Many forces head for the bottom of the Gorge. … the basic guerrilla forces withdraw to the southwest, to the Prinia region … But, the end is nigh … the Gorge cannot be held. It has fallen! … This wild nature, this difficult place, which looked after us and kept us, is now alien. Hostile … We must leave. Abandon it. But, how? The passages are now taken. And these are not slopes that can be walked over. That can be clambered, panted over, emerging somewhere. Here, the places are unsurpassable. You can hide like an agrimi so they can’t find you however much they search. But, to live with the air and the rocks without food and water, you can’t. The Gorge was cut off… … Night draws … the Viglides, Yiannis and Vangelis, take a last, tearful look at their little village which is still burning. They then go in front and around ninety guerrillas follow them – those of us who survived … … There is also a passage which no one knows, just these kings of the Gorge, the Viglides. A passage through unsurpassable places. We proceed on hand and foot … stones slip away under our feet. We survived the battle, but you think you will never get out of here. Daybreak finds us on a plateau with strong, thick cypresses. Humans may never even have set foot here before …

Nikos and Argyro Kokovlis, 2002

N. and A. Kokovlis, pp. 217-21.

130 L. Iliakis, The civil war in Crete, Chania 2002, p. 89. 140

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Fig. 92: (photo: V. Kotsotsos) Midday at Samaria at Samaria Midday 141

CHAPTER 4 THE GORGE AND THE WILD GOAT IN LITERATURE

An inexhaustible source of artistic inspiration, the wild beauty of Samaria and Editing: the wild goat has inspired folk bards and great poets, photographers and ordinary Emmy Papavasileiou people, like an old grandpa from Epirus, who exclaimed on seeing the Gorge: “Oh, what wild beauty!” To a large degree, nature is an aesthetic spectacle and sound … Man’s attitude towards nature does not resemble so much 1. Folk poetry: Rizitika and Mantinades the attitude of a viewer towards a work of art, but the attitude of a creator towards his subject … Nature has no meaning be- Rizitiko: fore you see her. She waits for you to give it to her, transforming the elements she Agrimi and my little agrimaki, my tamed deer gives you into a vision … Then, she begins Tell me where your places are, where your winter quarters. to talk to your soul, to give herself over to Crags are our land, leskes131 our winter quarters, you, to initiate you into her mysteries … 132 For nature to talk to man’s soul means that The little caves in the crags our home! the human substance is shaped within a deeper content. The souls talks to itself, taking inspiration from nature ... We must Mantinades: see our aesthetic contact with nature as The passes of Samria and the parts of Omalos our school for becoming human. Whoever does not enter and pass them knows Crete not. Vasilis Tatakis, 1937 … The Cretan of the prairie, the agrimi of Gingilos, V. Tatakis, “The meaning of love for nature”, in See that they have been born from the same dough. Ypaithro, issue 26, Athens 1937, pp. 42-9. … - But the sanada133 no one can catch her, because she jumps like an arrow in Samaria’s forests!134 … I am a child of Samaria, I don’t pay the haraç tax And like the agrimi of the mountain, I will never be tamed.135

131 Leska: natural step, rise in the land on a cliff. 132 See S. Apostolakis, Rizitika. The demotic songs of Crete, Gnosis: Athens 1993, p. 614. 133 Sanada: female agrimi. Fig. 93: Stamp from the Hellenic Post, 1979 134 These three mantinades were kindly made available by the teacher and folklorist Stamatis Apostolakis. (Hellenic Post Philately Section) 135 V. Haroniti and A. Droudaki, Historic places of Crete, Smyrniotaki: Athens 1990, p. 102. 142

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT of Natural History Fig. 94: Thelogo of Crete the Museum baptised hissoul Ionian inthe waters the from of Lefkada, Greek poet the the Sea, burningthe bushes Nikos Engonopoulos and Nikitas Rantos, Elytis, who Odysseus and resurrected Pan, an too) Kostas (this Easter Varnalis poet the of Black the Sea, soul, great the master of Delphi, Archangel the Sikelianos, formed who Greek Easter wantedlos who Greek and everything hiddeepinside aburning himself Savonarola tor of Museus, Andreas first calledand the cantor lead Kalvos, Pericles Yiannopou- Dionysios that came conduc- together Solomos and the madeKrystallis, The crystals below plains inthe flourished never –here you have Freedom! here for grazing and reproduction, and something something else, which, by God, you?strike Why should you prefer goats the of plains? the You have allthat you need Hello and greetings, Wild Goat! Why should words the of plains the and voices their up.higher and, at once, with aquick jump, like an enormous arrow or ameteor, even heflies andhead letsout agreat bleat, echoing above and beyond Gorge the like alimp laugh, goatThe wild stands unmoving air and the again. sniffs Then,suddenly, his heraises mountain, abreed. And saying people the of this, plains the of pushed rare aflock smallgoats towards the offer you rich oats and allour mostexpensive fattened lamb see!” …Come Wea God. build temples shall for you. You golden the goat! be even shall Andwe shall “Wild goat, wildgoat! to Come usto bring usjoy and save us.We shallworship you as reproduction. of moments worldthe below. He stands erect on hisfeet and air, smellsthe raising hislips asin The wildgoat and looks listens. Yet, not hedoes care for noise allthe and clamour of “Wild goat, wildgoat! you to Come usso can enjoy and save us.” andlooks listens. From of amyriad-mouthed plain the human rises cry lungs. goat wild stretchesBelow out plain, the veil and with chains. its heavy the spidery The complete wavering deeply Orthodoxy wiggle, and withgrandly hisevery it moves. is lustrous and hisback between and legs,behind below hismiddle, great the of bell and are like of eyes crystals the an or eagle, of aman full great inspiration. His hair and listens before another little dance himto takes His another peak. shinelike eyes The wildgoat jumped Erect and on and peak. stood atall snorting at helooks plain the goat inpoetry 2. Thewild 137 136 Eastern. purely first is the text inGreek. surrealist works: Other Hinterland, Oktana, and prose the The Great nalysis inGreece. He introduced surrealism to Greece,

Andreas Embiricos (Braila, Romania 1901-1975).Writer and psychiatrist, first to the practice psychoa- Oktana , Ikaros: Athens 1980, pp. 32-4. Andreas Embiricos THE WILDGOAT and hisfirst collection of poetry, Blast Furnace, 137 136 143

morning star, Nanos Valaoritis, these and a few others, those who took the mountains, so that they plain would not eat them up, they celebrate your inspiration and your thick seed, son of Pan and a deer of Aphrodite. Hello and greetings, Wild Goat, who does not love the plains! What would you do with them? Every morning the sun here rises between your horns! In your eyes shine the light- ening of Jechova and the unextinguished passion of Zeus, each time you sow here, with your females, your glorious and undying stock! Fig. 95: Painting of D. Kokotsis, Gingilos, Chania 1925 (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Hello and greetings, Wild Goat, who will not go to the plains! Hello and greetings, you who tread your toenails on the precipitous peaks, the highest Hosanna! Dimitris Kokotsis (Kisamos, Chania 1894–1961): Painter who studied at the Sorbonne and exhib- I spoke and I said, Wild Goat, for I have not sinned. ited throughout almost the whole world: Athens, Prague, Venice, Paris, New York. His rich output al- Glyfada, 12.7.1960 ways has Crete at its centre. THE GORGE AND THE WILD GOAT IN LITERATURE IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND | CHAPTER 4 144

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 139 138 of Culture,(Ministry 1999) FromBC). book the atRoman Armenon Rethymnis. cemetery 1350-1300 Fig. 96: the grass, The great hostel, The invisible crowd European Aristeion prize (for literary Manolis Pratikakis (Myrtos Ieropetra, 1943):Poet and psychologist. Aleading representative of generation the of 1970s,he the M.Pratikakis, Detail from Detail aclay larnax found Late inthe The magic of non-vengeance Minoan Mycenean and tastes The Dormition and Resurrection of the Bodies of Domenico , Kastaniotis: Athens 1990. . In 2003hewon State the Prize for for Poetry hiscollection Water. Alltitles inGreek. Back withBack crazymagnets. Hair but or body agorge; Inapproachable the which pushes you dogs,thereAnd the isnothing there. Not atrace, The stones menapproach when with hisblood; him huntersAnd when himand shoot hefalls,and hedyes Twigs of Green. shineslike asmallfountain;The memory it smokes from incense shot adistant fromLike deaths rifle of baptisms; A confused ball of string. Which clouds water the and eye; inthe makes mind the thatBeings adream becomes and net. Moment covers; behind apattern spaceof inthe A black that mountains. flame inthe runs Anunapproachable The universe shinesunconquered inhishorns. fromLeaps, those before matched to divine their tracks. Escaped, which isincreasingly escaping. With deadly those Time back. An unknown instinct that A projection from rock; the savagely pushing Is unravelled, referring everywhere. Never-ending readings asamulti-paged forest A complete that extinguishes, poem iswritten, which receives ΙΙ THE WILDGOAT And remember only at adistance. Sleek hair. Acomplete which you being at look An animal of stars the with that magneticand of salvation). (In unprocessed the dark, smelling danger the Full of smellsof the wonderful herbs. The bushes; amoving nervy, arrow; And again earthly, breezy, triumphant amongst that constantly changes shape and islost. Wild.idea. Immaterial. Later, asmallgrey cloud precipitous a He becomes tall. standing We him see Ι ). Poetry collections: Manolis Pratikakis THE WILDGOAT Libido, Genealogy, Lekythos, Leftquietly in wasacandidate in1999for the 138 139 145

Manolis Pratikakis 14 MARKS OF THE WILD GOAT

1. Always speechless, as it hears the bleat of the piteous chasm. 2. Its homeland is at the edge of disaster. There he rests, There he births his children. The breeze drops the Bones into the depths, and you didn’t hear them at the brink. 3. They leave like zephyrs and it is then that uncomprehendingly. They wiggle the thorns of the desert. (See Mirror, Tarkovsky.) 4. Its limbs are like hymns within the pleasure of departure. 5. These four-winged creatures of the precipices with the unconstrained motors of divine origin. Fig. 97: Sculpture by Y. Markantonakis at the entrance of Chania town (photo: Emmy Papavasileiou) 6. Stubborn and starlit, humbly imperial, like a running painting of Piero dell Francesca. Y. Markantonakis (Chania 1952): Studied sculpture at the Athens School of Fine Art. In 1995 he was made artistic director of the Art Workshop of the Municipality of Chania. He was won awards 7. In its scent it has absorbed the little grass of in Greek national sculpture competitions. In 2005, he represented everything that correlates to it. Greece at the Biennale of Sweden. 8. Its horns of fossilised animal tissue, twisted on a prickly helmet, forgotten hymns, in flexible necks of springs. The horns of the spinning wheel wrap the IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND horizon. | 9. It is the crystal cry that grazes in the mountains.

The one which leaves man in half. CHAPTER 4 10. That which makes him shine like a four-legged ruby is the Steaming metal. The mineral of death. 11. Like a sexual body which escapes you to reappear once again in your dreams. 12. Noiseless and unshootable; he does not speak nor does he hide, but he means. 13. A flame whose flesh does not understand the chasms. 14. The Wild Goats of Crete increasingly descend to the virgin depths to be born.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 13Α 146 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 13Β

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: archive) A.Borakis M. Manousakas archive) Fig. 98: 1945 (photo: Alois- Fig. 99: Gingilos, winter Feichtenberger, winter 1985 Samaria, Samaria, 147 148

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Fig. 100: deep knowledge of place, the Giorgis Manousakis particular the seeks traditional way of life and thought still preserved many of its old features, but messages new could already bediscerned. With We shallnow follow hisfootsteps. Theauthor walked through Gorge the of summerof transition, inthe 1968.Aperiod the when portrayed “passage the through Gorge” the of asajourney thought for nature and man. travelling through Gorge the on paper or blogs. One, however, stands out: and prose poet the writer Giorgis Manousakis, who Many visitors, needto feel the share and th artists otherwise, 3. us to reprint chapter this from herhusband’s book. We would like to express our warm gratitude to philologist the State Prize for travel writing in 1981. Passage through“The Gorge” the lastchapter isthe travel inthe book of human the surpassing microcosm. relationship man between and nature with sensitivity the of an author, arelationship which contributes to self-knowledge and t Thegorge inprose The passage through the Gorge (Chania Forestry Service archive) Thepassage through Gorge the (Chania Forestry Service Angeliki Karathanasi-Manousaki for to herkindpermission allow eir feelings with others, recording o personal their experiences Travelogue of Sfakia morality of province the of Sfakia and shineslight on the , which won, which Giorgis Manousakis 1st the he a f

149

Giorgis Manousakis140 THE PASSAGE THROUGH THE GORGE 141

Omalos becomes narrower at its southeast edge, terminating at the rock edge of Xyloskalo. To the right, on a rise, the tourist kiosk resembles a look out point. Behind it rises the Gingilos massif, wild and imposing. This is what magnetises our vision above all, surprising after the nonchalant monotony of the fertile mountain range. This is what draws our steps to the edge of the chasm, so we see it fully rising from the depths of the Gorge, standing there, in front of us, naked and fearsome, all ashen rock, wrinkled, in pieces, beaten by the winds and the rains of the winter storms. From the middle and upward it is given to the sunlight, from the middle and downwards sunken in the shadows. Its dense mass, as it rises dead opposite and so near to us, is like a silent threat. This impression is magnified by the total lack of life – of the tiniest speck of green — from its tip until its middle. Gingilos has the look of the landscape of a dead star. Between it and us, the abyss opens up. Xyloskalo, green and ashen, hangs over unbelievable depths. It plummets with all the deeply rooted rocks, with its expansive trees, the lit protrusion and the dark cavities, as far as where the shade becomes so thick in the darkness. The whole place looks as though it is falling with everything sliding leftwards and further, until it is lost between two series of giant mountains. In front of us the road begins to unwind and descend to this invisible, from up here, deep peak of the earth. We begin. The sometime footpath is now wide, so that two people can walk side-by-side. It descends smoothly, with its bound wood planks, going right and then left, inscribing its never-ending crooked line on the mountain slope. As we descend, so the wall of Xyloskalo, which we left behind, begins to gain height. High up on the erect rock are perked the ancient wild cypress trees of the Gorge, not looking at all like the cypresses of the plain. Those rise IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND straight up, marking the centre of the sky with their tops. Their whole existence is peaceful, | self-controlled, stretched and lofty for one purpose: height. The ones here are old border dwellers, wounded a thousand times, battling for centuries at the edge of the chasm. They have twisted bodies, broken, peeled, full of corners and knots, whose dramatic stances show CHAPTER 4 all the struggle and anxiety of their lives. The main concern of these ones is not conquering height, but survival. This is why large branches stretch to the sides, like hands seeking to grab hold somewhere, thrusting thick, strong roots into the reddish rock. The rocks eject them from their hard material, but they insist on coming out again, sliding like snakes for a little on the surface and then diving in again, like the tentacles of a giant octopus. And the whole tree ages, stuck onto the slopes, its branches and deep green tufts stretch out parallel to the surface of the precipice, stretching out only in two dimensions, so as not to be a target for the wild windstorms of winter.

140 Giorgis Manousakis (Chania, 1933-2008). Poet and author. Was a literature teacher for 26 years in secondary education. Poetry: Monologues, 1967; The body of silence; 1970; Triglyph, 1976; Bird taxidermist, 1978; Breathing spaces, 1988; People and shadows, 1995, At the capes of existence, 2003; Broken sculptures and bitter herbs, 2005. Prose: Travelogue of Sfakia, 1980, 2002; A helmet nailed onto the balustrade, 32 short prose pieces, 1999; When our sole fitted with the earth, chronicle, 2000; The Volunteer, 2008, novel (historical and political, apprenticeship set during the period 1912-1940). Criticism: Crete in the literary work of Prevelakis, 1968. In 1977 he was awarded the Kazantzakis Prize. All titles in Greek. 141 G. Manousakis, Travelogue through Sfakia, first edition Kedros: Athens 1980, second edition Mitos: Rethymno 2002. 150

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT – hasscattered and them earth’s hideinthe madethem holes. deepest that demons the shot willtouch –someone us.Arifle trigger-happy must have it fired with elves, yoked with and them fell then into adeepgulch chasm. But we have nofear were moonstruck and still play strange tunes caves, indeep of young men who fell inlove herds were who tempted dances by and lyre-players the speech, fairy losttheir then who tinued to live inits harsh isolation. Theold Sfakians know aheap of stories about shep- From ancient the timewhen the gods were worshipped at Gingilos, pagans the have con- and come and go Devil’s inthe Cave, site the of ancient the oracle. tou Demonou, have they night-time dances at spring the Linoseli, with freezing the water, “brokenness”.this Only elves the air inthe and at fairies suspended can the Gremna be the slightest weight shatters it into roll which pebbles, downwards. Human feet cannot step on Gingilos, more sheerdown here, on takes colour. aleaden Thewhole rock iseroded – the To our right, and close, are so precipices the of Gremna the tou Sapemenou. Theslope of sounds are magisterial mountains these willing to respond to. shot. Thesidesof XyloskaloA rifle receive it, and drop it again many times.Only such deep song of life. bones whitening, naked and licked. Andallaround other the trees murmur ceaselessly the in aposition of tragicdespair. Agiant skeleton condemned to remain upright for eternity, lived. Agnarled and weathered with remains the trunk, of few of its branches, motionless, A tree that diedmany years ago, but continues which to stand on same where spot the it The descent continues. At some point, inamongst sated the plant life, arelic stands out. Gorge. the land the this, hangs straight down for two or three hundred metres, until bottom the of and with alittle stone wallallaround, like aparapet and amantle for resting at. Below To right the of road the asmallplateau isformed, with its cypress tree middle inthe landscape isnot shaken by passageof the humans. and infinitude lostinthe of Xyloskalo, before we reach rocks the of Gingilos. Thetitanic notwhich does appear its to lose serenity. eternal Ourvoices are are weak, they sucked fingers inmouth, with allhisstrength. Thesoun ly. laugh Some for noreason. Someone letsout aharsh, animal-like cry. Another whistles, by drop like strong alcohol. Thepeople of polity, this come who here ingroups, loud- talk depthsthe of Gorge, the up to rise which here? Whatever its source is,it drips into usdrop can reach? it Ordoes come from strong the smellof chlorophyll and moist the breath of murmuring that of asilence trees –silence, the spreads its wings out eye widerthan the benevolent force. feeling this come Does from feeling the of dominant the –with allthe something thickened around air, the usfilling like invisible the presence of aharsh but intodeeper green the innards of we Gorge. the go, further Andthe indefinable the so This descent isadescent into maternal the bowels of nature. With step we go our every mythological times. low-voiced murmur from broad chests, telling to be which seems aheroic from story It or acomplaint, isnot acry but aslow, persistent conversation, near far, yet so so a – cypresses, pines and holm oaks–make th Now calmsummerbreeze, the which blows through leaves the of Xyloskalo the trees em emit Gorge. adeeprumble the filling ds are absorbed into immobile the silence, 151

A new sound comes to our ears, slow and distant. It is like the voice of a flute, mixing with the deep cypress and pine bows. It is the murmur of water, rising from the bottom of the Gorge. It seems that we are nearing the bottom of the giant Gorge. In any case, the sides of Xyloskalo, which are lost in the unimaginable heights above our heads, confirm that we have come a substantial distance. The water’s voice sounds increasingly near, until the little river is seen also descending this small slope, running over large, greyish pebbles. It is so transparent that you cannot but lean over and dip your lips into its jittery surface. But you can’t drink more than three or four gulps, as it sets your teeth chattering. Plane trees neighbour on to the water, and giant rocks, some like one-roofed houses, sit next to the stream. In between them, or a little further down, stand trees, amongst the most tortured and windswept. A large stone has jammed in the crotch of some holm oak. Its bark rises, just like dough, and it hugs it even tighter, so that nothing can separate them now. The land around looks like a battlefield. What destruction must take place in these depths during a winter storm! It is then that the demons of Gingilos rule throughout the Gorge, and woe betide the person who ends up in their path. And yet in this wild place the women and children of Sfakia resorted, as a final hiding place, during every uprising, when the enemy was flooding their province. They often spent whole winters in the caves, whilst the few armed guarded the two openings of the Gorge night and day: Xyloskalo in the north and Portes in the south. More often, they kept the “dogs” out of the Gorge. This is what happened in the early 14th century, when the Skordylis family of Sfakia raised the province against the Venetians. And so in March 1824 when bloodthirsty Hussein trampled Crete, burning and slaughtering, and in the summers of 1867 and 1868 when Ali Sarchos and Mehmet Pasha would not dare step foot in Xyloskalo. Only during the uprising of Daskaloyiannis were the Turks able to break the defence. They went down to Omalos, surprising the small garrison (“Because the Sfaki- ans didn’t care that they couldn’t enter through there,” as Barba Pantzelios tells) and they reached as far as Neroutsikos. There the revolutionaries stopped them and, after a battle, IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND

forced them to go back. | I think of December 1868, when Crete’s three-year revolution was in its last throes. The last fighters of Riza and Kissamoselinos were perched here, around three hundred in all, including some of the brains behind the uprising: Kriaris, Korkides, Parthenios Perides, CHAPTER 4 Hadjimichalis Yiannaris, Mantakas, Nikoloudes. Without food and military supplies, with the relentless winter all around them and the Turks having closed off the two entrances to the Gorge, they waited for the miracle: a war between Greece and Turkey. But the miracle did not seem to come, the cold and the water kept increasing, and the Pasha, along with the nobles of Hora Sfakia who sided with him, gave them a swift deadline in which to give themselves up. With heads held high, the captains walked in the deep snow up the road we had traversed, going to declare their submission. We reach Ai Nikolas. The Gorge here broadens and becomes a small plateau, lightly skewed. To the right and left, in amongst the rocks and trees, little ledges are formed. The chapel of Ai Nikolas is built in stone, roofed with tiles. It is guarded by a number of surrounding giant-bodied cypresses. Inside, its walls are mouldy from the weather and the damp. It has earth for a floor. A poor icon-stand of blackened wood and a metal cande- labrum are all its “wealth”. A little further down the shepherds have built a pen for their sheep in dry stone. 152

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT there are These first. rocky the leaps of inconquering Cretan the earth height. depths, lostinthe become which, compete asthey of aseries peaks see asto which willget of a building perhaps atower. canseen, be From ravine the river, opened up by dry the we slopingin the sidesthat form, once which they cultivated. At of aheight peak the ruins the into two and allows adownward sloping to river pass.Small bed terraces can seen be dry At one point, sideof left Gorge the the isdragged backwards, it lesssteep, becomes divides winterthe water flows have deep, left sheerwounds. where, smallrocks, united in a compact mass,form mosaics of In abstract art. many parts, all together form acolour from to dark scale earthen brown, from ceramic to red. Else- is written. Horizontal, wavy linesindicate rock the zones. linehasits Each own shade, and As we proceed vegetation the peters out. Gorge’s Onthe naked wallsits geological history to areas where man not cannot at even seen, be a distance. are rightfamous, the because now almostmythical, of agrimia Samaria have withdrawn for and asecond lostit. then But others, the saw who nothing, himand they tease maybe site mountain. He gestures wildly and insists that he“saw it”, there on rock. the He saw it The group infront of ushasstopped. Someone isindicating adistant point on oppo- the appears stretches close very upwards it high makes so you dizzy. offloor Gorge the are becoming increasingly that wall, vertical the apeak green. Behind treesfig cling on to with cliff the strength allthe of twisted their roots. Thesidesand the reddish rocks, bindweeds hang like distant green cypresses, pines whilst bears, and wild and below completely Bushes vertical. and allkindsof herbsspring from cracks the inits The Gorge is still quite wide. Its two sides, however, rise sharply, here with alittle slope to its left. The route follows river, the sometimes level with it, sometimes higher, to its right, then broken well. TheGorge isinshadow, are above yet high reddened by peaks the sun. the The grey light of dawn signto isthe wake up. Until moment the comes off, to day start has without abreath, taking its heroic rhapsody. playing its hide-and-seek between sparse below foliage, river the recites, further whilst time for sleepcomes, some beneath plane inasmalllevel section, tree, with stars the here and there. Thenight, however, of isfull voices, teasing and laughter. Andnow the up.them are They nolonger except distinct, for glow the torches, of electric which search Night slowly falls.Themountains, trees, rocks, people fadeaway darkness asthe sucks out loudly hit asthey freezing the water. Fivefood. or ones sixwarm-blooded dip into stream the where it forms alittle lake, crying and water. feet running washtheir inthe came who have first Those laid even out the where for night’s their there sleepwhilst isstilldaylight. Many remove walking their boots Groups of walkers to come. start enter Some little the church, mostscatter some- to find came of agoddess forests the nymph the and sea, the Diktynna. into Fishermen’s sea. the netssaved herfrom lost,and being from that point on shebe- it for ninemonths at Madares. When, after much hemadeto effort, grab her, shejumped Britomartys driven crazyby Minos wasborn. hadbeen mountain this and agrimi, hunted This iswhere Pashley that believed Kaino wasinancient city times,the where virgin the 153

The stream, which accompanied our route, has disappeared. We didn’t even notice that it had left us. We now walk alongside a dry bed. Behind a turn in the Gorge, the village of Samaria can be seen. The space here widens and forms a small vale, which is not missing even olives. The road followed by the right side of the Gorge now goes down towards the bottom, where the round pebbles whiten. In front of us, a rock with its only tree and a little church at the top stand out like a delicate Chinese handicraft on the blue depths of the Gorge. Opposite, the village’s little houses can be seen, small and unplastered. Between us and these, the bed of the dry river deepens, digging a second gorge in miniature into the middle of the Gorge. A wooden bridge of cypress trunks and a few planks unites the two banks. The ancient pieces of wood wobble and creak as you pass over them. Samaria is deserted. It hasn’t been long since, with the forced expropriations of the area, its last inhabitants left. Two or three men, whom we saw entering the village, are workers brought in for some job. Most houses had fallen into ruin quite a few years ago. The rest – not more than six or seven – look as though they were only abandoned a short while ago. Their gardens have not yet been covered over with grass. Their doors and windows are open and, here and there, you can notice traces of recent life. The lower floor of a house was where the “factory” where olive oil was made was. All are as they were when people lived in the village: the mass of the core on the floor, with its strong aroma. The mill with its two millstones, so small that they fit in a man’s embrace. The primitive “firmer”, the hand-powered press. A round table, made from a slice of a cypress tree trunk, with three pieces of wood planted into one side as legs. And in the ceiling the square opening, for a little light to enter. All are small. The “factory” is narrow, with walls greasy from the oil, a low door and ceiling with blackened beams. All indicate that life in this isolated village was poor and difficult, unmoving over the centuries. Expropriation only quickened the fateful end. THE GORGE AND THE WILD GOAT IN LITERATURE IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND We go up to the living area via a wooden stair. On the sofa, with the disembowelled mat- | tress, a blanket like a jack, red, yellow and black, is spread out. A second is on the planks of the floor. There, a small table and above it a lamp with the two, three empty crackers from a “rifle”. On the wall hangs a cracked mirror, with painted flowers and its now vain CHAPTER 4 “good morning” to the homemakers, now gone forever. Perhaps the workers we saw a little earlier live here. The hour is drawing on, yet Samaria is still in the shade. They say that the village doesn’t see more than four hours of daylight even during the summer. In winter, it is covered in snow from December to February or March and in the spring the waters keep it cut off from the rest of the world. Those who inhabited these places must have had astonishing physical endurance and spiritual strength. Samaria, whose life stopped a few months ago, was during all the Turkish period – and certainly earlier – a small but proud and unsubmissive heart, which beat in this wild mountain peak. It was the hideaway of the revolutionaries during the uprisings and the asylum of the hainides – the guerillas of Crete – during the years of the janissaries. One of the last, Kaloyeroyiannis, born and bred in Samaria, became the avenger of the Christians of neighbouring Selinos, who suffered so much under the harsh Turks of their province. With his few companions he went down one night to Katano, Kakodiki, Kopetos, 154

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT if the lowlandersif the have also asoul. At tip the of tongue, the the you something of that feeling of greatness with on rucksacks backs. their Theshadows are deep, windsharp, the and height the gives and refreshing the sound of water. the Thepeople on road the below tiny, look proceeding summer,being and sit on a rock and rest. Around usresound giant the female cypresses We water drink from stream the nextto chapel, the drained hasnot which despite been it that three brothers were buried underhere, allthree killedby same the bullet. Outside door, the little inthe straight space, there isacement plaque. Someone tells us chesttheir during liturgy. the ter would gamma, aΓ.They lean on supporting this, it armpit undertheir or infront of In one corner isaforgotten folk “pew”, hooked at staff, awooden top the like acapital let- gives hisblessings to devoutly the faithful. and after living wrinkled an life ascetic for forty years. Above, within clouds, the Christ Father1740, the Superior gives Zosimas communion to Hosia desert inthe Maria, skeletal how, have for saved timebeing been the from passing icon thieves.Onone, with date the On its icon poor stand there are stilltwo or three old icons, folk which, art unbeknown and apiercing gaze, reminiscent of old Sfakians. faceofthe an old saint by candlelight, with bushy eyebrows, thick beard and moustache course, provincial, with thick lines and anaïve spirit; yet here and there you can still spot all the damp and abandonment, some of the wallpaintings still survive. Their style is, of and other floor the the into ceiling the We crouch and enter semi-dark the church. Despite made from which thick turns wood, on with its acrank, wooden also one edge stuck into as far asherfoundations. Above door the isengraved year the 1379.We push door, the a low door, it roosts nextto unceasing threat the of atorrent. Thegrey round stones reach The church isbuilt on atiny level area. Small, with robust stone wallsand its only opening a young Sfakian to tried clamber up there, and fell into achasm of thousands of metres. – Sword –with its untrodden dance crags,where on agrimia the edge. the Afew years ago hundred several and metres, wilder.to rise sharper Higher of up Spathi hangs peak the chapel of Hosia Maria, gave which its name to village. the Above slope continues the this, There where houses end, on the asteep much slope up higher road than the neststhe greatso that for hours didnot they dare approach spot where the helay. from the place and killed him, firing on allsides. Their fear that he perhaps still lived was found himabove Achlada, near Xyloskalo, from suffering hiswound. him expelled They of wounded the The death of Vergeris caused Turks all the up, of to rise Selinos and track footsteps the Kaloyeroyiannis hit himtoo, killing him. fight. TheAgha pulled out his pistol inreply and, ashewas,hit drunk himon behind. the withoutspot, He an escort. stepped out infront of him,swore at himand invited himto was pillaging villages the of Zographou. Lakkoi He lay inwait and found himinadeserted hainis Gorge the crossed alone and entered He Selinos. heard that fearsome the Vergeris life. TheTurk replied, inviting Kaloyeroyiannis to hishouse for something to nibble. The sent himaletter saying heshould stop killing the of Christian the ragas,ifheloved his years inthe before janissary Seliniot 1821revolution the was Vergeris. Kaloyeroyiannis and hit asmany brutal Aghas outside hecould find of towers. their Themost bloodthirsty hainis . For days searched they for slopes himinthe and dales,until they and madeth pride, which hainis e highlanders wondere highlanders song emerges: 155

Hey, with you sitting up, on the snowy mountain You eat the dew of the snow, drink freezing water, If you catch a hare you taste it, a partridge you dine on it …

The heavy tune hovers like an eagle at the opening of the Gorge, and those who pass below, at its bottom, lift their heads and look to where we are, searching vainly for the singers. The landscape changes from the village of Samaria and beyond. The Gorge narrows a little and its sides become bare. Only scattered low branches, bushes and greens hang in the air. There is no other road out from the basin of the dry river. The footstep poises with difficulty over its cobbles. The wavy lines begin to draw their designs on the Gorge walls once more. On one part of the completely smooth rock, the winter waters have drawn large vertical strokes, greens, reds and yellows – an art informel painting in dimensions that fit with the size of the space. Further down a piece hanging from the left side, who knows from which era, has laid a bed of stones over a large area, which goes down as far as the bottom of the Gorge. For several hours you walk along the causeways of this giant pile of stones. The sun, now at midday, hits you on the head and hits the black rocks, so that you think you are now walking in a desert. But the Gorge does not dally in opening a new, calm embrace, with the white of the little church of Christ. A little further, and we reach Kefalovrysia. Plane trees along with cypresses and pines spread thick, refreshing shadows, promising blissful rest for the tired and sweaty rambler. And best of all: a rich spring bubbles from a hole in a rock, it flows next to the tree roots, and descends following the path of the Gorge. Many people locate the oracle of Apollo Tarraios here. Certainly, if you come here alone at an hour when the daylight dwindles you will here all those “hums, whispers and roars

and all those confused sounds of the wind, spring, trees and bushes,” that Deffner heard. IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND You shall then be ready, through his imagination, to see the seer-priest “escort you into | the dimly lit temple” and tell you “predictions on your future.” For most of the day trippers who have stopped here, however, at midday next to the spring, drinking water, washing, eating, joking and laughing, the place represents nothing more than the pleasure of shade and rest. No imposing mystery could withstand such human masses. CHAPTER 4 From Kefalovrysi down, the water accompanies our route once more. The Gorge again starts to narrow. Its sides grow wilder and climb sharply upwards. Somewhere, the right wall is deeply rent by a divine slice. You feel awe as you see that giant schism being lost in the heights, full of shadow and threatening rock protrusions. From time to time we encounter relics of buildings that resemble watermills. These are the log splitters of Samaria and Ayia Roumeli, simple and primitive equipment for processing tree trunks, using the river flow to generate power. The famous Portes. The place where the two sides of the Gorge draw so close you imagine that they will close off the pass to the sea. On seeing it, you automatically stop. Not to admire the wild grandeur of a nature whose scale annihilates you. Your first reaction is a primordial fear. The myth of the Clashing Rocks surfaces from some childhood memory and you wonder, in the flash of a moment, if this narrow opening you see in front of you is not a trap, if these two giant rocks wait do not for you to go between them for them so 156

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT morning, you when have Portes passed asun tempered beneath now by shade. Anorange sturdy chairs, not does appear unsuited to its title, you when have walked sixhours since signofmodest “Paradise.” And yet, its garden, covered with reeds and with cypresses, the Before we enter Ayia Roumeli, we come to asmallcoffee house with not the particularly hundred metres from sea. the thirdthe Porta, Gorge the towidenand begins its sideslower, until it a few isextinguished crown, final the impressive the climax of grandeur the and wildness of avirgin land. After and passes block entrance the these to hideaway the of Samaria. For today’s rambler, it is Turks the when foot set into villages the of west Sfakia, revolutionaries the would take The three Portes are Gorge’s the natural gates uprising, from south. the During every drenched insunlight. ing gazeto sun-drenched the the brows of narrow the pass,lostindistant heights and logue of water, the touching yellow-red smooth the with palms rocks, rais- sometimes however, to passanother two “iron portes”, always balanced nextto joyful the mono- narrowness the After of Porta, first the Gorge the regains its previous breadth. We have, completelyhigh, closing pass. the forms into torrent an angry on which rises, days with badweather, four or five metres at our feet,crystal-clean playing with sunlight. the little Thisidyllic river inwinter trans- and we must walkalong edge, the on arow of stones. Thewater laps transparently and We first Porta. passthe Thewater width the of fills opening, the lessthan three metres, lower it to amurmur. shapes. At midday, Gorge the of Samaria can, at same time, the its raise and voice to acry silence, within arestrained,spectful introverted joy. It and of whisper colours isacry and its existence, celebrating life the it wasgiven; remains second the on borders the of are- differentsun seems from that remains which shade. shouts, inthe Thefirst it proclaims Gorge isgiven to light, the or withdraws into shadowy hollows. Whatever isgiven to the forms it into agreen whichever rock flame, protrusion avain becomes wound. Thewhole sword, an takes active colour inthis part game. Whichever tree or bush it touches trans- The midday fallsstraight sun,which down to bottom the of chasm, the like blade the of a presence,their each with its own hue. treesleafed wildfig that you meetalong whole almostthe length of Gorge, the here mark Sfakianborn cypresses, gallant the pines, great the dark-haired holm oaksand broad- the wisps. But whole even trees hang clambering suspended, at fantastic stub- heights: those tear, some spiny broom tree, mastictree or or strawberry azilakasthrows out its green and sculpted compositions of orgiastic fantasy. Where rock the forms atiny step or asmall — and material the of torn the rock, with veins the and linesof its rocks, create painted you acraftsman think shaped it. It is there where colours the —red, yellow, brown, grey protrusions, not for even an to step agrimi on. Aone-piece that inparts rock, fine so tinues parallel upwards, to point the where you can lean your back. head Cragswithout You raise your eyes and follow two the wallsof first the Porta, entrance, the which con- open horizon. atavistic fear, although deepinside you an anxiety remains until you emerge onto amost can and you shift they crush without mercy. Themind, of course, quickly crazy, this expels 157

drink, or a tsikoudia sprit and a few nuts are enough (this is all the “establishment” has), and you are happy for the rest and the breeze from the sea. Two or three parties are already sitting at the coffee house. Barba Manolis, large and erect, with his little wedged white beard, black shirt and woollen khaki culottes, brings his treats. He stops every so often to chat and joke, accompanying his words with the open and free gestures of the mountain Cretan. A local is sitting with one of the groups, a middle-aged Ayioroumeliot. He tells the story of a vendetta, which resulted in the rival families emigrating. He condemns the murders and concludes: — The sons were intelligent, the father crazy. Good job they didn’t listen to him, they just left and became human. The mindset of the average Sfakian has changed in our era. A group of six Athenians — three boys and the same number of girls — seventeen to nineteen years in age, laughs at the “Paradise”. They laugh at everything, from the sign to the poverty of the “shop”, to the conversations of the café owner. One tackily mimics the Sfakian accent, another is sarcastic with the toast of “always healthy” the Ayioroumeliot says, as he chinks his glasses with two Chaniots. Their whole behaviour is outrageously irritating, no one pays them any attention. A conversation starts about dittany, the aromatic herb that sprouts at sheer parts of the Cretan mountains. The agrimia, old Manolis confirms, know of its medicinal qualities, and eat it if hit by a hunter. Someone recalls that Aristotle had written something like this: “In Crete, when hit by an arrow, the wild goats seek to eat dittany; for this expels the toxins from the body.” Someone from the group expresses his sadness that he has never eaten this curious plant. The other Sfakian clarifies that it is the same plant known as “stamatohorto” and “erontas”. THE GORGE AND THE WILD GOAT IN LITERATURE IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND

A giggle is heard from the group of youngsters. The spotty-faced one jokes: | — Then, instead of “make love,” we can say “make dittany”. The other five laugh with the “inventive” pun. CHAPTER 4 For a few moments a silence so heavy falls that one wonders if it’s not a forewarning of a storm. The Ayioroumeliot starts up again, acting as though he heard nothing. The deep- rooted Sfakian responds with dignified silence to the simplistic idiocy of the youth of the large cities.

Apano – Upper – Ayia Roumeli is a little village whose few houses – around fifteen in all — are half hidden amongst an arbour: olive trees at the edges, mulberries and figs within, and even small orange and lemon orchards. Well-tended gardens neighbour onto the Gorge water, which passes through the middle of the village. Ayia Roumeli shifted up here during the time of the corsairs so that the inhabitants could run to the natural castle of Samaria at every danger. The thick shade of the trees, the lapping water, the damp smell of freshly-watered soil, calm and relax our souls. At the exit of the village, there where the trees end and the land begins to widen, naked and rocky, as the two arms of the Gorge open and lower, stands the church of Ayia Triada.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 14Α 158 EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικά 14Β

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT and rhombuses. and yardthe of today’s church of a Roman asection with patterns mosaic survives, of circles churchthe of Panayia the isbuilt. Many of ancient the marbles were inits used walls.In foundations Onthe of temple the of Apollo, acouple of hundred metres from sea, the inscription: “ of statues,bodies and of or head abeautiful Artemis Aphrodite. He found also an eroded tions that hefound of ruins the alarge temple at Tarra, with plenty of scattered marbles, Cristoforo Buondelmonti, “presbyter Florentinus”, toured who Crete in1415-1416,men- city may have destroyed been by Saracenes. the treaty with Eumenes II of Pergamon, aRoman ally fighting Philip Vof Macedonia. The rode wasvictor who at Games, Pythian the were Tarraians. Tarra In 183BC signeda also liast of Apollonius acitha- and Chrysothemis, lived who BC, 2ndcentury Rhodius, inthe sayThey that it founded also two colonies, in minted its own coins agreement and hadamonetary with Hyrtakina, Elyros and Lissos. It appears Tarra areligious became centre with Dorian the conquest. During its it floruit light up world. the nias. Thegod’s love strong wasso that for hours several heforgot to to skyand the take Apollo yoked with Akakallis in the city of Tarra, at the house of Karmanoras Karmanoras. timehelived During the at Tarra, however, hemetAkakallis.“ where of god the light came after murder the by purified to of be its Pythos, priest and Here, isTarra; then “ tricked andman hasbeen hadhistreasure who taken. —We didn’t understand value the café …the then owner sighs with bitterness the of a came, gathered what could and they find took it to Heraklion. of Panayia, the Virgin, the asfar asAzouromouri. Many years ago, archaeologists the manyfind pieces of marble with inscriptions, pieces of sculpture and pots churches inthe cient Tarra, which waslocated here, of Ayia earth inthe Roumeli. In past,you the would old man shows it proudly, and recites inscription the by It heart. is,heexplains, from an- Amarble block leans against edge the of garden, the with capital letters on one side. The steady, being a step hasceased which bottles with trembling opens soda the hands. distance. Anold café owner inblack, discoloured Cretan costume, white short beard and earthy yard of iscool, full shadeand greenery, and water the usgurgling at passes ashort up Kato Ayia Roumeli. We sit at coffee first the house, far from noise of the shore. the Its some olive, orange and lemon trees. Five or sixhouses and two or three coffee houses make There where water the of Gorge the spills into land the turns sea, the green again with pebbly land, blossoms the of oleanders winnow. bridge down and took numerous village houses inthe with it. Allaround infinite the In winter the of much 1954so water ran from Gorge the that it knocked newly-built the sun. In ismiddle, sloping and half-covered by rocks, the acement bridge seen. can be of Samaria the Thebed river, wide, chunky light the and reflects pebbles, shineof the black cross. wooden, the inmonuments earth, dried without of arim limestone rocks and without shadow the of of AyiaThe cemetery Roumeli here. isalso of Thefew dead recent years are cooked inthe Clean your feet, cover your head and enter in Tarrain honoured Apollo is the Caucasusthe and Lower Italy. Lucillus, scho- ”, asStephanus Byzantius writes. Thisis ”.” ”, notes Pausa- They say … 159

The name of today’s church has set many interested in topography thinking. There is no female saint (an “ayia”) with the name Roumeli in the Christian calendar, eastern or western, and this has given rise to some improbable guesses. Closest to the truth appears to be the opinion of Ido- meneas Papagrigorakis, who believes it is of Arabic origin (aya Rum-eli, which means “water of a Greek place” or, more simply, “Greek waters”). The old café owner has heard all of this, but he is more concerned about closer events. He tells us of the battle Bonatoyiannis gave with his hundred young men at Portes in 1770 and of other, later clashes and destruction. And much happened in the years of the two great uprisings in and around Ayia Roumeli. It was from here that the 1,500 revolutionaries entered Selinos in December 1821, to get the Turkish Seliniots. Dalianis’s infantry moored along its coasts in Janu- ary 1828. The Temporary Government and Committee of the General Revolutionary Council stayed in the village for a few days, seeing off 1866 and bringing in 1867. In the first days of 1867 the Turks bombarded Ayia Roumeli by sea, and captured it with an army that disembarked from the boats. Zymbrakakis attacked and made them withdraw on 7 January. But the Turks still entered and burnt the little coastal village twice during the same revolution, in summer 1867 and November 1868. The old Sfakian also remembered the events bound up in his own life. From here King George I left for Egypt in 1941. He told us of a conversation he had with him: — I say to him: “And where are you going, your highness, and you are leaving us?” He replies: “Eh, fight, fight.” “But how can we fight,” I go, “when Metaxas took our rifles?” “Eh, with knives, with knives…” The old man stops narrating, he looks deeply once into the eyes of each of his listeners to see the impression made by the words of the Highest Leader, and then looks off, towards the sea.

IN LITERATURE WILD GOAT THE THE GORGE AND | In the bay with the soft curve swim many of those who have travelled through the Gorge, whilst others sunbathe on the fine, grey pebbles. From the cement pier the caiques set off for Hora. CHAPTER 4

Fig. 101: Giorgis Manousakis with a friend at Portes, 1968 (photo: K. Karathanasis collection) 160

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT and ClassicalAntiquities) (archive Ephorate of 25th the of Prehistoric Fig. 102: Arrival at Arrival Ayia Roumeli, 1970 Fig. 104: Xyloskalos (M.Toubis SAarchive) (Chania Mountainering Club) Fig. 103: At Xyloskalos, 1960s 161

CHAPTER 5 THE GORGE AS NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION

1. Samaria gorge: A Tourism attraction

People have visited the Gorge since antiquity. Firstly for survival purposes (to find Text: food, refuge) and subsequently for worship – as seen in the ancient temple and Emmy Papavasileiou numerous Christian churches. There were also the visitors of necessity or passers- Contact with nature has many dimensions. by (sailors, soldiers, merchants, loggers) as well as those who visited the Gorge Nature is that which carries us on her back, throughout our whole lives, she nurtures us willingly and for a specific purpose. with her rich bosom, and when we have tired, she opens herself up to accept us into our eternal sleep. She gives us two great gifts, life and death. Thus, from this perspective, she is so much within us, more in us than outside of us. This is why we feel that an organic bond con- nects us with her. We feel her to be one of our own. She is our mother. Vasilis Tatakis, 1937

See Tatakis, p. 43. 162

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT upon to everyone, agreater or degree, lesser herbeauty whilst makes heraconstant attraction for visitors. and quantitative differences, satisfies at one least of above the wishes.Yet, charm the of discovering nature isexercised and discovering strange places are some of Travel, these. like tourism, form its yet modern with significant qualitative mountain climbing, scientific work, clean the air, simple the lifestyle alongside nature incontrast to life city, inthe has almostalways hadanother motive, satisfying hisown personal desires, material or spiritual. Research, hunting, ofidea nature asan phenomenon, aesthetic israrely found asan exclusive motivation for visiting Gorge. the Man Naturism, aconcept of developed during profound period the urbanisation inEurope and associated more with the towards nature isactive. conclusion isthat theattitude ofman transformation oftree to vision.Our creation, whichprepares for the This aﬁrst choice isalsoabasic act, the nature around himpresents. his choice withinthecontinuity that then stops somewhere. Hehasmade And hescanshiseyes allaround, and moment infront ofthewalker’s eyes. yet nature, inﬁnite, unfolds every issomethinglimited,The work ofart Fig. 105: Vasilis Tatakis,1937 (Chania Mountaineering Op. cit., It wasworth trip the pp. 46-7. Club archive) 163

Travellers’ destination The Gorge started to become a travellers’ destination from the medieval period onwards, when European interest in the monuments, history and nature of Greece began to grow. The first to arrive was Buondelmonti in 1414-1415, a true child of the Renaissance, a culturally equipped man who knew the Latin poets and had Pliny142 and Ptolemy,143 as his guides. He came to explore Crete, amongst other places, and to see for himself the things the ancients had said about their civilisation. His written work has influenced many later writers. The reasons for travellers’ visits varied according to their education, knowledge and interests, hence their published works are not all of the same value.144 They are, however, sources from which we can derive important information for reconstructing and understanding the past. In addition to the information given on the Gorge’s flora and fauna, ancient sites, etc. – as we saw in earlier chapters – they also provide important information on crossing the Gorge, living conditions, the inhabitants, etc. Particularly noteworthy are the difficulties that the travellers faced when visiting during periods of disturbance and deprivation, in contrast with the comforts enjoyed by today’s tourists.

Fig. 106: Map of Crete from Buondelmonti, the Gennadius manuscript (from A tour of Crete in PASSPORT FROM THE PROVISIONAL STATEHOOD OF CRETE 1415. Description of the island of Crete, IN THE NAME OF GEORGE I, KING OF THE GREEKS Heraklion: Mikros Naftilos, 1996) The provisional Statehood of Crete, sent to all the Leaders, Chieftains, Captains and Heads of the Provinces of Crete

We invite you all in general to give he who bears this, M.E. Postlethwhaite, English Philhellene, who comes here to tour and to see the condition of our provinces and the Christians, every assistance, support and item of information, for all he may ask of you. You should facilitate him and defend him during whatever may occur to him. In general you should ensure that the man is completely safe and that nothing happen to him that may go against the philhellenic sentiments that have inspired him in our national struggle.

K.P. Voloudakis, A. Manouselis, Em. Kranioramis, A.I. Tsichlis, A. Papayiannakis, M. Tsouderos Secretary Leonidas I. Georgiades Monastiri of Preveli, 2, 3 June 1867

Postlethwaite, p. 117, original in French.

142 Pliny (Gaius) the Elder: Latin author (AD 23-79). He studied and wrote seven works in 102 volumes. Only his Naturalis Historia in 37 volumes survives, giving us a panorama of ancient science and considered the world’s first encyclopaedia. 143 Ptolemy: Greek natural philosopher who lived in Alexandria from AD 127 to AD 151. In his Geography he collated the totality of his era’s geographical knowledge, providing a relatively accurate description of Europe and the Mediterranean. 144 According to the doctor Joseph Hadjidakis, who in 1881 wrote the book Περιήγησις εις Κρήτην (Tour of Crete), the most reliable of the travellers were the German Hoeck and the Englishman Pashley. See Daphne Gondica’s Greek translation of Pashley’s Travels in Crete, p. XII. 164

Hunting destination Hunting of the agrimi and other wildlife (hares, partridges) had since antiquity been one of the reasons that brought hunters to the Gorge. Of course, hunting was then vitally important for survival purposes and was done with traditional weapons, such as bows and arrows, for which the Sfakians were famed.145 It subsequently changed character, and became more for personal pleasure and relaxa- tion. As the agrimi is a difficult beast, it took a good hunter who, in addition to agility and special skills had to know the habits and physical characteristics of the wild goat very well, to catch him. This is why the title of wild goat hunter was an honourable one. In more recent times, when the wild goat became limited to Ma- dares and the Gorge, Samaria has become a site for organised excursions by local and foreign hunting groups. Fig. 107: Agrimi hunters at Prinia (from The agrimi of Crete by A. Plymakis) From the moment that modern firearms began to be used, which can hit the animal from a great distance, the competition became unequal and the agrimia were in danger of becoming extinct. The declaration of the Gorge as a National Park was done to stop it being a hunting destination (see p.65). Even from the days of the Cretan State there were hunters who were beginning to become aware of the need to protect the agrimi and of man’s disrespect for nature (see p.174). Illegal hunting, however, continues even today to be a problem.

Mountaineering destination The Gorge of Samaria started to become an established mountaineering destination in the late 19th and early 20th century when, during the time of the Cretan State, French army mountaineers formed the Club Alpin de la Canée, as the following material from the era informs us. The Greek Mountaineering Club (EOS) opened its Chania section in 1930. The especially active Chania Mountaineering Club was responsible for the first organised excursions to the Gorge, as well as for many initiatives for the protection and conservation of the agrimi and the natural environment. Its recognised actions and contributions are complemented by the photographs, research and oral histories of its members, through which many details of the history and cultural life of modern times have been saved. The first group excursion of the EOS, Cha- nia Section, was organised in 1931. Since then, excursions have been organised by various walking and nature clubs from Greece and abroad, and mountaineers continue the tradition of the travellers by publishing their impressions in mountaineering magazines.

145 Pashley, p. 182. Fig. 108: Early 20th ceantury postcard (M. Manousakas archive) 165

Fig. 109: Chania Mountaineering Club excursion, 1969 (Chania EOS archive)

Fig. 110: Chania Mountaineering Club excursion, 1958 (Chania EOS archive) THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE | CHAPTER 5

Fig. 111: “The first organised crossing of the Samaria Gorge” at Madares, newsletter of the Chania Mountaineering Club, July 1985, p. 2. The Chania Mountaineering Association was later renamed the Chania Mountaineering Club 166

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT (photo: S.Pratsolis) Fig. 112: terest of many scientists and researchers, fauna of agrimi) the (especially Gorge the have inspired in- the of geologicalThe peculiarity the formations, and and flora the researchScientific, and educational destination a little after hisdeath at aRethymno cinema. 1943. Horst hisstudies. Thisfootage filmed wasscreened Siewert fell who andert, losthislife at doing Prinia when research in professor and of officer case German the the zoology Horst Siew- War by scientists German and soldiers. interest Ofparticular is research continued during occupation the World Second inthe and study Gorge the p.172). early (see century inthe 19th This the identificationthe of origins the of goat, wild the by Studies of American Classical School the inAthens p.60). (see Gorge, and protecting isamatter them of urgency. Oneof mostimportant the developments inrecent years hasbeen far more intensely by universities inGreece and abroad, asmany at species of risk extinction found can be inside the EOS. Thisevent gave of idea EOSthe the developing form this of tourism region. inthe Research istoday conducted In 1936students from universities invarious countries organised ajoint crossing of Gorge the with help the of the Crossing Gorge, the 1980s 147 146 a National Park. In Guide, this reference is wildgoatthe and have Gorge the declared and to efforts inthe save leader ism Office Makridakis, director of the Chania Tour- published in1959, and edited by Anestis TouristThe first Guide to Chania was destination Prefecture inthe of Chania. associations, Gorge madethe afavourite Mountaineering Club and other naturist organised systematically by Chania the Guides.assistance of Theexcursions, local travellers and Gorge crossed the with the ous countries followed tradition the of the started, many individual walkers from vari- Up until masstourism 1950s,when the Tourism destination Op. cit. Plymakis, See 146 who began to began visit who 147

The Agrimi of Crete , p. 87. Crete andthePrefecture ofChaniain particular. year,will beorganised every andisofgreat beneﬁtfor tourism in accountswonderful given by thestudentsintheirhomecountries, ImvrosHora Sfakia, Gorge, Asfykos, etc. This excursion, the after foreign students, crossed Gorge andcontinued Samaria through with agroup ofChaniots, formed to accompany andfacilitate the the International UnionofStudents(basedin Vienna, Austria) along JulyagroupIn of20members(Austrian, French, of British,German) ORI SAMARIA –LEFKA INTERNATIONAL UNIONOFSTUDENTS nia, EOS: 1930–1980. 50years oftheGreek oflifeandaction MountaineeringClubofCha- Chania 1983,p. 29. 17.5 km)… to Xyloskalo (note: distance Lakkoi-Xyloskalo Sundays. From goby Lakkoi, animaloronfoot in winter and5inthesummer, day except every Neon Katastimaton Square, at 3intheafternoon 24.5km. Lakkoi, from Chania, The busstarts To visittheGorge you cangoby busasfar days… The visitto requires theGorge ofSamaria two rocks give you theimpression ofalivingthing. and thewaters andright, …Left theveins ofthe always accompanied by thehumofwinds are descending into theabyss. Your thoughtis descending thefootpath ofXyloskalo, that you nates you from your ﬁrststeps, andyou think, The fear ofChaosandwildgrandeur domi- Op. cit., 1959, p. 66. ofthePrefecturethe countryside ofChania A. Makridakis, Greek MountaineeringClub, ChaniaSection p. 46. Tourist guideofthetown ofChaniaand Anestis Makridakis, 1959 Anestis Makridakis, Anestis Makridakis, 1959 Anestis Makridakis, , Chania 167

made to three bodies organising excursions (the Hellenic Mountaineering Club, the Union of Mountaineer Naturists and the Chania Travellers Club), and only two private tourist agencies. A long chapter in this first Guide is dedicated to the Gorge of Samaria, with an eloquent description of the route and all the necessary information for visitors. Crossing the Gorge today is far more comfortable. All the tourist agencies in Crete include it in their programmes and there are also organised tour groups. This mass inflow of visitors has absorbed even the “nature lover” into the dominant logic of consumerism. Aside from any damage that might be caused to the natural The pressure of the other visitors, walking behind you on the footpath, environment, it also changes the relationship between man and nature. As Giorgis to go faster doesn’t leave you any Manousakis says in his article on “crossing the Gorge”, even in the 1960s, “No im- room to look at the environment and posing mystery could withstand such human masses.” enjoy it. You walk crouched for hours. I ﬁnd it boring. Man’s need, however, to leave his mark on the places he passes through can be French female visitor seen even today. Each year, a “forest” is created of piles of stones of various shapes. The need for leaders of tourist groups to mark the route that the group is to follow, for those dawdling behind, has evolved into a habit, which shows that even today people desire symbols: the collectivity of the mysterious union with nature (the dome of stones seeks the union of earth and sky).

Fig. 113a & b: “Forest” of stone piles, the traces of today’s visitors, 1990s (photo: H. Kargiolaki) 168

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Fig. 114: Gazing with awe… (Chania Mountaineering Club archive) 169

2. Extracts from traveller’s accounts from the 15th to the 21st centuries

DESCRIPTIO INSULAE CRETE148 A tour of Crete in 1415 Christoforo Buondelmonti

Proceeding to the right, we happily entered the deserted port of an old town today Cristoforo Buondelmonti, cler- called Ayia Roumeli. Then, even though we were already tired, we started running gyman from Florence, born in 1385. At a young age he travelled around the area. In the middle I could see a large temple that was in ruins. In this to Constantinople, the Aegean part, all types of marbles and columns of porphyrite are scattered here and there. islands and Rhodes, where he settled. He visited Crete in 1415. I saw the busts of decapitated gods. On the other side of the temple, I found a The fruits of his journeys were his head of Aphrodite or Artemis, which seemed to us the finest thing that was there. books: Liber insularum Archipe- I withdrew to a corner to mark the position of a large sculpture by putting stones lagi and Descriptio Insule Crete. around it. I distinguished inscribed Greek letters, in a rather bad condition. I spelt See Gregorakis. them. Alas, the marble is broken. By guessing, I could read the following words: “Wash your feet, cover your head and enter.” Columns, cisterns, as well as large buildings were discovered everywhere.

TRAVELS IN THE ISLAND OF CRETE IN THE YEAR 1817149 F. W. Sieber

Though accustomed to the Alpine scenery of southern Germany, all that I had seen F.W. Sieber (Prague, 1789-1845): before vanished from my memory, in comparison with what I here beheld. The ravine Austrian doctor and botanist. At always full of water, so that one could scarcely clamber by, along the rocky wall, and so age 28 he visited Turkish-held Crete to record the island’s par- DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE narrow, that one could hold with the hand on the opposite side, rose to the perpendicu- ticular features. The results of his | lar height of nearly 500 toises. Darkness reigned in the valley, which was increased research and travel observations by the dark foliage of lofty cypresses and hard leaved oaks. Suspended masses of rock, are included in the two-volume work Travels in the Island of Crete which every moment threatened to fall, and wholly to close the ravine, made the way in the Year 1817. CHAPTER 5 dangerous and frightful; nothing in the Alps of Salzburg and Tyrol, that I have visited, presents such an awful prospect as the ravine of Agia Rumelia. After five hours most See Gregorakis. fatiguing exertions, amidst ruins, blocks, and fallen masses of rock, I was surprised by the beautiful mountain village of Samaria. It is hardly possible to think how they could venture to build it here, only they have nothing to fear from avalanches, as they would, in a similar situation, in the north of Europe. It lay towards the west, under such a high wall of rock, that the sun did not yet shine upon it, at two o’clock in the afternoon.

148 Based on the Greek translation, C. Buondelmonti, (A tour of Crete in 1415. Description of the island of Crete), Prologue by Styliana Alexiou, translation and introduction by Martha Aposkiti, Heraklion Cultural Society: Heraklion 1983, Map, Mikroa Naftilos, 1996. 149 F.W. Sieber, Travels in the Island of Crete in the year 1817, London 1823, p. 109 (English translation of German original).

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 15Α 170

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 15B PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT have visited theisland. most distinguishedtravellers to tails. Heisconsidered oneof the 1837 andcontains accurate de- was publishedinLondon in Crete. travel His bookonCrete elled to Greece, and AsiaMinor cient topography. Hethus trav- as to information collect onan- theMediterraneanspecting so the shipsofBritishﬂeetin- Board ofBritainfreely to board granted alicence by theNavy Latin literature. 1833 he was In ofancientGreekknowledge and lawyer andjuristwithadeep Pashley The Englishtraveller R (1805-1859)was aﬁne obert obert and magnificence of the scenery around me. On my throwing out some slight doubts about and magnificence ofthesceneryaroundme. Onmythrowingoutsome slight doubtsabout but Iwasmostamplyrepaid for mylabourbythelovelinessofday,andwildness 150 being abovefiveorsixfeet. AstoHellenicremainsmyascentendedindisappointment; paces, anditswidththree paces andahalf.Itispartlyfilledup,itspresentdepth not a cistern,althoughitisnotcovered overwithcementinitsinterior.Itslengthiseight About ahundredpacesabovetheseslightruins,isseenwhat Isupposeoncetohavebeen were inthesideofmountain,andistenfeethigh. to theheightofaboutthreefeet;andthaton western sideisinsertedasit of tworooms,eachabouttenpacessquare:thewallwhich dividedthemisstanding for aconsiderable distanceroundthemountain.Justabovethiswallareseenvestiges remains arefiveorsixfeethighwheretheybest preserved,andmaybetraced shaped stones,mostofwhicharesmall,andwere unitedbycement.These ancient city.Theexistingvestigesareremainsofwalls, constructedofirregularly A steepandtiresomeascentofafullhourbroughtustotheallegedsite cypresses. Agooddealofsnowisstilllyingonalltheneighbouringmountains. mountain, tothesouth-westofvillage,andwhichisthicklycoveredwithpines ancient remainsweresaidtoexist,afterfirstwindingroundthesideofanadjacent ing rock,Icommencedtheascentofloftyandverysteepmountain,onwhich his fellow-villagers.Afterreposingforafewminutes,undertheshadeofanoverhang- the Samariotepeasantwhoundertakestoshewmewaythem,andbymostof Samaria, andtohavebeenthelastrefugeofancientHellenes,isentertainedby they areseeningreatnumbers.Ifindthebeliefancientsitesaidtoexistabove over themountainsofthisglenalongitswholeextent;andasweapproachSamaria, which threwthemintotheirpresentshapes.Cypressesmaybenoticedscattered in thisneighbourhoodshewhowviolentmusthavebeentheoperation ofthecauses sented intheoppositeplate,andcalled“TheGates’.”…Thecontortionsofrocks crossed theriverfiveorsixtimes,andthenarrivedataverystrikingpass,repre- the animalintoriverbelow.InfirsthalfhourafterleavingHaghiaRuméli,I during thegreaterpartofway,inordertoavoidlikelihoodprecipitating spot itwasnecessarytotakeoffthesaddlefrommuleonwhichImounted, winds roundtheabruptprecipices,thatnohorsewouldbeabletopassalongit.Atone cesses oftheglenasfarSamaria.Thepathinsomepartsissonarrow,whereit At half-pasteightIleftthissequesteredvillage,intendingtoexploretheinnerre- R. Pashley, R. Travels in Crete , vol. II,Cambridge and London, 1837, pp. 266-273. TRAVELS INCRETE Robert Pashley Robert 150 171

the vestiges which I saw being very ancient, and suggesting that they could hardly belong to the celebrated “Hellenes,” my Samariote guide exclaimed, in the tone of one half offended at my ignorance or incredulity: “Here was the end of them, my good Sir!” as if the matter had been one on which his local information entitled him to pronounce with authority … I have already spoken of the loves of Apollo and Acacal- lis, the daughter of Carmanor: and we now behold their supposed locality. The meal furnished by the hospitality of my Samariote guide consisted chiefly of the flesh of a wild-goat, killed by him on an expedition from which he had only just returned. I ob- tained from him three pairs of the animal’s horns … On leaving these grand and most beautiful of Nature’s work, it is not without a feeling of regret that I have only been allowed to gaze on them for a few hours, and in all likelihood shall never again behold the glories which are now so rapidly vanishing from my view. I am indeed leaving.

Oft in glimmering bow’rs and glades A Land whose azure mountain-tops are seats He met her, and in secret shades For gods in council; whose green vales, retreats Fig. 115: The entrance to the Gorge of Of woody Tarrha’s inmost grove. Fit for the shades of heroes, mingling there Samaria, engraving by Antonio Schranz To breathe Elysian peace in upper air. (from Travels in Crete by R. Pashley) THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE | CHAPTER 5 172

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT tion andthe1821uprising. formation onreligion, justice, educa- in- people. alsoprovides It important and livingconditions oftheCretan the life, customs, socialcomposition cal condition oftheisland, alongside relatingand everything to thephysi- minerals, meteorology, hydrography of theisland. Hediscussestheﬂora, to studythenatural development his journey, thepurposeofwhichwas tion Physique deL’Ile deCrète two-volume1846. His work versity ofBordeaux, toured Crete in Victor Raulin , professor at theUni- describes describes Descrip- 153 152 151 Tripiti iswithout doubtthesiteofProcilassus tions, intheParis Museum. wild goat–oragrimihorns,whichIdeposited,along withallmyothercollec- degrees. Iwasequippedwithafleece,skullinbadconditionandmanypairsof not changemuchfromonedaytotheother,itroseeleventhirteen some accidentinthesewildmountains…Duringthisstay,thetemperature did somewhat sour.Iwasalsoafraid thatM. Hitier mightbelievethatIhad a bed,tableandseat,and,forfood,hardbrownbarleybreadwhitecheese, spent thesetwodayssadly,makingafewnotesonboardandwithfleecefor since IknewlittleGreek,waswelcomedbyawidowwithtwolargeboys… village atalowerlevel,afterwhichsomecommunication,donewithdifficulty rather worried.Through sidepathwaysonsteepslopes,Imanagedtoreacha Since theusualroadtovillagecrossesriverbedatmanypoints,Iwas very littlefoodbeforeIcouldreachSamariaorevenAyiaRoumeli. maybe eventhree,withoutasheltertosavemefromtherain andthecold, forced tostopatsomeopeningorwidesectionofitandstaytherefortwodays, Gorge. IfIhadstayedfifteenminuteslongerintheGorgewouldhavebeen a yellow,muddysurgingtorrentcoming,whichfilledtheriverbedwithin Samaria valley,whenIheardathunderoussound.Afterfewseconds,saw passed fromthetimeIleftbedofupperrivertoenterplain falovrysi, whichhadalsorisenless,showed13degrees.Onlyfiveminutes rushed toclimbtheGorge.There,rain beatmealmostimmediately…Ke- The thermometerintheshadeshowed22degrees…Followinghisadvice,I Maria Psilaki, In Crete the of today following inSpratt’s footsteps, vol. II,Karmanor: Heraklion 2007). Oikonomaki. adapted form, asVoukilais or Voukelasi. T.A.B. Spratt, English translation on original the based French and In Greek the edition of Spratt by N,Psilakis (p. inaslightly name 323),the preserved Procilassus hasbeen diasmus” statesthatProcilassus hadaport,and,althoughthere nottheleast westward ofTarrha, thenext citytoPoscilassus; fortheauthorof“Sta- “Stadiasmus,” althoughtheformerplacesitto eastwardinsteadofthe TRAVELS ANDRESEARCHES INTHE CRETEOF 1850 Travels and Researches in Crete in Researches Travels and PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THEISLAND OF CRETE Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt , London 1865,pp. 245-6(Greek translation and commentary by Victor Raulin the unpublishedthe Greek translation of Raulin by Roula 153 ofbothPtolemyandthe 152 151 173

indentation of the coast there now to give the least shelter, or even a beach The English Vice-Admiral Thomas at the mouth of the valley of Tripiti upon which to haul up a boat … yet, if we Spratt (1811-1888), honourable member of the Archaeological Institutes of follow the sea-marks on the cliffs on either side, indicative of the upheaval Berlin and Rome, joined the Navy in since the historical period (which are very defined and about twenty feet 1827 and specialised in cartography. 154 Until 1865 he was involved in hydrog- high), and imagine a subsidence to that level, so as to bring the sea up to it, raphy research in the Mediterranean. 155 we have at once the port required, here as at Suia and Phalasarna … This The results of his research in Crete in is therefore another interesting verification of the descriptions given by early 1850 were published in London in 1865 in two volumes. Aside from the geographers, and another proof of the great upheaval along the coast having taken archaeological, historical, geologi- place since a late Roman period, the date of the “Stadiasmus” being considered cal and geographical information he to be about that time. provides, Spratt identiﬁed some of the most important archaeological sites and provides valuable material on the folklore and anthropology of Crete.

THE TRAVEL IMPRESSIONS OF THE GERMAN PRINCE BERNHARD OF THE CRETE OF 1873157 Prince Bernhard

We were near the exit of a Gorge of Alpine grandeur, whose giant sides stood The philhellene German Duke of Saxe- completely straight up. We had not moved even one thousand metres from our Meiningen Bernhard III (1851-1926) night’s accommodation, and had so far passed over the stream of Samaria several travelled through Crete in the spring of 1873 at the age of 22, publishing times. We proceeded always on horseback through this large Gorge, whose rocks his impressions in a German periodi- reach up to dizzying heights. One could compare this place with a valley in Upper cal in 1874. The ﬁrst Greek translation was done by the academician Ioannis Bavaria … Only here the two sides come much closer to each other … I do not Kallitsounakis for the Athenian peri- repent having unstingtingly used all the cosmetic adjectives for the three Cretan odical Panathenaia with the title Two

weeks in Crete. DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE gorges I have mentioned so far. And this because it is impossible to describe them | with words. Man feels a pathetic weakness in front of the grandeur of nature, which can inspire awe but can also elevate him at the same time. The torrent

with the crystal-clear, bluey waters takes over certain points throughout the CHAPTER 5 whole width of the ravine, and becomes thus a road, enhancing the joy of these places. It’s true that at some point it very nearly forced us to return and seek another road. This happened when we suddenly found ourselves in front of a small waterfall which we could not pass. Our escorts were then obliged to take us on their backs, soaked to the waist, and to take us across. They removed the

154 6,10 m. 155 Suia: Sougia. 156 3,66 m. 157 Rare travel texts on Crete in the 19th century, reprint of no. 11, in Kritikos Aster (1906), ed. Y. Ekkekkakis, Rethymno 2006. 174

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 159 158 vandal disrupteroftheholysacrament ofnature. the depthsofvalley,whilstIfelt–feu!toolate! – thatIamadisrespectful, up violentlyandfellbythestream,terrifiedfemales disappearedscaredinto danger forthefemales.Thebeautifulanimalbledaround theshoulders,jumped instinct, Ishothimatamomentwhenthesmellofmy presencegavethesignof was beingtrapped, andanxiouslyrotatedhisgrand head.Succumbingtothehunting rover, whilstthefemaleswerequenchingtheirthirst. Heclearlyfeltthathe the aforementionedlargehornsandhisseriousbeard. Hewasonarockbythe the lightofflickeringmoonthreewildgoats!Two femaleandonemale,with shadows creepalongdespitetheclarityofstreams,andIthenmadeoutunder surrounded everythinginthemagicalvalleyofSamaria(AyiaRoumeli)Sfakia.The holy, whenthenightspreadherstarrywingsovermyeyes.ThegreatnessofGod by theenvironment,allowedmyselftoseebrave fantasies…Itwasamomentmost banks ofthegushingtorrent.Ihidwithinevergreenshrubberyandseduced head andenter,”intrapping wildgoats, whocometoquenchtheirthirstonthe 1905 atthesanctuaryofApolloTarraios, whereyou“removeyourshoes,cover ing myschooldays,andseekingtoentertainboredomontheeveningof13thMay Feeling melancholyatthememoryofbelovedfriends,whompastgavemedur- To mydearTAKINAL.ILIADIN,Goodhope down tothelittlehamletofLagos, been veryold,asonecanconcludefromtheirwonderfultrunks…Wethenwent German Alpswepassedthroughaforestofpinesandcypresseswhichmusthave like thisonlythemulesofCreteledbyCretanscando…To rememberourown saddles fromtheanimalsandthendragged themthroughthewater.Something A.Plymakis, “In Samaria 94years ago”, in Omalos. He –asheisdiscussing –Lakkoi perhaps means Lakkos have beenfearsome,judgingbywhatweseehere. come beforetheRevolution.”Thisrevolution,fourththiscentury,seemsto spent thenight.Whenperplexedvillagessawus,theysaid:“Youshouldhave The hunting memoirs THE GORGE OF AYIA ROUMELI Chaniotika Nea 158 whichhasonlythreehouses,wherewe , 21/12/2000,p. 35. 159 of “Lasthenis” Lasthenis 175

THE GORGE OF SAMARIA S. Polides Greek outdoors160

In this village, a little above the gully, in amongst the very tall cypresses, a beautiful little church appears white like the lily, with the background of the surrounding black-green vegetation – Ai Nikolas. For our sake, an hour earlier a whole flock had been milked in the nearby pen. This is a rare sight for us, and even more interesting for certain useful observations. Here we met Yiannis’s father, a truly fine old man, who has so far managed to keep his seventy years under control, a whole lifetime. The warm, full-fat milk – ah! poor Athenian milk! – and the rest under the cypresses gave us new strength to start off. Our guide now is a barefoot kid, twelve, maybe thirteen years old. Our Nikos. Crossing a small wooden bridge, we reach further on, leftwards, to the only village in the Gorge, Samaria 30 minutes from Ai Nikolas. Men, women and children welcome us politely, simply and with a smile. The men make a particular impression. Dressed in black and with the characteristic headscarf, they were all armed. All around their waists and across their chests, cartridge belts, and with a weapon in hand. Many also had binoculars. They welcomed our greeting by giving us a group invitation to stay in their houses. It must be said, all in all, there were exactly seven houses in Samaria. We were hosted in the first. All were on hand to look after us. Goat’s milk – with the aroma of thyme – with honey and walnuts, followed by tasty pies, wonderful food which we literally wolfed down. They told DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE us, the Samariots, of their struggle against the Germans and revealed to us that | all this stuff they wore (boots, weapons, binoculars) was German booty.

We had a good rest … The village of Ayia Roumeli welcomed us with the aroma CHAPTER 5 of its trees. We were hosted here just as at Ai Nikolas. Instead of milk … true tsikoudia spirit, fresh figs, pears and grapes … We had to get to the beach before the sun set. We weren’t late. After a few minutes’ journey we had returned to our base and thought yet one more time of those words of the veteran mountaineer about the Samaria Gorge. “It’s one thing to see and feel it yourself, and another to describe it to others!”

160 S. Polides, “The Gorge of Samaria”, in Elliniko Ypaithro. Meniaio physiolatriko – oreivatiko periodiko, Athens 1947, EOF. 176

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT Fig. 116: Portes, group of European travellers, 1896(M.Manousakas collection) Über Land und Meer Fig. 117: Portes, woodprint from , 1896 (Ekkekakis collection), 1896(Ekkekakis 177 THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE | CHAPTER 5

Fig. 118: Portes, photograph by R. Behaedhin, 1900 (M. Manousakas collection) 178 179

THERE IS ONE GORGE* Yiannis Drenoyiannis

Today, I too was one of the 1,100 people to cross the Samaria Gorge. If the number sounds overwhelm- ing to you, I must say that in the summer the daily number of Gorge visitors/walkers reaches 2,500! There is a little panic at the beginning, dust flies everywhere, but it appears that the 2,500 get through it easily and peacefully. Thousands of people cross the Samaria Gorge daily from 1 May to 31 October, few, however, know quite why they made this arduous six-hour journey on foot. Most want to see one of Europe’s most beautiful landscapes at first hand, some simply want to test their endurance and say that they too did it. Others are influenced by its global reputation and, despite being faint of heart from the first kilometre, they reach the end moan- ing and with swollen feet. Few are those who cross the Gorge to see Crete condensed into a route of 16 kilometres. Even fewer are those who come to “worship” at silver Gingilos, to greet the green-blue stream, to “talk” with Hosia Maria, to touch the ruins of Samaria village, to smile at the free agrimia, to quench their thirst with water from melting snow, to smell dittany, to pass religiously through DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE the stone Portes and to be saved with a dip in the | crystalline Libyan Sea. CHAPTER 5

* Άrticle from the online edition of TA NEA (http://ta-nea.dolnet.gr, 9-6-2000).

Fig. 119: Portes (drawing by S. Vlazaki, 2008, from an 1896 photograph)

Fig. 120: Portes, 1950 (photo: Angelakis-Fantakis archive)

Fig. 121: Portes (photo: M. Toubis SA archive) 180

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 164 163 162 161 belles andnegotiants. favourite for place Candiote ofresort come more peaceable, itwillmake a heavens.to thevery When timesbe- “braes” seemingto stretch away up theverdantcharacter; mountain it ofthemostsublime, empathic around mantic spot, andthescenery St. Rumeliewas ro- asweet-looking Postlethwaite, p. 113. of George Soule, Princeton 1953.Published inGreek Crete, aStudy of Tourism Development, Crete: ACaseStudy of an Underdeveloped Area Marshall Plan: officially, the European Re Including Chaniot the civil engineer Manousos Manousakis. Edward Postlethwaite, 04.07.1868 vol. IV, Frank E.Basil, Inc., Engineering Consultants, Kingdom of Greece, of Coordination: Ministry Athens 1964. covery Programmecovery by funded USAafter the WWII,on aproposal of State of Secretary Ge by Leland G.Allbaugh, Director of Research on Crete at and Utilisation of Samaria Gorge” from architects the and town planners Nikos missioned a“Regulating Study on Tourism the Development of Horia Sfakia nation and Crete the Regional (YPAK) Development Service once more com- In 1966,afew years after expropriation the of of Coordi- Samaria, Ministry the quent development of tourism Prefecture inthe of Chania and Crete ingeneral. would of be interest, however, to explore how its philosophy subse- the influenced The above study, relating at section the least to Gorge, the wasnot applied. It In Marshall 1950s,underthe the Plan, studiesEarly 3. by Hellenic-American the Chamber of Commerce, 1957. More (pages specifically 90and 91): Samaria of Gorge saw utilisation the and showcasing of Crete’s natural beauties, the inparticular Tourism inthegorge activity asanorganised collaborators, ism Development of Crete” studyThe first to treat Gorge the asatourist destination was“On Tour- the goals. specific 1960s, establishing aframework for controlled development, with and astrategy Tourism to Crete subject the of became academicstudies for timeinthe first the nomic, demographic conditions and social of island, the shattered by war. the drachmas be madeavailable.drachmas be 3. For remaining the works of utilisation of Samaria the Gorge, it isproposed 2,000,000 ture works foreseen inChapter 12.12a. Xyloskalobetween and Ayia Roumeli, including for expenses the infrastruc- special ment of footpath, the and exploration of possibility the of placing vehicle asmallLift for2. Theexpenses shaping interior the of Samaria the Gorge, repair the and manage- … uges, reforest mountain the areas and Samaria the utilise Gorge: 25,000,000drachmas 1. In order to utilise mountains, the gorges, picturesque mountain ranges, create ref- 1965-1975, divided asfollows: characteristicsticular are calculated ascoming to 65million drachmas for period the forThe expenses utilisation the and showcasing of Crete’s natural beauties and its par- by Rockefeller Foundation, the 164 commissioned of Coordination. by Ministry the Thisstudy fore- , proposing measures and corresponding their specific budgets. 163 by American the engineer Frank and Basil his 162 the Rockefellerthe Foundation, with editorial the assistance which documented inascholarly way eco- the 161 broad-reaching research out wascarried orge Marshall in 1947. 181

Hadjimichalis and Panayiotis Batalas, with the overall title “Sfakia-Samaria”. This study, one of the first in Greece, was considered exemplary and large sections of it were published in the first authoritative Greek architectural periodical.165 This study locates the two regions within the framework of the whole province of Sfa- kia, highlights their interdependence, documents the villages and proposes their organised and environmentally friendly growth. Indicative of the philosophy of the study are the goals mentioned in the Introduc- tion (Volume II, Samaria, 1.1.1.): The goal of this study remains the preservation of the character of the Gorge, every intervention must be subject to this rule, even to the disadvantage of comfort: to be absolutely identified with the landscape and for no reason to be noticeable. Every manmade work will, unfortunately, be inferior to the natural environment. The study was also opposed to removing the residents. The authors state (Part II, Samaria, 3.0.0): The continuation and reinforcement of the life – human, animal and plant – of the Gorge is of absolute necessity so that it does not become a sterile National Park and museum excursion. The purpose of this study is that the inhabitants should never be isolated from their place, as it is paradoxicalw for us to talk of development without the contribution of the inhabitants and utopian to divide the Sfakians from their “Gorge”. These positions, progressive for their time, were accompanied by specific proposals for building and tourism development, not just for the two villages in the Gorge but also the whole seafront as far as Hora Sfakia. This study was complemented in 1970 by the study of Aimilia Kladou for the Technical Chamber of Greece-West Crete Division, who proposed a typology for Fig. 122: Cover of the “Revisionary study for the Tourism Development the houses of the new village of Ayia Roumeli, so as to preserve the local architec- of Hora Sfakia and best use of the Gorge of DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE tural idiom and the landscape of Ayia Roumeli (See p. 104.) Samaria”, by N. Hadjimichalis | and P. Matalas, 1966-1967 In her technical report, Aimilia Kladou notes (p.1):

The preservation of a human presence within the Park must be considered abso- CHAPTER 5 lutely necessary as without it, it is probably certain that, after the completion of the Park development works with the construction of certain tourist facilities, the total will not differ from an emotional perspective from a technical park, and Ayia Rou- meli with its marine area could lie on any Mediterranean coast of Italy and Spain. The special character of the Park must be preserved at all costs.

165 Studies on the town planning and tourism development of Crete”, Introduction by S. Vagianos, architect, Architektonika Themata, Issue 2, Orestis Doumanis: Athens 1968.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικά 16A 182

In 1967 one further study was completed, which the Ministry of Agriculture’s Gen- eral Directorate of Forests had commissioned from the Studio Technico Agrario in Calabria on the subject of “The best use of the mountains of the Lefka Ori on the island of Crete.” 166 It is possible that other studies were written during the 1960s when development became a concern of the Greek government, yet none of the above studies was ever applied. One of the most serious reasons why this progress was cut off is the imposition of the 1967-1974 dictatorship. It would be interesting for this subject to be studied comprehensively by a historian of development.

Development Despite the studies, the Prefecture’s development has not happened in an organised fashion. The dominance of the logic of mass tourism, the unchecked exploitation of nature and uncontrolled building, without strict regulations and the lack of the political will necessary to apply the already existing ones, have led to the creation of today’s situation. The declaration of a National Park in 1962 contributed greatly to making the Gorge better known and one of Crete’s most popular tourism destinations. At the same time, the removal of its permanent inhabitants marked the start of a new era. This declaration protected the natural environment and the central core of the Park (the minor disturbances are limited to the sides of the footpath), but not, however, the region of Ayia Roumeli, which is outside the area of expropriations. This development was anarchic – despite the efforts of individual community presidents and residents. The degrading of the habitat of Ayia Roumeli raised questions about the effectiveness of a policy that allows moving from a situation of complete protection to one of an almost complete lack of protection. The development studies conducted in the 1990s introduced for the first time the contemporary notion that development must respect the environment and the principles of sustainable development, whilst adventure tourism was proposed in place of mass tourism. The Study for the Development of Microzones in the Province of Sfakia167 foresees the extension of the Park core and the creation of a perimeter zone (within which habitat control zones shall be delineated), with a different protection status. This will provide the opportunity for ecotourism in the wider region and for the res-

Fig. 123: At the bridges of Samaria (photo: S. Pratsolis) 166 Studio Preparatorio per la valorizzazione del grupo montano di Lefka Ori, nell isola di Creta, Italia 1967, Studio Fig. 124: Rest at Samaria Technico Agrario Reggio Calabria. (M. Toubis SA archive) 167 Study for the Development of Microzones in the Province of Sfakia, Preliminary plan, November 1994, p. 91.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 16Β 183

toration of the buildings not only in the traditional village of Ayia Roumeli, but also Aradaina, Livania, Mourios, etc. The Study for the Sfakia Regional Develop- ment Programme168 also proposes preserving the balance between basic production activities (farming, tourism) and reinforcing their connections and compatibility, the restoration and showcasing of archaeological sites and other monuments, use of renewable energy, upgrading tourist accommodation and incorporating it into the broader network of bookings, the creation of complementary forms of income for the permanent population, and stabilising the region’s demography. The non-application of development plans and the delay or fragmentary application of isolated measures have so far not been able to create a dynamic for balanced and sustainable development in contrast to the dominant development model. Moreover, the low quality of the works that have been implemented, even for the protection of the natural and cultural heritage, does not upgrade the habitat environment, as such standards ceased being desirable long ago. For the Park itself, the first management plan was drawn up only in 1996, whilst the updating of the Special Environmental Study of the Lefka Ori is currently under way169 (See p.36).

Fig. 125: Ayia Roumeli (Aeroclub of Chania archive) THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE | CHAPTER 5

168 Sfakia Regional Development Programme Study, Final Report, Μay 1994, pp. 59-60. 169 OIKOM Update. 184

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT AL 2 AYIA ROUMELI: EMPLOYMENT TABLE 2 2001 171 170 1993 03 7(94)043 39(40,6%) 1 34 4 0 57(59,4%) 5 4 38 10 ERCrops YEAR Livestock rearing PRIMARY SECTOR Beekeeping 175 174 173 172 171 170 The above figures donot include free campsites. Greek National Tourism Organisation (GNTO) for 2001and 2008is210beds. naire, in 2008 it whilst wasestimated at 500.Thecorresponding numbers of the Thenumber was106in1981and of 400in1991,according beds to aquestion- for Hora Sfakia and Palaiochora again. start (April tourismthe period toduring October), which regular the boat connections habitants remaining permanently throughout winter the many and very during At same the time, village the a“double to hasstarted lead life” few inwith very tourism around halfare foreign economic migrants. livestock rearing and beekeeping, of whilst approximately the 100employed in ture ischanging. of society this Today, few are very systematically employed in reduction production inthe products of dairy and milk).Theeconomic struc- there isimmobility inproduction (immobility sector infarming, primary in the Roumeli employed ineconomic activities other than tourism hasdeclined and mensional, almostexclusively on tourism. Thenumber focused of people inAyia various activities and isnow pastwasalmostself-sufficient, which inthe one-di- Roumeli and Hora Sfakia but whole the province. economy, Thelocal on based This movement of people due to Gorge the and not benefits affects only Ayia return point to starting their by road. on foot, from where are they transported by boat to Hora Sfakia, and from there of tourists, reach who Xyloskalo by road, cross Gorge the asfar asAyia Roumeli since its declaration asaNational Park asaplace visited by hasbeen thousands Aside from studies scientific the that have done, only of been the Gorge use the tourism inthePark development Contemporary andAyia Roumeli 2008statistics, Chania GNTO office. 2001statistics, Chania GNTO office. from Details Sfakia the Regional Development Programme Study, Table 10.1 National Statistical of Greece. Service Sfakia Regional Development Programme Study, Table, 7.8. Op. cit. Table 10.2. ihn OA rd ors evcsTOTAL Services Tourism Trade TOTAL Fishing 5(12% 33(63,40) 0 15 (31,25%) 2 SECTOR TERTIARY SECTOR 185

TABLE 3: AYIA ROUMELI: NUMBER OF BEDS YEAR ACCOMMODATION 1981172 1991173 2001174 2008175 HOTELS 120 (CATEGORY 2 HOTELS) 44 44 RENTED APARTMENTS 20 20 RENTED ROOMS 280 146 146 TOTAL 106 400 210 210

Tourism in Ayia Roumeli, which is on European Footpath E4, is marked by an inability to retain passing tourists (the average stay is two days), demonstrating that tourism is directly dependent on the Gorge, despite the fact that Ayia Roumeli has the potential, if properly developed, to evolve into an autonomous tourist destination. The slogan “Ayia Roumeli, not just the exit from Samaria,” found on Ayia Roumeli accommodation web- sites, has not brought any results. The Samaria Gorge is always a popular destination for foreign tourists, whose number is always greater than the number of Greek tourists. In the 1980s, foreign tourists left more currency in the region, whereas in the 1990s it was the Greeks.176 The tourism infrastructure within the Gorge is continuously improving, with the restoration of dilapidated buildings in Samaria village, which house areas for services, rest and information, and with the completion of the signposts and continuous maintenance of the footpath and the walking areas.

Fig. 126: Ayia Roumeli, 2008 (photo from Sandro Mancuso’s photostream at www.flickr.com) THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE | CHAPTER 5

176 Details Matthew Stavroudakis, President of the Municipal District of Ayia Roumeli. 186

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT has already to began concern researchers recorded in1990and came to 297,680,asshown table inthe diagram), 4.Since afall(see which there then, hasbeen gust 1993,i.e. an average 2,300aday. Thelargest number of tourists inayear (from April or May was to October) The number of systematically tourists hasbeen record TABLE 4 GRAPH OF GRAPH VISITOR NUMBERS TABLE 4 08156.557 158.830 2008 177.263 2007 183.561 2006 181.485 2005 187.234 2004 211.596 2003 242.134 2002 232.351 2001 248.514 2000 228.970 1999 244.584 1998 247.232 1997 270.100 1996 290.401 1995 297.369 1994 291.136 1993 272.298 1992 297.680 1991 234.833 1990 243.232 1989 209.410 1988 223.267 1987 213.446 1986 195.412 1985 198.973 1984 140.796 1983 132.794 1982 1981 TOTAL YEAR 177 Central Fund for Farming, AnimalHusbandry and Forests Entrance tickets were introduced in1989.Income from Park the ispaid to the INTERREG IIIBARCHIMED EUprogramme. ning and management of high environmental value areas to control natural resources degradation See the MAICh-Prefecture the See project Number of visitors 177 (Municipality and of Mesklon Therisos) DD (Municipality of Mousoures). (Municipalitypoli of Sfakia), DD Sougia (Municipality Therisos of Selinos), East soures) and remaining the 10%isdistributed equally to AiYianni DD inAno- (DD) (MunicipalityDistrict of Sfakia), 10%to DD Lakkoi (Municipality of Mou- is distributed to neighbouring Municipalities: 10%to Ayia Roumeli Municipal Development and Food.amount, Ofthis 70%isretained remaining the whilst 30% and, mostof all, inhabitants, the about worry drop who their inincome. ed since1981.Thelargest monthly number was71,368inAu- Establishing common models of integrated sustainable monitoring, plan- monitoring, integrated sustainable of models common Establishing Year of the Ministry ofof Rural Ministry the , within the 187

From this income, no amount is directly returned for the management of the National Park, which would otherwise be self-financing. The Chania Forestry Service is financed by the Ministry of Rural Development and Food for the upkeep of the footpath and hiring seasonal staff. Work for upkeep needs to take place every year, and the Samaria National Park staff is hired every April. The problem, which unfortunately repeats itself every year, is that there is particular delay in approving these expenses. In the past few years, the procedure of “exceptional approval” for these expenses has been established yet even this is not completed on time, with the result that there are delays in opening the Park, and hiring and paying staff. The Region of Crete has funded the Chania Forestry Service on occasion for emergency purposes, but this cannot be a permanent or effective solution. This situation creates insecurity for the bodies responsible for the operation of the Gorge and for local residents, who are directly affected and feel as though the government does not care about the proper functioning of the Park.

TABLE 5: SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK TAKINGS 178

YEAR TICKET PRICE NORTH ENTRANCE SOUTH ENTRANCE TOTAL 1989 200 drachmas 25,352,800,00 drs 1990 56,271,400,00 drs 1991 127,593,500,00 drs 1992 263,205,00,00 drs 1993 279,960,000,00 drs 1994 238,191,000,00 drs 30,928,000,00 drs 269,119,000,00 drs ~ 270,000,000,00 drs 1995 (precise details not available) 1996 1200 drs 216,618,000,00 drs 47,148,000,00 drs 263,766,000,00 drs DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE

1997 1200 drs 225,324,000,00 drs 49,704,000,00 drs 275,028,000,00 drs | 1998 1200 drs 222,862,721,00 drs 50,869,200,00 drs 273,731,921,00 drs 1999 1200 drs 226,689,600,00 drs 65,016,000,00 drs 291,705,600,00 drs 2000 1200 drs 218,229,600,00 drs 54,352,800,00 drs 272,582,400,00 drs CHAPTER 5 2001 1200 drs 228,267,600,00 drs 49,848,000,00 drs 278,115,600,00 drs 2002 3,50 € € 592,420,50 € 148,529,50 € 740,950,00 2003 5,00 € € 760,390,00 € 185,230,00 € 945,620,00 2004 5,00 € € 687,520,00 € 183,050,00 € 870,570,00 2005 5,00 € € 717,835,00 € 170,010,00 € 887,845,00 2006 5,00 € € 694,545,00 € 136,110,00 € 830,655,00 2007 € 729,615,00 2008 5,00 € € 619,995,00 € 105,185,00 € 725,180,00

178 Chania Forestry Service details. 188

PART ΙΙ | THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT 179 There isan urgent needto gauge and the respect Prospects cance and change to its physiognomy. basisofthe characteristics the of area, this without resulting degradation inthe of its environmental signifi- Tourism maximum capacity: the carrying number of people that may visit an area and community local on of humans and nature. gion’s development harmonious of an modern exemplary the model coexistence give word their of honour and to honour it, tourism sustainable can be and re- the of the Gorge and the region is still unique, the inhabitants of Sfakia know how to desire for its resolution stakeholders. Thenatural of on all part the environment thropologists, etc.). What isneededan awareness of problem the and asincere (geologists, foresters, biologists, landscape architects, economists, cultural an- areas. Thisknowledge isshared betwee ion drawn haseven up aEuropean Charter for Sustainable Tourism inprotected tourism into an organic element of sustainable development. TheEuropean Un- of years) are possible. Today there are opportunities specific that can transform solutions (continuous and mutually for supporting, hadbeen thousands asthey oftection ecosystem the and support for long-term sustainable development Even so, another of tourism type that environment the respects ispossible. Pro- ronment and culture local are sensitive, and non-replaceable goods... haustible and are to today discover surprised that natural the landscape, envi- the greatestthe threat to tourism. Many until believed recently that nature isinex- Parkthe area. Exceeding it, and subsequent the environmental degradation, are n environmental and tourism specialists tourism carrying capacity carrying tourism 179 of of 189 THE GORGE AS A NATURE AND TOURISM DESTINATION DESTINATION TOURISM AND THE GORGE AS A NATURE | CHAPTER 5

Fig. 127: With a view of the Libyan Sea, 2008 (photo: E. Papavasileiou)

Fig. 128: The veranda of Samaria, 2008 (photo: I. Vlazaki)

Fig. 129: The beach of Ayia Roumeli, 2008 (photo from Fabrigio Simonelli’s photostream at www.flickr.com) 190

Entrance, 2008 (Forestry Service archive) Guards at the north entrance (M. Manolioudakis archive)

Part ΙΙΙ 191

Ayios Nikolaos guard house (old mitato) (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Porticoes from an anti-subsidence network, 2008 (photo: I. Vlazaki)

PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK 192

PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK Road network linesofΒoundary area the “NATURA 2000”(523,349.66sq.m.) of Samaria (48,500sq.m.) linesof core the Boundary of National the Park Legend MAP OF PROTECTED AREAS OF LEFKA ORI 193

INTRODUCTION THE DECLARATION OF SAMARIA AS A NATIONAL PARK

The establishment of a pro- Samaria was declared a National Text: tected area as a National Park with Royal Decree 781/1962, Harikleia Kargiolaki Park is covered by Laws and was defined with Royal Decree 998/1979 and 1650/1986. The declaration aims at the 74/1964, covering a total area of protection of the natural 48.48 square kilometres. heritage and ecological balance, whilst it also offers The goals of the foundation of the the opportunity for envi- National Park are not mentioned ronmental education and recreation for visitors. in the above Royal Decree. The protection and preservation of the Cretan wild goat population was considered one of the most A preliminary land registry table of those in the Gorge eligible important goals of this legislation. In conjunction, of course, was compiled and submitted for the year, whilst a topographic with the protection and preservation of the Turkish pine forest study, expropriation and forestry works amounting to total ex- and the rest of the region’s rich forests. penses of 7,000,000 drachmas have been programmed for the year 1963 … * The management of the National Parks during the era when the Aerial photography was taken of the 30 square kilometres of the Lefka Ori National Park core by the Royal Hellenic Air Force. There Samaria National Park was declared is associated with the re- was also an on-the-spot confirmation and completion of the aer- moval of humans and the tendency to absolute protection. This ial photography and ground details taken, whilst the compiled land registry, with map and report, is already with the compe- was applied in the National Park with the expropriation of all tent Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture.** 48.48 square km and the relocation of the inhabitants of Samar- In the biotope of the wild goat, i.e. the core of the Lefka Ori Na- ia. The Yearbooks of the Chania Forestry Service indicate that tional Park, works for water extraction, the forest footpath, etc. were constructed by the YDE-AN, and studies for technical works, the expropriations in this area ended in 1965. From that time, bridges, etc. were submitted. The purchase of 48.5 square kilo- management of the area is done with regulations for absolute metres of the core/natural biotope is nearing completion, and private foresters have been commissioned to produce a man- protection and the removal of all traditional activities (crops, agement study for the National Park. The prohibition of hunting livestock, logging, etc.) aside from beekeeping, for which a spe- wild goats on 90 square km of the Park, as well as all prohibition cial licence is required. decrees, are applied and observed by the staff, primarily non- permanent, with the assistance of the gamekeepers. *** In 1985 the Regulations governing the National Park were passed by Ministerial Decree. Just as now, these permitted en- * Yearbook of the Chania Forestry Service for the administrative year 1962, Chapter 8 (Thera), (Vasilis Plevrakis, Chania Forest Ranger). trance for visitors exclusively to the Xyloskalo-Ayia Roumeli ** Yearbook of the Chania Forestry Service for the administrative year footpath from April to October, at specific hours and allowing 1963, Chapter 3 (Forest ownership), (Vasilis Plevrakis, Chania Forest Ranger). overnight stays only with a special licence. *** Yearbook of the Chania Forestry Service for the administrative year 1965, Chapter 8 (Thera), (Vasilis Plevrakis, Chania Forest Ranger.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 17Α 194

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικά 17Β PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK Fig. 1: Logo of Logo Samaria National Park the Forestry Code (Decree 86/69). declared National Parks according to isconsideredbeauty necessary” are of theconditions, form andnatural tion, maintenance andimprovement general, andfor whichtheprotec- waters andnatural formations, subsoil, atmosphere, the wildﬂora andfauna,geomorphic from ofpreserving theperspective “Forest interest areas ofparticular environment in We commission theMinister of Agriculture to publish and execute thisDecree. of Agriculture. Technical of Forests Council and Mountain Water Regulation approval and thespecial of theMinister on issued its proposalof Forestry and theChania theopinion with Service, of theForests Inspector and to 4,paragraph article 3of 856/1937“On Law theNational Park”, areeach time police decrees by defined The non-rare plant thatpermitted within species it is thecore to collect of the National Park, according 3 Article on theIsland of Crete, undertheauthority of theChania Forestry Service b) The forest grassland and area around thecore extendsboundaries asfar asthe of the Province of Sfakia markers. ary boundariesThe precise of thecore are indetail defined on the map and marked on the ground bound- by south-westerly direction, it comes to of theneck Xyloskalo, where it began. ofthrough Psarri thepeaks (altitude 1883m),Paliare (altitude 1677m)and Pachnis, from where, in a From there inawesterly direction it theSamariaby catchment defined follows thepeak area, comesand m) to thenorth. Xyloskalo and Melintaos streams. Here it follows thestream of theMelintaos mountain (altitude 1981 the southwest over and goes thismountain and to ridgeasfar thecrossing of asthespot Pyrgos, of the ing of through Kouvara, thepeaks Mavron and reaches Dasos Avlimonaria, it which turns behind to towardsbends and thento thenortheast where it thenorth, comes to theopposite mountain ridge, pass- of (ravine), theGorge ro thesuddenand with high, (altitude 1454m)and Katsoprinos, of to Ayia endoutside thevillage Roumeli on (exit) thesouth edge thro andsoutherly from passes it descends thepeak direction it comes of to Volakia thepeak (altitude 2110m),from there with adirection approximately turns and south-east comesbetween intheneck down From there inan easterly direction it follows themountain where it crest peak, asfar astheKingilos crest, passing above thespring of and reaching Strefomadi. of thepeak Linoseli From of theneck Xyloskalo and inawesterly direction thensouth-westerly it follows mountain a second Samaria” linesas follows: boundary isdefined by the central Ori massofof theisland theLefka inCr a) Thecore of the National Park, an area of approximatelysquare 30 kilometres stretching around the 2 Article Crete, comprised of thecore and surrounding forest and grassland. A National Park isto founded be inthearea Oriinthe ofProvince theLefka of Sfakia on theisland of 1 Article of StateCouncil and proposal of OurMinister of Agriculture, We and declare: decide 1962 of theTechnical of Forests Council and Mountain Water Regulator, and c)opinion 622/1962of the 1,3,4,paragraphsa) Ofarticles 2,6,7and 12of 856/1937“On Law National Parks”, b)opinion 787/ Having regard: On thefoundation of aNational Park Ori of theisland intheLefka of Crete ROYAL DECREE NO. 781 In Athens on 6November 1962 KING OF THEHELLENES PAUL PAUL PAUL ete and coming underthegeneralname of “Gorge of cky slope ofcky slope Samaria. From line there, theboundary ugh the peaks of Psiristra thepeaks ugh Kingilos and Volakia,Kingilos and thissouth-easterly with The Deputy Minister of of Agriculture Minister Deputy The (altitude 1485m),Kefala . tvrpo os l ou rop Stav P. 195

CHAPTER 1 INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION OF SAMARIA

Samaria has been honoured with more awards than any other part of Greece, Fig. 2: Council of Europe logo and is a member of many international networks of protected areas. It is the only region in Greece to be awarded the European Diploma of Protected Areas (Coun- cil of Europe), an authoritative title given to protected areas of special European importance, after an exhaustive appraisal of the region and the way in which it is managed. The award is subject to regular review and the Diploma is renewed every five years by a decision of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, on the recommendations of a team of experts. They examine the annual reports sent by the area’s management body (Chania Forestry Service, so far) and the evaluation report along with the recommendations and requirements sug- gested by an independent evaluator, appointed by the Council, after an on-the- spot appraisal. Samaria is also part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, for sites recognised as such by UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme. From Greece, the Olympus National Park is also in this network. The Biosphere Re- serves network is comprised of areas of excellence, which also operate as management models. Management of the region must bridge the often conflicting views on the protection of biodiversity (genetics, species, ecosystems and landscape) and development (economically viable but with respect for natural resources), and at the same time preserve and respect the region’s specific cultural values. A Biosphere Reserve is obliged to be in a continuous collaboration and network with other Reserves in Greece and abroad, exchanging views and providing support for scientific research as well as management of the Reserve. UNESCO has

A model Biosphere Reserve is comprised of at least three zones. A. One or more cores where only non-destructive (research, documentation, etc.) activities take place. B. A buﬀer zone that usually surrounds and unites the cores. Here ecologically acceptable activities can take place (education, recreation and research), whilst the human presence begins to become visible with the appearance of villages. C. A transition area that surrounds the other two zones and without outer boundaries. Here human presence dominates, with crops, livestock rearing and other land uses. Fig. 3: MAB logo (Man and the Biosphere) 196

PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK (photo: V. Kotrotsos) Fig. 4: Near Xyloskalos, 2008 Community Importance). includedalso NATURA inthe network, with reference GR4340008(Site code of as aSpecial area of or Conservation, SAC). Thebroader is area Ori of Lefka the Nationalmaria Park, with reference characterised GR4340014(it code hasbeen The European network of protected regions (NATURA 2000)includes Sa- the and isone of Important the Bird Areas of Greece (Directive 79/409/EEC). Convention, declared it by hasbeen of aBiogenetic Council the Europe, Reserve Samaria belongs also internationally to network the of regions of Barcelona the management that model aims at protection and sustainable development. to similar nuisanceslandscape exposed (climate change, etc.). Yet, here there isa The Biosphere are not Reserves separate islands inspace, but of parts abroader ten years. every reviews and with periodic of give (1995),which Biosphere clear guidelineson Reserves how operate these adopted strategy and Statutory the Seville the Framework of World the Network 197

CHAPTER 2 MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK UNTIL TODAY

Responsibility for management of the area has so far been that of the Chania For- The international conception of protect- estry Service (initially a service of the Ministry of Agriculture and today of the Re- ed areas has now changed. * Humans, gion of Crete). All the protected areas of the Prefecture of Chania and the National especially if they have left the area, are now part of the process of protection, Park are managed by the Department of Forest Administration and Management. preserving the basic systems that sup- Management is supported by an Action Plan based on an approved management port life (water, earth, etc.), maintaining genetic diversity and securing sustain- plan for the area, which also determines the precise goals (long- and short-term). ability for the species, ecosystems and The last management plan for the Lefka Ori National Path was approved with landscape. decision reference number 1355/2-12-1998 of the General Secretariat of the Re- The main reasons for reviewing the traditional policy are: gion of Crete, with the basic goal of biodiversity (genetic, species, ecosystems, 1. Total protection has created problems landscape), whilst also setting secondary goals and services for recreation and the in the ecological balance, with the removal of traditional human activities. environmental education of visitors. 2. The policy of prohibition and the lack of motives for development have resulted in the inhabitants of the wider area 1. Existing dangers and ways of dealing with them being hesitant about its protection. 3. Modern life requires outlets onto nature for mental, spiritual and physical Protection requires a thorough knowledge of the object being protected and the rest. dangers to which it is subject. The object protected in this area is biodiversity on * H. Kargiolaki, “Samaria Gorge: Principles and management problems in the South Aegean, all levels (genetic, species, ecosystems, landscape), the natural resources (water, Crete and Cyprus”, 2001, Collaboration on the en- soil, air, etc.) and man (in the past as a permanent inhabitant with his structures vironment and development, Museum of Natural History and the Region of Crete, pp. 75-82. and culture and, today, as a visitor). The previous chapters have given a view of the protected object, without always being able to define it absolutely, as even today precise and detailed studies on the species (flora and fauna) are missing. Also missing are studies which record changes to biodiversity over time, or because of the influence of particular environmental factors that the area experiences. Simi- lar studies require special funding and implementation bodies, which it has not been possible to find so far. We hope for the future best use of funding sources and human resources. The main dangers facing Samaria and the ways of dealing with them are: Fire: The danger of fire breaking out is increased due to Turkish pine vegetation as well as the aromatic brushwood of which there is plenty in the Gorge. These species are considered “fire friendly” (resin, essential oils, flammable dry leaves that do not decompose easily, etc.). From observations made over time we can say that the Turkish 198

PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK Illegal huntingIllegal 3. Control Centres. trol Centres). (digital2. Cameras with fire detectors Con- and can which messages to specific send 1. Meteorological information collected at points specific on footpath. the requiresmodel data, collated specific from: flammable material data, etc.) it able willbe to indicate daily the danger level. This issuppli When model this model. risk fire ing) a“ The Prefectural Administration of Chania problems. such for plan things, keeping an out eye hasdrawn for up an Fire the fires, action whilst Service Body, have positioned been along footpath the with responsibility for, amongst other well as,from year, this of Samaria staff the National seasonal the Park Management ously. as and of Chania staff the Forestry fire fighters (Fire Service, Seasonal Service) volunteers ran who and to scene the extinguished fires the before spread they danger- of and, rangers the with outbreak, second the Fire the and Service Forestry Service, 1981) and at 5.2km(June 1998)along fo the fire spreading and creating There victims. have two fires, at been 5km(September Outbreaks of fire on footpath the have successfully far handled so been without the points, etc. on footpath the inorder to with deal any outbreaks of fire. network the way to of modernise smallwater cisterns, fire stations, fire extinguisher ter cisterns and fire stations have built, been there whilst isaproject currently under- and there. Water transported from been various hasalso springs within Park, the wa- footpath,the equipment, with necessary the fire sprinklers whilst are scattered here time creating aflammable situation. Fire extinguisher points have up set along been of area the cannot seeds asthe reach ground, the and forest the thus ages, at same the isoverin some cases 40cmthick. Thelayer leaves of prevents dry natural the rebirth mit amore broad-ranging removal of layer the materials of on dry ground, the which of area the aswell management asthe (non-intervention) method thus far donot per- each year, which sometimes involves removing plant dry material. relief Thedifficult chapter dedicated to Samaria the National Park. To prevent fires footpath the iscleared documented Forest inthe Ranger Yearbooks since1973,inwhich there isaspecial The danger of of episodes fire breaking out ismentioned annual inallthe reports as etc.), isnow which becoming visible, of risk increases the fire. of Samaria were removed. The accumulation of flammable material twigs, needles, (dry terraces with crops the of Samaria aswell asareas for used grazing before inhabitants the pine population increased, over taking hasespecially areas where past inthe there were daily fire assessment risk study for Ori the Lefka : Thedesire to endillegal hunting, of inparticular wildgoat, the was ed with specific dataed with (meteorological specific data, has also announced hasalso (with EPPERfund- otpath. Theimmediate mobilisation ” with the purpose of” with purpose creating the a 199

one of the reasons why the Samaria National Park was created. The “unwritten” policy that had been implemented in the past by the Forestry Service, of employ- ing local hunters as rangers on a permanent basis, bore results in its day. Today, most have retired and it is not possible to implement a similar policy for various reasons (different hiring conditions). Arrests have been made of illegal wild goat hunters who illegally entered the Gorge from Poria, where the Forestry Service has built and seasonally operates a guard-post covering the north section of the Park. Unfortunately, however, the remains and traces (hides, etc.) of hunting, as well as the noise of hunting weapons being fired on occasion in certain parts of the Park, in combination with claims that wild goat meat is being sold, testify that illegal hunting of wild goats exists and perhaps at an increased rate. The use of modern technology by illegal hunters makes it more difficult to catch them red- handed (fig. 5). The condition of the wild goat population is not known, nor is the precise number that lives in the Lefka Ori. This lacuna will be filled by the “Study to observe the population and ecological needs of the Cretan wild goat in the Lefka Ori, with ensuing management proposals”, announced by the Prefectural Admin- istration of Chania, with EPPER funding. The appearance of particularly young wild goats in the old village of Samaria and along the length of the footpath has become more common in recent years. It is not known if this indicates an increase in the population, the animal’s need for food or the more open habitat provided to it by the old Samaria village.

Illegal plant collecting: The collection of seeds or plants is prohibited by the Rules and Regulations of the Samaria National Park, and can be done only with a special licence from the Ministry of Rural Development and Food, which allows the low- est number of samples. Unfortunately, however, in the past there have been cases of the destruction of plant populations, particularly of narrow endemic species, which have been collected by “scientists” who have then taken them to botanical gardens abroad and subsequently traded them. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) provides international protection against the trade and transportation of endangered species, and is implemented by management authorities. CITES protects twenty-five plant species in Samaria. Specifically, the two species of cyclamen (Cyclamen creticum and Cyclamen graecum) and all the orchid species. Malotera or ironwort (“mountain tea”) and marjoram are collected in the area for herbal tea, sometimes surrepti- tiously, and for this reason a special Forest Prohibitive Order must be issued, to regulate the conditions and volume of the herbs gathered.

Desertification: The phenomenon of climate change, now apparent globally, in combination with conditions of especial pressure, such as those found at high altitudes, lead to desertification, i.e. the formation of almost desert conditions, 200

with the disappearance of species and decline in living organisms. This phenomenon is being researched at the Alpine altitudes with international programmes, whilst the possible changes to the Park’s biodiversity will be studied with the programme “Study for the establishment of permanent sample surfaces in the Lefka Ori to document changes in biodiversity (flora and fauna)” also announced by the Prefectural Administration of Chania, with EPPER funding. Tourism: The effect of visitors to the National Park on the Gorge itself and to the Fig. 5: Skin from an agrimi killed ecology of the organisms that live within it has not been fully ascertained. Studies by illegal hunters, 2006 (Chania must be done on the Park’s greatest ability to accept visitors and for their correct Forestry Service archive) management, as, at present, there is congestion, particularly in the mornings. Fig 6: Photograph of a lake that had been created by subsidence on the Samaria footpath on 4 October 2005 2. Recreatianal services for visitors (Chania Forestry Service archive)

Fig. 7: Conservation of walls and From the first day of the creation of the National park, the Chania Forestry Service footpath, 2008 (photo: V. Kotrotsos) has carried out works for the upkeep of the footpaths and to serve visitors. Access Fig. 8: Emergency transportation, 1994 was initially permitted not only to the main footpath, but also to some secondary (Samaria Employees archive) ones, with a total length of 25 km.180 The Rules and Regulations of the National Park which exist today, however, permit access only to the main footpath. The Chania Forestry Service has set up facilities for visitors, such as viewing positions, recreational areas now with a water supply, toilets, etc. In the village of Samaria there is a doctors surgery for emergency situations. The doctors staffing it are usually from the Armed Forces. There are also mules for transporting supplies and materials into the Gorge, and those with light wounds. The rubbish left by visitors is removed from the Gorge, Seasonal employees are positioned every two km along the route to oversee that regulations are adhered to and to manage incidents. Water has also been transported from the existing springs, and drinking water is now available at various points along the footpath. Visitors to the Gorge enter from two entrances (north: Xyloskalo and south: Ayia Roumeli), according to the Rules and Regulations. Visitors cannot enter the Gorge during the winter period (November to late April). The main reason for having a specific period during which the Gorge is open is that in the winter it is impossible to cross the whole Gorge, as at narrow points (Portes) the river water reaches over three metres. Nature recovers when the Gorge is closed in winter, with particular phenomena. Small and large waterfalls are formed and rock subsidence fills the footpath. Significant maintenance work is required each year before the footpath opens, so that it can receive visitors once more (cleaning, bridge work, maintenance

180 Yearbook of the Chania Forestry Service, 1973, Chapter 10 – Samaria National Park (Christos Kokkalis). 201

of wooden structures, etc.). Similar phenomena have also occurred recently (4/10/2005), when heavy rainfall caused rock subsidence. The rocks blocked the passage of the rainwater and a lake was created overnight, with visitors having to be transported by boat (fig. 5). Moreover, falling stones from breaking rocks, Fig. 9: Information kiosk in the old possibly due to contraction and expansion, have caused serious fatal accidents. olive mill of Samaria village (photo: V. Kotrotsos) In addition to marking these areas with warning signs, a network of wire porticoes has been set up to protect visitors. Fig. 10: “Man and Rock” Information Centre at the old Ayia Roumeli Primary School (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

3. Environmental education services

Signs have been set up along the length of the footpath indicating the number of kilometres from the entrance, and with information on the surroundings (plants, animals, etc.). The Chania Forestry Service, in collaboration with various bodies, issues a pamphlet on the National Park as well as an information leaflet on the wild goat. An Information Centre for the Samaria National Park a little before the entrance to the Gorge at Xyloskalo has been operating since 1995, with the aim of providing environmental information to visitors and organised school groups. In the Fig. 11: Guards in the Samaria Gorge past there was also a reconstruction of the Gorge here with information on the (M. Manolioudakis collection) place and environmentally friendly messages. Fig. 12: Michalis Borakis, guard The need to modernise this area so that it is more visitor friendly has led Cha- in the guardhouse at Samaria village (Borakis family collection) nia Forestry Service to reconstructing it. A botanical garden and footpath have been created outside, containing endemic as well as mountain species. The ex- Fig. 13: Samaria guards with the rural hibition inside has been redesigned from scratch and its museological design doctor (Samaria Employees archive) 202

PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK old Primary School at School old Ayia Primary Roumeli village, at Gorge the entrance. “Man and Rock” dedicated to Gorge’s the created hasbeen geology inthe Gorgethe and people of the Samaria. Athematic Information Centre on and isnow an Information kioskfor village, the with old photographs of Chania (MAICh). Theold Samaria village olive press restored hasbeen Universitythe of Athens and Mediterranean the Agronomic Institute of (CRETAPLANT /LIFE04NATURE –GR-000104) incollaboration with of wasmadeaspart Microreserves the endemicspecies local programme Natural Thesmallbotanic garden task. this History hasundertaken with and exhibits arrangement are currently underway. TheCrete Museum of the oldthe olive groves, pruning, etc. gardens villages inthe of Samaria and Ayia Roumeli, cleaning pines the in 181 cusing on repairing old the lanes, restoring old the wallsthat divided the and restoration of landscape old the inthe villages” was implemented, fo- In the context of landscape protection, the project “Samaria: protection (plantspecies and animal) aswell asforest ecosystems. est guards, etc.) have responsibilities for protecting biodiversity interms of open. Even today, permanent the (for- of staff Chania the Forestry Service National the when for during period the Chania the Forestry Service Park is have worked Samaria inthe National Park. above Allthe work seasonally foresters,14 seasonal forest seven technicians and 19administrative staff or arebeen employed until today comes to around 217.Moreover, around 1995 another total ten, the number whilst of employees, guards, have who 1984 two contract seasonal employees permanent became guards, and in wild goat. Until guard 1984,this wasaccompanied by two forest guards. In guard, with responsibility for protecting various the particularly species, the Evangelos species. the Viglis, permanently residing inSamaria, a became such asSapineza, Diaand Ayioi Theodoroi for of protecting purpose the Wild goats have brought been also over from various uninhabited islands, gardens, banks and sperm zoos. sionally drawn for ex-vitro so-called the protection of inbotanic species continues to be used as a kind of (plants reserve species and animals). For and reason, this used it hasbeen databank from which materialThe Samaria National Park, asmentioned, isconsidered avaluable is genetic occa- 4. Protecting biodiversity Kokkalis). Yearbook of theChania Forestry Service, 1975, Chapter 10–Samaria National Park (Christos 203

We believe that the ringing and signing of various seed- producing Turkish pine trees along the length of the central artery by the Forest Research Institute after a Ministerial decree, should not be done as it is visually unpleasant for the visitor to see marked trees in an area such as the National Park*.

* Yearbook of the Chania Forestry Service, 1973, Chapter 10 – Sa- maria National Park (Christos Kokkalis).

Legislation for the protection of biodiversity In addition to the general legislation that protects all natural resources (forests, water resources, etc.), mention shall be made here of legislation to protect specific species (plant or animal).* The Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats) was voted by the Council of Europe with the aim of protecting rare plant and animal species and biotopes. The Convention includes lists of protected flora and fauna. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES), signed in Washington, is concerned with species threatened with extinction and focuses on their movement, particularly commercial (imports and exports). EU Council Directive 79/409, the Birds Directive, aims to protect birds in or migrating to the European Union. It protects their eggs, nests and biotopes. Many birds are also protected by the Bonn Directive. EU Council Directive 92/43/EEC includes species of EU interest. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) evaluates the condition of the preservation of each species and places them into categories (extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare, indeterminate, least concerned and data deficient). Red Data Books of endangered species are published on flora and fauna, at an international level. Each country then publishes its own National List, thus recording the endangered species and setting priorities for protection. These lists are reviewed with new scientific data. The new National Red Book of the flora of Greece will be published in 2008, whilst the Red List for vertebrates has been issued. In Greek legislation, adventitious flora and wild fauna are protected by Presidential Decree 67/81 (Government Gazette A/23). The Presidential Decree covers issues relating to the collection of species, hunting, transporting and trade, and research.

* OIKOM Update, p.165.

5. The most important protected species (plants and animals) of Samaria

Analytic information for the protected species can be found in the Special Environmental Study of the region which is being compiled (phase I has been submitted). Here we document the protected species that one can find in Samaria.

The priority plant species according to EU Directive 92/43/EEC are: Hypericum aciferum* (grows to the west of TODAY UNTIL PARK NATIONAL OF SAMARIA MANAGEMENT

Ayia Roumeli), Bupleurum kakiskalae* (rare plant found at Lenoseli), Nepeta sphaciotica* (type of oregano found in | the alpine zone of Svourichti), and Cephalanthera cucullata* (orchids that grow at Ayios Nikolaos). All are endemic to the area and have been studied as part of the LIFE-CRETAPLANT programme. The study concluded that the government must declare those areas where these plants are found as wildlife refuges, a proposal which is currently being CHAPTER 2 implemented. The endemic plants Eryngium ternatum, Helichrysum heldreichii, Zelcova abelicea, Sanguisorba cretica, and Teucrium cuneifolium are also protected by Greek law (Presidential Decree 67/81), and are included in the category of endangered species of both the IUCN and the European Red List of Globally Threatened Plants and Animals, where they are characterised as “rare”.182 Arum purpureospathum, found next to the footpath at Ayia Roumeli, the orchid Cephalanthera cucculata (Ayios Nikolaos) as well as five other plant species are protected by the Bern Conven- tion, as are 27 endemic Greek animal species.

182 OIKOM Update, p. 87. 204

The agrimi (Capra aegagrus) is protected by the complete prohibition of hunting, in accordance with Presidential Decree 67/81, the Bern Convention and the Red Book of Endangered Vertebrates of Greece. The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), which does not nest in the Gorge but flies over it, is a species of bird under special protection (Directive 79/409/EEC, Bern Convention and the Red Book of Endangered Vertebrates of Greece). According to the Red List (IUCN 2001, 2007), there are four vulnerable mammal species in Samaria (Cretan greater horseshoe bat, Geoffroy’s bat, spiny mouse, agrimi), a species which it is foreseen will become threatened in the immediate future (Blasius’s horseshoe bat), two species which are near threatened and likely to be characterised as threatened in the near future (greater horseshoe bat, great mouse-eared bat), 13 species of least concern which are not likely to be Fig. 14: Oregano species (Nepeta characterised as threatened and six species not endangered. Of the above species, sphaciotica*) (photo: A. Sakouli) three species of chiroptera (Blasius’s horseshoe bat, lesser horseshoe bat, Geof- froy’s bat) and the Cretan wildcat have seen a reduction in their population sizes (IUCN 2007).

6. Studies and works

Each year the Chania Forestry Service carries out work within the Samaria Na- tional Park, implementing approved studies. This work concerns conservation work on the footpath, cleaning, creating anti-fire nests, transporting water to specific points from springs, creation of water cisterns, positioning of information boards and signs, creating information centres and kiosks, etc. Until today, the above tasks for the operation of the National Park were done by the Chania Forestry Service. As such, below we provide details of the Directors of the Forestry Service and the periods in which they served. The Directors have had responsibility for the design and management of the Samaria National Park until today. Their contribution must be acknowledged and recognised for the ad- ditional reason that the management of somewhere like Samaria is a particularly difficult task. Of course, someone can always be found to rise to the occasion, but Samaria, in today’s form, is the result of the actions taken by these Directors, as these were implemented by the scientific staff of the Forestry Service and by the dozens of workers and guards who have worked in difficult and often adverse conditions. 205

NAMES OF CHANIA FOREST RANGERS PERIOD IN OFFICE

Alexandros Bletas January 1960 - July 1962 The following table shows projects Vasileios Plevrakis July 1962 – 13 November 1966 Antonios Pittas 13 November 1966 – 23 December 1966 undertaken in the past four years Panayiotis Konstantakis 23 December 1966 – 15 August 1969 as well as their funding bodies. In Athanasios Sakellariou 16 August 1969 – 14 May 1970 Christos Kokkalis 14 May 1970 – 2 November 1970 addition, the main studies (man- Konstantinos Vontzas 2 November 1970 – 31 December 1970 agement, Special Environmental Christos Kokkalis 1 January 1971 – 17 November 1975 Study) that have been completed Vasileios Gountanoudes 17 November 1975 – 28 February 1979 Georgios Tzimourtos 28 February 1979 – 24 May 1983 or are underway along with the Vasileios Kasiotakis 24 May 1983 – 10 January 2008 bodies that have implemented Harikleia Kargiolaki 10 January 2008 - until present and funded them.

PROJECTS IMPLEMENTED STUDIES COMPLETED (by the Chania Forestry Service)

Footpath maintenance and damage restoration Management Plan for the Lefka Ori National Park (1355/1998 Decision GS (each spring, with funding from the YPAAT) Region of Crete) Signs along the footpath with information boards (Crete ROP) Special Environmental Study of the southwest massif of the Lefka Ori and Samaria: protection and restoration of the landscape in the old villages (EPPER) study for the protection of the Cretan wild goat (Municipality of East Selinos) Improvement and modernisation of the indoor exhibition of the Lefka Ori National Park Information Centre (EPPER) Also: Formation of the outdoor area of the Lefka Ori National Park Information Centre (EPPER) Study for the improvement and modernisation of the indoor exhibition of the Samaria Information Kiosk (EPPER) Lefka Ori National Park Information Centre (EPPER) Ayia Roumeli Information Centre – Restoration of operability (EPPER)

PROJECTS UNDER WAY STUDIES UNDERWAY (by the Chania Forestry Service) (by the Chania Forestry Service unless otherwise indicated)

Management plan for the Samaria National Park (Programmatic, with the Samaria National Park Management Body - EPPER) Update of the Lefka Ori Special Environmental Study ((RC Environment and Public Planning department / EPPER) Study for the establishment of permanent sample surfaces in the Lefka Ori to Improvement of ﬁre protection infrastructure of the central Section of the Lefka Ori document changes in biodiversity (ﬂora and fauna (PAC Programmatic, with the TODAY UNTIL PARK NATIONAL OF SAMARIA MANAGEMENT National Park (Crete ROP) Samaria National Park Management Body) (EPPER) Infrastructure improvement (footpaths, guard houses, etc.) Samaria National park | Study to observe the population and ecological needs of the Cretan wild goat in (EPPER – Programmatic with the Samaria National Park Management Body) the Lefka Ori, with ensuing management proposals (PAC Programmatic, with the Samaria National Park Management Body) (EPPER)

Daily ﬁre risk assessment study for the Lefka Ori (PAC Programmatic, with the CHAPTER 2 Samaria National Park Management Body) (EPPER) Also announced and underway: Museological design and arrangement of exhibitions material in the Lefka Ori National Park (EPPER)

Abbreviations PAC = Prefectural Administration of Chania CFS = Chania Forestry Service YPAAT = Ministry of Rural Development and Food (former Ministry of MB = Management Body Agriculture) EPPER = EPPERAA = “Environment” and “Sustainable Development” MINENV = Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Operational Programme Works ROP = Regional Operational Programme RC = Region of Crete GS = General Secretary

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 18Α 206

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 18B PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK The legally-prescribed responsibilities of Management the are: Body 1. Responsibilities issues” (A197). article 13of Law 3044/2002“Transfer of building and coefficients amendments of Environment the to other Ministry Law 2742/1999 (A207),article 15“Physical planning and sustainable development and other orders”, asaddedto by trating and managing areas. certain TheManagement (MB)of Samaria National Body Park up wasset according to are bodies legalpersons ofThese private law with acharity status and were established of for adminis- purpose the of Environment the Ministry to establish Management Bodies exclusively focused The needsof abody on each National THE CHAPTER 3: Sfakia, Municipality of Mousoures, Municipality of Non-Governmental Selinos, Organisations, and, two scientists. opment andof Development, Food, Ministry Region of Crete, Prefectural Administration of Crete, Municipality of The President appointed of Board, the by Environment the Minister, with representatives of Rural of: Devel- Ministry tors, madeup of: The Samaria National Park Management inChania and is based isgoverned Body by an of 11-member Board Direc- MANAGEMENT BODY ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Themanagement of public land given to Management the or rented Body by it. implemen and organisation support, promotion, The Information, education and training of public the inenvironmental issues(creation of an Information Drawing up and implementing projects for national and European programmes and projects. Studies and research aswell implementation asthe of technical and other works included manage- inthe Assisting competent administrative and judicial authorities incontrolling implementation the of environ- Provision opinion of expert prior to pre-ratification the of sites finding and ratification of environmental Care for collection, the classification and processing of environmental features and data for areas their of Drawing up and implementing management regulations and operation of areas their of responsibility. quality and collaboration signto businesses within protected the regions. Centre, training programmes, convention, conferences, educational seminars, publications, etc.). of areas their of responsibility. ment plan and which are essential for protection, the restoration and showcasing of protected the regions mental law. terms and actions areas intheir of responsibility. areas of responsibility, aswell ascompiling related the and evidence data bases. SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK Park, giving also adevelopment them character, ledthe for National specific Parks, including that of Samaria. tation of ecotourism programmes. The issuing of a 207

The composition of today’s Board of Directors was determined by decision no. 18070/2006 of the Ministry of the En- vironment. The Management Body has expanded responsibilities in relation to a broader area whose precise borders shall be determined after introduction of the proposals to be made by the Special Environmental Study currently underway.

Fig. 15: Moments of rest at Samaria, with the expert assessor Joe Sultana during the assessment for the renewal of the Diploma of the Council of Europe (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

2. The situation today

The Management Body (MB) of the Samaria National Park has so far voted all the Regulations (operation, staff, projects) which make up the framework in which it shall operate. The Regulations relating to the staff foresee 12 positions for scientists and eight employees. The MB is funded by decision no. 108550/2-10-2007 of the General Secretariat of the Ministry of the Environment and EPPER, to the tune of €1,729,980, which relates to the project “Management and Operation of the Samaria National Park”, and is divided into 17 specific sub-projects. The Manage- ment Body has hired five scientists and ten employees to work in the National Park. The employees have been taken on with eight-month contracts, which can be renewed until the end of the project (end of 2009). It is not know how it will operate after the end of the project, as its permanent funding has not yet been finalised. There have also been problems in implementing the projects and the studies for which it has been funded. The Man- agement Body does not have the so-called “decision-making organs”, essentially the administrative mechanisms, nor the experience in ratifying and implementing projects and studies. The problem was resolved for the project funded by EPPER and currently being implemented by the signing of a Programme Contract between the Region of Crete, the Prefectural Administration of Chania and the Samaria National Park Management Body. All the sub-projects relating to projects and studies were thus undertaken by services of the Region (Chania Forestry Service) and the Prefectural Administration of Chania (Programming Department, Department of Culture, Sport and Youth). 208

PART ΙΙΙ | PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK Employees archive) Employees guard) (Samaria Athitakis, old Samaria know… (Michalis Fig. 16: Theguards protection and showcasing. jewel that demands and isworthy of development, stillexists. Samaria isa for areathe amodel management and ingeneral, Ori toand make Lefka the sustainablethe development of Samaria in away responsibility asto take so for for Management the to function Body with Gorge. the experiences Thedream environment, through personal their contribute personally to protecting the abroad. To instil invisitors desire the to itants of similar regions inGreece and ing into them contact with inhab- the inhabitants by educating bring- them, lish abetter relationship with local the far doing. hasso being ToService estab- worksist inthe that Chania the Forestry hascomeThe Management toas- Body functioning. proper personnel (scientific aswell asemployees)experienced prerequisites are necessary for its Park wasopened. Permanent fundingof Management the it aswell with asstaffing Body hasfacedeach year Samaria the since1966when Chaniathe National Forestry Service on apermanent asto resolve basis,so annual the problem which staff of seasonal hiring provided for implementing goals the of Management the should madeavailable be Body able be to will who staff Also, experienced scientists know who what are they protecting and ways the willprotect inwhich they it. employ to i.e. protecting, is it object the of way, experience have must this it in function to protection, the between management and development of region. the In order able to be The Management of Samaria the Body National Park wasformed asto bridge so gap the communication (universities, bodies with science research institutes, etc.). will not interpretations permit and misinterpretations. There atwo-way should be also through areas their of competence must conducted be within aclear legalframework that Municipalities, local ies (Forestry Service, etc.) are who responsible for legislation the protectionthe and showcasing of region. the Collaboration with administrative the bod- etc. aswell sales, asaparticipationbook innational and international programmes for role for it life inthe and events of Samaria the region. It foresees income from ticket sales, The legalframework by Management the which wasformed foresees Body adynamic 3. Prospects

implement work this successfully. Thefunding 209

APPENDIX 210

Fig. 17: Guidelines for visitors, 1980s (Chania Forestry Service archive) 211

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK

Dates and opening hours

The National Park opens on 1st May until 15th October each year, from 6 am until 4 pm, with entrances at Xyloskalo and Ayia Roumeli.

Guidelines for visitors

Visitors can walk along the length of the main footpath. All those who wish to walk beyond the main footpath require a special licence.

THE FOLLOWING ARE PROHIBITED

1. Destroying or removing Park technical works and materials. 2. Cutting trees and bushes, uprooting and collecting plants and seeds. 3. Collecting and transporting plant soil and firewood. 4. Lighting fires in general and smoking in all areas apart from the recreational areas. 5. Camping in any form and staying the night within the Park. 6. The free movement of any animals accompanying visitors. 7. Displaying and erecting boards and signs. 8. Selling food and other items as well as their display or distribution. 9. Consumption of alcohol. 10. Hunting of all animals. 11. Removal or destruction of all nests, eggs and newborns and the general disturbance or destruction of wildlife. 12. Swimming in the Park’s rivers and streams. 13. Annoying other visitors. 14. Dumping waste in areas other than the waste bins. 15. Damage to the geological formations and cultural monuments. 16. Photographing visitors for commercial purposes. 17. Grazing of animals. 18. Setting up beehives without a licence from the Forestry Service. 212 213

Sources

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THE BOOK THE GORGE OF SAMARIA SHELTER FOR LIFE – DEN OF FREEDOM

COLLECTED VOLUME EDITED BY EMMY PAPAVA- SILEIOU, PRINTED AND BOUND IN DECEMBER 2008 AT THE FACILITIES OF THE PUBLISHERS M. TOUBIS SA. 2000 COPIES WERE PRINTED IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ON GARDAPAT PAPER CERTIFIED BY THE FSC FOR THE SAMARIA NA- TIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY AND THE PREFECTURAL ADMINISTRATION OF CHANIA. PUBLICATION EDITOR, DIMITRIS ANANIADES.