Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Early Mesozoic basin development in North : Indications of cratonic deformation ⇑ Shaofeng Liu a,b, , San Su c, Guowei Zhang d a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China b College of Geosciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China c ChevronTexaco China Energy Company, Shangri-La Office Tower, Chengdu, Sichuan 610021, China d State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwest University, Xi’an, Shanxi 710069, China article info abstract

Article history: We integrated a systematic sedimentary data into a regional Early Mesozoic stratigraphic framework Received 24 March 2012 which demonstrated a detailed picture of spatiotemporal variations in basin deposition and formation Received in revised form 15 August 2012 in the North China Craton. The Early Mesozoic basin sedimentary evolution is utilized to interpret poly- Accepted 7 September 2012 phase tectonism and to unravel the craton deformation. The Late , nearly WNW-trending, giant Available online 2 October 2012 intracratonic Ordos basin was widely distributed across most of North China Craton, with a southern wedge-top depozone along the northern East Qilian–Qinling orogenic belt and a northwestern rift depoz- Keywords: one along the Helanshan. The continuous subsidence and deposition within the basin were dominantly North China Craton related to the thrust load of the East Qilian–Qinling belt and inferred mantle flow effects associated with Early Mesozoic Basin development paleotethys plate subduction, and the rift in the northwestern Ordos was driven by nearly north-vergent Craton deformation compression of the eastern North Qilian–North Qinling active margins with the stable North China Cra- Paleo-Pacific subduction ton. This intracratonic Ordos basin formation initiated the deformation of the North China Craton. Forma- tion of the NNE-trending walled intracratonic Ordos basin and the broken flexural basins indicates the North China Craton underwent the second, even more abroad nearly NNE trending crustal deformation, with lithosphere thickening in the eastern part of the North China Craton, and dynamic sub- sidence in the west, which may have been driven by nearly northwestward subduction of the Izanagi plate and the eastward extrusion and underthrusting of the western North China Craton crustal basement. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction accompanied such a significant lithospheric thinning. The most likely phase of extension, documented across the North China re- The North China Craton (NCC) is one of the oldest continental gion, reached a peak in the Early (ca, 125 Ma) (Zheng nuclei in the world (Jahn et al., 1987; Zheng et al., 2004). Early et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2011). However, whether Paleozoic emplacement of diamond-bearing kimberlites within the deformation of the craton was initiated in the earlier Mesozoic the craton indicates that a thick (ca. 200 km) and cold ancient lith- (Late Triassic and Jurassic) (Xu et al., 2004a,b; Wu et al., 2006; Yang osphere was already developed by the mid- (Zheng and and Wu, 2009) is unclear. Observational constraints of the crustal Lu, 1999). In contrast, basalts erupted at 674 Ma contain peridotite tectonic process and the deformation mechanism of the NCC in this xenoliths and show that this same lithosphere was then as much initial stage and its association with the Early Cretaceous extension thinner (<90 km), hot and compositionally heterogeneous (Xu are still limited. From the to the Jurassic, the NCC and its et al., 1995; Zheng et al., 1998, 2001). Consequently, more than adjacent regions underwent a series of tectonic events. The closure 100 km of cratonic lithosphere must have been removed or been of the central Asian Ocean, the collision between North China and strongly modified between the mid-Paleozoic and late Mesozoic South China, and the initial subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plates (Fan and Menzies, 1992; Griffin et al., 1998; Menzies et al., 1993; acted on the northern, southern and eastern margins of the North Zheng, 1999; Gao et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2007; Zhu et al., China block, respectively, resulted in intraplate deformation (Davis 2011). Regional extensional tectonics may be expected to have et al., 2001; Darby and Ritts, 2002; Liu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2011). Investigating these tectonic episodes helps to reveal the initial deformation (or modification) of the NCC. Basin ⇑ Corresponding author at: College of Geosciences and Resources, China Univer- studies of the relatively complete upper Paleozoic–Mesozoic sec- sity of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China. Tel./fax: +86 10 82321159. tion of North China, dominantly in the Ordos basin, provide E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Liu).

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.09.011 222 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 insights into the regional tectonics of the North China and clues to stretching 1500 km from east to west (Dong et al., 2011). The how and when the NCC began to deform. Based on our new sedi- Mianlue suture represents the Mianlue ocean which separates mentary data and well-documented regional Mesozoic strati- the South Qinling from the South China block in to Mid graphic framework, this paper presents a detailed analysis of the Triassic times (Liu and Zhang, 1999). After the closure of the Mian- temporal and spatial variations of sedimentation, depocenter lue ocean, the South Qinling belt was emplaced onto the Yangtze migration and isolation, and the linkage between the Early Meso- Block along the Middle Triassic Mianlue suture zone and the North zoic basin evolution and coeval basin-margin tectonics. These Qinling was thrust onto the North China block (NCB) along the Luo- new data provide further constraints on the mechanism of initial nan–Luanchuan fault in Late Triassic–Jurassic times (Figs. 1 and 2a; NCC modification. Liu and Zhang, 1999; Zhang et al., 2001; Dong et al., 2011). To the east, the Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt is separated from its eastern part, the Sulu orogenic belt, by the NE-striking Tanlu fault zone. 2. Regional setting Along the Qinling–Dabie–Sulu orogenic belt crops out the world’s largest terrane composed of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic The NCC, within the North China block (NCB), is bound on the rocks, which originally formed at ca. 220–240 Ma by radiometric north and south by orogenic belts and on its eastern margin by a studies (Li et al., 1993; Ames et al., 1993; Hacker et al., 1998; Liu subduction zone (Fig. 1). The Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt on the et al., 2004b). These ages indicated the timing of the final collision. south experienced a protracted tectonic history (Liu and Zhang, The occurrence of coesite- and diamond-bearing, ultrahigh-pres- 1999; Zhang et al., 2001; Dong et al., 2011), and underwent a sure metamorphic rocks indicates that crustal rocks of the South two-phase collision along two suture zones, the Shangdan suture China block were subducted to depths of >100 km under the North in the north and the Mainlue suture in the south, in late Paleozoic China block (Liu et al., 2006; Hacker et al., 2006). and Triassic times, respectively. The Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt is The central Asian orogenic belt was located to the north of the divided into the North Qinling and the South Qinling belts by the NCB (Fig. 1). Within this belt, the Solonker suture separated the Shangdan suture which represents the major suture separating northeastern China–Mongolia arc complexes (NECM) from the the North China and South China blocks. The Shangdan ocean NCB. Further north, the Mesozoic Mongol-Okhotsk suture belt is was finally closed prior to Middle Devonian (Dong et al., 2011). developed between the NECM and Siberia plate (Zorin et al., The Mianlue suture zone is a composite tectonic zone formed on 1995; Zorin, 1999). The Solonker suture separates a northern the basis of the Qinling–Dabie subduction–collision suture and accretionary belt that had consolidated by the Permian, when it superimposed by the Mesozoic and Cenozoic intracontinental developed into an Andean-type continental margin above a structure (Zhang et al., 2001). There are ophiolites, oceanic island north-dipping subduction zone, from a southern accretionary belt and island-arc volcanic rocks exposed along the Mianlue zone that had consolidated by the –Permian when it

Fig. 1. Simplified tectonic map of the North China Craton and its adjacent regions. Inset figure shows location. Early Mesozoic basins: 1. Ningwu basin; 2. Datong basin; 3. Jinzhong basin; 4. Linfen basin; 5. Yima basin; 6. Nanzhao basin; 7. Hefei basin; 8. Shiguai basin; 9. Scope of all basins in the Yanshan Mountains; 10 and 11 represent the northern and southern outcrop zones of Upper Triassic, respectively, in the Yanshan belt. Stratigraphic sections: A. Shuimugou; B. Erdaoling; C. Rujigou; D. Zhuozishan; E. Fugu; F. Ningwu; G. Nanzhao; H. Yanan; I. Hengshan; J. Shenmu; K. Dongsheng; L. Datong. Structural section: I–I0, Cross-section across East Qinling orogenic belt; II–II’, Cross- section across Solonker Suture belt and Yinshan fold and thrust belt. NQ – North Qinling; SQ – South Qinling; DB – Dabie Mountains; NCB – North China block, SCB – South China block, NECM – northeastern China–Mongolia arc complexes. Modified from China Geological Survey (2004). S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 223

A Chengkou Shangdan Luonan-Luanchuan Lushan I Fault Fault Fault Fault I’ SCB SQB NQB NCB S1 Pt1 Pt2-3 O T3 Sichuan Basin C-O D2-3 Pt2 Ordos Basin C C-O S1 C-O Ar3 S-P1 C C-O S1 Z N1 T-J3 1-2 T1-2 Pt1 Z Z C-O Z Pt2-3 Pt2-3 T-J3 Pt2-3 Granite Granite

0 50 100 km Shangdan Erlangping Back-are Mianlue Suture Suture Basin Suture

B II Jining-Longhua Chifeng-Bayan Xar Moron Linxi II’ Fault Obo Fault Fault Fault NCB MA EPAC LPAC Baotou Mandula C2 C2 Ar1 Ar1 Ar2 Pt2 Ar3 Pt3 C K2 O3 S3 P1 K1 N2 K1 N2 N2 K1 T3 T1 K2 K2 K2 K2 2 1 C Ar J1-2 Pt3 T3 T1 P1 Pt2 Pt2 Ar3 T3 Ar3 Pt1 Pt1 P1 T3 J2 O3 P2 Ar2 S3 C2 D1 Solonker 0 20 40 km Suture

Qinling Kuanping Volcanic Basin Granite Ophiolite complex Group rock deposits

Fig. 2. Structural cross-sections showing main tectonic units across the East Qinling orogenic belt (A; modified from Dong et al. (2011)) and the Solonker Suture belt and Yinshan fold and thrust belt (B). SCB, South China block; SQB, South Qinling block; NQB, North Qinling block; MA, Magmatic arc in North China active margin; EPAC, Early Paleozoic accretionary complex belt; LPAC, Late Paleozoic accretionary complex belt. Locations of cross-sections are shown in Fig. 1. evolved into an Andean-type continental margin above a south- to the Middle Ordovician disconformably covered by marine– dipping subduction zone (Xiao et al., 2003; Windley et al., 2007). terrigenous facies sedimentation from the Early–Middle Carbonif- With Final subduction of the intervening ocean, these two oppos- erous to the Early Triassic (Zhu et al., 2011). Closure of the central ing active continental margins collided to give rise to the Solonker Asian Ocean (Solonker suture) in the north margin, closure be- suture (Xiao et al., 2003; De Jong et al., 2006). There are some con- tween the North and South China in the south, and potentially ini- troversies over the collision age, but Confirmation of the middle or tial subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate acted on the margins and late Permian age of the collision is provided by a widespread interiors of the NCC (Liu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2011). The Late change in climate, from a Carboniferous–early Permian humid– Triassic–Jurassic stratigraphy in the NCC and its adjacent moun- climate, -bearing sedimentary facies to a late Permian–early tains (Fig. 3) records these tectonic processes. Triassic arid climate with red beds, a paleocurrent reversal due to the onset of uplift on the northern margin of the NCB, and a detrital zircon provenance of a continental margin arc (400– 3.1. Stratigraphy in Ordos basin and its marginal mountains 275 Ma) from Carboniferous–Permian nonmarine strata on the northern of NCB (Cope et al., 2005). This convergence resulted in Upper Triassic strata unconformably rest on the Middle Triassic plate margin arc magmatism along the Yinshan belt that persisted in the Ordos basin and are dominated by thick, coarse to median into the Early Triassic and Permian–Triassic north–south shorten- sandbodies, interbedded with thin mudstone layers of the Yan- ing in the Yinshan fold-thrust belt (Fig. 2b; Ritts et al., 2009). Dur- chang Formation. These sequences are continuous southward in ing Middle–Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, closure of the the North Qinling belt, but a dramatic facies change into Trias- Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean eventually led to collision of the amalgam- sic–Jurassic sandstones interbedded with mudstone deposits ated NECM and NCB with the Siberia plate (Zorin et al., 1995; Yin (Fig. 3). Lower–Middle Jurassic strata are composed of mostly med- and Nie, 1996; Zorin, 1999; Metelkin et al., 2010), which induced ian to fine-grained sandstone and mudstone of the Yanan, Zhiluo, another episodic north–south shortening deformation in the and Anding Formations in the Ordos basin, which extend to the Yinshan and Yanshan fold and thrust belt (Liu et al., 2007). western Taihangshan. But the Upper Jurassic Fenfanghe Formation East of the NCC, Paleo-Pacific subduction zones were active is composed of unconformity-bound, coarse-grained clastic along eastern Asia (Maruyama et al., 1997). After the Early–Middle wedges, confined along the southwestern and northwestern Ordos Jurassic, the northwestward subduction of the Izanagi plate drove basins (Fig. 3). Along the Yinshan fold-thrust belt, the Lower Juras- the NW–SE-oriented deformation in the NCC and thrust along the sic Shiguai Formation, in the Shiguai basin (8, Fig. 1), for example, eastern continental margin of China (Fig. 1)(Zhang, 1997; Liu et al., consists of boulder conglomerates and fluvial and deltaic sand- 2007). stones and mudstones (Ritts et al., 2001). The Middle–Upper Juras- sic Changhangou and Daqingshan Formations were dominantly composed of sandstone interbedded with conglomerate and con- 3. Stratigraphy glomerate, respectively (Fig. 3). Jurassic rocks were deposited in the Hefei basin along the northern margin of the Qinling–Dabie Since cratonization, the NCC has remained relatively stable with orogenic belt, characterized by a general coarsening-upward deposition of shallow marine carbonates from the Early clastic sequence, as represented by the early Jurassic Fanghushan 224 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236

Fig. 3. Early Mesozoic lithostratigraphy of the basins in North China. Compiled from Liu and Yang (2000), Xi and Pei, 1997, Ritts et al. (2001), Liu et al. (2003, 2011, 2004a and 2007).

Formation, Middle Jurassic Sanjianpu Formation and Upper Juras- and tuff, interbedded with some sedimentary layers. Collectively, sic Fenghuangtai Formation (Fig. 3). Ar/Ar and U–Pb ages span ca. 175–148 Ma for the Tiaojishan (the Lanqi) Formation (Davis et al. 2001; Zhao et al. 2004; Davis, 2005; 3.2. Stratigraphy in Yanshan orogenic belt Liu et al., 2007; Hu et al., 2010). The Tuchengzi (or Houcheng) For- mation unconformably rests on the Xiahuayuan, Tiaojishan Forma- Late Triassic and Jurassic strata in the Yanshan fold-thrust belt tion, and Archean metamorphic rocks, and is overlain by the are composed of Xingshikou, Nandaling, Xiahuayuan, Jiulongshan, Zhangjiakou Formation. The Tuchengzi Formation consists of thick, Tiaojishan, and Tuchengzi Formations (and the other equivalent massive, or horizontally stratified conglomerate intercalated with formations) (Fig. 3). Correlation of these strata in the Yanshan fold- massive or laminated mudstone and thin layers of pebbly sand- thrust belt remain controversial. The deformed Xingshikou Forma- stone. Published K–Ar, Ar–Ar, and U–Pb ages from the Tuchengzi tion, mostly composed of conglomerate, unconformably overlies and Zhangjiakou Formations are ca. 156–139 Ma (Davis, 2005; the Early–Middle Triassic (Liu et al., 2007). U–Pb ages of detrital Davis et al., 2001; Shao et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2002) and ca. zircons within the formation include subsidiary peaks occurring 147–127 Ma (Li et al., 2000; Swisher et al., 2002; Niu et al., 2003; at 198 ± 5 Ma (Liu et al., 2012) and 205 Ma (Yang et al., 2006), Zhao et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2005), respectively. These ages of indicating a Late Triassic maximum depositional age. The Nandal- the Tiaojishan, Tuchengzi, and Zhangjiakou Formations indicate ing Formation, overlying the Xingshikou Formation, consists of that there is considerable diachroneity in the timing of volcanism basalts and associated clastic rocks, with a 40Ar–39Ar biotite age and sedimentation. Based on geochronology and stratigraphic rela- of 180 ± 2 Ma (Davis et al., 2001) and a minimum U–Pb zircon tions, the Xiahuayuan and Jiulongshan Formations are thought to age of 174 ± 8 Ma (Zhao et al., 2006) for the basalts. Therefore, be dominantly Middle Jurassic, Tiaojishan Formation to be Late most of the Nandaling Formation is Early Jurassic. Jurassic, Tuchengzi Formation to be Late Jurassic, and finally The Xiahuayuan Formation mostly conformably rest on the Zhangjiakou Formation to be Early Cretaceous (Fig. 3). Nandaling Formation, and is predominantly sandstone and con- glomerate, mudstone, and sandstone interbedded with mudstones. 3.3. Regional stratigraphic correlation Jiulongshan Formation comprises fine-grained mudstone interbed- ded with thin coarse-grained sandstone and conglomerate. The Tia- The geochronology, the well-exposed unconformities, and the ojishan Formation (or Lanqi Formation), covering the Jiulongshan, basin fill characterize the Early Mesozoic stratigraphy as three mainly comprises andesitic and basaltic breccia, conglomerate, unconformity-bound phases within the basin, from oldest to S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 225 youngest: an Upper Triassic, Lower–Middle Jurassic, and Upper from the emerging North Qilian and North Qinling thrust belt to Jurassic phases (Fig. 3). The deformed Xinshikou Formation in the the southwest and south, the Alxa block to the northwest, and Yanshan belt is constrained to between 205 and 198 Ma (Yang the Yinshan Mountains to the north. With different structural con- et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2012), and corresponds to the uppermost trols, the stratigraphic succession has various depositional part of the Upper Triassic basin phase filling the Ordos basin and systems. the intermontane basin in the North Qinling belt. The Xiahuayuan The northwestern Ordos subbasin is mostly located in the and Jiulongshan Formations, covered by the Tiaojishan volcanic Helanshan Mountains, and spatially linled with the Alxa Massif. and volcanoclastic rocks, are correlated with the Yanan, Zhiluo, The lower part of the Yanchang Group deposited in this subbasin and Anding Formations in the Ordos basin, and both of the Xia- consists of alluvial fan conglomerates distributed only in the nar- huayuan and Yanan Formations are coal-bearing sequences. All row western flank of Helanshan (Fig. 4) and up to 900 m thick, these formations constitute the Lower–Middle Jurassic basin braid-plain coarse-grained sandstones deposited in the axis of phase. The Upper Jurassic basin phase is characterized by localized the subbasin (Schumm, 1977; Liu and Yang, 2000)(Fig. 4). The allu- basin deposits, constrained to the western margin of the Ordos vial fan-braid plain system represents the first tectonosedimentary basin, the central Yanshan and Yinshan belts, and the north of facies configuration in the lower Yanchang Group in the north- the Dabie, including the Fenfanghe, Tuchengzi, Daqingshan, and western Ordos subbasin (Fig. 4)(Liu and Yang, 2000). Palaeocur- Fenghuangtai Formations, respectively. rent indicators demonstrate that the braided channels were orientated nearly parallel to or at a sharp angle to the basin axis 4. Sedimentology (Liu and Yang, 2000). The Upper part of the Yanchang Group con- sists of several upward-coarsening successions, with both gravel Depositional systems are especially sensitive to tectonics, and deposits, which are restricted to a narrow band (<10 km) along clearly reflect the basin marginal tectonic control at the margins the western Helanshan (Fig. 4B), and sandstone deposits covering of the basins (Liu and Yang, 2000). For NCC basin evolution their almost the entire subbasin (Fig. 4C). All the gravel and sandy margins had different structural configuration during different deposits are made up of fan deltaic and lacustrine systems stages. Through the temporal and spatial variation of the basin (McPherson et al., 1987; Ritts et al., 2004), and represent the sec- depositional systems, the tectonic evolution of the NCC is revealed. ond tectonosedimentary facies configuration in the upper Yanchang Group (Fig. 4)(Liu and Yang, 2000). Palaeocurrent indi- 4.1. Upper Triassic basin phase cators show that the fan deltas issued from the western uplifting Alxa block, and flowed transversely to the basin axis (Liu and Yang, Upper Triassic basin phase was largely distributed over the en- 2000; Ritts et al., 2004). The facies belts are orientated in a nearly tire NNC, including the Ordos basin, the intermontane basins in the N–S direction, controlled by the orientation of the western North Qinling and Yanshan fold-thrust belts. Helanshan structures. In the southwestern Ordos, the Upper Triassic succession 4.1.1. Ordos basin mostly consists of thick, vertically stacked, tabular, proximal sand- The Late Triassic Ordos basin was filled by a 3000 m thick suc- bodies (40–150 m in thickness) interbedded with units of thin cession of clastics, the Yanchang Formation, which was derived mudstone (<25 m in thickness) of overall coarsening-upward

Fig. 4. Schematic cross-section of the restored Triassic northwestern Ordos subbasin. Western edge of the basin is the interpreted basin-bounding normal fault west of the Helanshan. Measured sections which constrain the cross-section are indicated. Locations of the sections of A (Shuimugou), B (Erdauling), C (Rujigou), and D (Zhuozishan) are shown in Fig. 1. Sections A, B, and C were modified from Liu and Yang (2000), and Section D was modified from Ritts et al. (2004). Mt. Mudstone; St. Sandstone; Congl. Conglomerate. Location of the cross-section is shown in Fig. 1. 226 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 appearance (Liu and Yang, 2000). Further out in the subbasin, deposition is primarily fine-grained sediment. In the basin margin, deposits are characterized by coarse gravels with massive, imbri- cated, and parallel beddings. Pebbly, silty sandstone forms small tongues between conglomerate lithosomes (Liu and Yang, 2000). These strata mainly comprise braided delta and alluvial fan sys- tems (Liu and Yang, 2000; McPherson et al., 1987). The facies belts of the braid delta and lacustrine in the southwestern Ordos subba- sin are orientated NW–SE, parallel to the marginal North Qilian fold-thrust belt to the southwest, and continuously extend east- ward, parallel to the North Qinling fold-thrust belt. The Upper Triassic succession in the northeastern present-day Ordos basin and Ningwu basin (Figs. 1 and 5) is composed of more than 500 m of coarse to fine-grained sandbodies interbedded with mudstone and lens-shaped pebble conglomerates. The whole suc- cession, with a fining-upward appearance, are interpreted as meandering and braid channel deposits (Schumm, 1977) with a dominantly southern-flow direction (Fig. 5), sourced from the Yin- shan Mountains in the north, but further south, they are changed into lacustrine delta deposits (Li et al., 1997).

4.1.2. Intermontane basins within the North Qinling fold-thrust belt The Upper Triassic strata are locally distributed between the Luonan-Luanchuan fault and Shangdan suture within the North Qinling fold-thrust belt (Fig. 1). The stratigraphy was deformed. The measured section in Nanzhao county, more than 1000 m thick, consists of three parts (Fig. 6). The lowest part, ca. 70 m thick, com- prises vertically stacked, upward fining, lens-shaped pebble con- glomerate and coarse to fine-grained sandbodies interbedded with thin coaly shale and coal seams. Its depositional configuration is suggestive of a braided channel (e.g., Miall, 1978). The middle part, ca. 200 m thick, consists of three or more coarsening-upward successions with lower dark mudstone interstratified with thin, massive or ripple bedding, fine-grained sandstone layers, and mas- sive, tabular or trough cross-bedding, coarse-median grained sand- bodies, capped by massive and tabular coarse to median grained sandstones with plant fossils interbeded with thin coal layers. Deposition in this part is interpreted to be a braided delta (e.g. McPherson et al., 1987). The upper part, more than 750 m thick, consists of fine-grained mudstones with lacustrine fauna interbed- ded with thickening and coarsening upward, coarse–fine grained sandstone layers in which subaqueous slide structures, flute marks, massive or parallel beddings are developed indicative of a deep lacustrine and turbidite deposit (Liu et al., 1999). These deposi- tional systems occur in the whole area of the North Qinling belt but the grain size and thickness increase southwards. The sections along the southern margin of the belt, more than 1500 m thick, are capped with thick fluvial plain sandbodies and alluvial fan cobble- boulder conglomerate sourced from the south, bounded by north- ward-vergent thrust fault suggesting that the intermontane basin was a thrust-controlled flexural depression.

4.1.3. Intermontane basins within the Yanshan fold-and-thrust belt The Upper Triassic succession crops out in two E–W–trending zones, the northern and southern outcrop zones, in the Yanshan belt (Fig. 1). The Upper Triassic Xingshikou Formation in the north- ern zone includes two depositional sequences. One, ca. 320 m in Fig. 5. Stratigraphic columns of Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation and their thickness, consists mainly of grain-supported, imbricated, partly correlation in the northeastern Ordos basin (E) and the Ningwu basin (F). Locations massive braided channel conglomerate (Liu et al., 2007); Imbri- of the sections (E and F) are shown in Fig. 1. The other symbols are the same as in cated clast orientations indicate southward flow (Liu et al., 2012). Fig. 4. The other, ca. 40 m in thickness, is composed of poorly sorted, unstratified, clast-supported, and subangular or angular cobble and boulder debris flow conglomerates (Liu and Yang, 2000; Liu Upper Triassic strata in the southern outcrop zone, 15–20 m in et al., 2007)(Fig. 7A); This conglomerate unconformably overlies thickness, consist of a granule conglomerate with some sandstone Archean basement. intervals (Fig. 7B). The whole section of the Xingshikou Formation S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 227

Fig. 6. Upper Triassic facies successions in the intermontane basin of the North Qinling. P. Pebble conglomerate. Locations of Section G (Nanzhao) is shown in Fig. 1. The other symbols are the same as in Fig. 4. is divided into four fining- or coarsening-upward depositional cy- channel sandbodies were deposited on the undulating topography cles that consist of conglomerate, sandstone, and siltstone with (Liu and Yang, 2000). Deposition of the middle Jurassic Yanan For- massive bedding or cross-stratification, interpreted as gravelly, mation over the present-day Ordos basin (Fig. 1; Figs. 8H–K) and meandering channel deposits (Liu et al., 2007). Paleocurrent indi- separated Ningwu (Fig. 8F) and Datong (Fig. 8L) basins (Fig. 1) com- cators (cross-stratification) suggest flow was to the west and menced with the deposition of coarse-grained sandbodies and a southwest (Liu et al., 2007). few small poorly-sorted or oriented conglomerate. The middle part of the Yanan Formation is mainly composed of multiple coarsen- 4.2. Lower and Middle Jurassic basin phase ing-upward successions from mudstone with lacustrine fauna int- erbedded with fine to median grained sandstone layers. At its The early and middle Jurassic strata were mostly deposited in upper part, the Ordos lake was infilled with several coal-bearing the Ordos basin and its marginal intermontane basins. Here we parasequences consisting of fine-grained mudstone with horizon- only describe the Lower and Middle Jurassic basin phase in the Or- tal beddings, fine-grained sandstone layers with tabular cross- dos basin and intermontane basins in the Yanshan belt. beddings, and lens-shaped fine to median grained sandbodies with tabular and trough cross-beddings. The depositional characteristics 4.2.1. Ordos basin indicates that the Yanan Formation was deposited with lowstand The sub-Jurassic unconformity is a basin-wide erosional sur- fluvial, transgressive lacustrine, and highstand deltaic systems face. Lower Jurassic Fuxian Formation was deposited in local (Liu and Yang, 2000). depressions developed on the pre-Jurassic erosional surface (Song, The Zhiluo Formation of the Middle Jurassic is characterized by 1989). The lens-shaped, fining-upward, incised meandering lateral extended, coarse to median grained sandbodies with trough 228 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236

Fig. 7. Photos of the Early Mesozoic stratigraphy in the intermontane basins of the Yanshan Mountains and the southwestern Ordos basin. (A) The conglomerate of the Xingshikou Formation the northern outcrop zone (10, Fig. 1) of Upper Triassic in the Yanshan belt. Hammer for scale. (B) The laminated conglomerate and sandstone of the Xingshikou Formation in the southern outcrop zone (11, Fig. 1) of Upper Triassic in the Yanshan belt. Man for scale. (C) The lacustrine mudstone at the middle of the Xiahuayuan Formation in the Chicheng basin (14, Fig. 9B). Hammer for scale. (D) The lacustrine mudstone interbedded with massive-bedding mouth bar deposit at the middle of the Xiahuayuan Formation in the western Beijing basin (15, Fig. 9B). Pencil for scale. (E) Imbricated conglomerate of the Upper Jurassic Fengfanghe Formation in the southwestern Ordos subbasin (18, Fig. 9C). Pencil for scale. (F) Imbricated conglomerate of the Upper Jurassic Tuchengzi Formation in Luanping–Chengde basin (16, Fig. 9B). Pencil for scale. cross-bedding interbedded with thin mudstones and fine grained in the sequence three coarsening-upward depositional sequences sandstones, and is interpreted to be braid channel and flood plain are developed, which are composed of horizontal laminated shale deposits (Miall, 1978). Its large fluvial channels flowing from west or very fine-grained shale and thin, massive coarse-grained and to east produced the sub-Zhiluo erosional surface, and formed pal- pebbly sandstones and conglomerates. At the top of these se- aeovalleys in the underlying Yanan strata (Li et al., 1995). The And- quences there are ca. 25 m thick, laminated conglomerates with ing Formation at the upper part of the Middle Jurassic consists of scour surfaces and lens-shaped sandstone interlayers. The three purple-red, variegated strata presumably deposited in a semi-arid depositional sequences are interpreted to be meandering channel, climate (Li et al., 1995). It includes mudstone interbedded with lacustrine and turbidite depositional systems with gravel braided fine-grained sandstone, representing deposits of deltaic and lacus- channel deposits at their top (Liu et al., 2004a). In the Chicheng trine systems (Liu and Yang, 2000). and western Beijing basins (14 and 15, Fig. 9B), the thick, dark lacustrine mudstone (Fig. 7C), and lacustrine mudstone interbed- 4.2.2. Intermontane basins within the Yanshan fold-thrust belt ded with massive-bedding mouth bar deposits (Fig. 7D) are devel- A series of intermontane basins of the Early–Middle Jurassic oped at the Xiahuayuan Formation. were developed in the Yanshan belt (12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17, The Jiulongshan Formation, in concomitance with overlying vol- Fig. 9B). The Middle Jurassic Xiahuayuan Formation is character- canic and pyroclastic rocks of the Tiaojishan Formation, is mostly ized by a coal-bearing succession, ca. 100 m in thickness in the distributed along the synclines in the Yanshan belt. The Jiulong- Luanping–Chengde basin (16, Fig. 9B). At the base of the formation, shan Formation within Luanping–Chengde basin (16, Fig. 9B), a fining-upward sequence of conglomerates and fine sandstones, 160 m thick, mostly consists of red shale, silty shale and coarse- 10 m in thickness, is developed (Liu et al., 2004a). High upward grained sandstone and conglomerate intervals. The sandstone, S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 229

Fig. 8. Stratigraphic sections (H–K) of Yanan Formations in the eastern Ordos and their correlation with the sections (F and L) in the Taihangshan. The locations of the sections are shown in Fig. 1. The other symbols are the same as in Figs. 4 and 6. gravel sandstone and conglomerate are in the shape of lens, in molasse wedges were the depositional response to the rejuvena- which massive and cross-beddings are developed, and horizontal tion of thrusting along the western margin of the Ordos basin. lamination is developed in mudstones. The whole section forms The molasse wedges in the northwestern Ordos subbasin are 6 small coarsening upward cycles, which are interpreted to be bounded by the Tiekesumiao thust fault (Liu and Yang, 2000), fan delta depositional systems with subaqueous distributary chan- and are composed of more than 2000 m thick of alluvial fan con- nel deposits at the top of cycles and debris flow intervals within glomerate at the thrust front, sourced from the west. These depos- lacustrine shale (McPherson et al., 1987; Liu et al., 2004a). its are interpreted to be the response to the east-vergent progradating thrust of the Helanshan belt. 4.3. Upper Jurassic basin phase 4.3.2. Intermontane basins within the Yanshan fold and thrust belt During the Late Jurassic, the NCC underwent a regional uplift, Late Jurassic intermontane basins in the Yanshan belt are lo- and the sedimentary basins became confined to marginal fold cated along the thrust faults (Fig. 9C). The Upper Jurassic Tuchengzi and thrust belts. The western Ordos basin and the intermontane Formation is characterized by thick, massive, or horizontally strat- basins in the central Yanshan belt are typical examples. ified conglomerate (Fig. 7F) intercalated with one or two parts of massive or laminated mudstone and thin layers of pebbly sand- 4.3.1. Western Ordos basin stone or conglomerate in the middle of the conglomerate (Liu The Upper Jurassic Fenfenghe Formation is composed of uncon- et al., 2007). The former is typically composed of vertically amal- formity-bounded, coarse-grained clastic wedges along the south- gamated, mostly fining-upward conglomerate layers with sharp western and the northwestern Ordos subbasins (Fig. 9C). The scour surfaces at their bases, and the latter composed of multiple northwestern Upper Jurassic clastic wedge tapering to the east is coarsening-upward depositional cycles, which are interpreted to distinct on seismic reflection sections (Liu and Yang, 2000), and be braid channel plain and braid delta origins, respectively (Miall, the southwestern clastic wedge tapering to the northeast is well 1978; McPherson et al., 1987). The Tuchengzi Formation has dra- exposed in the Fenfenghe district (Fig. 9C). These molasse wedges matic lateral changes in maximum clast size, which reach their in the southwestern Ordos subbasin are predominantly composed largest size at the margins of the basins near the basin bounding of more than 1000 m of vertically stacked, imbricated (Fig. 7E) or thrust systems. poorly-sorted, cobble-boulder conglomerates, which are inter- preted to be from alluvial fans (Liu and Yang, 2000). Palaeocurrent indicators obtained from clast imbrication indicate that the fans 5. Basin evolution were built by runoff that flowed toward the north, north-east– north, and north-west–north. Conglomerate composition is domi- 5.1. Intracratonic basin (Late Triassic) nantly granite gneiss, schist, and marble with a smaller amount of quartzite and dolomite clasts, and their lithology is similar to The Late Triassic intracratonic basin, the Ordos basin, in NCC, the Proterozoic Kuanping high-grade metamorphic rocks in the with several thousand km in lateral dimension and thick accu- North Qinling belt. This indicates that the Fenfanghe Formation mulations, was developed on rigid lithosphere and associated with was sourced from the North Qinling belt to the south, and the the formation of a parallel-extended megasuture (Specht et al., 230 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236

A

B

C

Fig. 9. Tectono-paleogeographic maps of Upper Triassic (A), Middle Jurassic (B), and Upper Jurassic (C) in the North China Craton. The map (B) dominantly shows the early Middle Jurassic paleogeographic framework of the Yanan (in Ordos basin) and Xiahuayuan (in Yanshan Mountains) Formations in which 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 represent the Shangyi, Xuanhua, Chicheng, western Beijing, Luanping–Chengde, and Beipiao basins. The map (C) dominantly shows the paleogeographic framework of the Tuchengzi Formation in the Yanshan Mountains, in which 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22 represent Fenfanghe, Jinlingsi–Yangshan, Jianchang, Pingquan, Dazhangzi–Xincheng basins, respectively. F1: Shangyi–Pingquan thrust; F2: Linyuan–Dongguanyingzi thrust; F3: Miyun–Xifengkou thrust. The data of depositional facies in the Late Triassic and Middle Jurassic Ordos basin are partly modified from Li et al. (1997), and the data in the Yanshan Mountains modified from Liu et al., 2004a; 2007, and the data in the Bohai Bay basin area modified from Qi et al. (2003). S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 231

1991). Prototype basin reconstruction shows that the Late Triassic basin is dominated by south-flowing or southwest-flowing mean- Ordos basin was larger than the present-day basin, and extended dering fluvial and lacustrine delta facies with a gentle slope com- eastward across the Taihangshan Mountains. The Upper Triassic pared with the southern margin (Fig. 9A) (Yang et al., 1992; Ritts stratigraphy in the Ningwu, Jinzhong, Linfen, and Yima basins et al., 2009). within the Taihangshan Mountains (1, 3, 4, and 5, Fig. 1; Fig. 9A) To the northeast of the northern Ordos basin, a satellite basin has been correlated with the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos was developed in the Yanshan area, which was comprised by the basin (Sun and Liu, 1985; Li et al., 1997; Liu and Zhang, 1999). northern and southern basin zones based on correlative stratigra- Isopachs from Sun and Liu (1985), and Li et al. (1995) shows a phy, facies proximality, grain-size trends, and provenance linkages NWW–SEE orientated depocentre in front of the northern margin (Fig. 9A). Paleocurrents in both basin zones were mostly south- of East Qilian–Qinling fold-thrust belt, crossing the Taihangshan directed, suggesting that the two outcrop zones were not Mountains to the Zhengzhou City, and a NNE–SSW elongate trough segmented during the Triassic. In the northern part of the basin, along its northwestern rift sub-basin in Helanshan. fanglomerates were developed; these systems passed into The Late Triassic is the final collisional stage of the North China coarse-grained fluvial systems in the southern part, with the grain and South China plates along the Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt. The size of the conglomerate continuously decreasing from the north- South China plate was thrust under, presumably by northward fac- ern part to the southern part (Liu et al., 2007). ing subduction, the Qinling–Dabie micro-plate along the Mianlue suture in the south, and the Qinling–Dabie micro-plate was under- 5.2. Walled intracratonic basin (Jurassic) thrust the North China plate along the Shangdan fault in the north (Zhang et al., 2001). The North Qinling belt (including the East Qil- 5.2.1. The Early–Middle Jurassic ian belt) formed a retro-arc foreland fold-thrust belt. Through a The Early–Middle Jurassic Ordos basin was different from the retro-arc thrust, a wedge-top basin was formed within the North Late Triassic basin in basin deposition, structures of the bounding Qinling thrust belt, filling the basin with turbidite, lacustrine, braid mountains, and crustal contraction direction. The basin was nearly delta, and alluvial fan deposits (Figs. 6G and 9A). This subbasin belt N–S trending with contraction mountain margins both in the west pinched out westward, and was replaced by the southwestern Or- and east (Fig. 9B) and bound by thrust belts in the north and south. dos subbasin, which was filled with alluvial fan and braid delta sys- The western Ordos basin formed a unified depressed margin tems, forming a wedge, thick near the thrust belt and thinning without Late Triassic structural differences of rift and foreland in towards the north-east, and sourced from the southwestern thrust the northwest and the southwest, respectively. A regional uncon- belt. This subbasin is interpreted to be a North Qilian thrust- formity between the Triassic Yanchang Formation and the overly- controlled foredeep depozone (Liu and Yang, 2000). To the north ing Lower Jurassic Fuxian Formation or Middle Jurassic Yanan of the North Qinling wedge-top basin, the southern Ordos subbasin Formation may be resulted from isostatic rebound after the cessa- extended nearly east–westward adjacent to the uplift of the south- tion of thrusting and rifting during the last stage of the Late Trias- ern margin of NCC, and filled with ca. 2500 m of lacustrine delta sic. Lower–Middle Jurassic basin strata in the western Ordos are and deep lacustrine deposits from the Tongchuan to Zhengzhou composed of dominantly coal-bearing fluvial and lacustrine strata districts (Li et al., 1997; Liu and Zhang, 2008), which represents a and are up to 1600 m thick, sourced from the uplifted western foredeep depozone (Fig. 9A). Therefore, the North Qinling wedge- Helanshan flanks. The basin depocentres were mainly located in top depozone and the southern Ordos foredeep depozone consti- the central parts of the Ordos basin, far from the western basin tute a foreland basin system (DeCelles and Giles, 1996), which margin, but the depocentres within the Late Triassic composite ba- was related to the Late Triassic Qinling–Dabieshan orogeny (Liu sin apparently maintained their position next to the western basin- and Zhang, 2008; Liu and Zhang, 1999; Liu et al., 1999). The bounding faults. All these evidences suggest a transition in the forebulge and backbulge depozones in this foreland basin system northwestern Ordos belt from Late Triassic extension to Early cannot be uniquely differentiated, primarily because we suspect Jurassic shortening and eastward tilting (Fig. 9B) (Liu and Yang, that the foredeep depozone may have been the subsidence center 2000; Ritts et al., 2009). of the whole basin. The eastern margin of the Early–Middle Ordos basin shrank The northwestern Ordos subbasin was bounded by the Alxa westward relative to that in the Late Triassic (but eastward ex- massif, and extended nearly north-east–northward. The stratigra- tended relative to the present-day Ordos basin), and was located phy in the subbasin was strongly asymmetric (Fig. 4); alluvial fan along the Datong, Ningwu, Jinzhong, Linfen, and Yima intermon- strata were restricted to the extreme western margin of the subba- tane basins (2, 1, 3, 4, and 5, Fig. 9B). The Lower and Middle Jurassic sin and interfingered with axial fluvial deposits low in the section strata in the Datong, Ningwu, Jinzhong, and Linfen basins are well and deep lacustrine and fan delta depositional systems high in the correlated with those in the present-day Ordos basin. The Middle section (Liu and Yang, 2000; Ritts et al., 2004). Much of the eastern Jurassic Yanan Formation in the Yanan, Hengshan, Shenmu, and part of the subbasin is dominated by west flowing meandering riv- Dongsheng sections of the present-day Ordos basin and the Ning- er and lacustrine deltaic systems (Ritts et al., 2004). In the western wu and Datong intermontane basins are all divided into three units and central Helanshan, Triassic normal faults were identified, and which represent facies change trends from the marginal fluvial in volcanic rocks and dykes (229 ± 15 Ma) were documented (Liu the north and northeast to deltaic and lake in the central (H–L, 1998; Ritts et al., 2004). These characteristics support an exten- Fig. 8; Fig. 9B; Li et al., 1997; Cheng et al., 1997). From structural sional origin for the northwestern Ordos margin. The subbasin is investigations, U–Pb dating, and 40Ar/39Ar chronological analyses, interpreted to have been a half graben, bound along its western the Taihangshan Mountains initially uplifted and formed fold- margin by an east-dipping normal fault (Figs. 4 and 9A; Liu and thrust structures at 175–150 Ma. The extensive WNW-vergent Yang, 2000; Ritts et al., 2004). thrust faults and folds formed in Middle–Late Jurassic indicate The northern margin of the Ordos basin was linked by the Yin- WNW-oriented contraction (Wang and Li, 2008). Therefore, Tai- shan fold and thrust belt. The stratigraphy was between 500 and hangshan fold-thrust belt deformed the eastern part of the Triassic 1300 m thick, increasing to the south. The sequences of the Upper Ordos basin, and controlled the deposition in the eastern margin of Triassic Yanchang Formation are well correlated among the eastern the Early–Middle Jurassic Ordos basin. margin of the present-day Ordos basin (Fig. 5E) and the isolated In the Yinshan belt, the north of the Ordos basin, deformation Ningwu (Fig. 5F) and Jinzhong basins, which indicates they formed began with right-lateral strike-slip faulting and basin development the northern margin of a united Late Triassic basin. This part of the along east-striking structures in the Early Jurassic (8, Fig. 1; Ritts 232 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 et al., 2001; Darby et al., 2001). This structure was kept until the 5.3.1. Early–Middle Jurassic earliest Middle Jurassic, and then changed into the contractile fore- In the Yanshan belt, the early Middle Jurassic Xiahuayuan For- land-style basin formation (Hendrix et al., 1996; Darby et al., mation overlying the early Jurrasic volcanic rocks was scattered 2001). South of the Ordos basin, the North Qinling belt thrust over large areas. The recovered proto-basins filled with Xiahuayu- and expanded northwards and deformed the late Triassic wedge- an Formation included the Shangyi, Xuanhua, Chicheng, western top basin strata. This thrust activity controlled the deposits in Beijing, Luanping–Chengde, and Beipiao basins from west to east the southern and southwestern margins of the Middle Jurassic Or- (12–17, Fig. 9B). In general, the protobasins were distributed in dos basin. Dabie Mountains was a doubly vergent thrust system in nearly ENE trending, in which meandering channel with swamp Jurassic with its northern thrusts controlling the deposition of the deposits were filled in basin margins and lacustrine in the centers Hefei foreland basin (Liu et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2010). (Fig. 9B). In comparison with the early Middle Jurassic basin distri- Therefore, the Early–Middle Jurassic Ordos basin formed a bution, the late Middle Jurassic basins migrated from sides to cen- walled intracratonic basin surrounded by orogenic uplifts (geo- ter, and were dominantly located along the core of a syncline morphic walls) which was related to dominantly WNW–ESE and within the center of the Yanshan belt. The late Middle Jurassic Jiu- N–S-directed intraplate contraction (Carroll et al., 2010). Within longshan Formation consisting of clastic rocks was mostly covered this walled basin, Lower Jurassic strata are only locally preserved, with the Tiaojishan Formation. The composition of sediment lithic and are generally characterized by proximal alluvial deposits in fragments changed from the fragments of Paleozoic and upper Pro- the west that grade into fine-grained lacustrine deposits basinward terozoic carbonate in the early Middle Jurassic to the deep granite in the east, with a NEN trending. During the Middle Jurassic, lacus- in the late Middle Jurassic (Liu et al., 2004a), which suggest gradu- trine environments expanded to their fullest extent with the in- ally uplift and exhumation of the basin margins located at the syn- creased basin subsidence, covering most of the southern and cline limbs with time. We infer that these basins were an eastern part of the Ordos basin (Fig. 9B; Li et al., 1997; Ritts intermontane flexural basin, and were controlled by tectonism of et al., 2009). Coarse-grained clastics filled the lake mainly from regional folding in the late Middle Jurassic. west to east and from north to south during the Middle Jurassic. The subsidence centers were located along the western and eastern margins based on the isopachs from Li et al. (1997). This indicates 5.3.2. Late Jurassic that the basin forming in the Jurassic was related to uplift of the The Late Jurassic basins filled with Tuchengzi Formation north- Alxa massif, Taihangshan, Yinshan, and Qinling mountains. ward migrated to the margins of Jining–Longhua, Shangyi– Pingquan and Lingyuan–Dongguanyingzi thrust belts (Fig. 9C). 5.2.2. Late Jurassic The Pingquan, Beipiao, Jinlingsi–Yangshan, and Jianchang basins By the Late Jurassic, the Ordos basin greatly shrank with its (21, 17, 19, 20, Fig. 9C) in the eastern Yanshan belt, NNE trending, margins involved with the fold-thrust deformation and uplift developed with western dipping and eastern thrusting Lingyuan– (Fig. 9C). East-vergent deformation in the western Ordos propa- Dongguanyingzi (F2) and Miyun–Xifengkou (F3) faults, and the gated into the Helanshan as low-angle thrust faults, east-dipping Shangyi, Chicheng, Luanping–Chengde, and Dazhangzi–Xincheng reverse faults and large folds that involve Archean through Upper basins (12, 14, 16, 22, Fig. 9C) in the western Yanshan belt, EW Jurassic rocks (Liu 1998; Darby and Ritts, 2002). The frontal defor- trending, developed with northern dipping and southern thrusting mation of the western Ordos fold-thrust belt was in the eastern Jining–Longhua and Shangyi–Pingquan (F1) thrust faults (its north- Helanshan during the Late Jurassic–earliest Cretaceous, and con- ern branch was dipping to the south and thrust to the north). The sisted of a major basement-cored fault propagation fold (Darby basins in the Yanshan Mountains were filled with gravel braided and Ritts, 2002) involving Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous synor- channel and braided channel delta depositional systems, and the ogenic proximal foreland basin conglomerates on the extreme fanconglomerates were dominantly distributed along the thrust- western margin of the Ordos platform. The Upper Jurassic Fenfan- controlled margins of the basins (Fig. 9C). Their sediment source, ghe Formation formed an unconformity-bound, coarse-grained the hangingwalls of the thrust faults, is constrained by strong direc- molasse wedge along the southern margin of the Ordos basin. This tional paleocurrent trends from the hangingwalls of the thrust, a molasse wedge was controlled by thrust in the North Qinling belt fining lithology away from the thrust fronts, and distinct and recog- (Fig. 9C) (Liu, 1998). Meanwhile, the coarse-grained alluvial fan nizable clast types. High-grade metamorphic rocks in the source deposits of the Fenghuangtai Formation in the Hefei foreland basin areas of the basins were multi-uplifted and unroofed. With thrust- were the response to the north-vergent thrust of the Dabie Moun- ing and uplifting, the volcanic cover rocks above the hanging wall of tains (Liu et al., 2003, 2010), which suggest that the whole North thrust in basin margins were gradually eroded, and the underlying Qinling and northern Dabie kept N–S contraction and north- basement rocks were unroofed (Liu et al., 2004a). The Tuchengzi vergent thrusting. The Yinshan belt, to the north of the Ordos basin, Formation was thickened toward the thrust front due to the thrust underwent Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous N–S shortening, south- belt loading and footwall tilting (Liu et al., 2007). Therefore, we in- vergent displacements on both low-angle and steeply dipping fer that the Late Jurassic basins in the Yanshan Mountains were thrust faults, and development of an associated foreland basin intermontane broken flexural basins controlled by regional thrust- (Darby and Ritts, 2007). Besides the marginal mountain thrust, ing. Thus, the basin evolution in Jurassic suggests that the Yanshan the eastern part of the Ordos basin shows no evidence of deposi- Mountains underwent an intermontane deformation from regional tion. The locally-distributed foredeep deposits in the western, folding to thrusting. southern, and the northern Ordos basin indicate that the walled basin was dismembered after its lateral expansion during the Early–Middle Jurassic. 6. Implications for initial deformation of North China Craton

5.3. Intermontane (broken) flexural basins (Jurassic) The NCC remained a stable block covered by thick, continuous, undeformed shallow marine–nonmarine deposits through the end In contrast to the large scale walled basin developed in the wes- of the Paleozoic. Collision of the central Asian ocean (Solonker su- tern part of the NCC, locally-distributed broken flexural basins ture) in the north and Paleo-Tethys (Mianlue suture) in the south formed in the Yanshan Mountains and the basement of the Bohai disturbed the stable tectonic setting, and drove the initial modifi- Bay basin in the eastern NCC (Liu et al., 2004a; Qi et al., 2003). cation of the NCC. S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 233

6.1. Collision-induced rifting and foreland subsidence, and regional while being overprinted by thrust loaded short-wavelength subsi- dynamic subsidence driven by oceanic plate subduction in the Late dence (Fig. 10A), in a fashion similar to that which occurred during Triassic the Cretaceous in western North America (Liu and Nummedal, 2004; Liu et al., 2011). Therefore, we propose that the continuous The Late Triassic intracratonic basin was formed between the subsidence and deposition in the NCC in the Triassic were domi- Yinshan in the north and the Qinling–Dabie in the south, widely nantly related to mantle flow effects associated with plate subduc- distributed across most of the NCC. Within this intracratonic basin, tion, which initiated the deformation of the NCC. Since there was nearly WNW–ESE trending depositional and subsidence centers roughly subduction of oceanic plates to the north and to the south were located in its southern part, with a relatively narrow, steep of the NCC, conditions favoring broadscale dynamic subsidence slope in the south and a wide, gentle slope in the north. The perhaps in a manner akin to the present subsidence of Indonesia wedge-top depozone in the North Qinling and the rift depozone and Sunda land in the Cenozoic which is effected by both subduc- in the Helanshan were parallel and perpendicular to the East Qil- tion of the Indian and Pacific oceans (Lithgow-Bertelloni and Gur- ian–Qinling suture belt, respectively (Figs. 9A and 10A). This indi- nis, 1997). cates that basin formation is related to the Late Triassic final Besides thrust faults developed in the North Qinling and south- collisional orogeny in the East Qilian–Qinling–Dabie belt. During ernmost margin of the NCB, a north-trending half graben formed at the Middle–Late Triassic, the South China plate was obliquely sub- the northwestern Ordos subbasin (Helanshan) which locally de- ducting beneath the Qinling–Dabie (Gilder et al., 1999; Liu et al., formed the NCC lithosphere. Liu (1998) put forward a deformation 2005). Beneath the southeastern portion of NCC, in the eastern half mechanism for the unconstrained lateral extrusion, in which the of the Qinling–Dabie region, continental crust of the South China local extension was driven by the indentation of the eastern North plate deeply subducted (Zheng et al., 2009). Replacement of nor- Qilian–North Qinling active margins with the stable NCC and the mal mantle with less-dense continent and delamination of the dee- lateral escape of the Ordos block. Therefore, this extensional sub- ply subducted oceanic plate may have induced tectonic uplift basin was akin to passive rifting, e.g. an impactogen. The distribu- within southeastern NCC. The western part of the South China oce- tion of the half-graben appears to correspond to a crustal weak anic plate subducted beneath the southern margin of the NCC zone between the Alxa and Ordos blocks. Therefore, heterogeneity along the Mianlue subduction zone. We propose that the overall in basement strength may have served to weaken the western negative buoyancy of the subducting oceanic plate caused the sur- margin of the Ordos block relative to the undeformed part face of the NCC to subside dynamically over a long-wavelength (Fig. 10A).

AB

Fig. 10. Models for Early Mesozoic tectonic evolution of the NCC and its link to adjacent structural belts and plate subduction. (A) Late Triassic intracratonic basin formation and North China Craton rift and subsidence, and their link to adjacent East Qilian–Qinling–Dabie orogeny, Yinshan shortening deformation, and the South China plate oblique subduction. I–I0: Section from the Songpan to intracratonic basin and Yinshan fold and thrust belt; II–II0: Section across intracratonic basin from east to west. (B) Jurassic Walled intracratonic basin and broken flexural basin formation and North China Craton thickening and deformation, and their link to adjacent East Qilian–Qinling–Dabie orogeny, Yinshan shortening deformation, and Izanagi plate subduction. III–III0: Section from the Izanagi plate to the walled basin; IV–IV0: Section across Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt, walled basin, and Yinshan fold and thrust belt. See text for discussion. 234 S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236

6.2. Jurassic crustal deformation, lithosphere thickening, and dynamic western NCC, which supplied large volumes of continental lower subsidence dominantly driven by slab subduction crust in the eastern NCC (Fig. 10B). This tectonism not only further increased the thickness of crust, but also fuel arc flare-ups after a Tectonic setting was transformed, and the basin/mountain lag-time of 10–20 Mys. framework was rearranged from the Late Triassic to the Jurassic. Formation of the walled intracratonic basin and the broken flexural 7. Conclusions basins (Figs. 9B and C and 10B) indicates the NCC underwent the second, even more extensive modification, characterized by NEN The NCC is bounded by the East Qilian–Qinling–Dabie orogenic trending crustal deformation. Compared to the Late Triassic basin belt in the south, the Yinshan fold and thrust belt in the north, and development, the Jurassic Ordos basin was walled by bounding Paleo-Pacific subduction zone in the east. The Late Triassic–Jurassic mountains. The western Helanshan fold and thrust belt progradat- stratigraphy in the NCC records the detailed tectonic processes that ed eastward, and the eastern Taihangshan deformed and uplifted. might represent the initial stage of the NCC modification. This structural change may be related to the westward subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate. As initially advanced by Liu (1998), the (1) In the Late Triassic, a large intracratonic Ordos basin devel- western Ordos basin was changed into constrained lateral extru- oped on the rigid NCC, and was bound by east–west orogenic sion during the Jurassic, and the constrained margin was induced belts on the northern and southern margins of the NCC. It by plate subduction (Fig. 10B). comprised a WNW–ESE orientated depocenter in the fore- To the east of the Ordos walled basin, the eastern part of the land of the East Qilian–Qinling–Dabie fold-thrust belt cross- NCC is characterized by basement-involved thrust tectonics, base- ing the Taihangshan Mountains, a NEN–SWS elongate rift ment-cored buckling anticlines and ductile thrust, nappe tectonics sub-basin along the Helanshan, a wedge-top subbasin and broken flexural basins, which are in the nearly NE, EW, NWN, within the North Qinling belt, and an east–west foreland and NEN trending (Zhang et al., 2011). The Yanshan and Taihang- basin draining the Yanshan belt. shan constituted a broad scale NNE–SSW-trending fold-thrust (2) During the Jurassic, the North China basin framework was belts (Liu et al., 2007). The basins in the Yanshan belt behaved as changed in depositional style and paleogeography, sur- regional folding-control in the Middle Jurassic and thrusting- rounding structures, and crustal strain orientations. The control in the Late Jurassic. The deformation style consisted of Early–Middle Jurassic Ordos basin was nearly N–S trending N–S and NW–SE directed thrust faulting during the syndeposition- with contractional margins. This basin behaved as a walled al stage of the Tuchengzi Formation. The crustal thickness in- intracratonic basin with surrounded orogenic uplifts (acting creased due to the contraction deformation was expected to be as large scale geomorphic walls), and was related to domi- around 47–50 km (Zhang et al., 2011), which lead to surface uplift nantly WNW–ESE and N–S-directed intraplate contraction. with an increase of the Moho depth (Fig. 10B). Calc-alkaline volca- In the Late Jurassic, the Ordos basin diminished with its wes- nism was developed in the northeastern China, which suggests tern margin involved in continued fold and thrust deforma- that the Paleo-Pacific subduction zone may be formed along the tion and the eastern margin uplifted. The Upper Jurassic eastern Asia (Liu et al., 1994). But no evidence of Jurassic arc mag- stratigraphy formed an unconformity-bound, synorogenic, matism has been found in the eastern margin of the NCC. coarse-grained molasse wedge along the northwestern and The driving mechanism for Jurassic intracratonic deformation in southwestern margins of the Ordos basin. In the eastern the NCC may be related with both of regional plate tectonics and NCC, locally-distributed, Jurassic broken flexural basins were deep crustal and mantle activities. During Jurassic time, the Izanagi formed in the Yanshan Mountains and the basement of the plate subducted northwestward, which imparted NW–SE-oriented Bohai Bay basin. compressive stress to the NCB, and caused folding and thrusting (3) The continuous subsidence and deposition from the Late along the eastern continental margin of the eastern Asia Paleozoic to the Early Mesozoic in the giant intracratonic (Fig. 10B). The Jurassic intracontinental shortening along the Qin- basins were related to orogeny of the East Qilian–Qinling– ling–Dabie suture zone, associated with clockwise rotation of the Dabie belt and mantle flow effects associated with plate sub- South China plate relative to the North China plate (Liu et al., duction, and rifting in the northwestern Ordos was driven by 2005), also possibly driven by the subduction of the Izanagi plate, the compression of the eastern North Qilian–North Qinling produced northward shortening in the NCC and northward progra- active margins with the stable NCC, which initiated the dating thrusting along the northern margin of the North Qinling– deformation of the NCC. Dabie. The Mongol-Okhotsk suture lies 1000 km north of the (4) The second, even more broad modification of the NCC in the NCC. Crustal shortening prevailed in the China–Mongolia border Jurassic was characterized by nearly NE–SW trending crustal during Middle to early Late Jurassic time in response to the conti- deformation and lithosphere thickening in the eastern part nental collision along the Mongol-Okhotsk suture (Graham et al., of the NCC, and dynamic subsidence in the west, which 1996). Therefore, it appears likely that the Jurassic shortening in was driven by nearly northwestward subduction of the Izan- the NCC was driven by multiple far-field dynamic forces: north- agi plate and the eastward extrusion and underthrusting of westward subduction of Pacific plate, collision of the amalgamated the western NCC crustal basement. The changing tectonic blocks of China with those of Siberia along the Mongolo-Okhotsk styles from the Late Triassic to Jurassic reflect the underlying suture zone, and the post-collisional shortening along the Qin- activities of the NCC transformed from downward viscous ling–Dabie belt (Fig. 10B; Liu et al., 2007). The west or northwest- dragging caused by the sinking Paleotethys slab to litho- ward subduction of the Izanagi plate produced a dominant driver sphere thickening driven by contraction and underthrusting for the crustal deformation and thickening in the eastern NCC due to the Izanagi plate subduction. This tectonic behavior of and the Ordos basin subsidence in response to mantle flow associ- NCC lithosphere in the Jurassic was the precursor of widely ated with the dynamic pull of the sinking slab, with some similar- thinning in the Early Cretaceous. ities to the western interior basin of Cretaceous North America (Liu and Nummedal, 2004; Liu et al., 2011). The northward indentation Acknowledgements from the Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt and southeastward com- pressing from the Mongolo-Okhotsk suture zone lead to eastward The authors thank Prof. Michael C. Gurnis in California Institute extrusion and underthrusting of the crustal basement in the of Technology for his detailed review of this paper and Prof. Michel S. Liu et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 62 (2013) 221–236 235

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