Black Girls Coming of Age: Sexuality and Segregation in New Orleans, 1930-1954
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Black Girls Coming of Age: Sexuality and Segregation in New Orleans, 1930-1954 by Lakisha Michelle Simmons A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History and Women's Studies) in The University of Michigan 2009 Doctoral Committee: Assistant Professor Hannah Rosen, Co-Chair Associate Professor Michele Mitchell, New York University, Co-Chair Professor Mary C. Kelley Professor Penny M. Von Eschen Associate Professor Jonathan M. Metzl ©Lakisha Michelle Simmons 2009 I dedicate this to my mother and to those who lost their lives as a result of Hurricane Katrina. ii Acknowledgements My first research trip to New Orleans was in the summer of 2002—when I conducted research for my undergraduate thesis. After that first trip, I have not been able to leave the city. This particular project began in New Orleans, Louisiana in 2005—the same summer as Hurricane Katrina. Before and after the storm, everyone I came across in New Orleans has been kind, open and giving. I love the city and I hope my love for New Orleans shows in my writing. Lolita Villavasso Cherrie is one of the people that have made New Orleans feel like a home to me. She has been my friend and my guide to the history of New Orleans. Her knowledge of New Orleans is deep and she has an unending curiosity about history. This project would not be half as good without her insight, intelligence, help and source material. I would also like to thank the members of LA Creole History and Genealogy Society, especially Jari Honora, a talented future historian and my research assistant. In 2008, I had the good fortune to be on a conference panel with Clyde Woods, Cindi Katz, Lynnell Thomas and Catherine Michna, whose scholarship on New Orleans helped me rethink my own work. I also want to thank everyone who let me into their lives by agreeing to do an oral history with me. I am especially grateful to Marie Boyer Brown and Lily "Tiny" Braud. They are extraordinary women; I hope I can be as wise and exciting as they are. I would also like to thank all of the special collections that I visited over the years: Amistad Research Center at Tulane, The Historic New Orleans Collection, The New iii Orleans Public Library (especially Irene Wainwright and Greg Osborn), Xavier University Special Collections (especially Lester Sullivan), University of Chicago Special Collections, Duke University Special Collections—John Hope Franklin Collection (especially Karen Jean Hunt), UNO Special Collections, The Hoover Institute, and the Archdiocese of New Orleans (especially Lee Leumas). Generous funding from my departments—History and Women's Studies at University of Michigan—made this project possible. A writing fellowship from Rackham Graduate School gave me an entire year to devote to finishing this project. In addition, I received research funding from the Institute for Research on Women and Gender, Rackham Graduate School and from the John Hope Franklin Collection at Duke University. Intellectually, I have been inspired by the atmosphere of the University of Virginia and University of Michigan. As an undergraduate at Virginia, everyone in the history department supported and encouraged me. Because of them I discovered a love for history. I would not be in graduate school today without Brian Balough: he encouraged me to apply for programs that helped me grow intellectually. Two classes stand out from all of the outstanding courses I have taken as an undergraduate and graduate student. Lisa Woolfork taught an African American Trauma Theory course that has been haunting me since I took it as a fourth year student at UVA. Without realizing it, that course framed the way I began to understand girls' experiences of growing up during Jim Crow. The other course that has greatly influenced both my approach to history and my personal identity as a gender historian was the "Introduction to Historical Method" course all first year graduate students take upon entering the University of Michigan history department. My course was co-taught by Kathleen iv Canning and Michele Mitchell. They modeled what it meant to be a historian of gender and sexuality, and I was extremely fortunate to have their course be my introduction to the world of history. The Michigan History and Women's Studies Departments have been an ideal place for me to work and grow as an intellectual. Both departments unfailingly supported my project every step of the way. I am fortunate to have been able to work with two extraordinary historians of African American gender history. Michele Mitchell and Hannah Rosen never once suggested or hinted that I should not write about black girls for a dissertation topic. Hannah has always asked the most difficult questions and pushed me intellectually. Michele has grasped this project and understood my conceptualization of it from day-one. And, as fate would have it, Michele—when she was a graduate student herself—conducted the majority of the oral history interviews I used from the Behind the Veil Oral History Project. Her attention to issues of gender and sexuality proved especially useful once I began listening to these interviews, without which this project would have been much more difficult. Penny Von Eschen provided both friendship and support. She is such a wonderful example of what an academic should be. Time spent at Penny Von Eschen and Kevin Gaines's home nourished my love for history, often over delicious soups and stews. And finally, Mary Kelley's love for academia is infectious. My Michigan cohort is possibly the best ever and I would like to thank all of you for being supportive, kind and funny colleagues and friends. When I came to Michigan, a group of outstanding women of color came in with me. Tiffany McClain, Isabela Quintana, Monica Kim, each of you have given me strength. Ying Zahng, my co- Women's Studies student, continually challenged me to work harder. Tandi, Nicol, Sara: v I can't tell you how much I admire and love you. Both Rebekah Pite and Nathan Connolly helped me navigate graduate school and demonstrated how to be a mentor. Three years ago I decided to leave Ann Arbor for slightly warmer climates as I researched and wrote. But I am lucky to have been able to reach out to a core group of colleagues who made sure I always had an intellectual community. They have remained my friends and community over distances, research trips and writing away. Thanks to Diana Mankowski every time I cam back to town (which was often) I had a place to stay. I would like to thank my over-the-phone dissertation group: Sara Babcox First and Sherri Harper Charleston. I would especially like to thank Alice Weinreb—our long conversations provided useful as I was conceptualizing my project. Even when what I wrote was circular and convoluted, Alice understood it and she helped me straighten it out. Monica Kim was always there to polish my theoretical approach, help me reframe my chapters and understood the depth of my passion for my subject. Cookie Woolner read the entire manuscript front-to-back. All I can say to all of you is: Wow! You are wonderful people to work with. To my family: Brianna—even though you had no choice in it, thanks for being my little sister. I have enjoyed this last year living with you and I miss you already. You are the most understanding and compassionate person I know. I would like to thank my dad, who helped me move into graduate school six years ago. Since then he has helped me move away from Ann Arbor, renovated a house for me, and will probably be helping me move again in the near future. Justin: thank you for putting up with my dissertation craziness. I am so lucky to have you by my side. Over the years you have helped calm me down when I was stressed, provided fun things for us to do in our free time, gave me vi expert tech-support and you let me get a dog. You have also been my best friend. I love you very much. Finally, my mom has always been my inspiration. She raised my sister and me on her own and returned to college when we were both young kids. In this one act she demonstrated by example the importance of education. From kindergarten to twelfth grade, she made sure we were always in the very best schools in the city. She is the finest teacher I have ever had. (And she is the best teacher hundreds of other children have had too.) Thanks Mom: You did this and so much more. vii Table of Contents Dedication…………………………….…………………………………………………..ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………...iii List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………ix Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………..xi Introduction: Black Girls, Gendered Violence and Jim Crow………………...……...1 Chapter 1: "Suppose They Don't Want Us Here?": Geography and Subjectivity in Jim Crow New Orleans………………………………………………………………...33 Chapter 2: "Defending Her Honor": Interracial Sexual Violence, Silences and Respectability…………………………………………………………………………...98 Chapter 3: The Gender of Fear: On being a Nice Girl ...…………………………..142 Chapter 4: "Relationships Unbecoming of a Girl Her Age": Stigmatized and Refashioned Girls at the Convent of the Good Shepherd…………………………..197 Chapter 5: Make Believe Land: Conceptualizing Pleasure in Black Girls' Lives...256 Epilogue: Jim Crow Girls, Hurricane Katrina Women…………………………….292 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………...301 viii List of Figures Figure 1.1 New Orleans Population Distribution, 1939 (Map by Richard Campanella)………..36 1.2 Map of Downtown New Orleans, 1940 (Map by Richard Campanella)………….…46 1.3 "Night Brings Light" Saturday Evening Post (Courtesy of Union Metal Corporation)………………………………………….....50 1.4 National Eucharistic Congress, 1938 (Courtesy of H.