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Variation in English Across Time, Space and Discourse

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Variation in English Across Time, Space and Discourse Daniela Cesiri Variation in English across time, space and discourse An introductory textbook ùait (<tt' ?lA UnlvÉrsitY ot vtrl(.t: "(;ì f()scàrf Palazzo Cosulfi h Dors()Llul1) l4U5 30lZl Vcnrce (lhlY) I lettori che desiderano informazioni sui volumi pubblicati dalla casa editrice possono rivolgersi direttamente a: Carocci editore Corso Vittorio Emanuele lt, zz9 oo186 Roma telefono o6 42818417 fax oG 4z 74 79 1t Siamo su: www.carocci.it @ www.facebook.com/cirroccicd i torc www. twi tte r. co m /cr ro c c i c d i to re Carocci editore lndex Qucsto volume è pubblicato con il contributo List of abbreviations dcl Dipartimento di Studi Linguistici e Culturali Oomparati dell'Università "Ca' Foscari" di Venezia. Introduction r1 r. Languag€ variation and change in the English language r5 r.r. The English language : linguistic studies and collocation r5 r.r.r. Some geographical notions r.L. Language variation and change: some definidons r8 r.z.r. The notions ofdialect, accent and vari ety / t.z.z. Standard language / r.2.3. Linguistic presrige L). Mechanisms of language change and variation in English r" edizione, dicembre zor5 r.3.r. Mechanisms oflanguage change: pronunciation / r.3.2. Phenomenaof @ copyrighr zor5 by Carocci editore S.p.A., Roma language change in pronunciation / ry.1. Changes in morphology, synrax and vocabulary Impaginazione e servizi ediroriali: t.+. Semantic change z8 Pagina soc. coop., Bari r.4.r. Specialisation- / t4.2. Generalisation / t4S.Metaphorical uansfer / r.4.4. Amelioration / r.4.5. Pejoration Finito di srampare nei dicembre zor5 da Grafiche VD srl, Città di Castello (PG) r.5. \7ord-formation in English tt r.5.r. Clips (shortening) / r.5.2. Blends (blending) / r.5.3. Compounds (compounding) ,.s.+. (borrowings) rsnw 978-88-41o -78 o:--B / Loan words / r.i.i. Afffxatio n / r.5.6. Conversion I ry.7. Analogy / r.5.8. Calque or loan translation fuproduzione vi€rata ai scnsi di legge Test yourself: activities and practice 36 (arr.. ryr della legge zz aprilc ry4u n. 6y) Senza regolarc irutorizzrrzionc, L. The history ofEnglish and its global spread +r è vietato ri;rroduuc rlucsto voltrrne anche parziaLncrìtc c colì tpulsilsi nrczzo, L.t. Introduction 41 compresa la fotocopia, nrrchc pcr uso intcLno L.z. Celtic Britain (r5oo c. BC-5o AD) +z o tlidrrttieo. z.z.r. Celtic traces in PDE \Nt) t)t ( ()tIt{st T. THE HISTORY OF IINCLISH AND ITS GIOBAL SPREAD 'Braithwaite', 'satterthwaite'; -rol:: meaning'a piece of ground or homestead' Vr1.rr,1,,,,,, 1 ,,1i1,,,,.1 .rrr.l thc l)anelaw as in 'Brimtoftl 'Eastoftl 'Nortofii Personal names of Scandinavian origin end in English in -soN as in'stevensor-rl Johnsoni The equivalent in OE was the lrrrlr, lì'l' ((rlrr\,(,,)1 ,,)l)tlr.S.:a.rlinavians(a.k.a.Vikings) beganraiding ending -ING as in 'Browningl rr, t o.rsrs. Irriri;tlly, rhis jusr consisted the '1il,l,,,rrrirrg in plundering rich and fertile In addition, the Scandinavian linguistic influence introduced sounds Ij] 'agi 'eye') 1,l.rt cs .rrr,l r.r't r rrrr itrg lleck to their villages. Howeve! rhe Scandinavians eventu- and [g] for'g' instead of the OE aspiration (e.g., PDE and which will ,rllv crossctl rhc North Sea, attacking rich monasreries in Scotland, ireland and produce ME nv[r] and Ecc. There is also the differentiation in [tl] ('church') rlrc crrtire North of England. and [k] (tirL) as well as the differenriarion in fu-l (of OE origin) and [sk] (of The early Viking raids were carried out by Norwegians followed, during Scandinavian origin) for words having'sk' as in sHIRT/sKIRT, sHRUB/scRUB the gtL century, by the Danes who attacked the eastern coasr of England. They and sxtN, sKULL. sKY. were soon able to control firmly Kent and East Anglia, favoured by an initial week Anglo-Saxon resistance. Permanent Danish settlements were, then, es- L.s.L. T:e.E scANDrNAvrAN (rrNcursrr c) rNrrurNcr : THE LEXI coN tablished into the so-called Danelaw, the area in easrern and north-easrern rMhen Scandinavian words appeared in written texts they were given English England under Danish rule. The Danes never left England entirely since rhey inflections, such as indication of the plural, to form adverbs and to indicate the finally assimilated themselves into the English population. gender. The total number of Scandinavian borrowings is rather small but they Despite his artemprs at defending the kingdom from the Viking raids, King are important because they entered common usage and are words of frequent, Alfred was forced to make apeace treaty (Strtr) with the Danish KingGuthorm. everyday use. The terms of the treaty'confine d' Alfred s reign ro Vessex; the Danes settled in In some areas of England and Scotland, dialecrs preserve a large quantity East Anglia and Mercia. Hence, they established the so-called Danelaw (from of Scandinavian loan words, such as BIG (to build), HoAST (cough), ratr (to 'Dane Lagul land of the Danes), where the Scandinavian linguistic influence play), rarr (to search), LATHE ('barnl shed, shelter), rrr ('scythe'pron. [sarò], was most deeply felt especially in lexis and pronunciation. to slice). The semantic fields in which Scandinavian brought new words are those in the list below, 2' t' r' r H E c ) rNrrurN c r' " i}".')iHx,(:'ff x:'# close family relationships: s ISTER; - parts ofthe body: rnc, NECK, sKIN, sKUrL; The scandinavian linguistic influence can be traced in Brirain (in those places common nouns: BAG, CAKE, DIRT, FELLO§r, FOG, KNIFE, SKILL, §fIN- formerly in the Danelaw) and Ireland along the East coast (Co. §Taterford, Co. DO.il/; \Mexford everyday adjectives: FLAT, LoosE, oDD, uGLy, lrRoNG; and Dublin). In Scotland, we find a consistenr Scandinavian influence ro\r, in the Shetland and Orkney Islands and in the North-'J7esr of the mainland. - everydayverbs: cALL, DRAG, GIVE, RAISE, sMILE, TAKE; conjunctions: THouGH, TILL, UNTIL; The most evident traces are in place name endings. There are, for example, - pronouns: THEY, THEM, THEIR (oE HIr, HIM, HIERA). more than 6oo places with the ending -nv (meaningvillage, e.g. in names like - 'Fleckebyl 'Schysby' etc.). The ending is also found in the word syr-rAsr in 'town-lawl which ir means In PDE ir indicates a rule issued by some local au- L.6 thority or institution concerning the area under its jurisdiction. The ME period (ro66-t5oo c.): historical background Three other endings from Scandinavian are also evident: -THoRpE mean- ing'village' again (cf. German 'Dorf ') as in 'Althorpl 'Gawthorpe', 'Linthorpe'; ME is the name given by historical linguists to the Engllsh language in use -TH§(/AITE meaning'an isolated piece of land or clearing' as in Applethwaite', berween the late rr'h century and about r47o, when a form of London-based 48 +9 VARIATION IN ENGLISH ACROSS TIME, SPACE AND DISCOURSE 2. THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH AND ITS GLOBAL SPREAD English began to become widespread, a process aided by the introducdon of brought a consistent group of Norman supporters (members of the Norman the printing press in England by §Tilliam Caxton in the late r47os. ME as a aristocracy and normal soldiers) who setrled permanently in England. written language displays a wide variety of dialectal forms. However, the diver- The Normans brought with them the feudal system. It was a system where sity of forms in written ME suggests the gradual end of the role of§Tessex (and all land was owned by the King. One quarter remained the Kingt personal of §7est Saxon) as a centerpiece and model for the written language. This led property, another quarter was given to the Church and the remaining land was ro the emergence of more distinct local scribal sryles and written dialects as in leased out under strict control to Norman landlords who became the King's Northumbria, East Anglia and London, which successively developed as major vassals (barons, knights and other members of rhe Norman nobility who had centres of literary production. followed \Tilliam in England). Conventionally, the beginning of the ME period is set in the year rc66 This system was based also on the Norman division in rigid social classes when the Normans took control of England. Between the OE and the ME and social hierarchies which brought a revolution in the composition of the periods we have fifty years of passage duringwhich England underwent many former OE society. In addition, social mobility was unknown and made im- changes from a political and social viewpoint. After the death of King Alfred possible by the rules governing the feudal system ofland's ownership. Changes the Great (899), Danish kings seated on the throne of England. were introduced also in the Church, in which the Roman-like division of the For political reasons, King Ethelred rt and his family (his wife Emma and clergy was introduced to replace rhe monastic kind of religious life typical of their son, Edward) were exiled in Normandy where the Queent family lived. Anglo-Saxon Christianised England and the former Celtic areas. Edward returned to England only in ro4r. He became king in ro4z and was The feudal adminisradon ofthe land brought by the Normans introduced 'the given the nickname of Confessor' because he was very pious. Inrc66,Ed' also a new land division which will led to the establishment of presenc-day ward the Confessor died heirless; thus, because of the unclear situation in the English counries, slightly changed only in ry74.Inaddition, the Normans used line of succession, the Engllsh throne was claimed by two possible successors, a new military system, composed ofprofessional warriors, and in which loyalty -William The King ofNorway (Harold) and Duke ofNormandy, who had kept had to be given to the King or the oyerlord.
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