J. A. HOWARD Univ. of M~elbourne A1elbourne, AustraLia H. KaSMER Forests Commission Victoria, Australia

FIG. 1. A 3S-1ll1ll projector is directed toward a mirror where the image is reHected upward onto a horizontal translucent screen.

Monocular Mapping by Micro-Film

A low-cost map projector is useful for field offices where more elaborate equipment is not available.

(Abstract on next page)

INTRODUCTION flecting projector and a vertical sketch master, NE OF THE simplest methods of producing and to develop a suitable technique for O a map is to provide basic con trol by monoculal' mapping from transparencies. mechanical slotted templets and to transfer the photographic detail by means of a vertical MATERlALS AND METHODS sketchmaster. To the forester or ecologist in In all studies an Exacta Varex I Ic, i/2.8, the field, the method has the disadvantage of 35-mm camera was used for taking color requiring considerable expenditure on equip­ transparencies with Kodachrome II film. men t, which may be a major item of a small Later the positive transparency film was budget and thereafter the equipment may not processed in the normal way by the Kodak be in continual use. laboratories. A spiri t level was used for Frequently the area of immediate interest checking that the camera was in a horizontal is covered by not more than abou t a dozen plane when taking the transparency expo­ photographs. It is then relatively easy to sures. Two level readings were made at right prepare a base map to the required scale, but angles to each other. The spiri t level was also the transfer of detail remains a problem. [f used to ensure that the aerial photograph was more than a few photographs are used, it may parallel to the camera plane. Side glare was be possible to have the slotted templets cut eliminated by surrounding the setup with on contract and forwarded to the field sta­ black velvet. Thirty-five millimeter color tion. Often large organizations have a central transparencies were preferred to black-and­ mapping unit, which includes a slotted tem­ white transparencies, as flight lines, control plet cutter. points, and important features can be sepa­ The object of the present study is to deter­ rately marked in distinctive colors which mine the precision likely to be obtained in reproduce clearly when projected, There is transferring detail when using single 35-mm little difference in total cost between black transparencies of single aerial photographs, and white and color transparencies. If re­ to compare the results with a standard re- quired, forest types and plant communities 1299 1300 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGrNEERING

may also be clearly delineated in distinctive rants. The intersections of the quadrant lines colors before taking the transparencies. Col­ and the circles provided twenty points for ors to be preferred were observed to be red, measuring the differences, if any, caused by blue, green, and orange. the distortion of the transparency image. An Aldis,f/2.8, 500-watt, fan-cooled 35-mm 1n the first method, photographs at a projector (Figure 1) was used to project the nominal scale of 10,000 and with negligible photographic detailed of the processed trans­ til t were selected of an area which had been parencies on to the map base. That the inci­ covered by a large scale planimetric map. A den t beam was perpendicular to the mappi ng Williamson camera and an Eagle IX 10-inch surface can be checked by placing a mirror focal-length lens had been used for taking the on the latter so that the ligh t is reflected photographs. 1twas judged that part of the back towards its source. For the map base, city area would be the most satisfactory as the both white cartridge paper and semi-trans­ streets proyided a network of easily identi­ parent Hercnlene tracing film were used. Tn fiable points at a scale of 1 :4800. Displace­ the case of the latter the projected trans­ ment was not a problem, as the terrain was parency image was formed on a screen cu t level. On each photograph the principal poi nt,

ABSTRACT: A graphic enlarger is devised through the use of a 35-mm projector pointed toward a mirror inclided at 45° so as to bend the light upward onto the underside of a horizontal translucent screen. 35-mm color transparent photo­ graphs are first taken of aerial photographs or other materials annotated with colored pencil lines. The system is economical for map compilation following a radial-line plot, and is particularly applicable for small, infrequent jobs where more elaborate equipment may not be justified. from polyethylene and the Herculene tracing the conjugate principal points, the flight line, film was then attached to the surface by and wing points were marked in purple ink. Scotch tape prior to transferring the detail. The wing points defined the effective area By introducing a mirror into the projection of the photograph. To provide a grid for system to bend the beam through 90°, it was reference, concentric circles were scribed ou t­ possible to have the polyethylene screen in a wards to the wing points using the principal horizontal position. Differences in scale be­ point as center, and six radial lines were ex­ tween 2: 1 and 1: 2 were provided by varying tended ou twards to the ou termost wing t he distance between the projector and the points. This provided a total of eight radial screen. lines including lines to the two conjugate Two methods of study were adopted. In the principal points. The intersection of the first, transparencies were taken of selected radial Ii nes and circles provided 32 reference photographs or their effective areas as de­ points. scribed below. I n the second method under Transparencies were than taken of both the control conditionsof constant-relative-humid­ entire photograph and the effective area of ity, test patterns sere scribed on both 90­ the same photograph. By comparison of the pound cartridge paper and Herculene, and displacement of the same reference points on then transparencies were taken of these test each photograph it was possible to evaluate patterns. the error (if any) introduced by lens dis­ The processed transparencies were pro­ tortion of the 35-mm camera and the pro­ jected back onto the test pattern at several jector. Once this possible source of error scales (1:1.25, 1:1.5, 1:1.75, 1:2)* and ex­ had been observed to be negligible, trans­ amined for differences produced by the pat­ parencies were taken only of the effective tern and the transparency image not coin­ areas (see Results). As in normal monocular ciding at all points. Each test pattern com­ mappi ng from photographs, the radial dis­ prised five concentric circles of radii one inch placement of images increased with increasing to three inches and divided into four quad- distance from the centre of the photograph. It will be appreciated that the effective area * Scale refers to the ratio of the test pattern delineated on an aerial photograph is com­ scale being photographed and the scale of the transparency projected onto the screen or onto the monly easier to fit into a 35-mm frame than enlarged pattern. the square provided by a photograph. ~!ONOCULAR M.\PPING BY MICRO-FlU! 1301

A series of observations to determine the TABLE 1. TABILITY OF SELECTED PAPERS most sui table exposure ti me, in accordance with \\'eston lightmeter readings, indicated Change per -inch Directional that the stop-number required to be increased Type of paj)er (R.H. 307c to 1/loveJllent c by t when photographing the effective area of 70 e(inches) matt photographs and the full 9 X9-inch .005 format of glossary photographs in sunlight. Si ngle weigh t x photographic paper y 0 RESULTS Double weight x .007 Early in the photographic study, attention photographic paper y .003 was focussed on the need to exami ne the di mensional stability of pri nti ng papers and Glazed paper x .001 papers used for the map base. The results are (plans) y .003 summarised in Table 1 for relative humidities of 30 per cent and 70 per cent for each paper 901b. offset paper x .00+ .001 measurements were made at right angles to y each other, and were termed x- and y-move­ 1161b. offset paper x .003 men ts according to whethel- the movemen t y .002 was along the grain or across the grain. All measurements were made to the nearest 0.01 Tracing paper x .016 inch. Samples. were examined of single weight Polyethylene y .016 and double weight photographic printing papers commonly used in Melbourne when printing aerial photographs, glazed paper nal map or photographs, the patterns of con­ as used in the city plan of this project, 90­ centric circles were projected directly onto Ib and 116-lb off-set papers used fOI- printed similar concentric patterns at scales between maps, commonly as the map base in Victoria, 2: 1 and 1: 2 (i.e., the method the second). It Polyethylene as used for test pattems in the was found in all cases that a perfect fit of the study and tracing paper (Table 1). Movement 20 points of the cun·e were obtained; and is usually greater in the x-di rection, glaze from this it was concluded that paper mo\·e­ paper excepted. Single-weight photographic ment was the main cause of differences. paper had less movement than double-weight In addition to direct projection the bean paper. light from the projector was turned through \\'hen 35-mm transparencies (i.e., the 90° before bei ng inciden t on the test pattern first method) of an aerial photograph, and its using (i) a front-surfaced sih-ered mirror (ii) effective area, were projected separately at a a 1/4-i nch plate glass rear-surfaced mirror. magnification of 1: 1.25 and 1:2 onto city Using the former, results similar to direct plans at two different scales, 13 to 15 control projection were obtained; bu t wi th the latter points out of the 32 on each transparency distortions up to 0.20 inch and 0.04 inch re­ were obsen·ed not to coincide with the same sulted at magnifications of 1: 1. 75 and 1: 2, points on the plans. Approximately half of respectively, at 3 inches from the center the differences were radial but did not exceed point. 0.02 inch. In two observations at 1: 1.25, the Finally, the test pattern scribed on Hercu­ differences were between 0.02 and 0.03 inch. lene at each scale was projected onto similar Scattered (i.e., non-radial) differences ex­ patterns scribed on the cartridge paper using ceeded 0.02 inch in 16 observations, and were a vertical sketch master and a standard re­ as large as 0.06 inch. At the 95 per cent prob­ Recti ng projector at scales between 2: 1 and ability, points within 3.5 inches of the 1 :2 in the cOl1\·entional manner set out in the photograph center, were located within 0.025 respecti,·e instruction man uals. I n the mono­ inch of their true position on the base map. cular projector, the Herculene pattern re­ Examination of the scattered differences sug­ placed the conventionl photograph and the gested that these are probably due to map cartridge paper pattern represented the map sheet mO\·ement across the grain and to move­ base. The reflecting projector provided results ment in the photographic papers along the similar to the direct projection of the trans­ grain. parency, but the sketch master ga\·e differ­ To ascertain whether these discrepancies ences of up to 0.02 inch at 2 inches, and 0.03 resulted from the photographic projection inch at 3 inches from the center point of the techniques using 35 mm transparencies, or circular pattern at a scale of 1: 1.25. At the ,,·ere inherent in paper movement of the origi- scale of 1: 2, a di ff erence of 0.04 inch was re- 1302 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING corded at 3 inches from the center point! The ping under controlled laboratory conditions center poi nt of the pattern can be considered may be less than errors inherent in some pa­ as corresponding to principal points of a pers used in general mapping and arising from photograph. a change in humidity. Obviously, the move­ ment in tracing paper is so large that it CO:--lCL SION should not be used as a base for field sketch maps. I twas surprisi ng that a higher degree of ac­ H a good quality camera, tripod, and pro­ curacy using test-patterns was attained than jector are available, then the only purchase is by the conventional sketchmaster. This sug­ a spirit level, and possibly a sheet of poly­ gests that for simple field mapping, the ethylene. Even the purchase of a camera and method de,-eloped and examined in this study accessories, including a close-up lens and should prO\'e useful. There was no intention, light meter should be considerably less than however, in the study to evaluate the ac­ the cost of a vertical sketchmaster (e.g., curacy of the sketchmaster, bu t only to use $350 or more). A reflecti ng projector is the machi ne for a comparison of methods. In bulky and would probably cost $2000 or more. comparison "'ith the sketchmasters examined, The micro-film method does, however, have the transparencies-projection method pro­ the disadvantage of not using the photo­ vided a view of the entire effective area of a graph directly, and the copying position of photograph, "'hich may be an additional ad­ the observer is not as confortable as with a vantage. sketch-master, or a reflecting projector unless A second interesting result accruing from a mirror is introduced into the projection sys­ the study of the test patterns is that errors in­ tem so as to provide a horizon tal projection troduced from using transparencies for map- on the polyethylene surface.

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