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Reservoir Sedimentation Management in China

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Reservoir Sedimentation Management in China Reservoir Sedimentation Management in China ZHOU Zhide International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation, P. O. Box 366, Beijing, China, 100044 2007 Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 River Sediment in China 1.2 General Situation of Reservoir Sedimentation Problems in China 2 Lessons Learned in the 1950s 2.1 Underestimation of Seriousness of Sediment Problems 2.1.1 Selecting Dam Sites 2.1.2 Selecting an Operating Rule 2.2 Overestimation of Benefit of Soil Conservation 3 Universality of Reservoir Sedimentation 4 States of Distress of Reservoir Sedimentation 5 Operating Rules 6 A Method of Increasing Sediment Sluiced through a Dam 6.1 Operating Rule of: “Impounding the Clear and Discharging the Muddy (I&D)” 6.2 Essence of I&D Operating Rule 6.3 Long‐term Storage Capacity of a Reservoir 6.4 Discharge Capacity of Outlets 6.5 Limitations 7 Case Study—Three Gorges Project 1 Introduction There are numerous rivers in China, among them over 1,500 have a watershed area larger than 1,000 km2 each (Fig. 1.1). These rivers with total runoffs of 2,700 billion m3 in a normal year provide tremendous water resources and hydropower potential. Up to now, over 80,000 hydroprojects have been constructed in China for flood control, irrigation, hydropower, navigation, water supply, fishery, etc. Many rivers in China carry a large amount of sediment load owing to serious soil erosion. Sediment problems are very conspicuous in the development and regulation of rivers, and induce much trouble to the water conservancy and hydropower works, which force Chinese scientists and engineers to pay high attention to and make great efforts in the research of sediment problems. In recent decades, sediment problems in many key hydroprojects have been successfully solved. This paper describes briefly the experience in preservation of reservoir storage in China. Fig. 1.1 River systems in China 1.1 River Sediment in China In China soil erosion is very serious in some areas. A recent survey by remote sensing technique shows that the total eroded area of China is 3.67 mil. km2, 38% of the whole territory. Over 40 rivers carry an annual sediment load larger than 10 mil. tons each. According to incomplete statistics of seven largest rivers of China, rivers in Southwest and Southeast China and inland rivers, the average annual sediment load totals 2.687 billion tons. Among them the Yellow River carries 1.6 billion tons, accounting for 60% of the total, while the Yangtze River carries 530 mil. tons, 20% of the total. There are 430,000 km2 of loess plateaus in the Yellow River Basin, where the soil is so loose that it can be easily eroded. In some of the gullies, the average rate of erosion is as high as 19,200 t/km2.a (Huangpu River), and the maximum rate reached 34,500 t/km2.a. In some tributaries of the Yellow River the maximum sediment concentration reaches around 1,600 kg/m3. There are 13 large rivers in the world, each of them carries an annual suspended load over 100 mil. tons. Among them, the Yellow River stands first and the Yangtze third. The Yellow and Yangtze contribute about 29.3% of the total sediment load carried by the 13 rivers as mentioned above. Table 1.1 and 1.2 show the sediment load of the rivers in China and large rivers in the world, respectively. In China, river sediments have obvious characteristics as follows. (1) The temporal distributions of river runoff and sediment load are quite uneven, 60-80% of the total annual runoff are concentrated in the flood season of a period of about 4-5 months. The sediment load is more concentrated in the same period. In some rivers 90% of the total annual sediment load are concentrated in the flood season. The sediment load is even more concentrated in a few sediment peaks. For example, the sediment load in five days in the flood season at Sanmenxia Station on the Yellow River accounted for 19% of the annual load and the maximum was 31.3%. Such a phenomenon is more prominent in the tributaries of the Yellow River. (2) The annual sediment load carried by many streams with heavy concentration differs greatly from year to year. For instance, the maximum annual sediment load of the Yellow River was 3.91 billion tons (in 1933), and the minimum was only 488 mil. tons (in 1928), one eighth of the maximum. The annual sediment loads at Yichang Station on the Yangtze River were 750 mil. tons in 1954 and 361 mil. tons in 1986, respectively. The value in 1986 was less than 50% of that in 1954. Table 1.1 Sediment Load Carried by Large Rivers in China Annual Sediment Max. Avenge Rate of Drainage Length sediment concentratio Sediment River Station runoff erosion area(km2) (km) load (106 n concentratio (109m3) (t/km2a) tons) (kg/m3) n (kg/m3) Yellow Sanmenxia 752400 5464 43.2 1640 37.6 933 2480 Yangtze Datong I807200 6300 921.1 478 0.54 3.24 280 Haihe (1) 318800 14.26 151.9 (10.7) 436 1944 Huaihe (2) Bangbu, etc. 29.63 27.1 0.91 11.0 153 Liaohe (3) Tielin 11.89 60.9 (5.12) 142 240 Songhua Jiamusi 67.80 10.0 0.16 Pearl (4) 284.4 8l.l 0.35 4.08 260 Rivers in 175.1 136.3 (0.78) Southwest (5) Rivers in 164.3 30.1 (0.18) Southeast (6) Inland 30.51 59.9 (1.98) rivers (7) Total 2687 1.2 General Situation of Reservoir Sedimentation Problems in China At present there are over 80,000 dams in China totaling storage capacities of 410 billion m3. Among them 18,000 dams are high dams (higher than 15 m). In the early 1980s, a survey of 231 large (each storage capacity larger than 100 mil. m3) and medium-sized (10 to 100 mil. m3) reservoirs showed that the sediment deposit amounted to 11.5 billion m3, 14.3% of the total storage capacity of 80.4 billion m3. The average annual loss of reservoir storage capacity in China was 2.3%, the highest in the world, in comparison with 1.8% of Algeria, 1.02% of Japan, and 0.24% of the USA. Moreover, the annual loss of reservoir storage in Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Gansu Provinces were even higher (Table 1.3). Table 1.3 Annual Loss of Reservoir Storage in Some Provinces (Regions) Province Inner Shanxi Shaanxi Gansu Ningxia Hebei Shandong Hubei (Region) Mongolia Annual 3.02 2.9 2.4 2.0 2.1 1.1 0.44 0.20 loss (%) Table 1.5 shows the rate of loss of reservoir storage capacity in the Yellow River Basin and the rate of erosion of the catchment area where the reservoirs are located. In the areas with rate of erosion larger than 1000 t/km2.a the annual rate of loss of reservoir storage was larger than 0.5%. Special consideration to deal with reservoir sedimentation should be emphasized in those areas Table 1.5 Relationship between Loss of Reservoir Storage and Rate of Erosion in the Yellow River Basin Rate of erosion(t/km2.a) Rate of loss of reservoir storage(%) 20000‐30000 52.6 15000‐20000 51.2 10000‐15000 41.1 5000‐10000 43.1 2000‐ 5000 41.0 1000‐2000 20.1 500‐ 1000 15.4 200‐ 500 14.0 100‐ 200 11.7 < 100 3.8 Total 26.5 2. Lessons Learned in the 1950s 2.1 Underestimation of Seriousness of Sediment Problems 2.1.1 Selecting Dam Sites Although reservoir sedimentation problem is not always an important issue in the selection of dam site, it may be of significant importance in such a selection. The Liujiaxia Project may serve as an example. The Liujiaxia Dam is the first large multipurpose hydroproject on the upper Yellow River for power generation, flood and ice jam control, and irrigation with the first priority of power generation. The first power came in 1969 and the entire project was commissioned in 1974. Some pertinent data are shown in Table 2.1. The main dam is a concrete gravity dam. Characteristics of the outlet works are given in Table 2.2. Table 2.1 Characteristics of Liujiaxia and Sanmenxia Projects Project Liujiaxia Sanmenxia Reservoir capacity (109 m3) 5.74 Reservoir length (km) 56 Dam height (m) 147 106 Pool level fluctuation (m) 41 Catchment area (103 km2) 181.8 688.4 Annual runoff (109 m3) 26.3 45 Annual sediment load (109 t) 0.087 1.6 Average sediment concentration (kg/m3) 3.31 35.6 D50 of suspended load (mm) 0.025 0.038 D50 of topset deposit (mm) 0.02 0.02 Installed capacity (MW) 1225 250 Table 2.2 Outlet Works of Liujiaxia Dam Discharging Invert Dimensions capacity (m3) Outlet elevation Openings (m) El.1694 El.1735 (m) (m) (m) Spillway 1715 3 10x8.5 3800 Spillway 1675 1 8x8.5 930 2140 tunnel Sluicing 1665 2 3x8 880 1488 tunnel 1 Sluicing 1665 1 2x1.8 68 105 tunnel 2 Up to 1989, 1.41 billion m3 of sediment was deposited in the reservoir, accounting for 24.6% of the initial storage capacity. Of this deposit, some 70% were in the inactive storage, accounting for some 45% of the initial inactive storage, and only some 8% of the initial active storage. In flood seasons incoming sediment load was deposited first in the gorge near the head of the reservoir. When the pool level was drawn down during dry seasons, the deposits on the topset of the delta were eroded and transported, then deposited in the inactive storage.
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