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Coconut Barrier across the Coastal Areas of

Strategy for Environmental Development (SED)

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Prologue The barrier can be made either by bricks or by trees. But the brick barrier is not Bangladesh is located in South Asia and appropriate to the environmental issues can be located on a map using the and cost huge amount of money. So, we can geographic coordinates of 24°N, 90°E. The make a tree barrier across the coastal area country is very marshy as it is situated in a which protect us from such cyclones and low-lying coastal area and experiences a lot spates and has no impact on environment. of annual rainfall. Unfortunately, the So, it can be called “Green Barrier” which country suffers from floods, cyclones, can be made by tree plantation across the tornadoes and tidal bores on an annual coastal areas of Bangladesh. But there are basis. However, the country also enjoys so many types of trees which can be fit for very fertile soil and an extensive network the weather and soil of coastal areas. And of rivers that is advantageous to for that reason, coconut tree is more agriculture. appropriate for the soil and weather and Though Bangladesh is a tropical country can be used as barrier. with 710 km coastline, and it has In this report, we explain and try to find out sometimes effected by cyclones, but the the result of such “Coconut Barrier” and its coastal area has no such construction, environmental and economic value. And for either man made or natural to protect the that explanation, we must understand the coastal area from cyclones. So, the coastal climate of Bangladesh; learn about the area needs a barrier which can protect the coconut tree and its economic value, and area from huge destruction by made how the barrier thing can work and the cyclones and spate. So, it can protect the combination of the coastal area’s people and lives of people of coastal area and decrease the project to face the natural calamities. the total amount of losses.

Climate of Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a subtropical monsoon climate characterized by wide seasonal

variations in rainfall, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor. Three seasons are generally recognized: a hot, humid summer from March to June; a cool, rainy monsoon season from June to October; and a cool, dry winter from October to March. In general,

maximum summer temperatures range between 32°C and 38°C. April is the warmest month in most parts of the country. January is the coldest month, when the average temperature for most of

the country is 10°C.

Winds are mostly from the north and Image: Coconut Trees in an Island northwest in the winter, blowing gently at

2 | P a g e one to three kilometers per hour in northern significant impact both on social life and and central areas and three to six topography of the country. kilometers per hour near the coast. From March to May, violent thunderstorms, Bangladesh has effected by so many natural called northwesters by local English calamities, but the disaster which effects much in the coastal areas are cyclone and speakers, produce winds of up to sixty kilometers per hour. spate. So, in this assignment we mainly deal with the cyclones and its effects on the The forests of Bangladesh cover about 10% coastal areas of Bangladesh. of the country and fall distinctly into three Tropical cyclones are frequent in the Bay of regional varieties: the forest in the tidal Bengal. Immediately pre-monsoon and post- zones along the coast, mostly Sundarbans monsoon periods are the seasons when (often mangrove but sometimes hardwood); the forest of Sal trees (hardwood) around cyclones and depressions form in the Bay of Dhaka, Tangail and Mymensingh; and the Bengal. Bangladesh has the worst record of forests of tropical and subtropical cyclones and storm surges in the world. evergreens in the Hill Tracts They destroy crops, damage infrastructure, and parts of Sylhet. Half of the remaining homes and vital installations, and cause widespread health hazards for the forest is in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and a people. The cyclone disasters in 1970 further quarter in the Sundarbans, with the (300,000 dead) and 1991 (138,000 dead) are rest scattered in small pockets throughout the country. among the worst natural disasters in the world. Most of the areas of Bangladesh lie within the broad delta formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Lands are exceedingly flat, low-lying, and subject to annual flooding. Much fertile, alluvial soil is deposited by the floodwaters. The only significant area of hilly terrain, constituting less than one-tenth of the nation's territory, is the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the narrow southeastern panhandle of the country. There, on the border with Burma, is Mowdok Mual (1003 m/3292 ft), the country's highest peak. Image: Cyclone Disaster in Bangladesh Coastal Area

In the 1991 ‘super cyclone’ (which was a Natural Disasters storm of exceptional intensity with wind Bangladesh is prone to many kinds of velocities up to 225 km/hr) a large number natural disasters. Of these natural of deaths occurred mainly in three coastal disasters, the most important ones to districts in the Eastern Zone: Chittagong mention are tropical cyclones with (79,697 dead and 2600 injured) Cox’s Bazar associated storm-surges, floods, droughts, (51.147 dead and 133,000 injured) and tornadoes and river-bank erosions. Besides Noakhali (8,878 dead and 995 injured) see these disastrous weather systems, the Table-2 for rest other districts. Half a occurrences of earthquakes at times make million cases of diarrheal disease were also

3 | P a g e reported from the affected areas. In sum, continues to remain predominately on the cyclone wreaked enormous social and agricultural sector depending largely on the economic havoc on these exceptionally vagaries of weather, which are not always vulnerable communities from which they favorable. The inclement weather systems, have not yet recovered. The economic losses which are of course seasonal, make alone from the cyclone are estimated at US$ Bangladesh the most victims of natural 2.4 billion. The loss of life was, however, calamities, causing at times colossal loss of substantially less than the 1.2 million lives and properties. people killed by the 1970 cyclone.

There are also some cyclones which are Coastal Zone of Bangladesh effected Bangladesh badly in recent times are , Cyclone Akash, Cyclone The southern part of Bangladesh falls Bijli, Cyclone Nargis, . These under coastal zone that receives discharge cyclones affect Bangladesh’s coastal area of numerous rivers, including Ganges- and cause so many deaths and Brahmputra-Meghna (GBM) river system, infrastructural damages. creating one of the most productive ecosystems of the world. Except Chittagong- Cox’s Bazaar, all parts of the coastal zone are plain land with extensive river networks and accreted land, which is known in Bangladesh as char land. India is at the west of the zone whereas Myanmar is at the east of the coast. Pramanik has divided the Bangladesh coastal zone into three regions namely eastern, central and western coastal region. However, the shape of the coastal zone is quite unstable and changing time to time due to erosion and accretion. Image: Cyclone Disaster in Bangladesh Coastal Area Eastern coastal zone Now we can analysis the economic condition of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is the highest The eastern coastal zone starts from population densities in the world with about Bodormokam, the southern tip of mainland 837 inhabitants per sq. kilometers. The to the Feni river estuary. This zone is very total population is estimated at 125 million narrow. A series of small hills are run with an annual growth rate of 2.2%. The parallel to this zone. Karnafully, Sangu and per capita income of Bangladesh is around Matamuhury River falls into the Bay of US$ 280.00. With this level of per capita Bengal in this area. The Naf River falls to income and the literacy rate is as low as the dividing Bangladesh from 44.43 percent (male: 50.4%, female: 28.5%, Myanmar. Soil characteristics of the urban: 63.00%, rural: 36.6%), the socio- eastern coastal zone are dominated by economic imperative for sustainable submerged sands and mudflats. The development of the country is mainly submerged sand of the zone has formed a alleviation of poverty of the vast majority of long sandy beach of 145 km from Cox’s the population living in villages as well as Bazar towards Teknaf. Two of the country’s in urban areas and earning livelihood on most important sandy beaches from agriculture and other means. The economy tourists’ perspective, namely Patenga and

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Cox’s Bazar are located in this coastal zone. The western coastal zone is covered by the Fish farming, fishing in the bay, salt Sundarbans mangrove forest, covering production and tourism are main economic greater Khulna and part of Patuakhali activities of the zone. district. Because of presence of mangrove forest, the zone is relatively stable in terms of soil erosion. Mangrove swamps, tidal flats, natural levees and tidal creeks are characteristics of the zone. Mangroves of the area support feeding and breeding grounds for fish and shrimps’ species, enriching the area in fisheries bio-diversity. The area lies at 0.9 to 2.1 meter above mean sea level. Soil characteristics of the western coastal zone are salty loams or alluvium. Mangrove dominated coastal areas have developed on soil formations of recent origin consisting of alluvium washed down from Image: Cyclone Disaster in Bangladesh Coastal Area the Himalayas. The zone also has tourist attraction in the Sundarbans.

Central coastal zone

Central coastal zone extends from Feni Islands river estuary to the eastern corner of the Sundarbans, covering Noakhali, Barisal, About 60 islands are identified in the Bhola and Patuakhali districts. The zone coastal zone to date. Most of the islands are receives a large volume of discharge from located in the central coastal zone, because the Ganges-Bhrahmputra-Meghna river of the dynamic river flow of the Ganges- system, forming high volume of salty Brahmputra-Meghna river system. Hatia, deposition. More than 70% of the sediment Sandweep and Maishkhali are three load of the region is silt; with an additional upazilas and Bhola, an administrative 10% sand. Because of the sediment district are four bigger islands in the zone. discharge and strong current, the Some islands are limited to only in a small morphology of the zone is very dynamic and village. St. Martin is the only coral island of thus erosion and accretion rates in the area the country located in the Bay of Bengal, are very high. Numerous islands are located about 9.8 km to the southeastern side of in the area including the country’s only mainland. The island has an area of 7.5 island district Bhola. Many islands have km^2 and situated under Teknaf thana of been formed in last few years in the area by Cox’s Bazar district. A total number of 177 the process of land accretion. At the same char lands are also identified in the coastal time, many have been eroded or zone. disappeared. Kuakata, an attractive sandy People and livelihoods beach is located at the zone under Khepupara upazilla of Patuakhali district Total population living in the coastal zone is 35.1 million that represent 28 percent of total population of the country. Population Western coastal zone density in exposed coast is 482 persons per

5 | P a g e square kilometer whereas the value is 1,012 There is 35,712 km of roads in the coastal for the interior coast. zone including the rural earthen ways. But some of the remote areas of the zone are Average population density of the zone is still inaccessible by road transport because 743 per sq. km., and the same value for of the river network. For that reason, water Bangladesh average is 839. Population ways are the main transportation mode in density in interior coast is much higher eastern and central coastal zone. Almost all than that of exterior coast and the country’s small and big cities of the areas are average. There are about 6.8 million connected with the capital Dhaka by households in the zone of which 52 percent waterways. There are also ship-breaking are absolute poor. industries in the zone at Fauzderhat, 20 km Fishing, agriculture, shrimp farming, salt South-west to Chittagong district, farming and tourism are the main economic extending 16 km long sea beach (Anderson activities in the coastal area. The et al., 2000). The industry is the second Sundarbans is a major source of subsistence largest ship breaking facilities in the world, for almost 10 million people. Main activities supporting livelihood to about 100,000 in the Sundarbans area are fisheries, wood people. collection and honey collection. Almost ten So, we see that there are a large number of thousand households in the area have people living in the coastal area of neither homestead land nor cultivable land. Bangladesh and their livelihood mainly On the other hand, more than a million depends on sea and its around area. To households in the area have only homestead protect these large numbers of people and but no cultivable land. infrastructure from cyclone and other Per capita gross domestic product (GDP) for natural calamities, the coastal area needs a the coastal zone was US$277, a little bit barrier. The area is wide open and there are lower than that of national average no shields to protect it. We can make a (US$278), during the fiscal year 1999-2000. coconut barrier across the coastal area. It works as a barrier and also it has so big Per capita GDP is higher in Chittagong economical value. Now we are going to (US$428) and Khulna (US$352) district. know about coconut tree. Excluding these two districts, GDP per capita in the coastal zone falls to US$235. The lowest GDP per capita is in Feni Coconut Tree district, having a value of US$193 (Figure- 3). The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is found throughout the tropics, where it is Per capita GDP is higher in Chittagong and interwoven into the lives of the local people. Khulna district because of industrialization It is particularly important in the low in the area. Sixteen coastal districts’ GDP islands of the Pacific where, in the absence per capita is below the national average of land-based natural resources, it provides because of environmental hazards and almost all the necessities of life—food, natural disasters. Low GDP per capita and drink, oil, medicine, fiber, timber, thatch, high population pressure reinforce each mats, fuel, and domestic utensils. For good other, preventing people to get out of the reason, it has been called the “tree of poverty. heaven” and “tree of life.” Today it remains Infrastructures

6 | P a g e an important economic and subsistence crop possibly native to the Pacific coast of in many small Pacific island states. Central America.

Today, coconut oil has been relegated It is an important plant in the lives and mainly to non-food uses in the developed economies of people in the following countries but retains its importance in countries: producing countries for traditional uses. It continues to have an important role in Southeast Asia: Burma, Indonesia, subsistence agriculture in that it is well Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, South China (Hainan), Thailand, Vietnam. suited to mixed cropping and provides not only most of life’s necessities but also, in Indian Subcontinent: Indian Ocean, many Pacific islands, food for livestock such Bangladesh, South India, Sri Lanka, and as pigs and poultry. Coconut oil and other islands of Andaman, Nicobar, Seychelles. products are also making a comeback commercially in both natural foods and Africa: Cameroon. Ghana, Ivory Coast, cosmetic industries. Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania

Central America/Caribbean: Brazil, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela

Melanesia: Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu.

Polynesia: Cook Islands, Hawai, Kiribati, Line Is, Nauru, Niue, Samoa, Tonga, Tuamotu Archipelago, Tuvalu, Society Is., Tokelau, Tuvalu.

Micronesia: Palau, Chuuk, Guam, Northern Image: Coconut Tree with Fruit Mariana Islands, Pohnpei, Yap, Kiribati.

Coconuts are found on the tropical coast of Native range Australia but are more of a curiosity with ornamental value. Beyond 23° N and S, Coconut is native to coastal areas (the coconuts are grown as an ornamental in littoral zone) of Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Florida and even as far south as Brisbane Indonesia, Philippines) and Melanesia. In (26° S) Australia. prehistoric times, wild forms (niu kafa) are believed to have been carried eastward on ocean currents to the tropical Pacific islands Environmental Preferences and Tolerances (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia) and westward to coastal India, Sri Lanka, East Climate Africa, and tropical islands (e.g., Seychelles, Andaman, Mauritius) in the Indian Ocean. A year-round warm and humid climate In these regions, the palms were able to favors the growth of coconut. A mean establish themselves on sandy and coralline annual temperature of 27°C (81°F), an coasts. Coconut is either an introduction or evenly distributed rainfall of 1500–2500

7 | P a g e mm (60–100 in) per annum, and relative humidity above 60% provide the ideal climatic conditions for the vigorous growth and yield of the palm. A permanent water table within easy reach of the coconut roots can offset inadequate rainfall, while amounts in excess of 2500 mm (100 in) could result in diseases of the fruit and leaves. Such conditions are normally found 20° north and south of the equator. Periods with mean daily temperatures below 21°C (70°F) adversely affect the growth and yield Image: Coconut Fruit of the palms. Frost is fatal to seedlings and young palms when the growing point is still Mean maximum temperature of hottest close to the ground. At the equator, coconut month can grow and yield well up to an altitude of 28–37°C (81–99°F) 600 m (1970 ft) but will only do so at sea level at latitude 23°. At the extremes of the Mean minimum temperature of coldest latitudinal range, coconut only grows well month on the coast of large land masses (e.g., east 4–12°C (39–54°F) coast of Australia, Africa, South America, etc.) and on islands where the sea exerts a Minimum temperature tolerated moderating influence on temperature and humidity. 0°C (32°F)

Elevation range Soils

0–600 m (0–1970 ft) (near the equator) This palm has remarkable ability to adapt to a wide range of soil types. Although Mean annual rainfall coarse sand is its natural habitat, best growth is obtained on deep soils with good 1500–2500 mm (60–100 in) physical and chemical properties. It is thus Rainfall pattern widely grown on loams as well as clays that are well drained. Coconut grows in climates with summer, winter, bimodal and uniform rainfall Soil drainage patterns. Dry season duration (consecutive It requires free drainage. months with <40 mm [1.6 in] rainfall), one month in sandy inland areas, and 3 months Soil acidity in clayey inland areas. Palms will survive longer droughts, but yields will be severely It tolerates alkaline soils up to pH 8 (on depressed. coralline atolls) and acid soils with pH 4.5 or higher. The ideal pH range is 5.5–7. Mean annual temperature Soil texture 21–30°C (70–86°F) Coconut grows on a wide range of light, medium, and heavy soils.

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Special soil tolerances endure. In heavy storms, fronds facing or perpendicular to the direction of the wind It tolerates saline and infertile soils. It tend to snap off close to the base. This grows on coralline atolls, but poorly, as reduces drag forces tremendously and helps these soils are shallow and infertile. coconuts survive storms. Most coconuts Drought survive severe storms, although some are uprooted where there is not sufficient Coconut tolerates drought poorly. rooting depth. In some varieties, a Symptoms include desiccation of older percentage of trees will snap off at the base fronds, spears (emerging fronds) failing to of the root crown. open normally, and shedding of young nuts.

Full sun

It thrives in full sun.

Shade

Coconut grows under high levels of shade, but yields are severely affected; it does best when not shaded.

Fire

Young palms will succumb to fire, but mature palms will often survive if the Image: Coconut Forest in an Island canopy is far enough above the fire to escape the flames. Growth and Development

Frost The most rapid growth occurs between the second and fifth year in the life of a coconut It has poor tolerance of frost. Severe frost is palm. A stem appears under the crown after fatal to seedlings and young palms. 3–4 years of growth, and stem elongation Water logging initially is 30–50 cm (12–20 in) annually but slows down in older palms (above 40 yr). Coconut does not like water logging within Fruit production increases after the sixth 1 m (3.3 ft) of surface, and will not survive year at the expense of vegetative growth. more than 2 weeks of surface water logging. Thereafter, growth is fairly constant as yields are sustained for the next 40 years, Salt spray and palm age can be roughly gauged from Coconut is able to withstand salt spray very the length of the stem. Dry matter well. production in bearing palms has been estimated at 50–80 kg (110–176 lb) per Wind year.

It is able to withstand cyclonic (hurricane) Uses and Products winds if roots are well anchored. Flexibility in the stem and fronds reduces the cross- The Indonesians have a saying that there is sectional area presented by each tree and a use for the coconut palm for every day of thus reduces the drag forces they must the year. The mature kernel is eaten as food

9 | P a g e and fed to pigs and chickens. Shredded We could see that; coconut tree has a great kernel is used in sweets and desserts in economic value as well as it can play a vital Indonesia and Malaysia and in chutneys in role to withstand cyclonic wind and can Sri Lanka and India. The cream extracted protect the coastal area. It also grows in the from the shredded kernel is used in curries coastal areas very well with the weather and sweets and in the Pacific islands for the and soil condition. flavoring of local dishes. The oil from the Now, we discuss about the current situation kernel is used in cooking, in oil lamps, in of forest biodiversity in Bangladesh. torches for illumination, to prepare ointments, and as hair oil. The water from Status of Forest Biodiversity Conservation immature nuts is drunk as a beverage in Bangladesh throughout the tropics, and the jelly-like kernel is eaten. Husk fibers are made into The 15 formally protected areas (PAs) in ropes, and the whole husks and shells are Bangladesh occupy an area of 110,223 ha, used for fuel. Shells are also used as or about .75 percent of the land area of the containers and drinking vessels. Sap country. This is well below the target of 5 obtained by tapping the unopened spate percent established by the Wildlife Task may be made into palm sugar or allowed to Force in 1986 and the target of 12 percent ferment into an alcoholic drink (toddy). recommended by the world Commission on Environment and Development. Mature green fronds are woven into baskets and mats, used as thatching for dwellings, Two sanctuaries account for 54 percent of and used to decorate houses. The midribs of the total protected area and one of these, leaflets are bundled together into brooms. Pablakhali, the largest in the country, is of questionable biodiversity value. Several Dried fronds, spates, and empty bunch national parks were established for stalks are used for fuel. historical and recreation value and have little conservation value. Three protected

Markets areas are less than 1,000 ha in size. No systematic field evaluation of any of the The market for copra and coconut oil is protected areas has been done in more than worldwide. All large and medium-sized 10 years. As a result, little current producers including PNG, Solomon Islands, information exists on the state of forest and Samoa have oil mills and export mainly cover, wildlife populations, or human the oil. World exports of coconut oil in 2002 activity. were 1822 million mt (2 million t) compared to only 0.160 mt (0.176 t) of copra exported. Administration of the existing protected Desiccated coconut production is dominated areas in Bangladesh is nominally under the by the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and administrative jurisdiction of the Forest Indonesia, which together exported 239,000 Department. However, no staff has ever mt (263,500 t) in 2002. Pacific island states been identified as responsible for protected suffer the disadvantage of being small, areas. This function was generally isolated producers far from the major considered to be a role of the Wildlife Circle, markets in Europe and the USA. However, an interagency group that was abolished in organizations such as the EU provide 1983. Since then, no department or agency assistance in the form preferential tariffs to imports from the Pacific islands as well as has had the mandate or capability to price support. properly manage or protect any of these

10 | P a g e protected areas. No headquarters or gain three important things by creating divisional staff is assigned to this task. coconut forest across the coastal area.

1. We can protect our people and our land from cyclone. We can make huge profit from coconut. And we can dissolve the forest biodiversity and enlarge the amount of forest in Bangladesh.

Epilogue

In this paper, we clearly discuss about the importance of a barrier across the coastal area of Bangladesh. And if the barrier is created with coconut tree and turn that into Image: Coconut Forest in an Island a forest in the huge land of coastal area, At the field level, protected areas are then we can make profit and protect our administered as part of the regular duties of coastal area from cyclone. In the meantime, range officers and forest guards. In general, it also could play an important role to the protected area is considered part of the ensure the biodiversity of forest in reserve forest. The administration of Bangladesh. It also has so much economic protected areas is hampered because value that we can make huge profit from it boundaries often do not coincide with Forest by exporting coconut and its products. And Department boundaries of ranges, we also discuss about the legal framework compartments, and blocks. of the forest conservation and forest biodiversity. It also supports our existing Four of the protected areas in Bangladesh laws to ensure environmental significance. are to some degree protected and serving the purposes for which they were created. These are the three Sundarbans wildlife sanctuaries and Bhawal National Park, all of which have forest guards stationed within them who provide limited protection. Unfortunately, this situation is quickly changing as pressure mounts from poaching, logging, and land conversion for shrimp farming.

So, in that point of view, we need to spread the amount of forest and we can make that in our coastal area. Because there are huge land and there is no proper use of that land. So, if we can create a big coconut forest across the coastal area, then it could be more realistic than any other plan to protect the people from cyclone. So here we can

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 Bibliography

 CZPo, 2005. Coastal Zone Policy, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka.  Source: Workshops Proceedings on Lessons Learnt During Cyclone-April 1991  Ali, A.M.S., 2005. Rice to shrimp: Land use/ land cover changes and soil degradation in Southwestern Bangladesh, Land Use Policy [Inpress]  Barnett, J., 2003. Security and climate change, Global Environmental Change 13, pp.7- 17.  Chowdhury, A., 1998. Disasters: Issues and Responses, in: Gain, P. (Ed.), Bangladesh Environment: Facing 21st Century, SEHD, Dhaka, Bangladesh.  Bourdeix, R., J.L. Konan and Y.P. N’Cho. 2005. Coconut: A Guide to Traditional and Improved Varieties. Editions Diversiflora, Montpellier, France.  Foale, M. 2003. The Coconut Odyssey: The Bounteous Possibilities of the Tree of Life. ACIAR Monograph 101. ACIAR, Kingston, Australia.  Ohler, J.G. 1984. Coconut, Tree of Life. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 57. FAO, Rome, Italy.  Ohler, J.G., and S.S. Magat. 2002. Cocos nucifera L. In: H.A.M. van der Vossen and B.E. Umali (eds.). Plant Resources of South-East Asia 14. Vegetable oils and fats. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia.  Rehm, S., and G. Espig. 1991. The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Verlag Josef Margraf Scientific Books, Weikersheim, Germany.  Md. Millat-e-MUSTAFA, A Review of Forest Policy Trends in Bangladesh, Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Policy Trend Report, 2002:114-121.  Forestry Master Plan (FMP) 1994. Forestry Master Plan. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, UNDP/FAO. BGD/88/025, Dhaka.  Dwivedi, A.P. 1980. Forestry in India. Dehra Dun: Jugal Kishore and Company.Forest Resources Management Project (FRMP) 1992. Forest Resources Management Project. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka.  Khattak, G.M. 1979. History of Forest Management in Bangladesh. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 29.  Davidson, J. 2000. Social Forestry in Bangladesh and Social Forestry Research at the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute. Consultancy Report. ARMP, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 144 pp.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Bangladesh_cyclone  http://www.climate.org/PDF/Bangladesh.pdf  www.bangla2000.com/bangladesh/geography.shtm  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Bangladesh  www.bangladesh.com/geography  www.discoverybangladesh.com/meetbangladesh/geo.html  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Bangladesh_cyclone

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