CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION
. .
The development strategy for any economy has two basic objectives,
economic growth and creation of employment opportunities. But there is no
direct and linear relationship between economic growth and employment,
though it is generally hypothesized that economic growth would give a push
to production and employment. There is consensus among the economists
and scholars that with growth there will be structural transformation. The
central focus of these researches is to examine whether there will be
change in the production of commodity from primary to manufacturing
activities and a marginal or substantial increase in the share of service
sector in GNP.
The earlier views about this trend are challenged these days at the
national and international level. It is observed that with development there
is a rapid transition from agriculture to service sector while industry is
lagging behind. This trend is prevalent in the sectoral share of GDP as well
as contribution to employment.
The service sector is rising more rapidly than industries, whereas the
share of agricultural sector has declined in all the countries with the
development process, be it in the developed countries like the UK and the 2
USA or less developed countries like India or Pakistan. The reason behind rapid growth of the service sector to what a large part of the service sector consists of infrastructure such as banking, insurance, finance, transport and communication, and social and community services such as medical and educational facilities. All these are requirements for development and cater to the needs of all sectors of the economy, on the one hand, and on the other hand these services improve the quality of life of the people.
Other factors causing this growth are growing mobility of the population, development of tourism industry and expanding urbanization. Due to increasing complexities of modern industrial organisation, manufacturing industries have also become service oriented.
The service sector consists of trade, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, finance, insurance and banking, community and social and personal services. The largest proportion of GDP was contributed by the trade and hotel industry followed by financial sector in the 1990‟s. The proportion of GDP in nineties (1993-97) rose quite visibly in trade and hotels, communication, and banking and insurance.
Labour intensive techniques have resulted in the increasing trend of service sector employment. But in future it is likely that labour saving devices may reverse the trend. Hence the government should formulate the endogenous development policies to generate employment in the secondary sector and to sustain the growth of service sector employment. 3
The growth of service sector is due to the necessity of development.
Its share in GDP and contribution to employment generation have increased over time. This trend is observed in all the countries. Trade service sub-sector is contributing the highest to GDP while finance service sector is providing employment due to its high employment elasticity.
Female employment in the service sector is rising at higher rate than that of male.
Rising urbanization process has increased service sector employment more in the urban areas. Developed states like Punjab,
Haryana, Gujarat, etc. are generating more service sector employment.
Labour absorption capacity of the service sector is observed to be high and rising in comparison to that of agriculture and industry sector, where it is declining. Favourable technology, literacy rate and urbanization are the major causative factors in the growth of service sector. 1
Economies of countries like the USA, the UK, Germany, Japan,
Canada, Sweden, etc. have changed from being goods dominated to services dominated. The developed economies also called as service economies reveal that the service sector accounts for more employment, contribution to GDP and more consumption than manufactured goods.
1 Anju Kohli (2001), „Dynamics of Service Sector Growth in India, Income and Employment Trends‟, The Indian Economic Association’s 84th Conference, Vellore, pp. 490-498. 4
Service Led Growth in Economy
In colonial India, the British were very much interested in spreading the service sector economy rather than the expansion of producing sector in industry and manufacturing and even the agricultural sector was primitive in the mode of production. India, being an agricultural dominance, the growth pattern was not at all agriculture-led growth although agricultural surplus was utilized not for the overall development of the economy but for the development especially for the maintenance of the kingdom.2 During the planning period, the agricultural sector and its resources were not properly utilized for the development of other sectors to speed up the growth rate of the Indian economy. Thus, the uneven growth patterns of the three sectors collapsed the main indicators of development and other key macro economic variables throughout the planning process. The investment was sharply falling in agriculture in subsequent plans; on the contrary, planning for industrialization was not so strong in the planning models except in import substitution till 90s, and hence, the economy was biased in favour of tertiary sector development. Besides, in Indian mixed economy, mode of development was neither socialistic nor capitalistic .Since the reform, it is neither pro-poor nor export-led growth, conversely the planning model favours the service led growth process.
2 Debesh Bhowmik (2008), „Service-Led Growth in India: An Analysis, (Artha Beekshan)‟, Journal of Bangiya Arthaniti Parishad (Bengal Economic Association), 17(2): 73-85. 5
Service sector has been growing too fast during long course of time in India than the other sectors and it became the chief source of the GDP growth rate. This situation may be called as structural transformation. lt is due to increase in domestic demand. The value addition in service sectors is skewed towards final consumption compared to other sectors of the economy and capital formation is the key driver of growth. There are some literature on the sectoral growth pattern in the theory of development in which Lewis (1955)3 and Preobrazhensky (1965)4 emphasised that industry is the engine of growth whereby transfer of resources takes from agriculture. Kuznets (1966)5 explained that a rise in productivity in agriculture is a precondition for economic growth where agriculture generates a surplus. The trade policies promote import substitution industries through favourable terms of trade for manufacturing. Low effective protection for agricultural share in GDP is the basis of structural transformation. Clerk (1940)6 and Fisher (1939)7 asserted that the demand for manufacturing and services are more elastic than that of agriculture and therefore a shift away from agriculture towards services and manufacturing
3 Levine, Ross (2004), „Finance and Growth: Theory and Evidence‟, NBER, WP No.10766, pp. 108-129. 4 Preobrazhensky, E. (1966), The New Economics, Oxford, Clarendon Press, pp. 4-7. 5 Kuznets, Simon, (1966), Modern Economic Growth: Rate, Structure and Spread, New Haven, Yale University Press, pp. 7-11. 6 Clerk, C. (1940), The Conditions of Economic Progress, Macmillan, pp. 2.4-2.19. 7 A. G. B. Fisher (1939), „Production in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary‟, Economic Record, 15: 37-43. 6
is expected in course of development. Park and Chan (1989)8 argued that there should be a positive and significant association between manufacturing and services at the advanced stages of industrialization.
That is, during the course of development of manufacturing, the demand for services like trade, hotels, transport, banking, health, education, communication increases and raises productivity of industrial sector. Hence growth linkage between the two sectors is necessary. Johnston and Mellor
(1961)9 and Krishna (1982)10 stressed that the two sectors-agriculture and industry are seen to be complementary to each other .But low industrial growth rate and rise in agricultural prices and subsequent rise in industrial prices failed the industry - agriculture relationship (Chakroborty, 1973;
Mitro, 1977, Mundle, 1981). This diminishing growth linkage between the sectors was credited primarily to deficiency in demand for agricultural products, decline in share of agro-based industries coupled with slow employment growth (Rangarajan 1982; Bhattacharyya and Rao 1986;
Chowdhury and Chowdhury 1995).But still controversies arise, whether an increasing trend of relative share of tertiary sector is desirable in India. In this issue Bhattacharyya and Mitra (1990) stated that while the share of
8 Park, Se-Hark and Kenneth S. Chan (1989), „A Cross country Input Output analysis of intersectoral relationship between manufacturing and services and their employment implications‟, World Development, 17(2): 199-212. 9 B. F. Johnston and J. W. Mellor. (1961), „The Role of Agriculture in Economic Development‟, AER, 78: 566-593. 10 Krishna, Raj. (1982), „Some Aspect of Agricultural Growh: Price Policy and Equity in Developing Countries‟. Food Research Institute Studies, 18(3): 84. 7
tertiary income has been increasing, its share in total employment has been much less. This mismatch along with a widening gap between growth rates of tertiary sector and commodity producing sectors would have negative repercussions on inflation, balance of payments and income distribution. In other words, a phenomenal growth in the relative share of services in gross national income was considered to be no indicators of development, and hence perceived to be warranted. Bhanumurthy and Mitra (2003) have found that a shift in value added mix towards industry and tertiary sector has caused a larger decline in the incidence of poverty in 90s compared to 80s.
This result supports the findings of Ravallion and Datt (1966) 11 who observed a significant role of sectoral composition of economic growth in reducing poverty in both rural and urban areas.
Pointing out that the sectoral contribution in India is “in line with the general trend of the world,” Dr. Raja J. Chelliah, Chairman of the Madras
School of Economics, says, “as the economy develops, generally the per capita income increases and there is greater specialization” which “tends to push up the share of the services”. 12
11 Ravallion, Martin and Gaurav Datt (1996), „How important to India‟s Poor is the Sectoral Composition of Economic Growth‟. The World Bank Economic Review, Vol.10, No.1. p. 64. 12 S. Shajahan (2009), Services Marketing: Concepts, Practices and Cases from Indian Environment. Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, 2009, p. 20. 8
The tremendous growth of the tertiary sector in India since independence neither follows the Clerk-Fisher theory nor the Kuznets hypothesis towards sectoral development. In India, the continuous decline in the share of agriculture in GDP and sharp increase in the share of tertiary sector and gradual increase in the share of industry in GDP were observed since 1950-51. The industrial share would not become the pivoting sector for development rather tertiary sector is the key sector in the growth process. The trend model log y = a + bt showed that the share of agriculture in GDP has been declining at the rate of 1.71 % per year during 1950-51 to 2005-06. On the other hand, the share of industry in GDP has been stipulating at the rate of 1.05% per year during 1950-51 to 2005-
06. But, the share of service sector in GDP has been increasing at the rate of 1.17% per year during the period 1950-51 to 2005-06. Hence, agriculture share has been declining more steadily than the increasing shares of the both industry and tertiary sectors. But the volatility of tertiary sector is marginally higher than that of the industry and volatility of agriculture sector is much higher than both of them. These are uneven sectoral growth patterns that India has been confronting with the stages of development.
The growth rate of the service sector during 1950-51 to 1980-81 was observed as 4.5% per year which increased to 7.3% per year during
1980–2005 and the contribution to growth of this sector increased at the rate of 4.5% per year during 1950-51 to 1980-81 which subsequently rose 9
to 6.7% per year during 1980-81 to 1990-91,7.6% per year during 1990-91 to 2000-01, and 7.9% per year during 2000-01 to 2003-04.
It is found that the share of trade is the dominant one followed by real estate, transport and banking. The share of banking and communication grew rapidly during the planning period especially in the reform period. All the sub-sectoral growth rates increased during the subsequent period from 1950-51 to 1980-81 to the next decade. Even, most of the sub sectors' contribution to GDP grew slowly but steadily during the above period except in 2000-01 to 2003-04.
The exceptional performance of the Indian service sector led to high rate of economic growth since, external trade constitutes the lion's share of
GDP and its growth and contribution to GDP growth are significantly higher than that of the other sub-sectors, then export-led strategy may be a synonymous to service-led growth in Indian economy as was seen in East
Asian and South East Asian countries in the recent past.
The inter-linkage of the sectors can be found out through the Granger
Causality Test which explores that the share of industry in GDP does not
Granger cause the share of agriculture in GDP and vice versa during the period 1950-51 to 2005-06. In the similar jargon, share of service sector in
GDP does not Granger cause the share of agriculture and converse is true during the same period. Lastly, the share of tertiary sector in GDP does not 10
Granger Cause the share of industry in GDP and vice versa during the same period.
Moreover, another inter-sectoral linkage model can be computed through the multiple log regression analysis which states that 1% increase in the share of industry and tertiary sector in GDP per year induces a fall in the share of agriculture in GDP by 0.0711% and 1.397% per year respectively during the study period of 1950-51 to 2005-06. This relation is highly significant. The strong association between agricultural share, industrial share and service sector share during the specified period is justified by the significant ADF value which equals to 3.610596. The equation is stated below.
Log(x1) = 8.9001–0.071187 log(x2)–1.3970251 log(x3) (128.55)* (–2.1505)* (–41.788)* R2 = 0.99, DW = 0.68, F = 2874.34, SE= 0.027, ADF= 3.610596, Significant at 10% level
The globalization spread over the growth of multinationals throughout the world economy which influenced the sharp increase in the share of service sector in GDP in most of the countries of Europe, Asia and
America. Agriculture sector has been transferred into a subsistence sector in the developing economy especially India where modern technology and industrial growth strategy are solely dependent on the developed economies. Hence the process of inequality started there among the countries and the inter-sectoral linkage in the stages of development broke 11
down. The multinationals become the producers and sellers and the developing countries are buyers and the world exchange economy has been flourishing. Thus, the service sector and its growth create hegemony in the world development pattern. Although in the growth globalization nexus debates, India showed the positive relation when one per cent increase in the degree of openness produces 4.8287% increase of growth rate per year during 1950-51 to 2005-06. This relationship is highly significant although there are several indicators of globalization except the degree of openness. In this process too, the share of agriculture in GDP has a negative association with the GDP growth rate which is significant but the positive association between the share of industry in GDP and growth rate of GDP is insignificant. On the contrary, the correlation between the share of service sector in GDP and the growth rate is found to be strong. A positive association during 1950-51 to 2005-06 showed a highly significant one per cent increase in the share of service sector in
GDP which induced increase in growth of GDP in the economy towards
0.862% per year during the specified period. This rate is higher than that of the other sectors which might prove that the share of service sector in GDP and the share of industry in GDP have induced growth positively, on the other hand the share of agriculture in GDP affects growth rate negatively.
Hence, the service driven growth is, no doubt, a clear phenomenon in India since long which is unsustainable in the context of inter-sectoral linkage for development. Now, the level of degree of openness which affects the 12
sectoral growth pattern can be seen through the following double log regression analysis which explains that one per cent increase in degree of openness index has reduced the agricultural share in GDP by 0.5093% per year during 1950-51 to 2005-06. And, one per cent increase in the degree of openness has increased the industrial share in GDP and service sector share in GDP by 0.1119% per year and 0.3429% per year respectively during the survey period. It is clear that the openness influenced most significantly in the service sector than in the others.
In India, the exports grew at the rate of 10.44 % per year during
1968-2006 in which the exports of primary sector increased at 11.06% per year and the exports of industrial sector enhanced at the rate of 12.66% per year during 1950-51 to 2004-05 and the exports of service sector grew at the rate of 16.00% per year during the same period. Thus, exports of services play a significant role in service-led growth strategy. Their trend lines are found significant.
Although the balance of trade of services remained unfavourable to
India throughout the plan period and the rate of growth of services imports per year from 1950-51 to 2004-05 counteracted unfavourably to export-led growth in India in 1980, India's service export was 0.760% of the world which increased to 1.090% in 2000 and to 1.22% in 2004 and that was
7.78% of the USA. On the other hand, India's service import was 0.683% of the world in 1980 which enhanced to 1.263% in 2000 and to 1.383% in 13
2004 and that was 10.469% of the USA. Hence, service exports are not satisfactory in current account balances although it grew at a higher rate because of the effects of liberalization and globalization. This can be tested through the association between the value of service exports and the degree of openness during 1950-51 to 2004-05 which states that one per cent increase in degree of openness catapulted 6.28% exports of services per year and was found significant. Again the service exports have strong association with the share of service sector in GDP which was found by the double log linear model that explained that one per cent increase in the service exports per year leads to increase the share of service sector in
GDP by 0.058% per year during 1950-51 to 2004-05. It is highly significant.
The regression equations are given below:
Log(x7) = 23.486+6.2802 log(X5) (14.04)* (10.211)* R2 = 0.748, F = 104.274
Log(x3) = 3.25917+0.05809 log(x7) (141.193)* (15.503)*, R2 = 0.82
During the globalization capital flows under the financial sector reform process and it has a positive impact on the growth of service sector which implies a significant positive influence on the overall growth of the economy. That is why in India, under the reform period the FDI inflows increased the share of service sector in GDP by 0.0644% per year during
1990-2005 which is shown by the following regression: 14
Log(x3) = 3.34+0.0644 log(x6) (34.96)* (5.154)*
R2 = 0.67, F = 26.57,
where x6 = value of foreign direct investment in million dollar.
This result ultimately satisfies the Levine's proposition that financial sector development affects economic growth by (i) reducing cost of acquiring information on investment inducing efficient allocation of funds, (ii) enhancing corporate governance, (iii) relaxing cross sectional, inter- temporal and liquidity risk, (iv) pooling savings and (v) easing exchange.
Hence, under financial sector reform, free mobility of capital flows, full convertibility of rupee and the banking sector reform will surely affect service sector positively in increasing the GDP growth rate in the process of globalization.
The service sector has the chief potentiality in generating employment because of rise in productivity and investment. But, it is unfortunate to specify that the decade-wise employment growth rates of the three sectors from 60s have been declining rapidly and even negatively in the agriculture sector and are much higher in every decade from 1960-61 to
1969-70. It is interesting to note that the employment growth rates of the three sectors during the pre-reform period are much higher than those of the post reform period and again the growth rates of employment in the service sector in pre-reform period and post reform period are seen to be larger than those of the two sectors. 15
More specifically, the employment growth rates in the public sector in the post reform period showed a sharp decline when compared to pre- reform period. Here, the growth rates of employment in three sectors gradually have been falling decade-wise since 60s except in 70s. The employment growth rates of the service sector in every decade are less than those in other sectors. On the other hand, the employment growth rates in service sector in the public sector since 60s have been falling up to
80s, then increasing and even these growth rates are much higher than the two other sectors. Both the secondary and tertiary sectors showed higher employment growth rates in the post reform period than in the pre-reform period. For sustainable service led growth the following issues on policies may be considered.
. i) For sustainability of export led growth, the growth of export must be
greater than the growth of import and the balance of trade must be
positive and should be increasing. Therefore, the policies of incentives
to boost export, the export industries, decline of export tax, and free
mobility of foreign direct investment to increase domestic as well as
foreign demand for industrial production are urgently required so that
the positive trend of current account balance should be maintained in
order to gain from foreign trade. The growth of money supply should
be positively associated with the current account balance that can
accelerate the export led growth. 16
ii) If the export led growth be the complementary to the service led
growth strategy then balance between service export and import
should be positive and the service sector must be linked to a strong
industrial base so that the linkage between the two are planned for
long term growth. Promotion of foreign direct investment in service
sector should be upswing in employment growth pattern with the
emphasis on public private partnership.
iii) As liberalization and globalization are clouding over the world
economy, the service driven growth becomes the dominant factor of
high growth rate in most of the economies and therefore inter-linkage
between the sectors do not fit in the sustainable development path.
The unequal distribution of income, unequal industrial development,
and the capture of market share through multinationals are the prime
outcomes of such breakthrough of inter-sectoral linkage. Good
governance can restrict such growth strategies which are responsible
to catapult poverty. Hence, service driven growth strategy must be
pro-poor, high employment oriented and sustainable.
Growth in Service Sector
With reference to Statistical Year Book (1998)13, a significant growth in the service sector is seen all over the world. The trends indicate that the future belongs to the service sector. What are the factors, which have
13 Statistical Year Book (1998), Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, UN, New York, pp. 144-156. 17
contributed to the growth? We may classify the environmental factors into demographic, economic, political and legal, social and technological factors.
1. Demographic Factor
The study of population reveals a general increase in the world population; high birth rate has given scope for more child-care centres, educational institutions, etc. As the baby boom generation began entering its years of prime capacity in the late eighties, it became a prime target for a variety of services - fast food, entertainment, etc. The considerable increase in life expectancy indicated expanding market for the age group over 55 years - this has created a new market for health care, leisure and tourism. There has been a movement of population from rural to the urban areas for over a century, and also shift from city to the suburbs. This again causes the need for infrastructure and support services.
2. Economic Factor
The growth of corporate sector and stock market is usually an indicator of growth of an economy. With an overall economic liberalization, resource mobilization through capital market has reached unprecedented heights. The growth of large firms has brought about greater dependence on special service providers like market research and advertising agencies.
The economic reforms have ushered consumerism. Moreover, there have been changes in the consumer purchasing power and spending patterns 18
with middle class explosion which is now emerging as the „Consumption
Community‟.
3. Political and Legal Factor
De-regularisation has opened many service industries (Airlines,
Banking etc.) to more intense competitions generating greater innovation and expansion. At the same time, many countries continue to strengthen consumer protection laws to improve public security and to protect the environment. The increase in government interaction in the trade sector has increased trade relationship between nations leading to development of tourism and hotel industry. Trading blocks such as North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA), European Common Market, Association of
South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) etc. have been formed to protect and promote regional interests in the global trade of goods and services.
4. Social Factor
The increase in single person household, smaller families and working women mean more discretionary income, more time for travel and entertainment and also need for child care services. Changing life styles of the masses due to cultural exchange and communication networks has resulted in continued emphasis on services.
19
5. Technological Factor
Recent developments in computer science and information technology have brought about convergence of various technologies like telecommunication, entertainment and data transmission. The influence of internet has resulted in increasing mobility of educated labour force among countries, and a paradigm shift in many service industries like travel, banking, education, financial services, insurance etc.14
The Role of Services in an Economy
Services lie at the very centre of economic activity in any society
Dorothy Riddle, in writing about the role of the service sector in world development, formulated the economic model as shown in Fig.1.1. This model of economy shows the flow of activity among the three principal sectors of economy, extractive (mining and farming), manufacturing and service, which is divided into five sub-groups. All activities eventually lead to the consumer. Examples of services in each of the five sub-groups15 are:
Business services: Consulting, finance, banking etc.
Trade services: Retailing, maintenance and repair.
Infrastructure services: Communication, transportation, etc.
Social/personal services: Restaurants, health care.
Public administration: Education, Government.
14 Vasanti Venugopal and V. N. Raghu (2008), Services Marketing, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, pp. 102-112. 15 Dorothy, I, Riddle (1986), Service-Led Growth, Praeger, New York, pp. 76-82. 20
Fig. 1.1: Interactive Model of an Economy
What are services?
A service is any act or performance that one party offers to another, which is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product. 16
Services are those separately identifiable, essentially intangible activities, which provide want satisfaction when marketed to consumers and/or industrial uses and which are not necessarily tied to the sale of a product or another service. A service is an activity or benefit that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product.
16 Philip Kotler (2002), Marketing Management, The Millennium Edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, p. 428. 21
Service Industry
Service industry is that sector of industry which involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as to final consumers.
Activities are mainly concerned with providing services rather than tangible objects for the benefit of the end-users and/or other industries. It includes insurance, banking and finance, provision of gas, electricity and water, health care, transport, communication, entertainment, retailing and wholesaling. The importance of service industry in an economic system has been increasing steadily so as to become one of the principal drivers for the development of the country‟s economy. As we recognize that the service sector is now of central importance to advanced economies, studying knowledge management to enhance the understanding of this sector is necessary. Knowledge management enables the creation, communication and application of knowledge of all kinds to achieve goals. 17
Media Service
Mass Media is a modern term which embodies all sorts of sources of information and modes of communication. Mass media is any medium used to hold mass communication. Until recently, mass media was clearly defined and consisted of the eight mass media industries; Books,
Newspapers, Magazines, Recordings, Radio, Movies, Television and the
17 Krishna Kumar Agarwal and Meenakshi A. Singh (2003), „Knowledge Management in Service Sector‟, The Economic Challenger, 9(35): 61-66. 22
Internet. The concept of media is no longer clear cut or simple. Mass media can be used for different targets:
1. Advocacy, both for business and social concerns. This can comprise
advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and political
communication.
2. Better Education.
3. Recreation, traditionally through performances of acting, music, and
sports, along with light reading; since the late 20th century also
through video and computer games.
4. Journalisms - news and blogging.
5. Announcements for all.18
Media services, also known as entertainment services, constitute an important part of the service industry. They comprise agencies such as print-media, broadcasting and telecasting media and electronic media, each having sub-groups. They aim at transmitting effectively and efficiently the cultural traits of the community even to the remote places. They adopt various methods and strategies to portray materials and to present events.
They serve as a powerful source of information and entertainment. The quality of service rendered by each of these media is different depending upon the economic system and environment in which each operates. Each
18 Khan, M. A. (2008), Encyclopaedia of Mass Media. Vol. 1. Himalaya Books Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, pp. 1-3. 23
medium arranges its programmes targeted toward a particular group of listeners, viewers and readers. In service sector, each service operates within a set of goals. It generates not only employment to professionals and technicians but also income to the government. As the consumer is the king in this media service sector, the survival of each of these service agencies depends on the consumer‟s patronage and preferences.
Importance of Mass Media
In the modern world, the importance of the media cannot be under- estimated. Media is the reader that captures the mood, pulse and ideologies of the age, it is the bacon light that illuminates the pathways of democracy especially in conflict and confused situations. Media helps the civil society. Media add to the richness of our cultural flora and fauna. The
'Argumentative Indian' (Sen, 2006) has always something to say. The classic statements of press freedom can be found in the declaration of the
Rights of Man, the 1791 first amendment to the American Constitution as well as in many European constitutional documents after 1848. Our own
Indian Constitution upholds the right to the freedom of speech and expression as a fundamental right [The Constitution of India, Article
19(1)g]. If the politicians try to sidetrack media, their own seat of power would be rocked. On the other hand, if they try to control it, the very life and breath of democracy would be put at stake. 24
The early period of the present century has been dominated by the
'print media', then by broadcasting and television, ushering in an age of mass media. The present age is called the information age. Information plays a more important role than can be imagined in creating and maintaining the hegemony of the present world powers. Apart from being a source of information, media serves as a conduit of a society's self expression. This is an essential feature of every civilized society and hence every politically conscious society will have to grant as well as protect
'freedom of expression', irrespective of religious injunctions and political limitations.
Media is playing a multifarious role or is expected to perform multiple functions of consolidating society, lubricating democracy, making and mixing cultures and also facilitating commerce (Chadwick).
India prints as many as 180.7 million newspapers. During 2005-06,
2074 new newspapers were registered, while 4 newspapers ceased to publish.
Mass media are the press, cinema, radio and television. But books magazines, pamphlets etc. are also included in the label. The organs of mass media are technological means of transmitting messages to large numbers of people. The mass media perform many functions such as information, consensus, i.e., correlated our opinion, entertainment, symbolic functions, advertising, development etc. 25
Different Kinds of Media
The following are some examples of media: radio industry, television industry, cable and satellite television industries, the internet industry, the motion picture industry, the recording industry, the newspaper industry, the magazine industry and the book industry. 19
Youth
It is important before getting into the topic of „Impact of Mass Media on College Youth‟ to understand what is meant by „youth‟. When the United
Nations General Assembly proclaimed 1985 as the International Youth
Year, they established the criterion for „youth‟ for statistical purposes as young persons between the ages of 15 and 24. In Latin America the chronological age range of youth is between 10 and 24 years. During this period transformation takes place to complete basic conditions that introduce the youngsters into the adult society. It is important to state that in some developing countries this range goes upto 30 years of age.
No matter what the age range may be, the point is that any time we talk and think about youth, it implies a group of young people in a society who have a lot of energy, new ideas, new ways to see life and face problems, however as a group they may also be characterised by having a lack of knowledge and skills in certain areas that come with more
19 A. G. Leonard, S.J. (2006), Tamil Nadu Economy, MacMillan India Ltd., New Delhi, p. 292. 26
experience, higher education and age. At the same time, these young people beg for more opportunities to develop their potential capacities to become grown up and feel they have an important role to play in developing their own societies. Population characteristics have a major impact on youth policy. Costa Rica may be used as a case in point to discuss the implications. The total population of Costa Rica in 1995 is found to be 3374.026. Of those, 30 per cent are between the ages of 10 and 24 years (Comission National de Atencion integral Adolscente, 1993).
This situation indicates that Costa Rica is a young country in terms of its inhabitants.
Rural and Urban Youths
Some important differences to be pointed out between rural and urban youths that have policy implications are:
There is a trend for rural youth to start work with responsibilities at an
earlier age than urban youth. A significant percentage of rural youth
become economically active at the relatively young age of 10 or 12.
Normally young people in rural areas get married earlier than their peers
in urban zones. It means that rural youth become involved in adult
responsibilities before urban youth.
Another difference between these two groups is that rural youth have
more restricted use of public services offered by the state than urban
youth. A typical case is with formal education. Rural youth show lower 27
level of literacy and have less access to basic education than urban
youth (IICA, 1990). This situation should be highlighted because of its
relationship with two of the most important global issues today, the
increasing youth population and the lack of educational and employment
opportunities given to rural young men and women. Thus, the differences
mentioned above widen the gap between urban and rural youth.
In considering policy needs, special problems facing rural youth should be taken into account. Some include:
. Lack of communication and understanding with parents
. Lack of employment
. Need for more recreation facilities
. Need for training programmes for group organisations and project
development
. Need to satisfy basic need of subsistence
. Lack of education
. Lack of self-esteem
. Lack of credit and other economic support for productive activities.
. Lack of participation in community decision making.
Sub-groups of Youth
It is acknowledged that since all the persons within the age group of
13 to 35 years are unlikely to be one homogenous group, but rather a conglomeration of sub-groups with differing social roles and requirements, 28
the youth may, therefore, be divided into two broad sub-groups viz. 13-19 years and 20-35 years. The youth belonging to the age group of 13-19, which is a major part of the adolescent age group, will be regarded as a separate constituency. The number of youth in the age group of 13-35 years, as per the 1991 Census, was estimated at about 34 crores, and about 38 crores in 1997, which is anticipated to increase to about 51 crores by the year 2016.
Objectives of the National Youth Policy
The objectives of the National Youth Policy are:
to instil in the youth, at large, an abiding awareness of, and adherence
to the secular principles and values enshrined in the Constitution of
India, with unswerving commitment to patriotism, national security,
national integration, non-violence and social justice;
to develop qualities of citizenship and dedication to community service
amongst all sections of the youth;
to promote awareness, amongst the youth, in the fields of Indian history
and heritage, arts and culture;
to provide the youth with proper educational and training opportunities
and to facilitate access to information in respect of employment
opportunities and to other services, including entrepreneurial guidance
and financial credit; 29
to facilitate access, for all sections of the youth, to health information
and services and to promote a social environment which strongly
inhibits the use of drugs and other forms of substance abuse, wards off
disease (like HIV/AIDS), ensures measures for de-addiction and
mainstreaming of the affected persons and enhances the availability of
sports and recreational facilities as constructive outlets for the
abundant energy of the youth;
to sustain and reinforce the spirit of volunteerism amongst the youth in
order to build up individual character and generate a sense of
commitment to the goals of developmental programmes;
to create an international perspective in the youth and to involve them
in promoting peace and understanding and the establishment of a just
global economic order;
to develop youth leadership in various socio-economic and cultural
spheres and to encourage the involvement of non-governmental
organizations, co-operatives and non-formal groups of young people;
to promote a major participatory role for the youth in the protection and
preservation of nature including natural resources, to channelise their
abundant energies in community service so as to improve the
environment and foster a scientific, inquisitive reasoning and rational
attitude in the younger generation and to encourage the youth to
undertake such travel excursions as would better acquaint them with
cultural harmony, amidst diversity, in India, and overseas. 30
Thrust Areas of the Policy
Youth Empowerment
The policy recognizes that in order for the youth to effectively participate in decision making processes, it is essential that they are better equipped with requisite knowledge, skills and capabilities. Towards this end, the Policy envisions the following:
Attainment of higher educational levels and expertise by the youth, in
line with their abilities and aptitudes and access to employment
opportunities accordingly;
Adequate nutrition for the full development of physical and mental
potential and the creation of an environment which promotes good
health, and ensures protection from disease and unwholesome habits;
Development of youth leadership and involvement in programmes and
activities pertaining to national development;
Equality of opportunity and respect for human and fundamental rights
without distinction of race, caste, creed, sex, language, religion or
geographic location and access to facilities relating to sports, cultural,
recreational and adventure activities.
Privileges of Youth
The Policy acknowledges that the youth of the country should be assured of the following: 31
Appropriate education and training which enable them to render
themselves socially useful and economically productive;
Gainful employment and adequate opportunities for personal
development and advancement for those not currently in employment;
Requisite shelter and a clean environment, as also basic health
services of quality;
Social defence and protection from all manners of exploitation;
Suitable participation in decision-making bodies which are concerned
with issues relating to the youth and with socio-economic and cultural
matters;
Sufficient allocation of public funds for youth development;
Access to sports, physical education, adventure and recreational
opportunities.
Responsibilities of Youth
The Policy exhorts the youth to fulfil their responsibilities, as enumerated below:
To contribute to sectoral, family and self development and to promote
social and inter-generation understanding and gender equality;
To extend respect to teachers, elders, parents and the family, in
consonance with our cultural norms and traditions;
To uphold the unity and integrity of the nation, maintain peace and
harmony, observe fundamental duties and respect the fundamental 32
rights and freedoms guaranteed under the Constitution to all sections of
the people;
To respect others‟ faiths and beliefs in the religious, cultural and social
spheres and to different schools of thought and to neither exploit nor be
instrumental in the exploitation of fellow citizens and other persons,
especially women;
To promote appropriate standards of ethical conduct in individual and
social life, to maintain honesty and integrity of character and be
committed to fight against all forms of corruption, social evils and
practices.
To preserve and protect the environment; and
To commit themselves to create a discrimination and exploitation free
environment and to devote their time and energy in nation building
activities.
Key Sectors of Youth Concern
The Policy recognizes the following areas as the key sectors of concern for the youth:
Education;
Training and Employment;
Health and Family welfare;
Preservation of Environment, Ecology and Wild life;
Recreation and Sports;
Arts and Culture; 33
Science and Technology; and
Civics and good Citizenship.
Gender Justice
The Policy recognizes the prevailing gender bias to be the main factor responsible for the poor status of health and economic well-being of women in our society and that any discrimination on grounds of sex violates the basic rights of the individual concerned and it, therefore, stands for the elimination of gender discrimination in every sphere. The Policy enunciates that:
a) Every girl child and young woman will have access to education and
would also be a primary target of efforts to spread literacy.
b) Women will have access to adequate health services (including
reproductive health programmes) and will have full say in defining the
size of the family.
c) Domestic violence will be viewed not only as violation of women‟s
freedom but also as that of human rights.
d) All necessary steps should be taken for women‟s access to decision-
making process, to professional positions and to productive resources
and economic opportunities.
e) Young men, particularly the male adolescents shall be properly
oriented, through education and counseling to respect the status and
rights of women. 34
Aim of the Study
The study proposes to analyse the impact of mass media on college youth in Tamil Nadu especially in Tiruchirappalli district. It is aimed at identifying the significant factors influencing the impact of mass media on college youth. The purpose of this study is also to suggest suitable measures for improving the quality of life of the youth at large through mass media.
Objectives of the Study
The following objectives have been framed in order to proceed with the investigation.
1. To study the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the
student respondents such as age, gender, religion, type and size of
family and the type of community (rural or urban).
2. To study the annual income distribution of the households of the
respondents and the distribution of the educational expenditure of the
respondents.
3. To evaluate the role of mass media in facilitating employment
opportunities for the educated youth and the extent of career guidance
provided by the mass media to the educated youth.
4. To assess the contribution of the mass media advertisements in
enhancing the economic development of the people. 35
5. To study the impact of mass media on the college youth in acquiring
general knowledge and information about current affairs and in
improving their academic performance.
6. To study the impact of mass media on the college youth in shaping
their perceptions, character, behaviour and attitudes.
7. To suggest suitable measures for improving the quality of life of the
youth at large through mass media.
Hypotheses
1. There is no association between the impact of mass media on
dimensions like behaviour and attitudes, personal and social life,
general perceptions and academic performance of the respondents
and the age, sex, educational qualification, mode of stay of the
respondents.
2. All the four dimensions: behaviour and attitudes; personal and social
life; academic performance and the general perceptions of the
respondents are not statistically significant.
3. There is no positive correlation between one dimension and the other
with respect to the impact of mass media. In other words the variables
are uncorrelated.
36
Methodology
The research design of the study is based on a multi-stage sampling:
The first stage is the random selection of the colleges offering post-
graduate courses in arts and science in Tiruchirappalli district.
Tiruchirappalli district has been selected as the study area because it
is the central district and socially, economically and culturally a pivotal
point of Tamil Nadu. Tiruchirappalli district has all the characteristic
features of the Tamil Nadu State as a whole.
The second stage is the random selection of post-graduate
co-educational institutions offering post-graduate programmes in arts
and science subjects.
The third stage is the selection of 6 such colleges. The fourth stage is
the random selection of 50 students from arts and another 50 students
from science subjects from each college.
Thus out of 22 arts and science colleges in Tiruchirappalli district as per 2001 census, 6 post-graduate co-educational colleges from both urban and semi-urban areas were selected. They are:
1) St. Joseph's College (Autonomous),
2) Jamal Mohammed College (Autonomous),
3) National College,
4) Kurinji College of Arts and Science, 37
5) Urumu Dhanalakshmi College and
6) Srimad Andavar Arts and Science College.
A total of 600 respondent students were chosen for the purpose of primary data collection.
Primary Data Collection
Primary data were collected during the period 2008 through a survey method by administering an interview schedule to each respondent. A pilot study was undertaken to test the schedule and to verity the concepts which were adopted in the study. As the study attempts to examine the considered opinions of the respondents on the impact of mass media on college youth, a diagnostic research design has been adopted.
In order to examine the significance of association between selected variables, Likert measurement rating scale has been employed. A set of factors (statements) was given on a particular dimension and each respondent was asked to indicate his / her agreement, disagreement or indecision for all factors on the instrument of a five point scale. Thus the relative intensities of different factors on each dimension were determined.
The four dimensions chosen for the study are:
1. Impact of mass media on the behaviour and attitudes of the
respondents,
2. Impact of mass media on the personal and social life of the
respondents, 38
3. Impact of mass media on the academic performance of the
respondents, and
4. Impact of mass media on the general perceptions of the respondents.
Statistical Tools
Statistical tools such as ANOVA, correlation analysis, chi-square test, multiple regression analysis, factor analysis, Kruskal Wallis test etc. were employed to analyse the primary data and to arrive at valid conclusions.
Period of the Study
Primary data were collected during the period 2008. They were classified, tabulated and discussed.
Limitations
A major limitation of the study is that it is restricted to the post- graduate students doing arts and science programmes in 6 colleges in
Tiruchirappalli district only. Hence, the results may not pertain to under- graduate students. Further the study is restricted to Tiruchirappalli district only. Also the period of the study is only one year.
Plan of Study
The dissertation consists of the following five chapters:
Chapter-I deals with introduction, objectives and hypotheses, the
methodology of data collection, purpose of the study, period of the
study and limitations of the study. 39
Chapter-II includes review of literature and explains the related
concepts.
Chapter-III describes the study area namely Tiruchirappalli district and
the profiles of the six colleges chosen for the study.
Chapter-IV deals with analysis and interpretation of results.
Chapter-V summarises the major findings and conclusions of the study
and provides certain suggestions.
______CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE . .
Media and Economic Development
Mass media and economic development are interrelated aspects. In
the post-globalization period, media played a key role in promoting
sustainable development. Uma Narula has rightly pointed that investment in
IT can play critical role in the economic growth and productivity. 1
Further it is interesting to observe that use of information and
communication technology (ICT) has not only enriched mass media but
also it has strengthened allied professions like public relations. It is true
that information technology plays a key role in economic development with
incessant global investment and business management efficiency.
Media Planning and Marketing
Media planning is a new and growing trend in the development of
Business. Public relation without such planning image of company cannot
be built. It has been observed that the media planning function does not
operate in a vacuum. The media plan is one of many components of the
overall communication as well as marketing plan as such it intricacy without
1 Uma Narula (2002), Mass Communication Technology: New Perspective, Harassment, Anand Publication, New Delhi, pp. 30-33. 41
other elements of the total plan.2 In view of this, the following trends have emerged on the basis of content analysis of publicity material produced by major public relations:
1. Newspapers are giving adequate space for computers and information
technology.
2. The public relation material is transferred through web page and it has
become easier for publication.
3. The public relations are using the institutional website for linking the
customers.
4. Interactive websites are becoming more phenomenal.
5. The IT services and e-mail facility are helping to bring business closer
and it has improved connectivity.3
About benefits of internet for the public relations professional it has been observed that knowledge and facility of the internet is no longer an option for public relations professional. It is a necessity, which is cheap, impressive, effective and now massively available. 4 The emergence of the internet and World Wide Web has radically intensified the spread of communication even further.
2 Divakar Sharma (2004), Mass Communication Theory and Practice in the 21st Century, Deep & Deep Publication, New Delhi, p. 40. 3 Mohan Ninawe (2007), „Media and Development: Evolution of PR in Maharashtra‟, Southern Economist, December, p.39. 4 Divakar Sharma, op. cit., p. 248. 42
Youth Unemployment
Table 2.1 provides information about youth unemployment rate.
It may be noted that youth unemployment rate was of the order of 12.1 per cent for India; 15.5 per cent for urban areas and 11.0 per cent for rural areas in 1999-2000.
It may be worth recording that youth unemployment rate was higher in 1999-2000 as against that of 1993-94, which again reinforces the conclusion that the policies of liberalization failed to tackle the problem of youth unemployment. The youth unemployment rate in the urban areas was
15.5 per cent in 1999-2000 as against 15.0 per cent in 1993-94, but unfortunately the youth unemployment rate in the rural areas showed a significant increase from 8.6 per cent to 11.0 per cent during 1993-94 and
1999-2000. This only underlines the stark reality that the situation of rural youth unemployment worsened during the reform period. Since 15-29 age group accounts for new entrants to the labour force, this only signifies the failure of the reform process to create enough jobs to absorb the new entrants.
43
Table - 2.1 Unemployment Rates by Age-Group (1999-2000) (as per cent of labour force)
Unemployment Rate Age Group Rural Urban Combined 15-19 13.3 19.0 14.4 20-24 11.8 18.7 13.5 25-29 8.7 10.9 9.2 30-34 6.1 4.9 5.8 35-39 5.0 3.7 4.6 40-44 4.8 2.7 4.2 45-49 4.6 2.4 3.9 50-54 4.5 2.1 3.9 55-59 4.6 2.0 4.0 60 plus 3.5 3.8 3.5
Source: NSSO 50th (1993-94) and 55th (1999-2000) Round Surveys
The Employment Scenario
Persons in the age-group of 15 to 29 years are included in the category of „youth‟. Many of them acquire some level of education and start searching for employment. Some of them remain unemployed, some are chronically unemployed, and some become unemployed at regular intervals. When young persons cannot get jobs to live a purposeful and dignified life their dreams are shattered; initially they feel frustrated; gradually they become bitter. Their efficiency and ethics deteriorate. Youth unemployment is thus an ominous portent for the country.
44
Table - 2.2 Male Unemployment Rate (General and Youth) Rural and Urban
Unemployment Rate* Year Rural Urban General Youth General Youth 1987-1988 46 – 88 – 1993-1994 56 90 67 137 1999-2000 72 111 73 147
* Unemployment Rate = No. of persons unemployment per thousand persons in the labour force. Source: NSS 55th Round. Report No.458 (1999-2000).
The unemployment rates of males both in rural and urban areas have been studied by the National Sample Survey and the results are briefly given in Table 2.2. The general unemployment rate increased from 4.6 per cent in 1987-88 to 5.6 per cent in 1993-94 to 7.2 per cent in 1999-2000 in rural India. The urban unemployment rate declined from 8.8 per cent in
1987-88 to 6.7 per cent in 1993-94 but has again started rising reaching 7.3 per cent in 1999-2000. The youth unemployment is really alarming; it is far in excess of general unemployment rate. In rural areas, the youth unemployment rate was 9 per cent in 1993-94 (against 5.6 per cent in the general rate) and much higher in 1999-2000 (11.1 per cent against 7.2 per cent in the general rate). Youth unemployment rates in urban areas far exceed rural youth unemployment rates and general urban unemployment rates. In 1993-94, the urban youth unemployment rate was 13.7 per cent
(more than double the general unemployment rate of 6.7 per cent). Youth 45
unemployment rate continued to increase during the reform period reaching
14.7 per cent in 1999-2000 (more than double the general unemployment rate of 7.3 percent).5
Media, Democracy and Development
Mass media is known as the Fourth Estate. It is true that the media plays the magic multiplier role in the process of development. The communication media accelerates the process of development by involving, persuading and transforming people. According to Amartya Sen, the absence of a free press and the suppression of people's freedom to communicate with each other have the effect of directly reducing the quality of life.6 Media is indispensable to democratic governance and its positive contributions cannot be denied. The role of the media in strengthening the demand side of the Right to Information (RTI) regime in India has received considerable attention. For instance, NDTV, in partnership with leading civil society organisations, had launched a nation-wide campaign on the RTI that sought to build public awareness on RTI and wherein people were being encouraged not to pay bribes, but to use the RTI Act to solve their problems.7
5 Ruddar Datt (2001), „Economic Liberation and Its Implications for Employment in India‟, Proceedings of the IEA 84th Conference, Vellore, pp. 461-489. 6 N. Sharma and J. Ambagudia (2002), „Reflections on Media and Development: The Case of India, Strengthening Democracy for an Equitable and Just Society‟, Social Action, A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 57: 361-362. 7 Ibid., p. 3. 46
Media can act as both a perpetrator and as a protagonist - it can either be an accomplice to gender-based discrimination by portraying stereotypical sensational images of women or it can provide balanced coverage that empowers women while exposing acts of gender bias.
Modern politics is largely a mediated politics and the media has become important in political life and politics in contemporary democracy. 8
Media can shape power and participation in society by promoting the involvement of people in those decisions. Media occupy a contested space in democracy. Democracy implies participative governance, and it is the media that informs the people about the various problems of the society, which makes those wielding power on their behalf answerable to them. It is a useful democratic resource. The press plays a vital role in the effective working of a parliamentary democracy.
Media educates people on the functioning of the democratic setup and the policies and programmes of the government. There is a tendency of blaming the press for providing less space for different schemes and programmes that the government is running for the common masses.
Therefore, it is widely recommended that the media should educate and make aware the common masses of the existing schemes aimed at improving human welfare. The systematic embezzlement of funds meant for the people is largely due to lack of awareness among the people. The
8 Keane, J. (1991), Media and Democracy, Cambridge: Polity Press, p. 7. 47
chance of reducing corruption in the implementation of different government development projects and schemes for the poor masses is high when the people are more informed.9
Media Helps Build Tolerant Society
India is known for its pluralistic culture. We cannot have democracy without secularism. The role of the media in the world's largest democracy and most ethnically divided society like India is necessary to sustain its mosaic cultural heritage. Communalism is a big challenge in India. There are systematic efforts by some right wing political parties and their affiliates to bring about a homogenized society, ignoring the country's pluralistic diversity. It is in this context, the media needs to refrain from clichéd stereotyping of minorities. It is true that the media in the past had shown antipathy to such forces. It can help build a society based on communal harmony. Under no circumstances should media become an instrument for the instigation or continuation of violence. The Indian media is politically and ideologically divided. One group of media supports secularism and other supports the right wing.10
Media also needs to be gender sensitive. The press should be prolific and committed in analyzing social, economic and political developments in a gender perspective. Issues like crime against women, pre-birth selection,
9 Sita Ram Kumbhar, op. cit., pp. 355-356. 10 Ibid., p. 353. 48
domestic violence and promoting daughter's education need in-depth coverage.
The dumbing down of news and the obsession with celebrities and rituals are common to Indian media. But burning issues like the suicide of farmers receive much less attention. What is often noted is the importance of the media in developing and enforcing a code of ethical conduct. The seven principles of conduct enumerated by the Lord Nolan Committee (on standards in public life) in England are necessary for media to occupy the so-called 'fourth estate' in the true sense. These principles were selflessness, integrity, objectivity, accountability, transparency, honesty and leadership. The media needs to be a 'problem solver' than a 'problem maker'.
Violence in Media
It is known that a scene of violence catches the attention instantaneously and in this age of racing to make quick bucks whatever has instant return value, sells. In other words, violence sells. Pictures of a brawl, bashing of the people, rioting scenes, verbal abuse, humiliating of a human being are what Bollywood cinema exults in. Television channels, the news stories, plays, advertisements, etc. are replete with scenes of violence. Besides these, there are distorted pictures of human faces and bodies, monsters, witches, ghoulish scenes, which aim at raising fear, dread and unhealthy, supernatural ideas especially in children. The 49
Constitution of India speaks of instilling and spreading a scientific temper
(Article 51A (h) of the Constitution of India dealing with Fundamental Duties of the Indian citizens). The producers of horror shows and crime reporting stories, are in a perpetual race to outdo each other, when it comes to airing scenes depicting eerie supernatural occurrences, blatantly and explicitly violent actions. The background music is as jarring and harsh as the action; all efforts are made with technology inputs to dramatise the effect. The concoction of gory action and music and picturisation are having a long- term damage on the minds and nerve of all the viewers including children. 11
Media Helping to Create a Violent Society
We are aware that in India children hang around in the adult world sharing space with their parents in the bedrooms and TV rooms.
Consequently a lot of muck, violence, cruelty and inhuman behaviour sink deep down in their system manifesting itself in a society, highly aggressive and immune to violence. A child grown on a daily dose of violence cannot be expected to be compassionate, humane and sensitive to suffering and pain of others. It has learnt the lesson that "might is right": who can get away with what and against whom. Police violence and state violence have an adverse impact on the psyche of the nation. Dehumanising a police force is not healthy. There are innumerable incidents of policemen
11 Ibid., pp. 345-346. 50
committing suicide.12 Major urgent interventions on the part of society, educationists and state agencies are required to channelize the energies of the age. Media must be closely watched, to air more of the arts and music, a generation will have to be cultured to discriminate the true from the fake.
As well informed, mature citizenry will set high standards of governance for the state and society. Transparency, good governance, institutional sanctity and social values can all be attained by taming the behaviour of the media.13
Indian press is seen to function according to Edmund Burke's idea of
'the Fourth Estate' except for a brief period of emergency when the press was censored. The role played by Indian media is very appreciative right from the anti-colonial struggle for independence to the current conjuncture.
Media freedom is an important aspect of public law and an essential element of democracy.14
The mass media has multifarious functions in a democratic state.
Media, democracy and development are interconnected. The role of the media in governing changing societies is not a new phenomenon. Mass media helps to achieve some of the substantive values of democracy.
12 Ibid., p. 346. 13 Ibid., p. 347. 14 Sita Ram Kumbhar (2007), „Media, Democracy and Development in India‟, Social Action, A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 57: 349. 51
There were both opposition and support. The opposition camp argued that liberalization of the media would amount to legitimization of
'cultural imperialism'. It might pose a threat to national sovereignty as India is facing the problem of internal security.
Private participation in the electronic media was almost absent till the
1990s. In the post 1990s there was an increase in the growth of private TV channels and cable TVs and the growth rate is put at 5.6 per cent per annum. This monopoly can be said to be an abuse of media freedom in the name of national interests, i.e., subject to public morality, security and integrity of media. Media is more than the news and it includes entertainment also. Media is an important part of civil society. 15
Mass Media Communication
Mass media gives the greatest importance to the feedback through the reviews. Every newspaper and magazine have review column written by a media critic. In these columns, the media critics examine the mass communication of radio and television. 16
Katz recommends the approach to explaining the influence of mass communication in preference to what he considers to have been the two dominant modes of explanation in the past. One of those he describes as
15 Sita Ram Kumbhar, op. cit., p. 351. 16 R. K. Ravindran (1999), Handbook of Mass Media, Anamal Publications, New Delhi, p. 34. 52
based on an „irrational model of man‟ which represents people as a prey to any form of powerful suggestion. Another is based on a „rational‟ model in which people are viewed as using a calculated and logical approach to new information. Both he regards as unrealistic and less likely to account for any change of attitude than his suggested functional approach. 17
The view given by Cohen is that the mass media provides a major source of knowledge in a segregated society of what the consensus actually is and what the nature of deviation is. In this view the media are responsible for promoting „moral panics‟, identifying scapegoats, and acting as a guide to social control. The terms „amplification‟, „sensitisation‟ and
„polarisation‟ have been used to describe the tendency of the media to exaggerate the incidence of a phenomenon, to increase the likelihood of it being noticed and to mobilize society against a supposed threat. 18
Steiner (1963) in his famous study, „The people look at Television‟ made a national survey of 2427 television viewers in USA to find out what the phenomenon of television means to American people. The findings of the study showed that the American people look at the television mainly as a medium of entertainment. For detailed and serious news,
17 Katz (1960), Mass Media and Information Technology, Mangal Deep Publication, Jaipur, pp. 112-113. 18 Cohen (1973), Mass Media and Information Technology, Mangal Deep Publication, Jaipur, p. 121. 53
the study revealed that the American people turned to radio and newspapers.19
Schramm (1973) made a comparative study of popularity of newspapers and television in American society. The author in his study found out that the television has not been successful in displacing newspaper reading because the television did not make the detailed news coverage.20
Sheley and Ashkins (1981) made a study on the ways in which the different media such as television and newspapers on the one hand, and the police, on the other, present the public images of crime trends in the
USA. The findings suggest that the newspaper presentation of the relative distribution of crime approximated to the police figures more closely than the one presented by the television. 21
Everett M. Rogers a well known sociologist and communication scholar says that new ideas diffuse into a community through mass media and interpersonal communication. He says that new ideas spread into a community slowly and this follows a four step process. In his social
19 Steiner (1963), Communication and Development (Issues and Perspectives), Rawat Publications, New Delhi, pp. 180-181. 20 Schramm (1973), Communication and Development (Issues and Perspectives), Rawat Publications, New Delhi, p. 181. 21 Sheley and Ashkins (1981), Communication and Development, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, pp. 182-183. 54
diffusion theory, Rogers postulates that a series of steps are adopted by people in the process of trying out new ideas. 22 These are:
i) Knowledge, the stage in which an individual gains awareness,
ii) Persuasion, the stage in which the individual gets persuaded about the
new ideas,
iii) Decision, the stage in which a decision to adopt or not to adopt is
taken, and
iv) Confirmation, the step in which confirmation of earlier decision is
taken.
Wilbur Schramm (1964) argued that the modernization of industrial and agricultural sectors in developing nations required the mobilization of human resources. Education and mass media, then, were vested with crucial responsibility in the process of mobilization of human resources. 23
Brown (1978) made a study of the functions of television in comparison to other mass media. The findings of the study indicated that the people used print media for information and television for both entertainment and news information.24
22 Everett M. Rogers (2006), Issues in Mass Communication, Vol. I, Kanishka Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, p. 56. 23 Wilbur Schramm (1964), Communication for Development in the Third World, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p. 117. 24 Brown (1978), Communication and Development (Issues and Perspectives), Rawat Publications, Jaipur, New Delhi, p. 182. 55
Hoffsteller (1978) used the national survey of the exposure on viewers‟ perception about the candidates imagery, personality, issue position and political information. The findings of the study in the first instance suggested that the exposure of television did produce the increase in the imagery and perception of the television viewers. Secondly, the author found that the television news were associated with less political information as compared to the printed media as well as the radio. 25
Rogers‟ survey (1969) of peasants in Colombia, India, Kenya and
Brazil showed the role of mass media as an intervening variable between functional literacy and various measures of modernization such as empathy, agricultural innovativeness, political knowledge and educational aspirations for children.26
Klapper (1960) suggested that the mass media were more serious agents of reinforcement than causal agents of behavioural or attitudinal change in individuals. The demographic categories to which people belonged, their individual characteristics, and their social relationships had a far greater influence than the combined mass media. 27
25 Hoffsteller (1978), Communication and Development (Issues and Perspectives), Rawat Publications, Jaipur, New Delhi, p. 181. 26 Rogers (1966), Communication for Development in the Third World, Sage Publications, New Delhi, pp. 118-119. 27 Klapper (1960), Communication for Development in the Third World, Sage Publications, New Delhi, pp. 110. 56
Diaz-Bordenave (1977) noted that the findings of the minimal effects research aside, mass media were increasingly used for short-term information delivery, persuasion and change. Particularly during the Cold
War of the 1950s, mass media were used as propaganda tools for the
United States in foreign countries. In the third world countries diverse fields such as agricultural extension and health education began using mass media for the transmission of information and for persuasion. 28
Mass Media Reach
The owners and producers of the mass media conceive the total population whom their communications can reach. The signals of All India
Radio are available to about 95 per cent of the population living in about 85 per cent of country‟s area. So the total population of India may be treated as audience for All India Radio. Similarly, Doordarshan can claim more than 80 per cent of the population as its audience because its signals can reach many people. For newspapers, the readers would be defined in terms of all individuals who are within the distribution range of the papers. For a cable TV system the audience reach will include all residents within the wired area.29
28 Diaz-Bordenave (1977), Communication for Development in the Third World, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 112. 29 R. K. Ravindran (1999), Handbook of Mass Media, Anamol Publications, New Delhi, pp. 25-26. 57
Media Exposure
According to Ravindran, everyone who has access to radio or television does not necessarily use them. In a family that subscribes to a actually expose themselves to the media audiences. Again, no one is exposed to the total content of any medium. No one listens to all the programmes broadcast by All India Radio. Similarly, it is impossible to watch all the programmes of Doordarshan. Many people do not even glance at the commerce page of the newspaper. There are many young people, specially students, who read only the sports page. So the users can also be seen as programme specific or content specific, that is the population is actually exposed to specific media contents. Another important aspect of media behaviour is that all users of media content are not uniformly exposed. There are people who listen to news everyday without fail. Others may listen to news; say on an average of five days a week. Still others may be people whose exposure to news or radio is nil. 30
Indian newspapers have shown an upward trend in sales, increasing by 7 per cent in 2005 over the previous year and 33 per cent over the last 5 years. It is heartening to note that newspaper circulation worldwide has risen slightly in 2005; newspaper advertising revenue has shown the largest growth in four years as per the World Association of Newspapers
30 Ibid., pp. 26-27. 58
(WAN) (Newswatch). Most of the growth has been registered in Asia.31 On close scrutiny one finds that the media today is centred in the market.
Corporate houses run media like any other business. There is consolidation, control and regulation of a kind very different from the control exercised by the State. Any restriction on freedom by the state is with the objective of public interest. Controls exercised by the media are more subtle, sometimes direct but always with the perspective of a long term impact and additional revenue.
Media Ownership in India
The issue of ownership of the media is acquiring serious attention of the people. The concentration of ownership of media in a few hands is by far more significant debatable issue than ownership itself. Among others, the following two arguments merit attention. Ownership of the news media can lead to distortion and manipulation of news. Secondly, media informs, educates and entertains people. Therefore, exposure and influence of the media are very significant. The media houses in India are owned by both politicians and some corporate houses. The corporate ownership of the media is beyond doubt. We come across two serious debates about the ownership in India today. Most of the media houses, especially the press, are under the direct control of different political parties and political leaders. The second important aspect is that the representation of the
31 Vidushi (2007), „Media Regulation: Strengthening Democracy for an Equitable and Just Society‟, Social Action, A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 57: 338. 59
weaker sections in the media ownership and at the position of taking independent decision is almost negligent. 32
The Media Corporation is Too Powerful to be Left on its own
Robert McChesney has argued in his book Rich Media Poor
Democracy that the major beneficiaries of the information age are wealthy investors, advertisers and a handful of enormous media tycoons, telecom and computer corporations. This concentrated corporal control is disastrous for any nation of participatory democracy.That the market compels the media firms to "give to the people what they want" is an argument of the votaries of the market. If we value our democracy, we must organize politically and restructure the media in order to affirm their connection to democracy. A trend visible in India is that the strings holding a particular mass media, be it the newspapers, radio, television, cinema, internet, are the corporate bigwigs and a few members of Parliament. The same corporate heads, the owners of the biggest advertising agency, cinema production laboratory and other communication systems are done the mantle of Parliamentarians. All the media is fed on advertising revenue – the appetite seems limitless.33
32 Ibid., p. 352. 33 Vidushi, op. cit., p. 340. 60
Women in Media
Women's reform movements of the media are no longer centred on the portrayal of women in cultural products, including advertising, though that issue is still important and unresolved. Likewise, the recruitment of women to the media, their rights and promotions to managerial positions are no longer the panacea of the struggle. It is rather the qualitative difference, which women can make to the community environment as a whole which are now at the core of the debate.34
The Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications
Commission (CRTC) as an independent body regulates gender content in broadcasting affecting two main areas: On-air portrayal of gender and since
September 1992, employment equity.
Attack on Media
The confrontation between the media and politicians is not new.
Media is often used against each other in most of the states in India. In
Andhra Pradesh, the confrontation between the Chief Minister and Ramoji
Rao, who owns Enenadu, is one example of suppression of press freedom.
Eenadu has been running exposes on the Chief Minister's property assets.
The financier of Eenadu is being harassed by the state government through the voluminous record seizure, raids on premises by the government
34 Ibid., p. 344. 61
officials with retaliation in mind.35 The media can occupy the status of the
'fourth estate' if it is run to serve the society more than to earn profit.
Newspapers are still very much alive in the daily battle for survival in this fast changing world. The press perform in its own way on the functioning, checking and controlling abuse of public power. Television is more important for the public mass, especially for illiterate viewers. Media can protect the democratic rights of the people and ensure accountability of all individuals and institutions in exercising public power and expending public resources. The media as an institution of the civil society is performing its duties very well in India. There are limitations on the part of the media too.
The press cannot reach the poor and illiterate people. India has a large illiterate population which cannot benefit from the press directly.
Mass Media and the Law
The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 provides for the regulation of representation of women in the media. It prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisements, books, writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner. Section 4 prohibits the production, sale, hire, distribution, circulation, sending by post any book, pamphlet, slide, film, writing, drawing, painting etc. which contains indecent representation of women in any form. Since media is considered as the
35 Ibid., p. 356. 62
fourth estate, its function is to act as a guardian of the public interest and as a watchdog.36
Around 7 p.m. on 31st July 2007, unidentified youths delivered a gift- wrapped Nokia mobile handset package for the editor of The Sangai
Express, the largest selling English daily in Manipur. The non-suspecting staff took it to the editor's table, little knowing that nestled inside the package was a rocket propelled grenade. All media houses in Imphal shut down and media persons congregated to sit on a dharna demanding an apology and assurance of non-interference (by the underground group) in the functioning of the media. The Manipur government responded with strictures on the media regarding news related to unlawful organisations. 37
Pressure on the media from both state and non-state forces is not a new phenomenon in Manipur especially due to the long-standing armed separatist insurgency. For the media this meant more than its work of disseminating information and opinions - however conflicting - has been transformed into a tight-rope walk between the devil and the deep sea.
Making the job more hazardous is the presence of too many lines to toe, each line coming with the threat to life, limb, ideology and most importantly,
36 Ibid., p. 379. 37 Anjulika Thingnam (2004), „Reflections on Media and Development: The Case of India, Strengthening Democracy for an Equitable and Just Society‟, Social Action, A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 57: 382. 63
the freedom of the press - the fourth pillar or the fourth estate on which rests the basic foundation of democracy.
Interestingly, the first resistance movement in the state was a
Communist movement led by Hijam Irabot in the 1930s demanding, among other things, the British to quit Manipur, abolition of the Manipur State darbar and establishing an elected government (Life and Works of
Jananeta Irabat Singh, L Damodar Singh, Ningshing Chephong, 1996).
Another significant point is that on the 14th August 1947, the Naga people through the Naga National Council (NNC) declared their independence from
British rule, one day before India declared her Independence. These insurrections took an upsurge in the late 1970s, and escalated in the next decades ushering in an era of armed conflict between the insurgent groups and the forces of the state.38
Regarding news agencies, there are correspondents for the United
News of India (UNI), Press Information Bureau (PIB), Press Trust of India
(PTI) and Reuters. A local news agency Newmai News Network (NNN) was also established in 2002. Besides, there are a number of correspondents and stringers for various national and international news agencies, newspapers, magazines and electronic media houses like the Hindustan
38 Ibid., pp. 383-384. 64
Times, The Statesman, The Telegraph, The Times of India, North East Sun,
Aaj Tak, NDTV, CCN IBN and the Assam Tribune.39
In the fifth annual press freedom report for South Asia, “The Fight
Goes on: Press Freedom Crises in South Asia (2006-07)”, the International
Federation of Journalists (IFJ) identifies five key needs to be addressed:
1. Journalists must be trained to monitor violations of press freedom and
journalists' rights.
2. Systems should be set up to communicate.
3. Highlight such violations through alerts.
4. Journalists in conflict areas must be provided with safety training and
professional skill development.
5. There should be training in union/association building skills, to help
media workers present a stronger, united front and assert their rights
to report objectively, free from pressure and harassment.
It is not only by addressing these five needs, but also by creating better law and order situation as well as a respect for the freedom of the press which could help alleviate the situation in Manipur. Until then, media in the state would continue to be gagged and threatened.40
The dynamics of development in a modern world is based on effective public relations. Public relation is the art of managing people and
39 Ibid., p. 386. 40 Ibid., pp. 395-396. 65
resources. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) acts as a catalyst, to improve public relation through knowledge management system.
Half-hearted Attempts at Self-regulation
The Press Council of India (PCI) was set up through an Act of the
Parliament in 1978 as an autonomous body. It speaks of a code of conduct in Section 13(1(b), journalistic ethics, and Power of Censure in 14(1).
Perhaps the PCI cannot extend its power to the electronic media, but the print media has much to answer for. The Advertising Standards Council of
India (ASCI) came into existence around 1985, in keeping with the practice followed in 50 countries around the world. It set up a code for self- regulation, laid down that all advertising should be truthful, honest, decent and legal, safe for consumers especially minors and fair to competition. 41
In 1995, the Cable Television Network Act was brought to streamline and regulate cable business. Guidelines like those for uplinking television channels, Direct to Home (DTH) and FM Radio are no good. Media cannot consolidate and invigorate the processes of democracy, unless it evolves and matures to know how to be responsible at handling power, how to differentiate between a public service provider and a business venture. 42
41 www.ascionline.org 42 Vidushi, op. cit., pp.342-343. 66
Television
Television emerges as one of the best performing media. The medium clocked an impressive 17 per cent growth at Rs.8319 crore, and emerged as one of the best performing media platforms in 2008. The growth has been more visible in its ability to create or generate income. In absolute terms also, its contribution rose from Rs.7110 crore to reach
Rs.8319 crore in the year gone-by. Riding on the growth momentum, the medium continued to sustain its share in the advertising pie at 40.2 per cent.43
The Idiot Box Turns into Magic Box
Cable and satellite television have grown rapidly throughout the developing world. Of all the popular means of mass media, television has the greatest mass appeal and acceptance. With the advent of satellite television in 1991, the idiot box of 1980s turned into a whole new magical world, comprising of innumerable and a wide variety of satellite channels.
Television creates a world which seems very real and viewers are unable to differentiate between the contrived world and the real one. The impact of television is more on the young children and adolescents, who sit
43 Deepti Aggarwal (2009), „Reinvention Rules‟, (Pitch-Madison Media Advertising) Outlook, pp. 30-32. 67
in front of the television, and for hours, the succession of pictures becomes imprinted on minds that are still impressionable.44
Television Serials
Television serials have undergone a huge transformation in the last decade and a half. Serials have moved a great deal in portraying strong women. Here again 'modernity' or 'westernization' as it is commonly called, is co-related and confused with debasement of morals and ideals. 45
Another feature commonly portrayed is the unrealistic 'superwoman': the super wife, the super daughter-in-law and the super mother. This
'superwoman' has multifarious qualities - loyalty, compassion and devotion
- her domain is her home and her family justifies her very existence. Her greatness lies in the obliteration of her individuality and self-worth; she is more of an ideal, a superlative rather than a personality. In the role of a mother she sacrifices her happiness for her children and family, she is the panacea for all ills that might plague the family. 46
Television Advertisements
Advertisements are yet another prominent and integral part of television viewing. Due to its power and charisma, advertising is the best known and most widely discussed form of promotion. Advertising not only
44 Meenu Anand (2004), „Reflections on Media and Development: The Case of India, Strengthening Democracy for an Equitable and Just Society‟, Social Action, A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 57: 368. 45 Ibid., p. 370 46 Ibid., p. 371. 68
informs but persuades and motivates the consumer about the advertised products, services or ideas. Advertising plays an important role in persuading the public to change their attitudes towards a product, service or idea.47
News Channels
It is said that Indian viewers now spend more time on watching news than reading news. As TV news channels in India compete with each other for more viewership, more and more sensational types of news programmes are being created vying for public attention and ultimately to improve their television rating points.48
Bollywood Fixation
Gender and related issues are totally ignored by the news channels that often depend on Bollywood stars for their survival. Most news channels sensationalize news related to celebrities such as Bachchan family's numerous visits to temples, covering wedding arrangements of actors like
Liz Hurley-Arun Nayar, Abhishek-Aishwarya, Raveena Tandon and Karisma
Kapoor. News channels tirelessly present for hours news related to Shah
Rukh Khan, Shilpa Shetty and others in order to woo their viewers and improve their rating. Recently Sanjay Dutt dominated all news channels after getting convicted for his long pending TADA case. All news channels
47 Ibid., p. 373. 48 Ibid., p. 375. 69
for days covered this news, interviewing Dutt's family, his colleagues and asking viewers for sending mobile messages. The programme anchors spoke nonstop and at great length about the jail food, living conditions, his transfer to another jail and so on. The private life of Sanjay Dutt was associated with Gandhigri which is probably the reason for sympathy from the masses Dutt has received, particularly from the youth. 49
Music Videos
There is yet another side to television, which is the trend of the music videos to promote music albums.50
Children's Programmes
There has been a tremendous increase in the number of channels for the little ones. An analysis of programmes that are aired for children shows that in general on TV, boys tend to be shown as active, aggressive, rational and discontented. Boys tend to engage in traditional male activities such as sports, travel and causing trouble. Girls are often shown talking on the phone, playing with dolls, reading and helping in the housework. Children's channels like Pogo, Cartoon Network, Nick, Jetix, Hungama TV all thrive on shows of bravery and the Icons are mostly males – Spiderman, Batman,
Ultraman, Perman, Power Rangers etc.
49 Ibid., p. 376. 50 Ibid., p. 377. 70
Sports Channels
Sports channels are primarily devoted to men and the games they play. Cricket and tennis dominate. Sport on television is dominated by men and tends to inculcate masculine values. Sports programmes define men in relation to competition, strength and discipline. 51
Radio
With close to 270 stations spread across the top 75 cities, the private
FM radio industry has come of age in the country. In every sense, barring the profitability as the books of many a player confirm - but it‟s still long for a capital-intensive industry to be profitable from the start - be its reach
(radio reaches close to 90 per cent of the population where it is present) or its popularity or the rising preference of advertisers for this medium thanks to its ability for customization and cost benefit. This growth has been more visible in its ability to generate revenue. 52
Press
In today‟s fast changing scenario, press has emerged as a vital tool for information dissemination and image building of the organisations. In fact, press is a friend, philosopher and guide for public relations, says
Sardana, who retired as General Manager (corporate public relations) in
51 Ibid., p. 378. 52 K. J. Bennychan (2009), „Singing Louder!‟, (Pitch-Madison Media Advertising), Outlook, pp. 54-58. 71
1993 from Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. (BHEL). Press is, in fact, a friend, philosopher and guide for public relations. But, one can‟t and shouldn‟t take press for granted. One has to recognise and appreciate the role of the press as a watchdog. It is neither the PR department of an organisation nor the mouthpiece of an organisation. Nor can it be
„cultivated‟ through various allurements for writing all that is good in an organisation or for „killing‟ a factually correct but damaging news story. 53
_____
53 C. K. Sardana (2007), „Facts for You‟, Friend, Philosopher and Guide, 27(5): 41-43. CHAPTER - III
PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA
. .
General Features
Tiruchirappalli district with the impress of a long history is an ancient
pilgrim centre and has agrarian wealth and modern industry. It has played
an important role on the latest history of South India.
Tiruchirappalli is proud of its cosmopolitan population which is unique
for its unity in diversity. Tiruchirappalli is essentially a trade and agriculture
centre with urban comforts and rural bias. The landmarks boost of one
thousand years of history, glorifying the ancient Tamil Monarches. It has
links with mythology too. The District has great culture and historical
importance and plays a key role in the economy of the State of Tamil Nadu.
Physical Features
Tiruchirappalli known as the Rock City is the geographical centre of
Tamil Nadu. It lies 320 km to the south of Chennai and 128 km from
Madurai on the banks of the River Cauvery. A famous landmark is the Rock
Fort, which also houses Pallava sculptures in the Central temple of Rock
Fort. Several churches were built by Danish Missionaries. Also there are
splendid Muslim antiquities and mosques. It easily connects the other
important centres of the State and the country by road, rail and air. The 73
River Cauvery which traverses through the central portion, brings green to the district. Climate is tropical and Tamil is the local spoken language. The economy of the district is essentially agrarian in character. The setting up of Bharath Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) at Tiruverambur has provided a base for industrial expansion.
Tiruchirappalli district with an area of 11096 sq. km as per Census of
India 2001 is stretching between 10 and 11.30 of the northern latitude and
74.853 of the eastern longitude. Altitude is 78 m above sea level. The district is bounded by Namakkal and Perambalur districts on the north,
Thanjavur and Pudukkottai on the east, Sivagangai, Madurai and Dindigul districts on the south and Karur district on the west. It is not only an inland district without any coastal line but also most centrally located district in the
State. The district has no marked natural divisions. The Pachamalai hills are situated partly in Perambalur district and Thuraiyur taluk of the
Tiruchirappalli district and are the important hills in the district. The
Cauvery and Coleroon are the major rivers and there are other small rivers, like Naniyar, Ponnaniar, Pullambadi canal, Pudukkottai canal, Uyyakondan,
Iyyanvaikkal, Kattalai Vaikkal and Peruvalai Vaikkal, which contribute to the irrigation potential of the district. Innumerable streams and riverlets in the region provide drainage for the district.
74
Climate
Tiruchirappalli and Srirangam areas experience high temperature and low degree of humidity. The climate is hot and dry throughout the year. The summer months are quite hot and the difference between maximum and minimum temperature is only narrow. The variation in temperature from day to night is marginal and does not give any comfort from the sweating heat.
The climatic cycle can be divided into four seasons as:
Winter season : December to February
Summer season : March to June
Southwest monsoon : July to September
North-east monsoon : October to December
The annual mean maximum temperature is 32.7 C and the annual mean minimum temperature is 24 C. The highest temperature of 39.3 C occurs in the month of May and the lowest temperature of 16.7 C occurs in the month of February.
Rainfall
Tiruchirappalli district receives an average annual rainfall of 68 mm and the bulk of rainfall is received during the north-east monsoon period i.e. from October to December. On an average, the number of rainy days in a year ranges from 35 to 40. There are rains during summer period also 75
(March, April and May) but such occasions are rare, which generally occur due to the influence of southwest monsoon in June.
Demographic Features of Tiruchirappalli District
According to the Census of India 2001, the total population of
Tiruchirappalli district is 24,18,366 in which 12,08,534 are males and
12,09,832 are females. A sizeable population of Scheduled Castes live in
Tiruchirappalli district. In a total of 3,99,493 Scheduled Caste members,
1,97,917 are males and 2,01,576 are females as per the Census 2001.
Among a total of 18,912 Scheduled Tribe members, 9,596 are males and
9,316 are females. Thus 16.52% is the proportion of Scheduled Castes in the total population and 0.78% is the percentage of Scheduled Tribes in the total population. The density of population per sq. km is 542 as per 2001
Census.
Revenue Administration in Tiruchirappalli District
Tiruchirappalli district comprises of three revenue divisions, eight revenue taluks and 507 revenue villages. There are 14 community development blocks, 18 town panchayats, two municipalities and one city corporation. The Tiruchirappalli division includes Tiruchirappalli, Srirangam and Manapparai taluks; Lalgudi division comprises of Lalgudi and
Manachanallur taluks and Musiri division includes Musiri, Thottiam and
Thuraiyur taluks. The administrative set up of the district is shown in
Table 3.1 76
Table - 3.1
Administrative Set up of Tiruchirappalli District
Community Revenue Division Taluk Development Block Tiruchirappalli Tiruchirappalli Thiruvarambur Srirangam Andhanallur Manapparai Manikandam Manapparai Marungapuri Vaiyampatti Lalgudi Lalgudi Lalgudi Manachanallur Pullambadi Manachanallur Musiri Musiri Musiri Thottiam Thottiam Thuraiyur Thathiengarpet Thuraiyur Uppiliapuram
Tiruchirappalli City Corporation
Tiruchirappalli municipality was upgraded as a city corporation with effect from June 1, 1994 by merging certain muncipalities, town panchayats and village panchayats. The 74th amendment of the Indian Constitution aims at making the urban local bodies as vibrant local self government institutions. The 12th schedule in the Constitution has identified 18 important functions within the domain of urban local bodies.
Tiruchirappalli city corporation is spread over an area of 146.90 sq. km. The corporation is divided into 60 wards and they are grouped into 77
four major zones for administrative purpose. Tiruchirappalli city is the fourth largest city in Tamil Nadu. The population of the city was 6,69,452 in 1991 and it increased to 7,46,137 in 2001, registering a growth rate of 11.45% within a decade (1991-2001). The population density has also increased from 4,869 to 5,079 persons/sq. km between 1991 and 2001. The sex ratio of Tiruchirappalli city was 965 females per thousand males in 1991 which has increased to 1,001 females per 1,000 males in 2001. Tiruchirappalli city is an important educational centre and has recorded a literacy rate of
73% in 1991 in which 55% are males and 45% are females.
Educational Institutions in Tiruchirappalli District 1. Universities : 3 2. Arts and Science Colleges : 22 3. Colleges for Professional Education: a. Medicine: i. Allopathy : 1 ii. Pharmacy : 1 iii. Physiotherapy : 1 b. Engineering and Technology inclucding Polytechnics : 18 c. Agriculture : 1 d. Law : 1 4. Colleges for special education : 1 5. Schools for general education : 1537 6. Schools for professional education : 5 7. Industrial Training Institutes (ITI) : 1
78
Colleges Chosen for the Study
1. St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous)
St Joseph‟s College is an affiliated First Grade College of the
Bharathidasan University. It was established in 1844 by the Fathers of the
Society of Jesus (The Jesuits). It was affiliated to the then Madras
University in 1869. The College celebrated its centenary in 1944, sesquicentenary in 1995 and acquired the Five Star status awarded by the
National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC) in 2000. The
College is owned by the Society of St Joseph‟s College, a body registered under Societies Regulation Act (1860), having its office at Tiruchirappalli.
St Joseph‟s College is meant primarily for the Catholic minority community of the town and the State. The institution does admit other students, irrespective of their caste, creed and religion and the freedom of conscience is respected. The College imparts the sound formation
(religious, academic, social and physical) of the young, based on Christian principles. Every Catholic student therefore attends Religious classes and every non-Catholic student attends classes on Ethics, in which the man‟s fundamental duties to God, to his motherland, to self and to his fellowmen are explained. He/She also takes part in out-reach programmes organised by the College. This Jesuit College trains young men and women of quality to be leaders in all walks of life so that they may serve the people of their nation in truth, justice and love. 79
Accordingly, this College is an agent of social change, instilling an awareness of the great need in India for social justice based on the dignity of the human person. Thus, it strives to make its own contribution towards transformation of the present social condition, so that justice, equality and the moral values enshrined in the Constitution of India may prevail in the daily life of every citizen of India.
Goals and Objectives
To promote academic excellence in teaching and research;
To give diversity to the courses and patterns of university education
which will suit the talents and abilities of the students and bring out
the best in them, keeping in mind the needs of the society it seeks to
serve;
To encourage innovative programmes, specially in three areas:
(i) syllabus, (ii) methods of teaching, and (iii) evaluation;
To develop skills of communication and self-study;
To strive towards compassionate excellence by helping the socially
and academically disadvantaged sections with remedial and flexible
courses;
To arouse in the students a sense of social justice, responsibility,
compassion, sensitivity and concern for everybody especially through
participation at SHEPHERD Programme; and, 80
To inculcate in the students basic moral, social and spiritual values
necessary for building up character and developing personality
through courses in Ethics/Religion.
Table - 3.2 Courses Offered in St. Joseph’s College
Courses Subjects Major Disciplines Undergraduate Arts Business Administration Economics English History Tamil Commerce Science Chemistry Computer Applications (BCA) Computer Science Electronics Mathematics Physics Plant Biology & Plant Biotechnology Statistics & Informatics Postgraduate Arts Business Administration (MBA) Economics English History Human Resource Management Personnel Management & Industrial Relations Tamil Transport Management Commerce Science Biochemistry Biotechnology Chemistry Computer Science Electronics Information Technology Mathematics Physics Plant Biology & Plant Biotechnology Statistics & Informatics MCA Computer Applications 81
2. Jamal Mohamed College
Jamal Mohamed College is established in a sprawling land area of
87 acres (60 acres in the present location and 27 acres in Veerampatti village near Bharathidasan University) as a religious minority institution with the primary objective of providing higher education to the downtrodden and socially backward sections of the society in general and Muslim minority in particular. Janab. M. Jamal Mohamed Sahib and Janab.
N.M.Khajamian Rowther of revered memory were the founding fathers. In addition to Jamal Mohamed College (Autonomous), the Jamal Mohamed
College Society has established and is administering the following institutions:
i) Jamal Mohamed College Typewriting Institute (2007) approved by
Director Technical Education, Govt. of Tamil Nadu.
ii) Jamal Mohamed College of Teachers Education (2007) offering B.Ed.,
course approved by NCTE, Bangalore and affiliated to Bharathidasan
University, Tiruchirappalli.
iii) Jamal Mohamed Industrial Training Institute of Hotel Management
(2008) to be approved by Director, Employment & Training,
Government of Tamil Nadu.
iv) Jamal Mohamed College Ayesha Matriculation Girls Higher Secondary
School (2008) to be approved by the Director of School Education,
Government of Tamil Nadu. 82
Jamal Mohamed College was founded in 1951, as an affiliated college to the University of Madras and then affiliated to Bharathidasan
University, Tiruchirappalli, when it was formed in 1982. The College was inaugurated on 11th July 1951 by Hon.Thiru.P.S.Kumarasamy Raja, the then Chief Minister of Madras with His Excellency, the Maharaja of
Bhavanagar, the then Governor of Madras presiding over the function. Over the period of 5 decades, the college was able to scale greater and greater heights and rise to the present status as a multifaculty institution with 11
UG courses, 11 PG courses and 2 M.Phil. Programmes under Government
Aided stream and 5 U.G. courses, 8 P.G. courses, 11 M.Phil., and 11 Ph.D. programmes under self financing stream for men by promoting quality and excellence in higher education due to the sustained efforts and dedicated leadership given by the College Management Committee. The College offers 8 U.G. and 8 P.G. courses exclusively for women as part of women empowerment during the second shift of the College.
Special Programmes
During March 2008, the Academic Council approved the common CBCS
syllabus for all the courses under common Choice Based Credit System
as prepared and approved by the respective Boards of Studies for each
subject for implementation for a period of 3 years from 2008-2009
onwards with 140 credit for UG and 90 credit for PG. 83
Computerized Calligraphy Training Centre approved by National
Council for promotion of Urdu Language (Ministry of HRD, New Delhi) is
offering Diploma in Computer Applications and Multilingual DTP.
The Department of Commerce is accredited by CA Institute and ICWA
Institute for offering coaching in foundation courses in CA, ICWA and
Wings Accounting Packages.
Department of Economics is offering Typewriting and Shorthand
courses to the students. The centre is approved by the Department of
Technical Education as Typewriting Institute.
The Guidance and Counseling Centre is offering remedial education
and competitive coaching classes to educationally backward and
minority community students and SC/ST students.
The College, over the past fifty seven years, has grown into a multi-
faculty institution offering diverse undergraduate and postgraduate
courses of study, especially in frontier areas like Computer Science,
Information Technology, Bio-Technology, Microbiology and Business
Management.
Many of the past students now occupy coveted positions in India and
abroad in the fields of science and technology and in Indian
Administrative Services, Judiciary, Police Department, Information
Technology etc. These past students are vouchsafing to the quality of
education to which they were exposed in this campus. 84
Table - 3.3 Courses Offered in Jamal Mohamed College
Courses Subjects Major Disciplines Undergraduate Arts Arabic Business Administration (BBA) Economics English History Tamil (B. Litt) (W) Commerce Science Botany Chemistry Computer Applications (BCA) Computer Science Fashion Technology & Costume Design (W) Hotel Management & Catering Science (W) Information Technology Mathematics Nutrition & Dietetics (W) Physics Zoology Postgraduate Arts Arabic Business Administration (MBA) Economics English History Social Works (MSW) Tamil Commerce Science Biotechnology Bioinformatics Botany Chemistry Computer Science Information Technology Mathematics Microbiology Physics Zoology MCA Computer Applications
85
3. National College
National College, Tiruchirappalli came into being in June, 1919, thanks to the munificence of the late Diwan Bahadur S.Rm.CT.Pethachi
Chettiar, Zamindar of Andipatti and the initiative and zeal of Justice
T.V.Seshagiri Iyer, Sir.T.Desikachariar, N.D.Subbarama Iyer and Sri.
Sivarama Krishna Iyer and a galaxy of eminent public men.
The College had its origin in the National High School founded on
11th June 1886, by the illustrious trio of teachers, Messers. G. Sesha
Iyengar, P.G.Sundaresa Sastrigal and B.S. Venkataramana Sarma.
National College, Tiruchirappalli is one of the oldest affiliated colleges of Bharathidasan University. The College celebrated its Diamond
Jubilee during the year, 1980-81, under the Presidentship of the Hon'ble
Shri.R.Venkataraman then Minister for Finance, and former President of India, and a distinguished alumnus. To mark the occasion and event a block named Prinicpal Saranathan Block at a cost of Rs.9 Lakhs was built. The College celebrated its Platinum Jubilee in February, 1995 under the Presidentship of the Vice-Chancellor of Bharathidasan University
Dr.V.R.Muthukkaruppan.
Conceived and founded to impart and to promote among the youth, the highest and loftiest ideals which constitute the essence of Indian culture and nationalism, National College has been proudly fulfiling its role as one of the nation-building institutions of the country. Under the stewardship of 86
eminent scholars as its Principals down the years the tallest and the greatest among them being the late Shri. V. Saranathan, the College has grown to become a seat for high academic and moral standards.
As on date the College has ten post-graduate courses and twelve under-graduate courses. M.Phil. programme is being offered in all the post- graduate departments. Truly the College has been recognised as one of the centres of advanced learning and has been accorded permission for registering candidates for research leading to the award of Ph.D. in many faculties. The College has earned a high reputation for discipline and academic standards. The College is accredited by the National
Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC) at 'A' Level.
The management and administration of the College is vested with the
College Committee consisting of 14 members governed by the Academy of
Higher Education.
87
Table - 3.4 Courses Offered in National College
Courses Subjects Major Disciplines Undergraduate Arts Tamil English History Economics Philosophy Commerce Science Mathematics Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology Geology Postgraduate Arts Tamil English Economics Philosophy Commerce Science Mathematics Physics Chemistry Botany Applied Geology
4. Urumu Dhanalakshmi College
Urumu Seshachalam Chettiar, the revered founder of Urumu
Dhanalakshmi College, is a noble man. He has bequeathed his property to poor children. He started an orphanage for poor children. His service for the people is highly laudable. His orphanage was slowly developed into a
Middle School which began to function from 1946. Later on, the Middle
School grew into a High School from 1951. The founder was philanthropic, benevolent and selfless. Mrs. Urumu Dhanalakshmi Ammal helped her husband in all his endeavours. The College bears her name. The College is 88
celebrating the Founder‟s Day every year on 17th November in memory of its beloved founder. The founder constituted a committee to look after all those properties and to administer the educational institutions. The College is a part of Bharthidasan University. On an auspicious day, on which the
Kumbabisheka of Akilandeswari Temple was held, the College was opened by Jagathguru Sri. Shankaracharya Jeyendhra Swamigal. The College is located away from the town amidst rural surroundings and satisfies the necessities of the needy people of Thiruverambur and Kattur villages. The
College functioned at SIT premises for the first two years, 1970-72. During the third year, it began to function in its own buildings in Kattur. This
College which started with Pre-University course in 1970 had introduced BA
(Economics) during the second year.
In 1975, B.Com. and B.Sc. (Maths and Chemistry) classes were introduced. In 1979, B.Sc., (Physics) was introduced. The College is having
M.A. (Economics) from 1980-81, M.Com. from 1981-82, Part-time M.Phil. in
Economics from 1982-83, Full-time M.Phil. in Economics from 1985-86 and
M.Sc. Applied Physics (Computer Electronics) from 1986-87. In 1985-86, the Evening College was started with B.Com. and in 1986-87 M.Com.
Course was introduced. From 1987-88, the University granted affiliation to
M.A. (Tamil), full-time & part-time M.Phil. in Commerce to the Day College and B.Sc. Computer Science to the Evening College. In the Evening
College, during 1988-89, PGDCA course was Introduced and during 1989-
90, M.Sc. Applied Physics (Computer Electronics) Course was started. 89
During 1989-90 the University granted affiliation to Full-time and
Part-time M.Phil. courses in Physics in the Day college and Ph.D. programme in Commerce. The University granted affiliation to Ph.D.
Programme in Physics during 1991-92 and Ph.D. Programme in Tamil during 1993-94. During 1990-91, the University granted affiliation to MCA course in the Evening College. The University also granted M.Sc. Computer
Science in 1991-92 and B.Sc. Industrial Electronics during 1992-93. During
1997-98, the University granted affiliation for self-financing course in
Master of Social Work. During 1998-99, the University granted permission to start B.B.A and B.Sc. (Microbiology). During 1999-2000, the University granted permission to start B.C.A. and M.Sc. (Microbiology) under self- financing scheme.
During 2001-02, the University granted permission to start B.C.A.
(Additional Section) and M.Sc. Information Technology under self financing scheme. During 2002-03, the University granted permission to start B.Com.
(Bank Management) and M.Com. (Financial Management) under self- financing scheme. During 2003-04, the University granted permission to start M.Sc. Mathematics and M.Sc. Chemistry under self-financing scheme.
During 2004-05, the University granted permission to start B.Lit. in Tamil and B.S.W. (Bachelor of Social Work) under self-financing scheme. During
2006-07, the University granted permission to start M.Phil. in Chemistry under self financing scheme. The College is accredited with B ++ by NAAC on 31st March 2007. 90
Table - 3.5 Courses Offered in Urumu Dhanalakshmi College
Courses Subjects Major Disciplines Undergraduate Arts Economics English Tamil Business Administration Social Works Commerce Science Physics Chemistry Mathematics Computer Science Microbiology Computer Applications (B.C.A.) Postgraduate Arts Economics Tamil Social Works Finance Management Commerce Science Physics Chemistry Mathematics Computer Science Microbiology Biochemistry Commerce Computer Applications (M.C.A.)
5. Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College
This citadel of education is the brain child of His Holiness Srirangam
Srimad Andavan Swamigal who strongly believes in imparting education that has its long foundation in inculcation of values. Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College (a self-financing institution) blossomed in October
1996. This has been adjudged as „The Best Self-Financing College‟ by
Bharathidasan University among its affiliated colleges in BARD-FEST 2006. 91
The academic year 2006-07 was really a year of remarkable academic achievement when the College was accredited by NAAC with a prestigious
„A‟ Grade. The College has a very strong placement cell which organized job fairs and provided placement to around 500 students. This College emblem signifies the need for humility and surrender in acquisition of knowledge. This College offers many PG courses both in Science and Arts like MCA, Mathematics, Physics, Microbiology, Biotechnology, Commerce,
Social Works etc.
Table - 3.6 Courses Offered in Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College
Courses Subjects Major Disciplines Undergraduate Arts Business Administration Social Works Commerce Science Biochemistry Microbiology Mathematics Physics Postgraduate Arts Social Works Business Administration Commerce Science Mathematics Physics Microbiology Biotechnology
6. Kurinji College of Arts and Science
Kurinji College of Arts and Science, sponsored by the 'Neo
Foundation for Societal Transformation' is an organisation, born out of the desire of philanthropists who want to serve the needy people and strive to achieve the same. This College affiliated to Bharathidasan University was 92
started on 17th January 1994. The College is located in the midst of
Tiruchirappalli Corporation Area, that is, Anantha Fairlands, Greenways
Road, about one kilometer from Chatram Bus Stand, just walkable distance from Tiruchirappalli Town Railway Station. The College has been serving as a beacon light in Tiruchirappalli district with teaching, learning and research programme in different disciplines, for the benefit of thousands of students, who pursue higher education.
Table - 3.7 Courses Offered in Kurinji College of Arts and Science
Courses Subjects Major Discipline Undergraduate Arts Business Administration (BBA) Commerce Science Computer Science Computer Application (BCA) Information Technology Industrial Electronics Biochemistry Microbiology Biotechnology Chemistry Physics Postgraduate Arts Commerce Science Information Technology Computer Science Biochemistry Microbiology Biotechnology Chemistry Physics Computer Science MCA Computer Applications
_____ CHAPTER - IV
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
. .
Demographic and Socio-Economic Features of the Respondents
The distribution of respondent students on the basis of age is shown
in Table 4.1. All the students chosen for the study fall in the age group of
20-28 years. Around 260 students are in the age group of 20-22 years and
280 are in the age group of 23-25 years.
Table - 4.1 Age Distribution of Respondents
Sl. No. Age Group Frequency Percentage
1. 20-22 260 43
23-25 2. 280 47
26-28 3. 60 10
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
Almost equal percentages of the men and women students were
chosen for the study. Around 53% of the respondents were men and 47%
were women as shown in Table 4.2. 94
Chart 1 Age Distribution of Respondents
26-28 60
20-22 260
23-25 280 95
Table - 4.2 Distribution of Respondents on the basis of Sex
Sl. No. Gender Frequency Percentage
1. Male 320 53
Female 2. 280 47
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
The respondents chosen for the study are doing postgraduate courses in both arts and science subjects. Fifty per cent of students doing arts courses and other 50% doing science courses have been identified as respondents as shown in Table 4.3.
Table - 4.3 Fields of Study of Respondents
Sl. No. Particulars Frequency Percentage
1. PG Arts 300 50
PG Science 2. 300 50
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
96
The respondents have been classified on the basis of their places of stay (Table 4.4). It is found that 500 respondents are day scholars and stay at their residences while the other 100 are hostellers.
Table - 4.4 Modes of Stay of the Respondents
Sl. No. Particulars Frequency Percentage
1. Hostellers 100 17
Day Scholars 2. 500 83
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
The distribution of respondents on the basis of religion is provided in Table 4.5. Around 88% are Hindus, 7% are Muslims and 5% are
Christians.
Table - 4.5 Distribution of Respondents on the basis of Religion
Sl. No. Religion Frequency Percentage
1. Hindu 530 88
2. Christian 30 5
3. Muslim 40 7
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data 97
Chart 2 Distribution of Respondents on the basis of Religion
Christian Muslim 30 40
Hindu 530 98
Students chosen for the study either live in nuclear families or in joint families. About 73% of respondents hail from nuclear families and 27% are from joint families as shown in Table 4.6. This shows that the concept of joint family is slowly declining in the present society.
Table - 4.6 Types of Families of Respondents
Sl. No. Particulars Frequency Percentage 1. Joint 160 27 2. Nuclear 440 73
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
The sizes of families of respondents are provided in Table 4.7. The families of 10% respondents have a size of 2-3; 65.0% have a size of 4-5 while 17% of respondents have a size of 6-7 members.
Table - 4.7 Sizes of Families of Respondents
Sl. No. Family Size Frequency Percentage 1. 2-3 60 10 2. 4-5 390 65 3. 6-7 100 17 4. 8-9 50 8 5. Above 10 0 0 Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data 99
Chart 3 Sizes of Families of Respondents
390 60 100 50
2 to 3 4 to 5 6 to 7 8 to 9 Family Size 100
The respondent students come from both rural and urban communities. It is seen that 60% of respondents come from urban community and 40% from rural community as shown in Table 4.8.
Table - 4.8 Classification of Respondents on the basis of Community
Sl. No. Particulars Frequency Percentage
1. Rural 240 40
2. Urban 360 60
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
The respondents have undergone and completed their undergraduate courses from three types of colleges namely rural undergraduate colleges, semi-urban undergraduate colleges and urban postgraduate colleges as provided in Table 4.9. Around 37% respondents have completed their degree course from rural colleges while another 37% have completed the
UG course from semi-urban colleges, while 26.6% have been the students in PG colleges in urban areas.
101
Table - 4.9 Types of Colleges where Respondents did UG Courses
Sl. No. Particulars Frequency Percentage
1. Rural College 220 37
2. Semi Urban 220 37
3. Urban College 160 26
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
Distribution of Annual Household Income
The annual income distribution of the families of the respondents has been studied and the details are furnished in Table 4.10. It is seen that
48.3% of the respondent households have an annual income of less than
Rs.50,000 and 21.7% households come in the income bracket of Rs.50,001 to 1,00,000. Around 2% of respondent households do have an income of
Rs.4,00,000 and above. 102
Chart 4 Types of Colleges where Respondents did UG Courses
220 220 160
Rural Semi-urban Urban 103
Table - 4.10 Distribution of Annual Income of Respondent Households
Sl. No. Annual Income (Rs.) Frequency Percentage
1. < 50000 290 48.3
2. 50001 to 100000 130 21.7
3. 100001 to 200000 120 20.0
4. 200001 to 400000 50 8.3
5. > 400000 10 1.7
Total 600 100.0
Source : Primary Data
The annual income distribution of the respondent households indicates that around 70% of respondents with household income of less than Rs.1,00,000 do their courses with the financial assistance of the nationalized banks as educational loan or government scholarship.
Distribution of Annual Educational Expenditure
The distribution of annual expenditure incurred by the respondents towards their postgraduate courses is provided in Table 4.11. The important items of educational expenditure are college fees, university examination fees, hostel fees, mess bill, cost of dress, books and notebooks, cost of transportation etc. 104
Table - 4.11 Distribution of Educational Expenditure of the Respondent
Sl. No. Expenditure (Rs.) Frequency Percentage
1. < 25000 42 7
2. 25001 to 50000 306 51
3. 50001 to 100000 192 32
4. > 100000 60 10
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
A maximum of 51 per cent of respondents incur a nominal expenditure of Rs.25,001 to 50,000; 32% spend Rs.50,001 to 1,00,000; and
10% of them are rich enough to spend more than Rs.1,00,000 per year.
However, 7% of the respondents are financially poor and manage to spend less than Rs.25,000 towards their studies. Thus higher education has become so accommodative and reachable to the economically weaker section of the society.
The level of expenditure they incur on purchase of books, daily newspapers (both English and Tamil) and magazines has also been examined. Only less than 25% of the respondents spend a little of their money to the extent Rs.350 per year towards these items. Majority of the 105
respondents (~ 65%) regularly go to the college library and other libraries to read. Around 10% of the respondents occasionally visit the library.
However almost all the respondents watch the various television channels for entertainment and educational purposes. The student respondents very sparingly use the internet facility, because they have to pay for it in the commercial browsing centres.
Preferred Newspapers, Magazines, Television Channels and Internets
The newspapers, magazines and TV channels preferred by the respondents have been studied. The extent of preference shown towards the different mass media by the respondents is shown in Table 4.12.
Table - 4.12 Preference of Mass Media by respondents
Sl. No. Name of Mass Media Frequency Percentage
1. Television 252 42
2. Radio 12 2
3. Newspapers 132 22
4. Magazine 36 6
5. Internet 126 21
6. Cinema 42 7
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data 106
Chart 5 Preference of Mass Media by Respondents
252
132 126
36 42 12
Television Radio Newspapers Magazine Internet Cinema Name of the Mass Media 107
The order of choice of newspapers by the respondents is listed in
Table 4.13.
Table - 4.13 Choice of Newspapers by the Respondents
Sl. No. Name of the Newspaper Frequency Percentage
1. The Hindu 220 37
2. The New Indian Express 20 3
3. Dinamalar 110 19
4. Dinathanthi 90 15
5. Dinaboomi 20 3
6. Dinakaran 120 20
7. Any other paper 20 3
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
It is seen that 37% of respondents read The Hindu, 20% read
Dinakaran, 19% read Dinamalar and 15% read Dinathanthi. Reading
The Hindu helps them to know the current affairs and to improve their
English communication skill. They read Tamil newspapers like Dinakaran,
Dinamalar, Dinathanthi etc. to gather day-to-day news of all sorts. Most of the Tamil newspapers also give news on cinema and display attractive still photographs of the cinema heroes and heroines. 108
Chart 6 Choice of Newspapers by the Respondents
The Hindu The New Indian Dinamalar Dinathanthi Dinaboomi Dinakaran Any other Express 109
The sports related news given by these newspapers also benefit the respondents. Further, some of the respondents who are pursuing PG programmes are interested in getting some placements with their UG degree. The employment related information and advertisements given by the State and Central Governments, public and private undertakings are much useful to the student respondents.
The magazines preferred by the respondents are shown in
Table 4.14. About 40% of respondents prefer India Today and each 10% of respondents read Sports Star and Out Look respectively. Around 7% of respondents read Front Line. They rarely read magazines on computer, health and cinema.
110
Table - 4.14 Magazines Preferred by the Respondents
Sl. No. Name of the Magazine Frequency Percentage
1. India Today 240 40
2. Front Line 40 7
3. Out Look 50 9
4. Health 60 10
5. News Week 20 3
6. Computer Today 10 2
7. Sport Star 60 10
8. Competition Success 30 5
9. G. K. Today 10 1
10. Femina 10 1
11. Any other 70 12
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data 111
Chart 7 Magazines Preferred by the Respondents
Any other 70
Femina 10
G. K. Today 10
Competition Success 30
Sport Star 60
Computer Today 10
News Week 20
Health 60
Out Look 50
Front Line 40
India Today 240 112
The desired television channels watched by the respondents are listed in Table 4.15. Sun TV (45%), Vijay TV (18%), Star Movies (7%) and
Star Sports (7%) are the TV channels most liked by the respondents.
Table - 4.15 Television Channels Watched by the Respondents
Sl. No. Television Channel Frequency Percentage
1. Sun TV 270 45
2. Vijay TV 110 18
3. Star Movies 40 7
4. Home TV 20 3
5. Star Sports 40 7
6. EPSN 20 3
7. Discovery 20 3
8. National Geographic 20 3
9. Animal Planet 10 2
10. Doordarshan 10 2
11. BBC 10 2
12. Others 30 5
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data 113
The hours spent daily on watching TV (Table 4.16) by the respondents have also been examined. It is seen that 52% of respondents spend less than 2 hours a day and 38% of respondents spend 2 to 4 hours a day on watching the TV programmes. It is interesting to note that they spend minimum time on TV entertainment in order to spend maximum time on academic work.
Table - 4.16 Hours Spent on Watching Television by Respondents
Sl. No. Hours spent Frequency Percentage
1. Less than 2 hours 310 52
2. 2 to 4 hours 230 38
3. 4 to 6 hours 60 10
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
The major TV programmes watched by the respondents are shown in
Table 4.17. Music channel is enjoyed by the maximum of 37% of respondents. Around 17% are interested in sports programmes and 13% are eager to enjoy in comedy shows. Only 7% each of respondents watch movies, quiz and other competitions in the TV. It is also seen that the respondents are not much interested in the documentaries, serials, religious programmes and children based programmes. 114
Table - 4.17 Major Television Programmes Watched by the Respondents
Sl. No. TV Programmes Frequency Percentage
1. Children Based 10 1
2. Serials 30 5
3. Movies 40 7
4. Sports 100 17
5. Quiz 40 7
6. Competitions 40 7
7. Music 230 38
8. Religious 10 2
9. Comedy 80 13
10. Documentaries 20 3
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
The selected areas browsed by the respondents on internet have been investigated. The details given in Table 4.18 indicate that about 52% of respondents use internet for educational purpose that is for collecting study materials, materials for seminars and for writing project reports.
About 27% of respondents avail internet for E-mail correspondence and 8% of the respondents use the internet for entertaining themselves. Only 3% each of the respondents use internet for chatting and commercial purposes. 115
Chart 8 Major Television Programmes Watched by the Respondents
Documentaries, 20
Comedy, 80
Religious, 10
Music, 230
Competitions, 40
Quiz, 40
Sports, 100
Movies, 40
Serials, 30
Children Based, 10
T. V. PROGRAMMES 116
Table - 4.18 Areas Browsed on Internet by Respondents
Sl. No. Areas Browsed Frequency Percentage
1. Commercial 20 3
2. Educational 310 52
3. Chatting 20 3
4. E-mail 160 27
5. Entertainment 50 8
6. Others 40 7
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
Media Service and the Employment Scenario
Service sector has been growing faster in India than the other sectors and it has become the main source of the GDP growth rate. This is due to increase in domestic demand. During the course of development of the manufacturing industry the demand for services increases. Hence a growth linkage between the two sectors is existing. Thus the growth of the service sector generates more and more employment. The service sector has the chief potentiality of generating maximum employment because of the rise in productivity and investment. Also as liberalization and globalization have clouded over the world economy, the service driven growth has become a dominant factor. 117
Mass media being one of the components of the service sector, it plays a significant role in generating employment. Media industry has been an important source of employment for the professionals and the technicians. Moreover the mass media have been a driving force for others to seek and get employment. Various advertisements released by the governments, public and private undertakings with reference to job opportunities and placements are of immense use for the educated job seekers.
One of the objectives of the study is to examine the role of mass media in facilitating employment opportunities for the educated youth. An attempt has been made to find out from the respondents which organisations among the mass media are more useful for getting information on job opportunities. The primary data collected from the respondents and shown in Table 4.19 reveal that 55% of the respondents derive information on job opportunities from internet browsing, 36 per cent derive information from newspapers, 6 per cent from magazines and journals and 3 per cent from television broadcastings. The radio listening respondents and cinema seeing respondents do not benefit much in getting placement related information.
118
Chart 9 Areas Browsed on Internet by Respondents
160 20 310 20 50 40
Commercial Educational Chatting E-mail Entertainment Others
Areas of Browsing on Internet 119
Table - 4.19 Beneficiaries of Mass Media Information on Job
Sl. No. Mass Media Frequency Percentage 1. Internet 330 55
2. Newspapers 216 36
3. Magazines 36 6
4. Televisions 18 3
5. Radio 0 0
6. Cinema 0 0
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
Another objective of the study is to examine to what extent the organs of mass media are giving useful career guidance to the people at large and the youth in particular for improving their economic status. For improving the economic status of people, the mass media ventures various methods. In the mass media there are discussions on the performance of various public and private undertakings. These discussions are of immense help especially for the youth to plan their future career. There are details provided by the mass media on the budgetary outlay for various sectors of economy by the governments and monetary concessions available for the people to start new enterprises. Lot of information is given to the youth including women by the mass media regarding the funding agencies for starting small, medium and large scale industries/enterprises. The concept 120
of self-help group (SHG) and its multifarious economic activities at the grass root level are given wide publicity in TV, radio and newspapers. This enables the youth to plan for their future. Thus according to the respondents the levels of career guidance provided by the individual media organisations are furnished in Table 4.20.
Table - 4.20 Career Guidance Extended by Mass Media
Sl. No. Mass Media Frequency Percentage 1. Television 186 31
2. Newspapers 126 21
3. Radio 108 18
4. Magazine 102 17
5. Internet 78 13
6. Cinema 0 0
Total 600 100 Source : Primary Data
Television stands first among the different mass media in providing career guidance to the respondents towards improving their economic status. Thirty one per cent of the respondents opine that television programmes give suitable ideas helpful to their future. But only 13% respondents feel that internet browsing helps them to improve their economic status. Newspapers and radio services stand next to television programmes. 121
Chart 10 Career Guidance Extended by Mass Media
186 126 108 102 78 0
Television Newspapers Radio Magazine Internet Cinema
Name of the Mass Media 122
Another objective of the study is to examine the effectiveness of the media advertisements in the enhancement of economic growth. In addition to the advertisements relating to job opportunities, more of media advertisements relating to the marketing of the products and services frequently appear. At present consumerism has grown to a large extent.
The frequent, attractive and properly portrayed advertisements of all sorts are instrumental for the enhanced marketing of products and services.
Nowadays without the effective help of advertisements in the mass media, the producers can not promote the sales and earn maximum profit. Further, the mass media also earn revenue considerably through advertisements.
Mass media serve as the friend, philosopher and guide of the consumers as well as the producers.
In this connection it is pertinent to elicit the opinions of the respondents regarding the effectiveness of the mass media advertisements in enhancing economic growth. The considered opinions of the respondents are furnished in Table 4.21.
123
Table - 4.21 Effectiveness and Economic Growth Rendered by Mass Media Advertisements
Sl. No. Mass Media Frequency Percentage
1. Television 276 46
2. Newspapers 204 34
3. Radio 48 8
4. Magazine 72 12
5. Internet 0 0
6. Cinema 0 0
Total 600 100
Source : Primary Data
According to 46 per cent of the respondents, advertisements appearing in the televisions are very effective and are able to produce more economic growth. Newspaper advertisements are much effective in producing economic growth for about 34 per cent of respondents. The economic benefits produced by the radio and magazine advertisements are much less in the views of 12% and 8% respondents respectively.
124
Dependence of the Impact of Mass Media on Variables like Age, Sex Educational Qualification, the Type of College in which the Respondents Study and the Mode of Stay
The associations between age / sex/ educational qualification
(UG/PG) / mode of stay (day scholar / hosteller) / the type of college (rural / urban / semi-urban) with the change in behaviour and attitudes / personal and social life / general perceptions of the respondents due to the impact of mass media have been statistically analysed. The cross tabulations were worked out and chi-square tests were carried out after framing the respective null hypotheses.
As an illustration, the cross tabulation and the results of 2 test for examining the association between age and the change in behaviour and attitudes are provided in Tables 4.22 and 4.23 respectively. The overall results and conclusions arrived are summarized in Table 4.24.
Table - 4.22 Cross Tabulation
Change in Behaviour and Attitudes Age Total Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree
1 0 100 130 30 260
2 10 70 190 10 280
3 0 30 20 10 60
Total 10 200 340 50 600 125
Table - 4.23 Chi-Square Test Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 54.129 6 0.000
Likelihood Ratio 59.073 6 0.000
Linear-by-Linear Association 0.435 1 0.510
N of Valid Cases 0.600
Three cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.00.
126 Table - 4.24
Null Hypotheses Framed, 2 Values Calculated and Conclusions Arrived
S. Observed 2 Table Degree of Null Hypothesis Framed Conclusion No. 2 value value freedom (df)
1. No association between age and change 54.129 18.50 6 Observed 2 > table value in behaviour and attitudes Hypothesis rejected
2. No association between age and change 22.107 10.06 2 Observed 2 > table value in personal and social life Hypothesis rejected
3. No association between age and change 3.400 14.90 4 Observed 2 < table value in general perceptions Hypothesis accepted
4. No association between sex and change 80.397 12.80 3 Observed 2 > table value in behaviour and attitudes Hypothesis rejected
5. No association between sex and change 40.772 7.88 1 Observed 2 > table value in personal and social life Hypothesis rejected
6. No association between sex and change 31.677 10.60 2 Observed 2 > table value in general perceptions Hypothesis rejected
contd……. 127 Table 4.24 continued
S. Observed 2 Table Degree of Null Hypothesis Framed Conclusion No. 2 value value freedom (df)
7. No association between the educational 62.824 12.80 3 Observed 2 > table value qualification and change in behaviour and Hypothesis rejected attitudes
8. No association between the educational 24.434 7.88 1 Observed 2 > table value qualification and the change in personal Hypothesis rejected and social life
9. No association between the educational 4.203 10.60 2 Observed 2 < table value qualification and the change in general Hypothesis accepted perceptions
10. No association between the mode of stay 4.941 12.80 3 Observed 2 < table value and change in behaviour and attitudes Hypothesis accepted
11. No association between the mode of stay 0.543 7.80 1 Observed 2 < table value and change in personal and social life Hypothesis accepted
contd…….
128
Table 4.24 continued
S. Observed 2 Table Degree of Null Hypothesis Framed Conclusion No. 2 value value freedom (df)
12. No association between the mode of stay 32.348 10.60 2 Observed 2 > table value and change in general perceptions Hypothesis rejected
13. No association between the type of 71.591 18.50 6 Observed 2 > table value college and change in behaviour and Hypothesis rejected attitudes
14. No association between the type of 36.343 10.6 2 Observed 2 > table value college and change in personal and social Hypothesis rejected life
15. No association between the type of 23.962 14.9 4 Observed 2 > table value college and change in general Hypothesis rejected perceptions 129
Impact of Mass Media on the Behaviour and Attitudes of Respondents
One of the dimensions of the impact of mass media on the respondent college youth is the change in their behaviour and attitudes.
Four factors as given in Table 4.25 have been identified and the opinions of the respondents were elicited.
Table - 4.25 Behaviour and Attitudes of Respondents
Sl. Particulars Frequency/ SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
1. Portrayal of violence Frequency 120 160 170 110 40 600 and sex does not lead to immoral Percentage 20 27 28 18 7 100 behaviour
2. Suicidal attempts Frequency 110 220 140 100 30 600 attributed to mass media Percentage 18 37 23 17 5 100
3. Aggressive Frequency 110 200 190 80 20 600 behaviour attributed to mass media Percentage 18 34 32 13 3 100
4. Negative influence Frequency 80 160 150 140 70 60 of Mass media towards moral Percentage 13 27 25 23 12 100 strength and good manners
Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data
The results of multiple regression analysis on the changes in behaviour and attitudes of respondents are shown in Table 4.26.
130
Table - 4.26 Model Summary for Behaviour and Attitudes
Adjusted R Std. Error of the Model R R Square Square Estimate
1 0.895 0.802 0.800 0.284
Predictors: Constant, Negatively influence, violence and sex does not lead to immoral behaviour, Aggressive behaviour, Suicidal attempts
This model summary table gives R-square value at 0.802. This means that 80.2 percent of the variation in behaviour and attitudes
(dependent variable) can be explained with the four independent variables.
The ANOVA results are shown in Table 4.27.
Table - 4.27 ANOVA Results
Sum of Mean Model df F Sig. Squares Square
Regression 193.884 4 48.471
Residual 47.949 595 0.081 601.475 .000
Total 241.833 599
Predictors: Constant, Negatively influence, violence and sex does not lead to immoral behaviour, Aggressive behaviour, Suicidal attempts.
Dependent Variable: Behaviour and attitudes
131
The F ratio for the regression model (601.475) indicates the statistical significance of the overall regression model. The larger the
F ratio, higher is the variance in the dependent variable that is associated with the independent variable. For the F ratio 601.475, the statistical significance is 0.000. Hence the null hypothesis that no relationship exists between the two variables is rejected. In other words there is a relationship between independent and dependent variables.
To determine if one or more of the independent variables are significant predictors of behaviour and attitudes, the information provided in
Table 4.28 is examined.
Table - 4.28 Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model t Sig. Std. B Beta Error Constant 0.458 0.050 9.242 0.000
Portrayal of violence and sex does not lead to immoral 0.174 0.010 0.324 17.645 0.000 behaviour
Suicidal attempts attributed to 0.222 0.012 0.390 18.897 0.000 mass media
Aggressive behaviour 0.215 0.012 0.352 17.325 0.000 attributed to mass media
Negative influence of mass media towards moral strength 0.238 0.010 0.459 24.341 0.000 and good manners
Dependent Variable: Behaviour and attitudes 132
It is found that all the four independent variables (factors) are statistically significant.
The standardized coefficients beta column in Table 4.28 reveals that portrayal of violence and sex does not lead to immoral behaviour have beta coefficient 0.324, which is significant (0.000). Suicidal attempts attributed to mass media have beta coefficient 0.390, which is significant (0.000).
Aggressive behaviour attributed to mass media have beta coefficient 0.352, which is significant (0.000). Negative influence towards moral strength and good manners have beta coefficient 0.459, which is significant (0.000). All the four factors are positively significant.
Impact of Mass Media on Personal and Social Life of Respondents
Another dimension of the impact of mass media on the respondent youth is the change in their personal and social life. Sixteen factors which are listed in Table-4.29 have been identified and the opinions of the respondents were collected and examined.
133
Table - 4.29 Personal and Social Life
Sl. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
1. Improved learning Frequency 220 300 30 20 30 600 abilities and skills Percentage 37 50 5 3 5 100
2. Enhances creativity Frequency 160 280 90 30 40 600
Percentage 27 47 15 5 6 100
3. Dressing habits Frequency 170 290 120 20 0 600 influenced by mass media Percentage 29 48 20 3 0 100
4. Internet decreases Frequency 100 100 150 180 70 600 friends Percentage 17 17 25 30 11 100
5. Little time spent on Frequency 160 250 80 90 20 600 recreation Percentage 27 42 13 15 3 100
6. Involvement in anti- Frequency 110 150 190 120 30 600 social activities Percentage 18 25 32 20 5 100
7. Influences Frequency 90 260 160 60 30 600 unaffordable purchase of Percentage 15 43 27 10 5 100 products
8. Prefer a cheap Frequency 130 260 110 80 20 600 paper back and spin chilling picture on Percentage 22 44 18 14 2 100 cover page
9. Sex related TV Frequency 110 150 160 130 50 600 programmes have spoilt the college Percentage 18 25 27 22 8 100 youth
10. Inspirations from Frequency 200 310 90 0 0 60 great personalities Percentage 33 52 15 0 0 100 134
Table 4.29 continued
Sl. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
11. Easier socialization Frequency 60 340 130 50 20 600 among youth and teachers Percentage 10 57 22 8 3 100
12. Cinema helps forget Frequency 120 280 150 20 30 600 worries, failures and thus modify for Percentage 20 47 25 3 5 100 better
13. Helps take major Frequency 40 130 190 190 50 600 decisions Percentage 7 21 32 32 8 100
14. Helps spiritual Frequency 60 150 170 170 50 600 growth Percentage 10 26 28 28 8 100
15. Inculcates higher Frequency 70 250 130 120 30 600 standards and teach true values of life Percentage 12 42 22 20 5 100
16. Telecast of world Frequency 190 170 130 100 10 600 wrestling federation leads to Percentage 32 28 22 16 2 100 aggressiveness
Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data
The results of multiple regression analysis on the changes in personal and social life are provided in Table 4.30. The model summary table for personal and social life gives the R-square as 0.860. It means that 86.0 percent of the variation in personal and social life (dependent variable) can be explained with the 16 independent factors (independent variables).
135
Table - 4.30 Model Summary for Personal and Social Life
Std. Error of the Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Estimate 1 0.927 0.860 0.856 0.188
Predictors: Constant, Telecast of wrestling, Inspirations from great personalities, spiritual growth, higher standards and teach true values, Influences unaffordable purchase of products, Easier socialization among youth and teachers, Involvement in anti-social activities, Improved learning abilities skills, Sex related programs, Internet decreased friends, forget worries failures, Enhances creativity, Dressing habits, Little time on recreation, Helps take major decisions, Prefer a cheap paperback & spin chilling picture on cover page.
The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) with regard to the dimension of personal and social life are shown in Table 4.31. The calculated value of F ratio = 224.062 indicates the statistical significance of the regression model. For the F ratio of 224.062 the statistical significance is 0.000. Hence the null hypothesis that no relationship exists between the two variables is rejected. In other words, there is a significant relationship between the independent factors and the dimension of personal and social life.
136
Table - 4.31
ANOVA
Sum of Model df Mean Square F Sig. Squares Regression 126.725 16 7.920 1 Residual 20.608 583 0.035 224.062 0.000 Total 147.333 599 Predictors: (Constant), Telecast of wrestling, Inspirations from great personalities, spiritual growth, higher standards and teach true values, Influences unaffordable purchase of products, Easier socialization among youth and teachers, Involvement in anti-social activities, Improved learning abilities skills, Sex related programs, Internet decreased friends, forget worries failures, Enhances creativity, Dressing habits, Little time on recreation, Helps take major decisions, Prefer a cheap paperback & spin chilling picture on cover page.
Dependent Variable: Personal and Social Life.
To determine if one more of the independent factors are significant predictors of personal and social life, the information provided in the coefficients table is assessed (Table 4.32). It is found that out of 16 independent factors (variables) 12 are statistically significant.
137
Table - 4.32 Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients Standard- Unstandardized ized Coefficients coeffici- Model ents t Sig. Std. B Beta Error Constant 0.050 0.068 0.734 0.463 Improved learning abilities and skills 0.139 0.009 0.279 14.981 0.000 Enhances creativity 0.007 0.009 0.016 0.786 0.432 Influences dressing habits 0.161 0.013 0.256 12.095 0.000 Internet decreases friends 0.132 0.009 0.338 15.501 0.000 Little time spent on recreation 0.088 0.010 0.197 8.651 0.000 Involvement in anti-social activities 0.099 0.008 0.226 12.174 0.000 Influences unaffordable purchase of 0.123 0.010 0.253 12.767 0.000 products Preference for a cheap paperback & -0.077 0.011 -0.164 -6.865 0.000 spin chilling picture on cover page Sex related programs have spoilt the 0.015 0.009 0.037 1.711 0.088 college youth Inspirations from great personalities 0.086 0.014 0.116 5.985 0.000 Easier socialization among youth and -0.052 0.010 -0.093 -5.276 0.000 teachers Cinema helps forget worries failures & 0.006 0.010 0.012 0.584 0.559 thus modify for better Helps take major decisions 0.127 0.010 0.271 12.227 0.000 Helps spiritual growth -0.017 0.010 -0.040 -1.695 0.091 Inculcates higher standards and 0.107 0.011 0.233 10.154 0.000 teaches true values of life Telecast of world wrestling federation 0.092 0.008 0.209 11.484 0.000 leads to aggressiveness Dependent Variable: Personal and Social Life
138
The standardized coefficient beta column reveals that improved learning abilities and skills has a beta coefficient 0.279, which is significant
(0.000). Enhances creativity has a beta coefficient 0.016, which is not significant (0.432). Influences dressing habits has a beta coefficient 0.256, which is significant (0.000). Internet decreases friends has a beta coefficient 0.338, which is significant (0.000). Little time spent on recreation has a beta coefficient 0.197, which is significant (0.000). Involvement in anti-social activities has a beta coefficient 0.226, which is significant
(0.000). Influences unaffordable purchase of products has a beta coefficient 0.256, which is significant (0.000). Preference for a cheap paperback and spin chilling picture on cover page has a beta coefficient -
.164, which is significant (0.000). Sex related programs have spoilt the college youth has a beta coefficient 0.037, which is not significant (0.088).
Inspiration from greet personalities has a beta coefficient 0.116, which is significant (0.000). Easier socialization among youth and teachers has a beta coefficient -.093, which is significant (0.000). Cinema helps forget worries, failures and thus modifies for better has a beta coefficient 0.012, which is not significant (0.559). Helps take major decisions has a beta coefficient 0.271, which is significant (0.000). Helps spiritual growth has a beta coefficient -.040, which is not significant (0.091) Inculcates higher standards and teach true values of life has a beta coefficient 0.233, which is significant (0.000). Telecast of world wrestling federation leads to aggressiveness has a beta coefficient 0.209, which is significant (0.000). 139
Impact of Mass Media on General Perceptions of the Respondents
Yet another dimension of the impact of mass media on the respondents is the change in their general perceptions of matters. Twenty factors which are listed in Table 4.33 have been identified and the views of the respondents were examined.
Table - 4.33 General Perceptions
S. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage 1. Change in attitude Frequency 150 320 120 10 0 600 of women‟s work Percentage 25 53 20 2 0 100 2. Good people‟s Frequency 100 370 50 70 10 600 company helps recognize as a good Percentage 16 62 8 12 2 100 person 3. Television Frequency 70 280 160 80 10 600 entertains and strengthens family Percentage 11 47 27 13 2 100 life 4. Television Frequency 80 270 150 50 50 600 substitutes Percentage 14 45 25 8 8 100 5. Helps advancement Frequency 210 340 30 20 0 600 in business and education Percentage 35 57 5 3 0 100 6. Helps mould minds Frequency 90 290 140 80 0 600 of viewers Percentage 15 49 23 13 0 100 7. Important tool for Frequency 120 330 100 20 30 600 improving the talents and moral Percentage 20 55 17 3 5 100 strengths 8. Initiates social Frequency 120 340 60 80 0 600 change Percentage 20 57 10 13 0 100 140
Table 4.33 continued S. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage 9. Informs about the Frequency 180 280 40 70 30 600 society through news reports Percentage 30 47 6 12 5 100 10. Portrayal of violence Frequency 90 190 260 30 30 600 creates terrorism Percentage 15 32 43 5 5 100 11. Tele-serials cause Frequency 190 220 120 40 30 600 difference of opinion in family Percentage 32 37 20 6 5 100 12. Uses sex sensation- Frequency 220 210 130 30 10 600 alism to build circu- lation and audience Percentage 37 35 21 5 2 100 13. Books and Frequency 120 210 150 90 30 600 magazines contain sex related matters Percentage 20 35 25 15 5 100 14. Cinema section Frequency 150 270 80 60 40 600 attracts youth more than others Percentage 25 45 13 10 7 100 15. Media Frequency 110 250 160 60 20 600 unconsciously affect personalities Percentage 18 42 27 10 3 100 16. Presents that Frequency 140 290 80 90 0 600 corruption is unavoidable Percentage 23 49 13 15 0 100 17. Viewers live in Frequency 120 370 70 20 20 600 dream world Percentage 20 62 12 3 3 100 18. Affects culture and Frequency 210 240 110 20 20 600 tradition Percentage 35 40 19 3 3 100 19. Media exist to make Frequency 150 280 120 20 30 600 money Percentage 25 47 20 3 5 100 20. Media has brought Frequency 130 320 120 10 20 600 about economic change Percentage 22 53 20 2 3 100 Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data 141
The results of multiple regression analysis of the general perceptions of the respondents is provided in Table 4.34. The R-square value for this model is 0.763. This means that 76.3 per cent of variation in general perceptions (dependent variable) can be explained with the twenty factors
(independent variables).
Table - 4.34 Model Summary for General Perceptions on Effects of Mass Media
Std. Error of the Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Estimate 1 0.873 0.763 0.755 0.225
Predictors: Constant, economic change, corruption is unavoidable, improving the talents moral strengths, difference of opinion in family, affect personalities, Change in attitude of women's work, Television entertains and strengthens family life, Media exist-to make money, Television substitutes, Informs about the society, Used sex sensationalism to build circulation and audience, Initiates social change, Helps mould minds, attracts youth more than others, Viewers live dream world, Helps advancement in business and education, creates terrorism, Affects culture & tradition, Good people's company helps recognize as a good person, Books and magazines contain sex-related matters.
The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA ) in respect of general perceptions of the respondents are provided in Table 4.35.
142
Table - 4.35 ANOVA Results
Sum of Mean Model df F Sig. squares square Regression 94.083 20 4.704 Residual 29.250 579 0.051 93.118 0.000 Total 123.333 599
Predictors: Constant, economic change, corruption is unavoidable, improving the talents moral strengths, difference of opinion in family, affect personalities, Change in attitude of women's work, Television entertains and strengthens family life, Media exist to make money, Television substitutes, Informs about the society, Used sex sensationalism to build circulation and audience, Initiates social change, Helps mould minds, attracts youth more than others, Viewers in live dream world, Helps advancement in business and education, creates terrorism, Affects culture and tradition, Good people's company helps recognize as a good person, Books and magazines contain sex-related matters. Dependent Variable: General perceptions on effects of mass media.
The observed value of F ratio is 93.118, which implies the statistical significance of the regression model. For the F ratio of 93.118, the statistical significance is 0.000. Hence, the null hypothesis that no relationship exists between the two variables is rejected. In other words there is a relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
In order to determine if one or more of the independent variables are significant predictors of general perceptions, the information provided in the table of coefficients (Table 4.36) is used.
143
Table - 4.36 Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients
Standard Unstandardized -ized Coefficients coeffici- Model ents t Sig. Std. B Beta Error Constant 0.572 0.061 9.373 0.000 Change in attitude of women's work 0.052 0.018 0.083 2.957 0.003 Good people's company helps 0.052 0.018 0.104 2.947 0.003 recognize as a good person Television entertains & strengthens -0.031 0.013 -0.062 -2.445 0.015 family life Television substitutes 0.024 0.012 0.056 1.967 0.050 Helps advancement in business and 0.113 0.021 0.172 5.301 0.000 education Helps mould minds of viewers -0.038 0.017 -0.075 -2.281 0.023 Important tool for improving the 0.047 0.012 0.099 3.791 0.000 talents moral strength Initiates social change 0.010 0.016 0.019 .618 0.537 Informs about the society through 0.063 0.011 0.157 5.564 0.000 news reports Portrayal of violence creates -0.007 0.016 -0.014 -.421 0.674 terrorism Tele-serials cause difference of 0.069 0.010 0.166 7.023 0.000 opinion in families Used sex sensationalism to build 0.023 0.016 0.049 1.393 0.164 circulation and audience Books and magazines contain sex- -0.041 0.014 -0.101 -2.859 0.004 related matters Cinema section attracts youth more 0.160 0.013 0.404 12.728 0.000 than other sections of mass media Media unconsciously affect -0.028 0.014 -0.061 -1.968 0.050 personalities 144
Table 4.36 continued Standard Unstandardized -ized Coefficients coeffici- Model ents t Sig. Std. B Beta Error Presents the idea that corruption is 0.097 0.017 0.205 5.821 0.000 unavoidable Viewers live dream world 0.017 0.017 0.033 1.035 0.301 Affects culture & tradition 0.033 0.015 0.071 2.141 0.033 Media exist to make money 0.036 0.014 0.080 2.543 0.011 Media has brought about economic 0.121 0.017 0.234 7.249 0.000 changes
Dependent Variable: Impact of mass media on General Perception.
Of the twenty independent factors six factors are statistically significant. The standardized coefficient beta column reveals that change in attitude of women's work has a beta coefficient 0.083, which is not significant (0.003). Good people's company helps recognize as a good person has a beta coefficient 0.104, which is not significant (0.003).
Television entertains and strengthens family life has a beta coefficient -
0.062, which is not significant (0.015). Television substitutes have a beta coefficient 0.056, which is not significant (0.050). Helps advancement in business and education has a beta coefficient 0.172, which is significant
(0.000). Helps mould minds of viewers has a beta coefficient -0.075, which is not significant (0.023). Important tool for improving the talents and moral strength has a beta coefficient 0.099, which is significant (0.000). Initiates 145
social change has a beta coefficient 0.019, which is not significant (0.537).
Informs about the society through news reports has a beta coefficient
0.157, which is significant (0.000). Portrayal of violence creates terrorism has a beta coefficient -0.014, which is not significant (0.674). Teleserials cause difference of opinion in families has a beta coefficient 0.166, which is significant (0.000). Uses sex sensationalism to build circulation and audience has a beta coefficient 0.049, which is not significant (0.164).
Books and magazines contain sex-related matters has a beta coefficient
–0.101, which is not significant (0.004). Cinema section attracts youth more than other sections of mass media has a beta coefficient 0.404, which is significant (0.000). Media unconsciously affect personalities has a beta coefficient -0.061, which is not significant (0.050). Presents the idea that corruption is unavoidable has a beta coefficient 0.205, which is significant
(0.000). Viewers live dream in world has a beta coefficient 0.033, which is not significant (0.301). Affects culture and tradition has a beta coefficient
0.071, which is not significant (0.033). Media exist to make money has a beta coefficient 0.080, which is not significant (0.011). Media has brought about economic changes has a beta coefficient 0.234, which is significant (0.000).
146
Impact of Mass Media on the Academic Performance of the Respondents
In this age of information technology, the contribution of mass media towards the academic excellence is very significant. The levels of contribution of the different organs of mass media to the good academic performance of the respondents are shown in Table 4.37.
Table - 4.37 Contribution of Mass Media to the Good Academic Performance
S. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
1. Magazines Frequency 260 190 100 40 10 600
Percentage 43 32 17 6 2 100
2. Books Frequency 250 260 60 20 10 600
Percentage 42 43 10 3 2 100
3. Newspapers Frequency 120 360 60 40 20 600
Percentage 20 60 10 7 3 100
4. Internet Frequency 210 260 60 40 30 600
Percentage 35 43 10 7 5 100
5. T.V. Frequency 60 180 140 150 70 600
Percentage 10 30 23 25 12 100
6. Cinema Frequency 90 120 100 170 120 600
Percentage 15 20 17 28 20 100
Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data
147
Chart 11 Contribution of Mass Media to the Good Academic Performance
Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree 10 10 20 20 30 40 40 40 70 60 60 120 60 100
150
170
190 260 140 260 100
360 120 180
260 250 120 210 60 90
Magazines Books Newspapers Internet Television Cinema 148
However in some cases the mass media corrupts the minds of respondents and thereby affects their academic performance. The extent to which the mass media could corrupt the minds of the college youth is provided in Table 4.38.
Table - 4.38
The Extent to which Mass Media Corrupt the Minds of the College Youth
S. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
1. Magazines Frequency 80 150 190 100 80 600
Percentage 13 25 32 17 13 100
2. Books Frequency 120 70 120 210 80 600
Percentage 20 12 20 35 13 100
3. Newspapers Frequency 110 190 60 220 20 600
Percentage 18 32 10 37 3 100
4. Internet Frequency 210 260 50 60 20 600
Percentage 35 44 8 10 3 100
5. T.V. Frequency 260 200 90 30 20 600
Percentage 44 33 15 5 3 100
6. Cinema Frequency 270 180 100 30 20 600
Percentage 45 30 17 5 3 100
Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data
149
Chart 12 The Extent to which Mass Media Corrupt the Minds of the College Youth Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree
20 20 20 20 30 30 80 80 60
50 90 100 100
220
210 60 180 200 190 260 120
70 190 150
80 120 110 210 260 270
Magazines Books Newspapers Internet Television Cinema 150
Also absenteeism among the college youth may be attributed to the mass media. Among the various organs of mass media cinema and television have been shown to be the root cause of absenteeism of college students. The extent of the effect of mass media towards absenteeism of college youth is indicated in Table 4.39.
Table - 4.39 Effect of Mass Media Towards Absenteeism
Sl. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
1. Magazines Frequency 70 100 110 210 110 600
Percentage 12 17 18 35 18 100
2. Books Frequency 90 70 130 240 70 600
Percentage 15 12 21 40 12 100
3. Newspapers Frequency 50 150 120 190 90 600
Percentage 8 25 20 32 15 100
4. Internet Frequency 230 230 70 60 10 600
Percentage 38 38 12 10 2 100
5. T.V. Frequency 180 290 70 50 10 600
Percentage 30 48 12 8 2 100
6. Cinema Frequency 190 290 80 10 30 600
Percentage 32 48 13 2 5 100
Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data
151
It is seen that a few respondent students show interest in pornography and sex related exhibits. Such students show poor academic performance. The extent to which the academic results of the respondents is affected by the sex-related and pornographic programmes of the mass media is shown in Table 4.40.
Table - 4.40
Academic Performance and Sex-related Pornographic Programmes
Sl. Frequency/ Particulars SA A UD DA SD Total No. Percentage
1. Magazines Frequency 130 170 200 90 10 600
Percentage 22 28 33 15 2 100
2. Books Frequency 90 110 220 150 30 600
Percentage 15 18 37 25 5 100
3. Newspapers Frequency 130 200 190 70 10 600
Percentage 22 33 32 11 2 100
4. Internet Frequency 250 250 60 10 30 600
Percentage 42 42 9 2 5 100
5. T.V. Frequency 250 190 100 60 0 600
Percentage 42 32 16 10 0 100
6. Cinema Frequency 220 170 140 60 10 600
Percentage 37 28 23 10 2 100
Note: SA: Strongly agree, A: Agree, UD: Undecided, DA: Disagree, SD: Strongly disagree Source: Primary Data
152
The mass media influences the respondents to take up the academic programme either as day scholars or as hostellers. These modes of stay may influence the academic performance of the college youth. Also the modes of stay influence the college youth to spend time in the different mass media. The mean ranking of respondents with respect to the mode of stay for different mass media is furnished in Table 4.41.
Table - 4.41 Mean Ranking and Mode of Stay
Mass Media Mode of Study N Mean Rank
Hosteller 100 318.50 Magazines Day Scholar 500 296.90 Total 600 Hosteller 100 320.00 Books Day Scholar 500 296.60 Total 600 Hosteller 100 243.50 Newspapers Day Scholar 500 311.90 Total 600 Hosteller 100 258.50 Internet Day Scholar 500 308.90 Total 600 Hosteller 100 314.00 TV Day Scholar 500 297.80 Total 600 Hosteller 100 253.00 Cinema Day Scholar 500 310.00 Total 600
153
The results of Kruskal Wallis test statistics are provided in Table 4.42.
Table - 4.42 Test Statistics
Magazines Books Newspapers Internet TV Cinema Chi-Square 1.632 1.729 16.813 8.494 0.843 10.545 df 1 1 1 1 1 1
Asymp. Sig. 0.201 0.188 0.000 0.004 0.358 0.001
Kruskal Wallis Test. Grouping Variable: Mode of Study
The probability of the Kruskal Wallis statistics is 0.201 (Magazines),
0.188 (Books), 0.358 (TV) which greater than the level of significance 0.05.
There is no statistical significant difference among the mode of stay influence the college students to spend more time in different mass media like magazines, books and TV.
The probabilities of the Kruskal Wallis statistics are 0.000
(Newspaper), 0.004 (Internet) and 0.001 (cinema) respectively which are less than or equal to the level of significance 0.005. There is statistical significance difference among the mode of stay influence the college students to spend more time in different mass media like newspapers, internet and cinema.
Further the mode of stay influences the college student‟s mood and interest to perform academically. The mean ranking of respondents with respect to the relation between mode of stay and mood and interest for study is provided in Table 4.43. 154
Table - 4.43
Mean Ranking for Mood and Interest to Study
Mass Media Mode of Study N Mean Rank
Hosteller 100 256.50 Magazines Day Scholar 500 309.30 Total 600 Hosteller 100 303.50 Books Day Scholar 500 299.90 Total 600 Hosteller 100 303.50 Newspapers Day Scholar 500 299.90 Total 600 Hosteller 100 287.00 Internet Day Scholar 500 303.20 Total 600 Hosteller 100 308.50 TV Day Scholar 500 298.90 Total 600 Hosteller 100 359.50 Cinema Day Scholar 500 288.70 Total 600
Kruskal Wallis test statistics is shown in Table 4.44.
Table - 4.44 Kruskal Wallis Test Statistics
Magazines Books Newspapers Internet TV Cinema Chi-Square 8.228 0.039 0.040 0.824 0.294 15.532 df 1 1 1 1 1 1
Asymp. Sig. 0.004 0.843 0.842 0.364 0.588 0.000
Kruskal Wallis Test. Grouping Variable: Mode of Study 155
The probabilities of the Kruskal Wallis statistics are 0.843 (Books),
0.842 (Newspaper), 0.364 (internet) and 0.588 (TV) which are greater than the level of significance 0.005. There is no statistical significance difference among the mode of stay influences the college students‟ mood and interest to study viz. books, newspaper, internet and TV.
The probabilities of the Kruskal Wallis statistics are 0.004
(Magazines) and 0.000 (Cinema), which are less than or equal to the level of significance 0.005. Hence it is concluded that there is statistical significance among the mass media like magazines and cinema.
Correlation between the Four Dimensions of Impact of Mass Media
The four dimensions of impact of mass media on college youth are behaviour and attitudes, personal and social life, academic performance and general perceptions. These four dimensions (variables) have been considered for correlation. The results of correlation are shown in Table
4.45.
The dimension general perceptions has positive correlation with behaviour and attitudes and it is significant at 0.05 level.
The dimension behaviour and attitudes has positive correlation with general perceptions and it is significant at 0.05 levels.
Academic performance and personal and social life do not possess any correlation with other dimensions and there is no significance among them. 156
Table - 4.45 Correlation between the Four Dimensions
Personal Academic General Behaviour & Social performance Perceptions & Attitudes Life Pearson 1 0.318* 0.095 0.162 correlation General Significance 0.013 0.471 0.216 Perceptions (2 tailed)
N 600 600 600 600
Pearson 0.318* 1 0.222 0.206 correlation Behaviour Significance 0.013 0.088 0.114 & Attitudes (2 tailed)
N 600 600 600 600
Pearson 0.095 0.222 1 0.088 correlation Personal & Significance 0.471 0.088 0.503 Social Life (2 tailed)
N 600 600 600 600
Pearson 0.162 0.206 0.088 1 correlation Academic Significance 0.216 0.114 0.503 performance (2 tailed)
N 600 600 600 600
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
157
Interpretation of the Contribution of Different Factors of the Dimensions - Behaviour and Attitudes and Personal and Social Life
The dimensionalities of behaviour and attitudes and personal and social life have been examined using factor analysis based on 20 individual factors and the reliability of the subsequent factor structures has been tested for internal consistency of the grouping of the items.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett tests have been employed.
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy index is measured at 0.586. The Bartlett‟s sphericity 2 statistics is 4217.729 (Table 4.46), which would mean that the 16 factors are correlated. KMO measure of sampling adequacy is an index to examine the appropriateness of factor analysis. High values between 0.5 to 1.0 indicate that the factor analysis is appropriate.
Table - 4.46 KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.586
Approx. Chi-Square 4217.729
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 190
Sig. 0.000
Bartlett‟s test of sphericity is used to examine the hypothesis that the variables are uncorrelated. A large value of the test statistics (4217.729) favours the rejection of the null hypothesis. 158
Table - 4.47 Total Variance Explained
Extraction Sums of Squared Initial Eigen Values Loadings Component % of Cumulative % of Cumulative Total Total Variance % Variance %
1 3.557 17.784 17.784 3.557 17.784 17.784
2 2.429 12.145 29.929 2.429 12.145 29.929
3 2.107 10.535 40.464 2.107 10.535 40.464
4 2.017 10.084 50.548 2.017 10.084 50.548
5 1.644 8.222 58.770 1.644 8.222 58.770
6 1.170 5.852 64.622 1.170 5.852 64.622
7 0.882 4.409 69.032
8 0.860 4.300 73.332
9 0.812 4.060 77.391
10 0.688 3.442 80.834
11 0.638 3.192 84.025
12 0.594 2.969 86.994
13 0.546 2.730 89.724
14 0.413 2.065 91.789
15 0.385 1.924 93.713
16 0.369 1.845 95.558
17 0.304 1.518 97.076
18 0.221 1.105 98.182
19 0.198 0.991 99.173
20 0.165 0.827 100.000
159
Eigen value represents the total variance explained by each factor.
Percentage of the total variance is attributed to each factor (Table 4.47).
One of the popular methods used in Exploratory Factor Analysis is Principal
Component Analysis, where the total variance in the data is considered to determine the minimum number of factors that will account for maximum variance of data.
Rotation of factors is transferred through rotation into a simpler one that is easier to interpret. It does not affect the percentage of total variance explained. However, the variance explained by the individual factors is redistributed by rotation (Table 4.48).
Table - 4.48 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Percentage of Cumulative Total Variance Percentage
2.899 14.494 14.494
2.348 11.740 26.234
2.286 11.428 37.662
2.082 10.410 48.072
1.748 8.741 56.813
1.562 7.809 64.622
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
160
The most commonly used method is Varimax rotation procedure. This procedure maximizes the variance of the loadings on each factor, thus minimizing the complexity of the factors (Table 4.49).
Table - 4.49 Rotated Component Matrix
Component Particulars 1 2 3 4 5 6
Portrayal of violence and sex does not lead -0.091 0.079 -0.058 0.222 -0.031 0.824 to immoral behavior
Suicidal attempts attributed to mass media 0.738 -0.008 0.073 0.097 -0.124 -0.165
Aggressive behavior attributed to mass 0.785 0.149 -0.001 -0.056 0.075 0.099 media
Negatively influence towards moral strength 0.377 -0.510 -0.091 0.176 0.480 -0.069 and good manners
Improved learning abilities skills 0.398 0.565 -0.198 0.266 -0.083 -0.141
Enhances creativity -0.131 0.108 0.206 0.795 -0.012 0.039
Dressing habits influenced by mass media -0.034 -0.438 0.281 0.377 -0.235 -0.473
Internet decreased friends 0.493 0.147 0.279 -0.070 -0.093 0.564
Little time spent on recreation 0.001 -0.049 0.836 -0.063 -0.042 -0.030
Involvement in anti-social activities 0.337 -0.238 0.243 0.283 0.513 0.089
Influences unaffordable purchase of 0.037 -0.195 0.705 0.274 0.032 -0.021 products
Prefer a cheap paperback and spin chilling 0.114 0.608 0.535 -0.188 0.169 0.078 picture on cover page
Sex related programs have spoilt the 0.530 -0.235 0.217 -0.359 -0.310 0.130 college youth
Inspirations from great personalities -0.244 0.305 -0.185 0.028 0.684 -0.167 161
Table 4.49 continued…
Component Particulars 1 2 3 4 5 6
Easier socialization among youth and 0.149 0.074 -0.095 0.087 -0.694 -0.057 teachers
Cinema helps forget worries failures & thus 0.102 0.438 0.391 0.433 -0.041 0.329 modify for better
Helps take major decisions 0.603 0.317 -0.112 0.216 -0.204 0.102
Helps spiritual growth 0.350 -0.072 -0.279 0.709 0.124 0.197
Inculcates higher standards and teaches 0.170 0.746 -0.162 0.096 -0.014 0.234 true values of life
Telecast of world wrestling federation leads 0.388 0.200 0.360 -0.251 0.162 0.050 to aggressiveness
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Out of 20 factors, six factors contribute more towards behaviour and attitudes and personal and social life. The factors are: (i) Aggressive behaviour attributed to mass media, (ii) Inculcates higher standards and teaches true values of life, (iii) Influences unaffordable purchase of products, (iv) Helps spiritual growth, (v) Inspirations from great personalities, (vi) Portrayal of violence and sex does not lead to immoral behaviour.
These six factors accounted for 64.622 per cent of variance in the original 20 factors. The remaining 14 factors contribute minimum to the extent of 35.378% only. 162
Interpretation of the Contribution of the Different Factors of the Dimension - General Perceptions
The dimension of general perceptions has been examined using
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and Bartlett‟s tests based on 20 factors. The reliability of the factor structures has been tested for internal consistency. The
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy index is found at 0.610.
The Bartlett‟s sphericity 2-statistics is measured at 5309.989. These values are shown in Table 4.50.
Table - 4.50 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy
0.610
Approx. Chi-Square 5309.989
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 190
Sig. 0.000
These values mean that the factor analysis is appropriate for this data set.
Bartlett‟s test of sphericity has been used to examine the hypothesis that the variables are uncorrelated. A large value of the test statistic
(5309.989) favours the rejection of the null hypothesis. In other words, it may mean that the variables are correlated.
163
Table - 4.51 Total Variance Explained
Extraction Sums of Squared Initial Eigen Values Loadings Component % of Cumulative % of Cumulative Total Total Variance % Variance %
1 5.066 25.328 25.328 5.066 25.328 25.328
2 2.132 10.660 35.989 2.132 10.660 35.989
3 1.777 8.887 44.875 1.777 8.887 44.875
4 1.648 8.238 53.113 1.648 8.238 53.113
5 1.336 6.681 59.794 1.336 6.681 59.794
6 1.217 6.083 65.877 1.217 6.083 65.877
7 1.086 5.429 71.306 1.086 5.429 71.306
8 0.886 4.432 75.738
9 0.768 3.838 79.576
10 0.707 3.534 83.111
11 0.638 3.191 86.301
12 0.564 2.820 89.121
13 0.475 2.373 91.494
14 0.418 2.091 93.585
15 0.320 1.601 95.186
16 0.292 1.458 96.644
17 0.226 1.132 97.776
18 0.184 0.922 98.699
19 0.138 0.689 99.387
20 0.123 0.613 100.000
164
Eigen value represents the total variance explained by each factor.
Percentage of the total variance is attributed to each factor. One of the popular methods used in Exploratory Factor Analysis is Principal
Component Analysis, where the total variance in the data is considered to determine the minimum number of factors that will account for maximum variance of data.
Table - 4.52 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % 3.023 15.117 15.117 2.690 13.452 28.569 1.915 9.574 38.143 1.899 9.496 47.639 1.763 8.816 56.455 1.549 7.745 64.200 1.421 7.106 71.306 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation of factors is transferred through rotation into a simpler one that is easier to interpret. It does not affect the percentage of total variance explained. However, the variance explained by the individual factors is redistributed by rotation (Table 4.52). The most commonly used method is
Varimax rotation procedure. This procedure maximizes the variance of the loadings on each factor, thus minimizing the complexity of the factors.
165
Table - 4.53 Rotated Component Matrix Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Change in attitude of women's work -0.205 0.085 -0.087 0.134 0.029 0.837 0.015 Good people's company helps 0.151 0.187 0.579 0.018 0.408 -0.232 0.436 recognize as a good person Television entertains & strengthens 0.165 -0.032 -0.203 0.702 -0.222 -0.020 0.099 family life Television substitutes 0.077 0.185 0.765 0.058 -0.010 -0.130 0.088 Helps advancement in business and 0.101 0.154 0.398 0.695 -0.007 0.141 0.036 education Helps mould minds of viewers 0.148 0.091 0.059 -0.012 0.794 0.123 0.384 Important tool for improving the 0.223 0.004 0.589 0.110 0.029 0.265 -0.349 talents moral strengths Initiates social change 0.569 0.009 0.260 0.043 0.493 0.118 -0.172 Informs about the society through 0.529 0.031 0.052 0.083 0.158 0.583 0.051 news reports Portrayal of violence creates 0.023 0.600 0.361 -0.161 -0.031 0.408 0.261 terrorism Tele serials cause difference of 0.104 0.088 0.017 0.065 0.135 0.078 0.797 opinion in family Used sex sensationalism to build 0.005 0.731 0.306 0.208 -0.044 0.083 0.180 circulation and audience Books and magazines contain sex- 0.211 0.778 0.070 0.245 0.028 0.043 0.016 related matters Cinema section attracts youth more 0.740 0.243 0.093 -0.090 -0.074 -0.147 0.234 than others Media unconsciously affect 0.426 0.521 0.249 0.010 -0.474 0.038 0.104 personalities Presents that corruption is 0.644 0.255 0.058 -0.033 0.328 0.120 0.254 unavoidable Viewers live in dream world 0.758 -0.058 0.045 0.344 -0.097 -0.010 -0.006 Affects culture & tradition 0.635 0.343 0.117 -0.080 0.218 -0.271 -0.168 Media exist to make money 0.220 0.718 -0.184 -0.061 0.415 -0.118 -0.107 Media has brought about economic -0.124 0.201 0.121 0.781 0.242 0.115 -0.067 change Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
166
Interpretation of factors is facilitated by identifying the statements that have large loadings in the same factor. The factors can be interpreted in terms of the statement that loads high on it.
The dimension general perceptions comprises of 20 individual factors
(statements). Out of 20 factors (statements), 7 factors (statements) contribute more towards general perceptions. The factors are:
i) Viewers live dream world,
ii) Books and magazines contain sex-related matters,
iii) Television substitutes,
iv) Media has brought about economic change,
v) Helps mould minds of viewers,
vi) Change in attitude of women's work,
vii) Tele serials cause difference of opinion in families.
The seven factors accounted for 71.306 per cent of the variance in the original 20 factors. The remaining 13 factors contribute minimum towards general perceptions, that is, 28.694 per cent of variance only.
_____
CHAPTER - V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . .
Any economy has two basic objectives namely economic growth and
creation of employment opportunities. The economic growth should give a
push to production and employment. In view of this there is a rapid
transition from the primary sector namely agriculture to service sector while
industrial sector is lagging behind. The service sector is rising more rapidly
than industries whereas the share of agricultural sector in GDP has
declined in all the countries. The reason behind the rapid growth of the
service sector is that the services improve the quality of life of the people.
Factors like growing mobility of the population, development of tourism
industry, favourable technology, literacy rate, extensive urbanization etc.
have contributed to the growth of the service sector.
Service sector consists of trade, transport, communication, financial
services like banking and insurance, tourism related facilities like hotels
and restaurants and social and community services like medical and
educational facilities. Labour intensive techniques have resulted in the
increasing trend of service sector employment. Labour absorption capacity
of the service sector is high and is rising in comparison to that of
agriculture and industry, where it is declining. Economies of countries like
the US, the UK, Germany, Japan, Canada, Sweden etc. have changed from 168
being goods dominated to services dominated. The economies of developed countries are called as service economies because they generate more employment and contribute more to the DGP.
A significant growth in the service sector is seen all over the world.
According to the Statistical Year Book 1998, environmental factors like demographic factor, economic factor, political and legal factor, social factor and technological factor have contributed to the growth of the service sector.
A service is an activity or benefit that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Media services constitute an important part of the service industry. They serve as powerful sources of information, education, communication and entertainment. They generate employment to professionals and technicians but also income to the agencies and the government.
Youth is a group of young people in a society who have a lot of energy, new ideas and new ways to see life and face problems. Young persons between the ages of 13 and 35 years are termed as youth for statistical purposes. As per 1997 census youth population was estimated at about 34 crores and it is anticipated to increase to about 51 crores in India by the year 2016. It is essential that the youth in the country are equipped 169
better with requisite knowledge, skills and capabilities in order to render themselves socially useful and economically productive.
In view of the importance of mass media in shaping the life of the youth, this study on the socio-economic, behavioural, perceptional and academic impact of mass media on the college youth has been undertaken.
This thesis embodies the results of the study with reference to
Tiruchirappalli district in Tamil Nadu. An attempt has been made to investigate how far the mass media are helpful for the college going youth in acquiring knowledge, skills and capabilities which are essential for moulding their personal, social, cultural and economic life. Also it is aimed to suggest suitable measures for improving the quality of life of the youth at large through mass media.
Chapter-I of the thesis consists of an introduction on the service sector, media services and the youth.
The research design of the study, outlined in Chapter-I, is based on a multi-stage sampling. The first stage is the random selection of the colleges offering post-graduate courses in arts and science in Tiruchirappalli district.
Tiruchirappalli district has been selected as the study area because it is the central district and socially, economically and culturally a pivotal point of
Tamil Nadu. Tiruchirappalli district has all the characteristic features of the
Tamil Nadu State as a whole. 170
The second stage is the random selection of post-graduate co-educational institutions offering post-graduate programmes in arts and science subjects. The third stage is the selection of 6 such colleges. The fourth stage is the random selection of 50 students from arts and another
50 students from science subjects from each college.
Thus, out of 22 arts and science colleges in Tiruchirappalli district as per 2001 census, six post-graduate co-educational colleges from both urban and semi-urban areas were selected. They are:
1. St. Joseph's College (Autonomous),
2. Jamal Mohamed College (Autonomous),
3. National College,
4. Kurinji College of Arts and Science,
5. Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, and
6. Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College.
A total of 600 respondent students were chosen for the purpose of primary data collection.
Primary data were collected during the period 2008 through a survey method by administering an interview schedule to each respondent. A pilot study was undertaken to test the schedule and to verify the concepts which were adopted in the study. As the study attempts to examine the considered opinions of the respondents on the impact of mass media on college youth, a diagnostic research design has been adopted. 171
In order to examine the significance of association between selected variables, Likert measurement rating scale has been employed. A list of factors (statements) was given on a particular dimension and each respondent was asked to indicate his / her agreement, disagreement or indecision for all factors on the instrument of a five point scale. Thus the relative intensities of different factors on each dimension were determined.
The four dimensions chosen for the study are:
1. Impact of mass media on the behaviour and attitudes of the
respondents,
2. Impact of mass media on the personal and social life of the
respondents,
3. Impact of mass media on the academic performance of the
respondents,
4. Impact of mass media on the general perceptions of the respondents.
The following objectives have been framed in order to proceed with the investigation:
1. To study the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the
student respondents such as age, gender, religion, type and size of
family and the type of community (rural or urban).
2. To study the annual income distribution of the households of the
respondents and the distribution of the educational expenditure of the
respondents. 172
3. To evaluate the role of mass media in facilitating employment
opportunities for the educated youth and the extent of career guidance
provided by the mass media to the educated youth.
4. To assess the contribution of the mass media advertisements in
enhancing the economic development of the people.
5. To study the impact of mass media on the college youth in acquiring
general knowledge and information about current affairs and in
improving their academic performance.
6. To study the impact of mass media on the college youth in shaping
their perceptions, character, behaviour and attitudes.
7. To suggest suitable measures for improving the quality of life of the
youth at large through mass media services.
The following hypotheses were framed and analysed:
1. There is no association between the impact of mass media on various
dimensions like behaviour and attitudes, personal and social life,
general perceptions and academic performance of the respondents
and their age, sex, educational qualification and mode of stay of the
respondents.
2. All the four dimensions: behaviour and attitudes; personal and social
life; academic performance and the general perceptions of the
respondents are not statistically significant. 173
3. There is no positive correlation between one dimension and the other
with respect to the impact of mass media. In other words the variables
are uncorrelated.
Chapter-II develops a documentation of literature related to media and economic development. Media planning and marketing, youth unemployment, employment scenario in India, media and democracy, media in building the tolerant society, violence in media, media in communication, media ownership in India, women in media, media and law, attack on media, advertisements in media, contributions of the different organs of the mass media etc. have been lucidly treated in Chapter-II.
Profile of the study area namely the Tiruchirappalli district is furnished in Chapter-III. The general physical features, demographic features, climate and rainfall, revenue administrative set up and educational institutions in Tiruchirappalli district have been described. The special features of the colleges chosen for the study namely St. Joseph‟s
College (Autonomous), Jamal Mohamed College (Autonomous), National
College, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Kurinji College of Arts and Science and Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College are also provided in
Chapter-III.
174
Findings
Chapter-IV deals with the analysis of data and interpretation of the results obtained. One of the objectives is to study the annual income distribution of the households of the respondents and the distribution of the educational expenditure of the respondents. The annual income distribution of the respondent households indicates that around 70% of the respondents are with a household income of less than one lakh rupees.
Around 60 per cent of the respondent students incur an expenditure of
Rs.50,000 or less towards their higher education per year. Around 10 per cent are very poor and are able to spend only less than Rs.25,000 towards, their studies. However, they manage to pursue their studies with the financial assistance of the government as scholarship and liberal educational loans from the nationalized banks.
Another objectives of the study is to examine the role of mass media in facilitating employment opportunities for the educated youth. Around
55 per cent of the respondents derive information from internet browsing and 36 per cent from newspapers regarding job opportunities.
The mass media are also providing useful career guidance to the people especially the youth for improving their economic status and for planning for their future. Thus television, newspapers and radio help the maximum in career guidance of the youth. Mainly the advertisements 175
appearing in newspapers, radio and television are very effective in producing the desired economic growth.
One of the objectives of this study is to find out the level of impact of mass media on variables like age, sex, educational qualification, mode of stay and the type of college in which the respondents study. The associations between age / sex / qualification / mode of stay / the type of college with the change in behaviour and attitudes / personal and social life
/ general perceptions of the respondents due to the impact of mass media have been analysed by 2 test after framing the respective null hypotheses.
The overall findings are:
1. There is association between the age of the respondents and change
in behaviour and attitudes / personal and social life, but there is no
association between age and change in general perceptions.
2. There is association between sex and change in behaviour and
attitudes / personal and social life / general perceptions.
3. There is association between educational qualification and change in
behaviour and attitudes / personal and social life, but there is no
association between education qualification and change in general
perceptions.
4. There is association between the mode of stay of the respondents and
change in general perceptions, but there is no association between the 176
mode of stay and change in behaviour and attitudes / personal and
social life.
5. There is association between the type of college in which the
respondents study and the change in behaviour and attitudes /
personal and social life / general perceptions.
The impact of mass media on the changes in behaviour and attitudes of respondents has been examined by employing multiple regression analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA). The calculated R-square value
(0.802) means that 80.2% of the variation in behaviour and attitudes
(dependent variable) can be explained by the four factors (independent variables). The F-ratio calculated at 601.475 indicates that there is a relationship between independent and dependent variables.
The standardized beta coefficients for changes in behaviour and attitudes show that all the four factors namely: (i) portrayal of violence and sex does not lead to immoral behaviour; (ii) suicidal attempts attributed to mass media; (iii) aggressive behaviour attributed to mass media and
(iv) negative influence of mass media towards moral strength and good manners are positively significant at 0.000 level.
The impact of mass media on the changes in personal and social life of the respondents has been examined. The calculated R-square value
(0.860) means that 86.0% of the variation in personal and social life
(dependent variable) can be explained with the 16 independent factors. The 177
F-ratio worked out by analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 224.062 indicates that there is a significant relationship between the independent factors and the changes in personal and social life.
The standardized beta coefficients for changes in personal and social life show that out of 16 factors 12 are positively significant at 0.000 level.
They are:
i) Telecast of world wrestling federation leads to aggressiveness.
ii) Inspiration from great personalities.
iii) Inculcates higher standards and teaches true values of life.
iv) Influences unaffordable purchase of products.
v) Easier socialization among youth and teachers.
vi) Involvement in anti-social activities.
vii) Improved learning abilities and skills.
viii) Internet decreases friends.
ix) Influences dressing habits.
x) Little time spent on recreation.
xi) Helps take major decisions.
xii) Preference for a cheap paper-back and spin-chilling picture on cover
page.
The impact of mass media on the changes in the general perceptions of the respondents has also been examined. The calculated R-square 178
value (0.763) means that 76.3% of variation in general perceptions
(dependent variable) can be explained with the 20 factors (independent variables). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) in respect of the general perceptions of the respondents gives the F-ratio at 93.118, which indicates that there is a significant relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
The standardized beta coefficients for changes in general perceptions show that out of twenty independent factors six are statistically significant at 0.000 levels. Those six factors are:
i) Helps advancement in business and education.
ii) Important tool for improving the talents and moral strength.
iii) Informs about the society through news reports.
iv) Tele serials cause difference of opinion in families.
v) Presents the idea that corruption is unavoidable.
vi) Cinema section attracts youth more than other sections of mass
media.
The impact of mass media on the academic performance of the respondents has been examined. Media help to improve the learning abilities and skills of the respondent youth. They inspire them and enhance their creativity. Journals, magazines and books help the respondents a lot towards academic performance. The college youth have developed a habit of browsing internet for educational purposes. Television, cinema and 179
sometimes internet corrupt the minds of the college youth. Absenteeism among college youth is also attributed to TV and cinema.
The results of Kruskal Wallis hypothetical testing indicate that:
i) Various organs of mass media like magazines, newspapers, internet
etc. contribute towards good academic performance of college youth.
ii) Mass media like magazines and cinema influence the mode of stay of
the respondents.
iii) The mode of stay and sex influence the college youth to spend more
time in different mass media like newspapers, cinema and internet.
iv) The mode of stay and sex also influence the college youth to spend
more time in different mass media leading to heavy absenteeism and
addiction to pornography, which in turn affect their good academic
performance.
Factor analyses have been performed in order to assess the weightage of the different factors associated with the dimensions like behaviour and attitudes, personal and social life and general perceptions of the respondents. Out of 20 factors, only 6 factors contribute more towards behaviour and attitudes and personal and social life. They are:
i) Aggressive behaviour is attributed to mass media.
ii) Inculcates higher standards and teaches true values of life.
iii) Influences unaffordable purchase of products.
iv) Helps spiritual growth. 180
v) Inspirations from greater personalities.
vi) Portrayal of violence and sex does not lead to immoral behaviour.
The dimension of general perceptions comprises of 20 factors of which the following seven contribute more than others:
i) Viewers live in dream world.
ii) Books and magazines contain sex-related matters.
iii) Television substitutes.
iv) Media has brought about economic change.
v) Helps mould minds of viewers.
vi) Changes in attitudes of women‟s work.
vii) Television serials cause difference of opinion in families.
Suggestions
One of the objectives of this study is to suggest suitable measures for improving the quality of life of the youth at large through mass media.
The following suggestions have been made based on the findings of the study. It is found that the mass media is instrumental for the college youth in shaping their behaviour and attitudes, improving their personal and social life and sharpening their general perceptions of things and events.
Above all the mass media should be more useful in improving their academic performance. The agencies controlling both the electronic and print media must be more service-oriented than business-oriented. The 181
mass media should dedicate themselves more towards the welfare of the people. The policy makers must frame policies so as to prevent publication or broadcasting of materials leading violence, sex-abuse, caste and religious divisions. The news items and others must be censored sufficiently without fear or favour so as to maintain peace in the society.
Media is indispensable to the democratic governance of the country.
Media as the fourth estate must uphold the rights of the people including the right to information and the freedom of press. Suppression of people‟s freedom to communicate could reduce the quality of their life and the process of economic development. Hence the governments must do everything to protect the freedom of the press. At the same time there should be penal measures inflicted on the media services when they violate the norms.
The governments evolve certain policies and programmes for the welfare of the common masses. There is a tendency to blame the mass media for providing less coverage to the government schemes. Hence the mass media must educate the people and make the people aware of the existing welfare schemes. The systematic embezzlement of public funds meant for people is mainly due to lack of awareness among people. Hence the mass media should do anything to reduce / eliminate corruption by politicians / officials in implementing the welfare schemes and projects. 182
India is known for pluralistic diversity. Communalism is a big challenge in India. The Indian media are also politically and ideologically divided. Media should not be an instrument for the instigation and continuation of violence, on the basis of caste, religion and language.
Hence, media should evolve strategies to unite people so as to bring communal harmony and to support secularism.
The mass media should be committed to solve gender sensitive issues. Domestic violence and other crimes against women and children should be highlighted in mass media. Media should help in developing and enforcing a code of conduct for themselves and the people.
Media is a major source of knowledge and it gives a feedback about the society through the reviews. Newspapers and magazines have review columns. The media should examine / review all the events / occurrences and act as a guide to social control, because all new ideas diffuse into the society mainly through mass media.
Media advertisements are the best known and widely used tools for business promotion. Advertisements persuade and motivate the consumers about the advertised products, services etc. Hence the mass media agencies should see that the advertisements are only realistic so that the people are not cheated by the commercial houses.
Several organs of mass media like televisions, radio, newspapers, internet etc. are very useful in the dissemination of knowledge that is in 183
educating the public. Education through mass media is gaining grounds these days. Mass media both electronic and print media should find out and implement methods to make their programmes more education oriented.
The country‟s population accounts for 540 million youth, but many are not fortunate to get into the higher education system. The education through mass media could partially fulfil the aspirations of the unfortunate youth. Also the mass media should help the educated youth take up entrepreneurship rather than waiting for employment.
Now-a-days the electronic media like internet are abused extensively in terms of eve-teasing, e-crimes etc. The governments and the media agencies must sit together and evolve strategies to desist from such malpractices.
Youth power if harnessed in the right direction will expedite India‟s progress. Our country‟s march to become an economic super-power by
2020 depends on the utilization of the enormous potential of the youth.
______
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JOURNALS
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Vidushi Media Regulation: Strengthening Democracy for an Equitable and Just Society Social Action. A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 2007, 57: 338. ____ QUESTIONNAIRE
A Critical Study on the Socio-economic, Behavioural, Perceptional and Academic Impact of Mass Media on the College Youth with a Special Reference to Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu
PART - A PERSONAL DATA
1. Age :
2. Sex : Male / Female
3. Educational Qualification : UG / Arts / Science PG / Arts / Science
4. The course undergoing now :
5. Whether Hosteller or Day Scholar : Hosteller / Day Scholar
6. Religion : Hindu / Christian / Muslim / Others
7. Type of Family : Joint / Nuclear
8. Family Size :
9. Annual Income of the Family :
10. Annual expenditure towards education :
11. Annual expenditures towards purchase of books, newspapers, magazines etc. :
12. Type of Community : Rural / Urban
13. Type of College : Rural College / Semi Urban College/ Urban College
191
PART-B GENERAL INFORMATION Kindly read the following and for each question please tick () the response which suits your opinion most appropriately. 1. What are the newspapers you read regularly? ( ) a) The Hindu b) The New Indian Express c) Dinamalar d) Dinathanthi e) Dinaboomi f) Dinakaran g) Dinamani h) Malai Murasu i) Malai Malar j) Any other 2. What are the magazines you read regularly? ( ) a) India Today b) Front Line c) The Week d) Out Look e) Health f) News Week g) Computer Today h) Sport Star i) Competition Success j) G. K. Today k) Femina l) Fantasy m) Any other 3. What are the T.V. Channels you watch regularly? ( ) a) Sun TV b) Raj TV c) Vijay TV d) Zee TV e) M TV f) Star Movies g) Home TV h) Asianet i) Star Sports j) ESPN k) ATN l) Discovery m) National Geographic n) V Channel o) Cartoon Network p) Animal Planet q) Doordarshan r) BBC s) Fashion TV t) Others (specify) 4. How many hours do you watch TV every day? ( ) a) Less than 2 hr b) 2 to 4 hr c) 4-6 hr d) 6-8 hr e) more than 8 hr 5. What are the programmes you watch on the TV? ( ) a) Children based b) Serials c) Movies d) Sports e) Quiz f) Competitions g) Music h) Religious i) Comedy j) Documentaries k) Others (specify) 6. What are the areas you browse on the internet? ( ) a) Commercial (dot.com) b) Educational c) Chatting d) e-mail e) Entertainment f) Others (specify) 192
PART-C BEHAVIOUR AND ATTITUDES
Read the following statements and encircle any number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 given next to each statement which corresponds to your opinion most appropriately. The numbers indicate: - Strongly Agree, - Agree, - Undecided, - Disagree, - Strongly Disagree
1. The portrayal of violence and sex through the media does not lead to immoral 1 2 3 4 5 behaviour among college youth.
2. Suicidal attempts committed by college youth at times of failure could be attributed 1 2 3 4 5 to mass media.
3. The aggressive (rebellious) behaviour of college youth could be attributed to mass 1 2 3 4 5 media.
4. Mass media negatively influence the moral strength and good manners of college 1 2 3 4 5 youth.
PART-D PERSONAL AND SOCIAL LIFE
Read the following statements and encircle the correct response category which suits your opinion most appropriately. The response categories indicate the following: - Strongly Agree, - Agree, - Undecided, - Disagree, - Strongly Disagree
1. Media has improved the learning abilities and skills of college youth. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Mass media enhances the creativity of college youth. 1 2 3 4 5
3. The dressing habits of college youth are influenced by mass media. 1 2 3 4 5 193
4. The internet has decreased the number of friends among the college youth. 1 2 3 4 5
5. The time spent on games and sports by college youth has been considerably 1 2 3 4 5 reduced by TV and Internet.
6. The involvement of college youth in anti- social activities could be attributed to the 1 2 3 4 5 mass media.
7. Advertisements on the media force the college youth to buy the expensive 1 2 3 4 5 products even when they cannot afford.
8. College youth today prefer a cheap paper back with a spine chilling picture on the 1 2 3 4 5 cover page.
9. Talk shows, debates, discussions, interviews on sex related topics on the 1 2 3 4 5 media have spoilt the college youth.
10. Great personalities on the media inspire the college youth. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Mass media has made socialization easier among college youth and teachers. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Cinema helps the college youth in forgetting their worries and failures and 1 2 3 4 5 thus helps them to change for the better.
13. Media helps the college youth in taking major decisions in life. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Mass media help in the spiritual growth of the college youth. 1 2 3 4 5 194
15. Media inculcates higher standards and teach true values of life. 1 2 3 4 5
16. One of the factors for college youth to become aggressive is the telecast of world 1 2 3 4 5 wrestling federation on the media.
PART-E ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Read the following statements and encircle the correct response category for each mass media that suits your opinion most appropriately in the space provided against each statement. The response categories indicate the following: - Strongly Agree, - Agree, - Undecided, - Disagree, - Strongly Disagree
1. The college students use to spend more time on:
Magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Books 1 2 3 4 5 Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 Internet 1 2 3 4 5 T.V. 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema 1 2 3 4 5 2. Which one affects the interest in study and mood to study:
Magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Books 1 2 3 4 5 Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 Internet 1 2 3 4 5 T.V. 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema 1 2 3 4 5 3. Which has contributed to the good academic performance of college youth:
Magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Books 1 2 3 4 5 Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 Internet 1 2 3 4 5 T.V. 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema 1 2 3 4 5 195
4. Which corrupts the minds of college youth more and thus affects their academic performance: Magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Books 1 2 3 4 5 Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 Internet 1 2 3 4 5 T.V. 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema 1 2 3 4 5 5. Those college youth who are addicted to pornography show poor academic results: Magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Books 1 2 3 4 5 Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 Internet 1 2 3 4 5 T.V. 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema 1 2 3 4 5 6. Absenteeism among college youth could be attributed to the mass media:
Magazines 1 2 3 4 5 Books 1 2 3 4 5 Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 Internet 1 2 3 4 5 T.V. 1 2 3 4 5 Cinema 1 2 3 4 5
PART-F GENERAL PERCEPTIONS Read the following statements and encircle the number 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 given next to each statement which correspond to your opinion most appropriately. The numbers indicate: - Strongly Agree, - Agree, - Undecided, - Disagree, - Strongly Disagree 1. Mass media has brought about a revolutionary change in the attitude of 1 2 3 4 5 women towards work.
2. If one keeps company with good writers and producers, he is recognized as a 1 2 3 4 5 person of worth. 196
3. Television has a powerful role in entertaining the elderly, lonely, house 1 2 3 4 5 bound and thus strengthens family life.
4. In the absence of family peers and school friends, television and magazines have 1 2 3 4 5 become the most compatible substitute for counselling.
5. Mass media have led to enormous advancement in the field of business and 1 2 3 4 5 education.
6. Mass media are capable of moulding the minds of the viewers. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Mass media is an important tool for improving the talents and moral strengths 1 2 3 4 5 of college youth.
8. Mass media plays a major role in initiating social change. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Tele-serials of the televisions cause difference of opinion among the family 1 2 3 4 5 members and create unnecessary family problems.
10. Mass media keeps a person well-informed about the society only through various 1 2 3 4 5 news reports.
11. The portrayal of violence has created too many terrorists in our country. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Well established magazines and newspapers frequently use sex and 1 2 3 4 5 sensationalism to build circulation and audience. 197
13. Almost all the books and magazines contain sex-related matters. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Almost all the youth turn to the exciting cinema section first and then go about 1 2 3 4 5 reading other news.
15. Books and magazines are affecting their personality and certainly not in a healthy 1 2 3 4 5 way.
16. Mass media has convinced the viewers that corruption is unavoidable in the present 1 2 3 4 5 society.
17. Mass media tend to make the viewers live in a dream world of unreality. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Due to the influence of mass media, local cultures and community traditions are fast 1 2 3 4 5 disappearing.
19. Newspapers, magazines and cinema exist today just to make money. 1 2 3 4 5
20. Mass media has brought about economic development. 1 2 3 4 5
A CRITICAL STUDY ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC, BEHAVIOURAL, PERCEPTIONAL AND ACADEMIC IMPACT OF MASS MEDIA ON THE COLLEGE YOUTH WITH A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU
Thesis submitted to BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI for the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS
By V. MOHAN KUMAR, M.Sc., MSW, MBA, M.Phil. (Ref. No. 17173/Ph.D.2/Econ/ FT/2003)
Under the guidance of Dr. R. SAMINATHARATNAM M.A., B.L., M.Phil., Ph.D., DSS Director, Management Studies, PRIST University, Tiruchirappalli
PG & RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS URUMU DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 019
OCTOBER 2009 ii
Dr. R. SAMINATHA RATNAM, M.A., B.L., M.Phil., Ph.D., D.S.S. [Formerly Reader & Head, PG and Research Department of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Trichy] Director, Management Studies PRIST University Tiruchirappalli ______
Date:
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “A Critical Study on the Socio- economic, Behavioural, Perceptional and Academic Impact of Mass Media on the College Youth with a Special Reference to Tiruchirappalli District,
Tamil Nadu” submitted to the Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics is a bonafide and original work done by Mr. V. MOHAN KUMAR, during the period 2003-2008 under my supervision and guidance.
The thesis has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the award of any Degree, Diploma, Associateship, Fellowship, or any other Title.
Dr. R. SAMINATHA RATNAM Guide iii
V. MOHAN KUMAR, M.Sc., MSW, MBA, M.Phil. Research Scholar Post Graduate & Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Kattur, Tiruchirapalli 620 019.
DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis entitled, “A Critical Study on the Socio- economic, Behavioural, Perceptional and Academic Impact of Mass Media on the College Youth with a Special Reference to Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu” has been originally carried out by me at the Post-Graduate and Research Department of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli under the guidance and supervision of Dr. R. Saminatha Ratnam, Research Supervisor, Director, Management Studies, PRIST University, Tiruchirappalli Campus, Tiruchirappalli and that it has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any Degree, Diploma, Associateship and Fellowship.
Place : Tiruchirappalli Signature of the Candidate
Date :
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researcher acknowledges his deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. Dr. R. Saminatharatnam, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., B.L.,
D.S.S., Guide and Director, Management Studies, PRIST University,
Tiruchirappalli Campus, Tiruchirappalli for his valuable guidance and support in pursuing this research work. His continuous and constant encouragement has enabled the researcher to sustain the spirit and enthusiasm always at a high level. The researcher deems it a great pleasure and rare privilege for having got the wonderful opportunity of doing research under his supervision. In this context, the researcher does not find adequate words to express his depth of gratitude surging in his mind.
The researcher thanks whole heartedly to Mrs. Pushpavalli Vajravelu,
BA, for emitting moral support.
The researcher thanks the Management and the Principal, Urumu
Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli for permitting him to do research as a part-time scholar.
The researcher is highly indebted to Dr. K. Shanmugavadivel,
Department of Statistics, St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli for helping him in statistical analysis and interpretation of results and to Dr. G.
Sathiyan, MSW, Ph.D., Lecturer, Bharathidasan University for all kinds of suggestion. v
The researcher‟s special thanks are due to Dr. A. Sebastiyan, Dean of Sciences and Humanities, MAM College of Engineering and Technology,
Tiruchirappalli for the successful completion of the work in all respects; Mr.
P. Soundara Rajan, Lecturer and to all the faculty members of Economics
Department, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College for their valuable suggestions and help.
The researcher is thankful to Dr. M. Chelladurai, Lecturer in
Economics and S. Thiruvenkataratnam, Lecturer in Social Work for their kind help in the successful completion of survey and analysis of the data.
The researcher acknowledges Mr. S. Jesudoss, St. Joseph's College,
Tiruchirappalli for having typed the manuscript neatly.
The researcher owes his gratitude to the Chancellor of PRIST
University, the staff of the PRIST University Library; St. Joseph's College
Library; District Central Library and Bharathidasan University Library,
Tiruchirappalli.
The researcher wishes to express his profound gratitude to his parents, wife and friends for their encouragement, sacrifice and blessings.
The researcher must thank God Almighty for all the blessings He has showered on the researcher for the successful completion of his work.
V. MOHAN KUMAR
CONTENTS
Chapter Page Title № №
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 40
III. PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA 72
IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 93
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 167
BIBLIOGRAPHY 184
QUESTIONNAIRE 190
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page Title № № 2.1 Unemployment Rates by Age-Group (1999-2000) 43 2.2 Male Unemployment Rate (General and Youth) Rural and Urban 44 3.1 Administrative Set up of Tiruchirappalli District 76 3.2 Courses Offered in St. Joseph‟s College 80 3.3 Courses Offered in Jamal Mohamed College 84 3.4 Courses Offered in National College 87 3.5 Courses Offered in Urumu Dhanalakshmi College 90 3.6 Courses Offered in Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College 91 3.7 Courses Offered in Kurinji College of Arts and Science 92 4.1 Age Distribution of Respondents 93 4.2 Distribution of Respondents on the basis of Sex 95 4.3 Fields of Study of Respondents 95 4.4 Modes of Stay of the Respondents 96 4.5 Distribution of Respondents on the basis of Religion 96 4.6 Types of Families of Respondents 98 4.7 Sizes of Families of Respondents 98 4.8 Classification of Respondents on the basis of Community 100 4.9 Types of Colleges where Respondents did UG Courses 101 4.10 Distribution of Annual Income of Respondent Households 103 4.11 Distribution of Educational Expenditure of the Respondents 104 4.12 Preference of Mass Media by respondents 105 4.13 Choice of Newspapers by the Respondents 107 4.14 Magazines Preferred by the Respondents 110 4.15 Television Channels Watched by the Respondents 112 viii
Table Page Title № № 4.16 Hours Spent on Watching Television by Respondents 113 4.17 Major Television Programmes Watched by the Respondents 114 4.18 Areas Browsed on Internet by Respondents 116 4.19 Beneficiaries of Mass Media Information on Job 119 4.20 Career Guidance Extended by Mass Media 120 4.21 Effectiveness and Economic Growth Rendered by Mass Media 123 Advertisements 4.22 Cross tabulation 124 4.23 Chi-Square Test 125
4.24 Null Hypotheses Framed, 2 Values Calculated and Conclusions 126 Arrived 4.25 Behaviour and Attitudes of Respondents 129 4.26 Model Summary for Behaviour and Attitudes 130 4.27 ANOVA Results 130 4.28 Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients 131 4.29 Personal and Social Life 133 4.30 Model Summary for Personal and Social Life 135 4.31 ANOVA 136 4.32 Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients 137 4.33 General Perceptions 139 4.34 Model Summary for General Perceptions on Effects of Mass Media 141 4.35 ANOVA Results 142 4.36 Standardized and Unstandardized Coefficients 143 4.37 Contribution of Mass Media to the Good Academic Performance 146 4.38 The Extent to which Mass Media Corrupt the Minds of the College 148 Youth 4.39 Effect of Mass Media Towards Absenteeism 150 ix
Table Page Title № № 4.40 Academic Performance and Sex-related Pornographic Programmes 151 4.41 Mean Ranking and Mode of Stay 152 4.42 Test Statistics 153 4.43 Mean Ranking for Mood and Interest to Study 154 4.44 Kruskal Wallis Test Statistics 154 4.45 Correlation between the Four Dimensions 156 4.46 KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy 157 4.47 Total Variance Explained 158 4.48 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings 159 4.49 Rotated Component Matrix 160 4.50 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 162 4.51 Total Variance Explained 163 4.52 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings 164 4.53 Rotated Component Matrix 165
______
LIST OF CHARTS
Chart Page Title № №
1 Age Distribution of Respondents 94
2. Distribution of Respondents on the basis of Religion 97
3. Sizes of Families of Respondents 99
4. Types of Colleges where Respondents did UG Courses 102
5. Preference of Mass Media by Respondents 106
6. Choice of Newspapers by the Respondents 108
7. Magazines Preferred by the Respondents 111
8. Major Television Programmes Watched by the Respondents 115
9. Areas Browsed on Internet by Respondents 118
10. Career Guidance Extended by Mass Media 121
11. Contribution of Mass Media to the Good Academic Performance 147
12. The Extent to which Mass Media Corrupt the Minds of the 149 College Youth
______
Chapter - I
INTRODUCTION
Chapter - II review of literature
Chapter - III
PROFILE
OF THE STUDY AREA
Chapter - IV
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Chapter - V
summary & conclusion
BIBLIOGRAPHY
QUESTIONNAIRE