The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol
Peter E Lewis
Figure 1. A double centenionalis of Magnentius. The reverse shows the chi-rho monogram formed by intersecting the first two letters, X (Ch) and P (R), of the Greek word for Christ.
By looking at the coins from the period officially Christian. 250 to 400 AD we can see how the chi-rho Historians of the time give differing monogram rose to prominence as a Christian accounts of what happened on the day symbol, and we can make a reasonable and night before the battle. According reconstruction of what actually happened to the fifth-century historian Socrates1, on the eve of the battle of the Milvian Constantine saw in the afternoon sky a Bridge. Constantine became the ruler of pillar of light in the form of a cross on the whole Roman Empire and because he which was inscribed, ‘In this conquer’. tolerated all religions, Christianity was able He asked if those around him could see to spread openly throughout the empire. the cross and they replied that they could. Constantine I, the ruler of what is now During the night Christ appeared to him in England and France, invaded Italy in 312 a dream and told him to make a standard AD in order to defeat Maxentius, the ruler according to the pattern he had been shown. of Rome, whom Constantine accused of The fourth-century historian Eusebius2, being a tyrant. A great battle ensued at gives a similar account; but according the Milvian Bridge on the Tiber River to the fifth-century historian Sozomen3, just north of the city and Constantine was when Constantine saw the vision of a victorious. As he had apparently embraced cross shining in the sky, ‘some holy angels Christianity just before the battle, the who were standing nearby exclaimed: “O whole Roman Empire eventually became Constantine! By this sign conquer!’”4
19 Peter E Lewis
Figure 2. Follis of Constantine.
Figure 3. Centenionalis of Vetranio.
The standard that Constantine was by P (R). Just above the cross beam commanded to make was called by the and below the wreath was a gold half- Romans, the labarum, a word of unknown length portrait of the emperor and his meaning, which Professor Jones5 suggests children. This portrait was probably a later might be of Gallic or Spanish origin. The addition to the original labarum. The gold labarum appears on a coin of Constantine wreath and portrait are not shown on the (Figure 2) and from time to time on coins simplified form of the labarum that we see of his successors till the fifth century. on Constantine’s coin. After Constantine According to Eusebius6, who actually the labarum appears on coins in a modified saw the labarum in Constantine’s palace form where the chi-rho monogram is some years later, it consisted of a pole contained in a square or rectangle (Figure with a cross beam on which was hung a 3). Probably the labarum in Figure 2 is square of cloth embroidered with precious Constantine’s personal standard, whereas stones (perhaps represented by the three the chi-rho symbol in a square on top of a dots that we see on Constantine’s coin) legionary standard is the military one. and on top of which was fixed a wreath of In his book, Constantine the Great, John gold surrounding the chi-rho monogram, Holland Smith7 argues that the accounts which consisted of the first two letters of given by Sozomen, Eusebius and Socrates the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (CHRISTOS, are highly unlikely to be true accounts of Christ), the letter X (CH) being intersected what happened. He says there would not
20 The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol have been time on the morning of the battle The language that Constantine spoke was to make the elaborate labarum, which was Latin and although he had a smattering of probably made at a later date. He says that Greek it is unlikely that he was familiar the earliest and most credible version of with the chi-rho monogram as a symbol what happened is that of Lactantius8, a of Christ. Christian historian who wrote his account In order to understand the background of of the events about a year later.9 He says Constantine and his men on the eve of the that during the night before the battle, battle of the the Milvian Bridge we need to look at some of the coins that circulated Constantine was directed in a dream to in Britannia and Gaul in the preceding cause the heavenly sign to be marked decades. A prominent deity on coins at this on the shields of his soldiers, and so time was Sol, the sun-god. He appears on proceed to battle. He did as he had coins very infrequently until 198 AD when been commanded, and marked on their after Roman campaigns in the East, the shields the letter X with a perpendicular cult of Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun, line through it, turned over at the top, was brought to Rome. It was particularly this being the monogram of Christ.10 popular with the soldiers, and there is evidence that this cult was syncretised Even in pre-Christian times11 the chi-rho with that of Mithras, which had also monogram had been used as an abbreviation come from the East. In the cave-temples for the Greek letters, χ ρ, whenever they of Mithras which were often near Roman occurred at the beginning of a word, and forts, especially on the northern frontiers quite a number of Greek words began with along the Rhine and Danube, inscriptions these letters (e.g. chrusion, gold). It has such as SOL INVICTVS MITHRAS have also been found in third-century Christian been found, indicating that Sol Invictus inscriptions in Asia Minor12, and it is and Mithras were considered to be the possible that it had made its way to Gaul same deity. Mithraism was a mystery cult and become a familiar symbol of Christ whose secrets, which included promise there by about 300 AD; but the monogram of life after death, were revealed only to would have been properly understood only initiates. Mithras protected the righteous by those who could read Greek. Irenaeus, and fought against the evil powers in the the bishop of Lugdunum (Lyons) in Gaul world, and was therefore the god of battles in about 185 AD, who had come from Asia and victory. No wonder he was popular Minor, wrote in Greek and would have among the soldiers, whose lives must have been one of the few educated people in been very precarious at this time! that area to understand it, apart from high- The legends that are found with the Sol ranking military officers who were often type include ORIENS AVG (the rising quite well educated. But the period before of the Augustus), SOLI INVICTO (to Constantine had been one of persecution the unconquered sun), and just simply of Christians, especially under Diocletian, INVICTVS (unconquered). The latter and the use of Christian symbols in any occurs on one of the common coins of overt way would have been dangerous. Victorinus (268-270 AD) who ruled
21 Peter E Lewis
Figure 4. Reverse of a follis Figure 5. Reverse of an Figure 6. Reverse of a follis of Fausta. antonin-ianus of Victorinus. of Constantine. the Gallic empire until assassinated in lines that intersect at a central point. Its Cologne (Figure 5). On this coin we see significance is unknown, but it is not a Sol advancing to the left with a whip. He Christian symbol at this time. Secondly, is preceded by a star in the left field. The there is the coin issued in 324 AD that has significance of the star is unknown. It may on the reverse a watch tower over which a represent the planet Mars, the war-god of prominent star shines (Figure 6). Could this the standard Greco-Roman pantheon, or star be a symbol of Sol Invictus Mithras the morning star, which precedes Sol as he protecting the tower? Thirdly, there are rises every morning in the eastern sky; or it the coins that were issued from about 316 may simply represent the sun. It probably to 321, which show Sol presenting Victory had special significance in the cult of to Constantine, Sol crowning Constantine, Sol Invictus Mithras because astrology and Sol standing. The last coin has the was very important in its doctrine.13 If legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI (to the we look at the coins that Constantine unconquered sun, companion14; Figure issued from London during the two years 7). Finally there is the magnificent solidus before 312 AD we see that Sol was still a minted at Ticinium in northern Italy in 313 prominent type, which leaves little doubt AD. The reverse shows Sol in a chariot that Constantine was at this time a devotee being crowned by Victory. The chariot is of Sol Invictus Mithras. a beautifully stylised one with prancing Before returning to the eve of the battle horses. Notice especially the spoked of the Milvian Bridge let us look briefly at wheels (Figure 8). The reverse legend is some of the coins that Constantine issued SOLI INVICTO AETERNO AVG (to the at various times after he had won the battle unconquered sun eternal Augustus). All and become ruler of the whole Roman these coins demonstrate that Constantine Empire. First there are the coins that certainly did not abandon the sun-god after have on the obverse the head of Fausta, the battle of the Milvian Bridge. Constantine’s wife, or the head of Helena, Constantine entered Italy via the Mount his mother. They were issued in 318 AD and Cenis Pass, and before doing so, his army have on the reverse an eight-pointed star in would have traversed the Lugdunum area, a wreath (Figure 4). The star on these coins a region that was one of the earliest and is very precisely made and consists of four strongest centres of Christianity in the
22 The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol
Figure 7. Reverse of a follis of Figure 8. Reverse of a solidus of Constantine. Constantine. western part of the Roman Empire. In 177 these very superstitious men would have AD under the emperor Marcus Aurelius been readying themselves by marking a large number of Christians had been their shields and perhaps even their bodies martyred at Lugdunum. Whether or not with symbols of that cult, although their Constantine was aware of this as he made shields may already have displayed such his way into Italy we do not know; but we symbols as permanent fixtures. Even the can be sure that many of the soldiers who Christians may have marked their shields were marching with him were Christians. with pagan symbols because many of them Diocletian in 302 AD had tried to purge would have had a syncretistic attitude to the army of Christians, which suggests religion; but more probably the Christians that many of the soldiers had converted to were reluctant to join their fellow soldiers Christianity. There may even have been a in using these symbols and this uneasiness bishop, Hosius of Cordova, in Constantine’s would have been detected by the officers. retinue, whose function was presumably to Let us consider what the shields of advise Constantine about Christian matters. Constantine’s soldiers might have looked The majority of the soldiers, however, like on the morning of the battle, before would have been pagans from the areas they were marked by Constantine. We under Constantine’s control and from the know from his coins that they were oval tribes of southern Germany. As the army and that they had a knob in the centre moved southwards to confront the forces (Figure 9). This knob is very important. of Maxentius, Constantine felt uneasy. It was of metal, probably bronze, which He knew that the army of Maxentius was would have had a bright yellow, shiny much larger than his. He told several appearance, like the sun. Anyone putting witnesses15 that he was tired, confused markings on the shield would have to and anxious. He probably could not sleep take this ‘sun’ into account. A possible on the night before the battle. marking is, of course, a simple circle At that time most of the soldiers of drawn around the knob to represent the Constantine would have been depending solar disc, but this is a rather bland symbol, on Sol Invictus Mithras to help them, and and something with radiating arms would
23 Peter E Lewis be much more exciting. Accordingly, the process of syncretism. Thor was equated most likely symbol to have been on the with Jupiter by the Romans because of his shields of Constantine’s soldiers was some association with thunder. Like Sol, Thor sort of sunwheel (Figure 10). had a chariot and according to Teutonic Sunwheels had been used as symbols mythology it was the rolling of its wheels of the sun in northern Europe from very on the vault of heaven that made the sound ancient times. They can be seen on Celtic of thunder. Pennick17 describes ‘Jupiter coins (Figure 12). According to Nigel Columns’ in Germany where Jupiter is Pennick16 the sunwheel originated in a depicted as the god with the wheel. On type of halo phenomenon that can occur one column he carries a wheel as a shield. when the sun shines through airborne ice Pennick18 says that by themselves, wheels crystals, and four or more reflections of the appear as an attribute of the thunder-and- sun appear in a circle around the sun, which lightning god, Taranis, ‘The Thunderer’, radiates beams of light to these reflected whom the Romans assimilated with suns, forming a cross pattern with the sun Jupiter. Cumont19 gives us the additional in the centre. This type of meteorological information that in the region of the Rhine phenomenon should not be confused with the Celtic divinities were worshipped in the simple halo phenomenon that occurs the crypts of the Persian god, Mithras, or fairly commonly all over the world. Such at least alongside them. a halo phenomenon as Pennick describes So it seems that the symbol of Sol might have been seen by Constantine and Invictus Mithras that was most likely to his soldiers as they traversed the Mount have been on the shields of Constantine’s Cenis Pass, but it is very unlikely that it soldiers on the morning of the battle would occur in Italy. The usual form of was some sort of sunwheel. The shields sunwheel has four spokes, but the number probably also had simple slogans written varies. The radiate markings on the shields on them, and because most of the men may not have been enclosed in a circle as were illiterate, the spelling and formation on the sunwheel, in which case they would of the letters would have left a lot to be have looked like a star; but Eusebius desired. Because space was limited on the describes the chi-rho on Constantine’s shields only simple terms would have been standard as being in a wreath, which used and the simplest would have been suggests the sunwheel form. the one that Victorinus used on his coin: Another possible marking is a swastika, INVICTVS, and even this was probably which was the sign of Thor, the Teutonic abbreviated to INVIC, an abbreviation god of war. According to Tacitus (65- that we find on coins of Carus 282-283 120 AD) the Germans invoked Thor and AD. Possible markings on a shield before chanted his praises when they marched the battle of the Milvian Bridge are shown into battle. By 300 AD, however, his cult in Figure 11. There may have been some was probably overshadowed or assimilated meteorological phenomenon in the sky on by that of Sol Invictus Mithras, at least in an afternoon sometime before the battle the Roman army. At this time the religions of the Milvian Bridge, and it would have of northern Europe were undergoing a been perceived as a favourable sign from
24 The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol
Figure 9. Æ 3 of Constantine. Figure 10. Two sunwheels
Figure 11. Possible markings on shield. Figure 12. Celtic coin c.40 BC.
a god, but the god most likely to have own sign of power and unity. When the been recognised as its creator would have event was later commemorated on coins been Sol Invictus Mithras, at least for issued by Vetranio in 350 AD, the legend the majority of those who saw it. A more reads HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS (in likely scenario is that when Constantine this sign you will be the victor; Figure 13). saw the sunwheel on the shields (the sun ‘Victor’ was Constantine’s favourite title in the sky) an idea came to him, perhaps for himself. On a gold medallion struck during the night, or more likely some of by Constantine at Ticinium in 312 AD his Christian officers or advisers (‘some after the battle of the Milvian Bridge, the holy angels standing by’) suggested it to legend has INVICTVS (Sol’s characteristic him. By simply adding a loop to one of the epithet) as Constantine’s prenomen. The spokes, the symbol could represent both medallion shows jugate busts of Constantine Sol Invictus Mithras and Christ. Moreover and Sol with Constantine holding a shield the letters scrawled on the shield could ornamented with Sol’s chariot. be an abbreviation for INVICTVS or IN With the small addition to the sunwheel, [HOC] VINC[E] (in this conquer). The everyone would have been satisfied. Those combined symbol became Constantine’s Christians who could not compromise
25 Peter E Lewis their faith by acknowledging another The soldiers would have been familiar god could accept the symbol as being with the word PAX because Pax as a exclusively Christian. Those Christians type was common on coins of Carausius who were syncretistic in their attitude (287-293 AD), Allectus (293-296 AD) would have been happy to acknowledge and other rulers of the region.21 On Sol as an aspect of Christ. That there these coins PAX is shown as PΛX. The were such Christians is shown by the Christians in the army would have been pictures in Rome that portray Christ as particularly satisfied with this explanation the sun-god. For the devotees of Sol because their aim was to bring justice and Invictus Mithras their religion was already peace to the world, and they would have a syncretistic one, and they would have understood this as Christ’s peace. The been pleased to absorb Christ who, like Spanish bishop, Hosius, might have been Mithras, promised life after death and involved in these machinations because fought for the righteous against evil. Being according to Sozomen, Constantine in the last group, Constantine’s attitude called ‘the priests of Christ’ to him at would also have been syncretistic20, as daybreak and questioned them about their revealed by the coins he issued after teachings, which they expounded in some 312 AD. But by tolerating the Christians, detail. But it is unlikely that this occurred Constantine allowed them to become very because Eusebius, the fourth-century influential in the affairs of the empire so church historian, does not mention it in that within about ten years of the battle his account. of the Milvian Bridge all references to Some editions22 of Lactantius give other gods disappear from the coinage a different description of the sign that to be replaced by types that seem to be Constantine marked on the soldiers’ promoting Christianity. Such a coin is the shields: a simple X with one of the top one that was produced by certain mints arms looped over into a P. This symbol during the period 330 to 346 AD. It shows, occasionally occurs on coins, e.g. on the not Sol, but a winged Victory (later to be standard that Constantius II holds on the seen as an angel) standing on the prow reverse of a centenionalis issued in about of a vessel travelling left, and instead of 348-350 AD (Figure 14). To those who a star in the left field, the chi-rho symbol knew Latin this would have looked like a (Figure 9). monogram of PAX, not a monogram of the An objection to this theory could be Greek name of Christ. Lactantius spoke made on the grounds that even if a loop and wrote in Latin, and it is tempting to was added to a six-pointed star, the symbol think that the monogram of PAX was would still not mean anything to most of intended for the Latin West, while the the soldiers who, as well as their native chi-rho monogram was intended for the language, might have known Latin, but Greek East. A simple cross without a loop not Greek. A possible way around this may have been too nondescript a symbol objection is to suppose that, for them, the for the Christians at this time, or more chi-rho monogram was interpreted as a likely it was already a symbol of the sun monogram of the Latin word, PAX, peace. god23; and a cross with an elongated
26 The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol
Figure 13. Reverse of a follis of Figure 14. Reverse of a Vetranio. centenio-nalis of Constantius II. lower arm was probably an unacceptable sign) and ‘IHS’, which was an abbreviation sign because crucifixion was still being for the name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ (IESOUS, Jesus). used as a method of execution. This latter This abbreviation for Jesus is found in sign did not appear on coins until the fifth the earliest Greek manuscripts of the New century, many years after crucifixion had Testament from the second century, and been banned. In any case the six-armed one wonders if Constantine might have form of Constantine’s symbol became been attempting to hijack it for his own dominant and this is the form that we ideological purposes, so that instead of usually see on the coins of Constantine people thinking of the name of Jesus when and his successors. they saw these letters they would think of Another explanation for the develop- Constantine’s vision and the way he was ment of this form of the chi-rho symbol divinely inspired in his actions. (a simple cross with a loop at the top) is Whether Constantine ever really that it derived from the Egyptian ‘ankh’ became a Christian or whether he simply sign. This sign was originally a hieroglyph acted expediently, is debatable. All that meaning ‘life’. The Egyptian cult of Isis Constantine did was add a loop. The became popular in the Roman Empire and loop, of course, was simply a retrograde it is possible that its symbolism influenced ‘C’, the first letter in ‘Constantine’. The the subsequent shape of Constantine’s labarum was a standard to be held aloft symbol, but it is unlikely that the four- before Constantine’s advancing army and armed form was the original one because the symbol on it could be viewed from when the symbol first appeared on either side. So, did the opposing army see Constantine’s coins it was the six-armed the letter P (Greek R) intersected by X form. Perhaps the two forms of the chi-rho (Greek CH), or did they see a sunwheel symbol arose because some of the shields (symbol of Sol Invictus Mithras) with of Constantine’s soldiers had sunwheels the letter ‘C’ (for Constantine) attached to with four spokes and some had sunwheels the top spoke of the wheel? Conversely, with six spokes. did Constantine’s advancing army see the Then there is the analogy24 between combined symbol of Constantine and the Constantine’s phrase, ‘In Hoc Signo’ (in this sun-god, or did they see the monogram of
27 Peter E Lewis
Christ? Historians, looking back over the sun or the evening star. Whatever it was, centuries, have seen only the monogram Julian intended to bring astrology back of Christ. into religion. Stars appear on the coins of If the labarum had not existed at the Procopius, Julian’s relative, who tried to battle of the Milvian Bridge, as some seize control after Julian’s death in 363 scholars have suggested, what did AD. Like Julian, Procopius was probably Constantine mark on his soldier’s shields? sympathetic to paganism and his coins Was it a monogram of Christ or did he show star or sun symbols as well as the simply modify the existing symbols of the chi-rho symbol. On the reverse of a Æ 3 sun god? By adding the loop to the sun- (RIC IX 2b) Procopius leans on a shield wheel Constantine probably intended to and holds a standard, but the three crossed create his own personal symbol, and in the lines on the standard do not have a loop process to hijack the powerful symbolism at the top (Figure 15). Where the lines of Sol Invictus Mithras. One suspects intersect there is a small knob, which that the symbol was given a Christian could be either a star or the sun. These interpretation only after the battle of the coins have a chi-rho symbol in the upper Milvian Bridge when the numbers and right field and the designs on the shield strength of the Christians became apparent vary. The shield may be plain with just because of Constantine’s toleration of a knob in the centre, it may show wavy them. Mark Dunning25 considers that as lines and dots, but most commonly there far as the mostly illiterate population was is a star pattern, which may resemble an concerned, the Christian meaning of the aeroplane propeller (Figure 15) or consist chi-rho symbol would have been spread simply of three crossed lines (Figure 16) by the clergy and the imperial family and as on the standard. Even though Procopius that, if not from the start, the XP on Roman rose to power 53 years after the battle of coins was soon understood to be a Christian the Milvian Bridge, it is significant that he symbol. At a later date when Christianity issued a coin showing this star symbol, i.e. was becoming the dominant religion the chi-rho minus the loop. This shows that of the empire, Constantine considered the symbol was not meaningless without it advantageous to relate the story as the loop; but exactly what it signified is recorded by the Christian historians, who unknown although it was almost certainly would not have wanted to record what had connected with the cult of Sol Invictus really happened. Mithras. At a later date the symbol When the pagan Julian II became consisting of three intersecting lines was emperor in 361 AD he issued a large interpreted by Christians as the star that bronze coin showing a bull with two stars appeared over Bethlehem at Jesus’ birth, above. Scholars have suggested that the or as a monogram for Jesus (I) Christ bull might be a sacrificial animal or the (X). The standard abbreviation for Jesus Egyptian Apis bull, but the bull’s horns Christ that appears on early Christian form an obvious crescent indicating a manuscripts and Byzantine coins is IC XC connection with the moon, in which case with a bar above each pair of letters. the star above its horns would be the The theory that Constantine simply added
28 The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol
Figure 15. Reverse of a Æ 3 of Procopius. Figure 16. Reverse of a Æ 3 of Procopius. a loop to the sun symbol that was already this period numismatists are able to see on the soldiers’ shields, is a very plausible beyond the historians’ accounts and form one. The exact form of this symbol—a their own opinions about what might have wheel, a sort of stylised star, or simply a happened on the eve of the battle of the sign in the form of two or three crossed Milvian Bridge. lines—is not known. But something must have prompted Constantine to introduce End Notes his symbol as he did. It was not a vision or a dream, and the fact that a large number of 1. Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, book 1, ch. 2. For full text,
29 Peter E Lewis vol. VII: ‘Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors 25. Mark Dunning, ‘First Christian Symbols on Died’, ch. XLIV, sect. 36. Roman Imperial Coins’, in The Celator, vol. 17, no. 11. According to Smith, op. cit., p. 103. 12 (Dec. 2003) pp. 6-27. 12. ibid. 13. Franz Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra, New Figures York, Dover, 1956 reprint of 1903 edn, p. 122. 14. The word COMES, a companion (COMITO 1. A double centenionalis of Magnentius (350- is the dative case), indicates that Constantine saw 353 AD) showing the chi-rho monogram, formed by himself as the companion of the sun-god. Grant (op. intersecting the first two letters, X (Ch) and P (R), of cit., p. 135) says that the Iranian concept of kingly the Greek word for Christ. power as trust from God or the gods had replaced 2. Obverse and reverse of a follis of Constantine the idea of actual identification with him or them. struck in 327 AD showing the labarum. RIC VII 19. As Sol’s companion, Constantine represented him. The lower end of the pole is piercing a snake, which 15. According to Smith, op. cit., p. 100. presumably represents his adversary, Licinius. 16. Nigel Pennick, The Celtic Cross, London, 3. A centenionalis of Vetranio (350 AD) showing Blandford, 1997, p. 25. the chi-rho symbol on two military standards. Notice 17. Pennick, op. cit., p. 27. the star on the obverse and reverse. Vetranio was an 18. Pennick, op. cit., p. 56. elderly general who had served under Constantine. 19. Cumont, op. cit., p. 177. 4. Reverse of a follis of Fausta showing a star 20. According to Grant (op. cit., p. 135) ‘This with eight rays in a wreath. RIC VII 51. Notice the connection with the sun made Constantine’s eventual small solar symbol at the top of the wreath. This transition to Christianity easier, because he may symbol also appears on the front of Sol’s chariot in well have believed that Christ and the Unconquered Figure 8 and on the coin in Figure 12. Sun-god were both aspects of the Highest Divinity, 5. Reverse of a copper antoninianus of Victorinus and that no mutual exclusiveness existed between showing Sol advancing with a star preceding him. them or separated them.’ Grant goes on to say, 6. Reverse of a follis of Constantine showing a ‘…in the minds of the less well informed sections of watch tower with a star above. RIC VII 24. the population, Christianity and Sun-worship were 7. Reverse of a follis of Constantine showing Sol easily and thoroughly entangled and merged.’ standing and the legend SOLI INVICTO COMITI. 21. Pax also occurs on a half-follis of Constantine, This type was issued from various mints until about where she is standing holding a military standard! 321 AD. (Van Meter 69). 8. Reverse of a solidus of Constantine minted at 22. For example, the version used in A New Ticinium in 313 AD showing the sun chariot. RIC Eusebius, edited by J Stevenson and revised by VI 113. WHC Frend (London, SPCK, 1987) p. 283. 9. Reverse of a Æ 3/4 issued during the period 23. The simple cross occurs in the reverse fields 330 to 346 AD showing Victory with a shield of some coins of Constantine, where the reverse standing on a prow with the chi-rho symbol above types are Sol crowning Constantine, or Mars. It also the point of the prow. Minted at Arles in Gaul. occurs on a rare solidus of Procopius (365-366 AD), 10. Two sunwheels. where it appears on the standard that he is holding 11. Possible markings on the shield of Constantine’s on the reverse (RIC IX 2b). Procopius was probably soldiers on the morning of the battle of the Milvian a pagan like his relative Julian II. Bridge. 24. This analogy was pointed out by George 12. A Celtic coin from about 40 BC showing a Ferguson (Signs & Symbols in Christian Art, New sunwheel between the horns of the god, Cernunnos. York, OUP, 1954, p. 150). Ferguson also points out Note the other solar symbols on the coin. They also that the letters IHS, inscribed on a sun, was the sign appear in Figures 4 and 8. that appeared to Saint Bernardino of Siena in the 13. A follis of Vetranio (350 AD). The reverse early fifteenth century. The saint used this symbol shows a figure holding the labarum and being in his Christian preaching as a symbol of Christ and crowned by Victory. The legend is HOC SIGNO he is often depicted with it in his hand. VICTOR ERIS.
30 The Origin of the Chi-Rho Monogram as a Christian Symbol
14. Reverse of a centenionalis of Constantius II showing him holding a standard with a four-armed chi-rho symbol on it. 15. Reverse of a Æ 3 of Procopius (365-366 AD) showing a standard without the chi-rho on it. Notice the propeller pattern on the shield. 16. Reverse of a Æ 3 of Procopius (365-366 AD) showing a shield with the chi-rho minus the loop.
Acknowledgements
Figure 1 is reproduced with permission from Gorny and Mosch of Munich. Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, 13 and 16 are from Classical Numismatic Group sale catalogues. Figures 2,3 and 8 are from Triton sale catalogues. Figure 9 is from Chi-Rho Ancient Coins. Figure 12 is by courtesy of the National Museum of Wales (© National Museums and Galleries of Wales).
Dr Lewis will be pleased to discuss this article via e-mail. His address is [email protected]
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