Solar Imagery and Early Christian Iconography
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Solar Imagery and Early Christian Iconography James £. Walker In 1953, excavations were begun beneath the basilica showed increasing favoritism for 1he Christians within the of St. Peter's in an anempt to find the tomb of the apostle. bureaucracy, and many Roman officials found it politi· The basilica, which had been constructed during the reign cally expedient 10 adopt 1he faith. Many or these new of Consrnntine (A. D. 306-337), appeared 10 be an ideal converts continued to worship Sol invic1us and Mithras site for digging and promised to reveal much concerning and often confused 1he historical figure of Christ within the church in the early fourth century.' The necropolis the competing theologies.' This confusion produced an was soon discovered, and a considerable number of tombs. uncertain iconography in the early church as artists at• both pagan and Christian, were unearthed. One of the tempted to portray the Christian narrative while their Christian tombs. the tomb of Julii, had on iL~ interior patrons were under the influence of competing philoso· walls, a fascinating mosaic that ponrayed Christ as the phi es concerning the nature of god. This confusion and the sun god, encircled by a rayed nimbus, in a chariot sweep· iconography that was its result is the focus of this study. ing across the heavens (Fig. I). The conflicting symbolism John Ferguson, in his excellent work' on Roman reli· in this, the earliest known Christian mosaic, provoked gions, outlines the corresponding development of the cult serious discussion among those art historians who were of the emperor with 1he worship of the sun. He points to interested in the evolution of symbolic representation in the gradual deification of the emperor beginning with early Christian art.' Augustus (27 8. C.·A. D. 14), and culminating in the reign That such a depiction should appear beneath this of Constantine, some three hundred years later. Such a important Christian basilica is significant, for it provides process, although not cominuous, appears 10 have been another example of the tenuous nature of the Christian conscious and illustrates the altempt by various emperors faith during its formative stages in the empire period. 10 solidify their hold on the people by associating them· That Christ was identified with the cult of the uncon· selves with a deity common 10 all parts or the empire. querable sun (Sol invictus) is also significant as it points to Ferguson believes that the sun was an ideal object of the political trend of the age that tended toward a syncret· imperial worship as solar cults existed throughout the ism of the various cults within the empire. This syncretism empire and had meaning for virtually all elements of had become the policy of emperors preceding Constan· Roman society.> tine and was a smuegem designed to provide the empire Early in the republican period there had been a sun with at least the semblance or religious unity. worship (Sol indiges) that had been limited to the area This politically motivated syncretism posed two very around 1he city of Rome. This cult was associated with substantial threats to the emerging Christian faith. First. a agriculture, but grew in importance under Augustus, who cult that refused 10 be integrated within the state worship constructed se,<eral shrines in its honor. Under Augustus, could only be viewed as subversive and would therefore the cult became associated with the worship or Apollo, be the object of persecutions ordered 10 counter its ex· who became the figurative symbol of the sun. In his ded· pansion. Second, there was always the danger of becom• ication to A ugustus, Vergil reflected this early associa· ing too closely associated with one of the many cults with 1ion by stating, .. Your Apollo is king a1 last;• and by 1he resultant dilution of the Christian mystery. making reference to Augustus as the .. new light over the History has shown, of course, that Christianity was world.'" able 10 survive the persecutions and, in fact, became Solar worship and its identification with the emperor stronger through lhe sacrifices of the martyrs. The second continued under Nero, who ruled fifty years later. Nero threat was much more difficult 10 overcome however, and was referred to as Apollo and had his coins engraved with early Christian history is replete with heresy as the church the radiant crown of the sun . In Greece. Nero was revered struggled to establish a theosophy consistent with the as the "new Sun-God shining on the Greeks.'• Here one teachings of Christ and free of the influences of such should probably make allowances for the excesses of dualistic faiths as Mithraism and Sol invictus. This latter fawning cour tiers; nevertheless, the sources bear witness cult and the faiths ii absorbed became the chief rival of 10 a developing relationship between the emperor and the the Christian church under Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) and cult of the sun . This association continued under succeed· Diocletian (A. D. 284-305), both of whom worshipped 1he ing rulers and ca n be clearly demonstrated by other unconquerable sun. literary sources. Under Domitian (A. D. 81 -96), and Had· T he muggle of the early Christian church to retain its rian (A. D. 117-138). we have some excellent examples. A exclusivity in an age of syncrelism was most intense dur scribe under Domitian wrote: ing the reign or Constantine (A. D. 306·337). It was during the reign of this emperor that Christianity became legit· In glory the emperor's robe of office joins the imized within the empire. After A. 0 . 313, Constantine sixteen terms accomplished: 5 the conqueror of Germany sheds splendrous on Apollo was completed" beneath the altar of St. Peter's the year he opens: which suggests at leasr a partial integration of the two he rises with the rising sun, with the mighty con· forms (Fig. I). s1ella1ions, I ha,,e previously mentioned the significant role pla)'ed shining with great brilliance. more powerful than by the Roman legions in the dissemination of eastern rhe star of the morning.' faiths in the empire. In rhc second and third centuries rhis Another author wrote twenty years later in the reign of force was instrumental in rhe inrroducrion of still another Hadrian: imp0rtan1 cult into the mainstream of Roman worship. I have just risen on high wirh Trajan in my white The popularity or Mithraism was kindled among the Ro· horsed chariot, man soldiery and rapidly became the leading worship of I come 10 you. People- you know me-Phocbus, the Roman legions. Its worship was also a11rac1ive 10 god. emperors seeking 10 s1reng1hen the imperial dignity. for it 10 proclaim Hadrian as the new ruler carried with ir ideas of divine kingship granted by the sun whom all things serve for his ability god. as the genius of his divine father. gladly.•• The cult of Mithras posited a duality of good and evil The worship or rhe sun underwent a profound trans· forces fighting to gain control of the world. It is easy to see formation early in the third century when it became as· how the legions could identify with the virile figure of sociated with the Syrian deity. Baal. A description of this Mithras. as they sought 10 extend the empire's borders god notes: through force of arms. The auraction of Mithras 10 the With beardless face he stands. his right hand population in the larger cities of 1he empire went beyond raised with a whip like a charioteer, while on his this however. Mithraism was an active faith that promised left hand he holds a thunderbolt .. the image of salvation through ritual and practiced many or the cere· the God ol Heliopolis is carried on a platform monies ccnt r.il 10 other religious groups. including Chris· . and usually the chiefs of the 1>rovincc come tianit)'. This point is illustrated b)' the Christian apologist 10 bear it with shaven head and purified by a long Justin Martyr (A. 0. 100?· 165?), who wrote: ·11tc wicked period of chas1i1y: they are guided by divine in demons have imitated the Eucharist in the mysteries or spiration and carry their burden not where they Mithras. commanding that the same thing be done.''" choose. bur where the god leads them ." In his work dealing with Roman religion. Gordon This description becomes even more interesting when Laing outlines rhe many similarities between Mi1hraism the author goes on 10 discuss Baal as Apollo. involved in and Christianity." He nores 1ha1 the birth of Mi1hras oc• the service ol the sun." In A. 0. 218. Heliogabalus. a curred in the presence of shepherds who were in apparent former servitor of Baal, became emperor in Rome and wonder at the event. A Mithraic relief of the period p0r· established the worship of Sol invicrus Elagabal. This cult trays Mithras ascending into heaven. and both cults prnc· was supported by the Roman legions as many of their ticed immersion and confirmation.'" In the western Roman numbers had embraced the dualistic philosophy of Baal. areas. Mithras was usually portrayed as the active agent of As a ma11cr of lacr. the Roman soldiery was ol paramount Sol invic1us and there are some excellent reliefs from a importance in the changing religious climate of the third Mithraeum in Rome 10 illustrate this. The reliefs have century. Their outposts in Syria and Persia often brought been sketched due 10 their poor condition and are pre· them into contact with the ancie111 Near-Eastern cults, sented elsewhere in this article. "'(Fig. 2). and these faiths gradually diffused westward 10 Rome To the man)' worshippers of Sol invictus and Mithrns.