Kia Manawanui

KIA MANAWANUI

Kaupapa Mäori Film Theoretical Framework

Angela Moewaka Barnes*

Abstract

This paper outlines key categories and elements of Kia Manawanui: Kaupapa Mäori Film Theoretical Framework, developed to interrogate film texts and shed light on the processes of Mäori film production and environments within which filmmakers operate. Kia Manawanui film theory is informed by diverse expressions of Kaupapa Mäori, Indigenous and critical media studies, discussions with Mäori filmmakers, theorists and film texts, particularly Ngati (1987), Mauri (1988) and Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Wëniti—The Mäori Merchant of Venice (2002). Six key thematic categories emerge: (1) Mäori voices, (2) Mäori worldviews and concepts, (3) collectivity and relationships, (4) responsibility and accountability, (5) challenge and resistance, and (6) transformation. The framework is not intended to provide a prescriptive or exhaustive list of categories and elements but is distilled from broader parameters to provide a Mäori-focused lens that can be applied to film texts and their production contexts.

Keywords

Kaupapa Mäori, Indigenous, film, media, representation

Introduction predominantly Eurocentric field of film studies, Indigenous understandings are vital to elucidate As a Mäori media researcher, I constantly look and develop understandings about Indigenous to Indigenous theories to inform my work. In the media and representations of indigeneity more

* Te Kapotai, Ngäpuhi-Nui-Tonu. Senior Researcher, SHORE & Whariki Research Centre, College of Health, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.20507/MAIJournal.2018.7.1.1 4 A. M. BARNES

generally. Kaupapa Mäori theory provides a Don Selwyn. The paper outlines key domains, foundation on which to build and legitimate with examples provided, to shed light on film- my work, “without genuflection to western aca- making environments, processes of filmmaking, demic disciplinary silos” (H. Moewaka Barnes, exhibition and film texts through a Mäori lens. 2008, p. 4). Kaupapa is loosely translated as Kia Manawanui was named by kaumätua Naida platform, foundation or general principles. Glavish and is both conceptual and practical. Kaupapa Mäori theory resonates with my Loosely translated, it refers to being alert and understandings of the world, allowing analyses listening to intuitions as they provide a steer that reflect who we are as Indigenous peoples that then engages with the intellect. and our hopes, experiences and aspirations. To theorise in this way is to make Mäori theoretical frameworks, worldviews and aspirations The field of Kaupapa Mäori and film explicit and uncover unequal power relations. Kaupapa Mäori theory is not purported to be There is little written research grounded in neutral or objective; my work is profoundly Kaupapa Mäori theory that examines Mäori influenced by who I am and where I am from. film and filmmaking, and the majority is found Kaupapa Mäori is linked to notions of in theses; for example, Sam Cruickshank’s mas- critique, resistance, struggle and a utopian ter’s thesis explores Kaupapa Mäori and its vision of emancipation. Early articulations of application to film. Cruickshank identifies a Kaupapa Mäori as a theory within the academy number of principles and elements related to faced opposition in regard to its legitimacy. Kaupapa Mäori, utilising them in his analyti- Nonetheless, Kaupapa Mäori theorists deter- cal examination of cinematic representations minedly argued for its relevance and validity of Mäori men. Although Cruickshank provides (e.g., Leonie Pihama, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, areas for examination, his focus is on the rep- Graham Hingangaroa Smith, Kathie Irwin resentation of Mäori men rather than elements and Helen Moewaka Barnes), and over time, of Kaupapa Mäori more broadly (Cruickshank, Kaupapa Mäori theory gained national and 2002). Grounded in Kaupapa Mäori, Leonie international significance. Helen Moewaka Pihama (1994, 2013) has spoken extensively Barnes (2008) suggests that its transformative and written about representations of Mäori power resides in the ability to both challenge in film. To cite one example, her examination and create a space “within and outside the of feature film Boy, directed by Taika Waititi academy, in the face of unequal power relation- (2010), challenges the absence of references ships” (p. 5). She suggests that, used in this way, to the effects of colonisation and marginalisa- “Kaupapa Mäori can provide a space for us to tion alongside the perpetuation of dominant work within and fend off colonising theoretical stereotypes including children left alone and invasions” (p. 5). neglected. Textual readings informed by Mäori This paper discusses the development and worldviews are provided by Ocean Mercier, application of Kia Manawanui: Kaupapa Mäori for example, by employing Mäori concepts Film Theoretical Framework (Kia Manawanui), including pöwhiri, whanaungatanga and koha which originated from my doctoral thesis (A. to interrogate Boy (Mercier, 2007, 2010) and Moewaka Barnes, 2011); it is predominantly Taika Waititi’s two short films Two Cars, informed by three historical films, Ngati One Night (T. Waititi, 2003) and Tama Tu (Barclay, 1987), Mauri (Mita, 1988) and Te (T. Waititi, 2005). Tangata Whai Rawa o Wëniti—The Mäori Little research and writing has been Merchant of Venice (Selwyn, 2002), and the conducted on the conditions of Mäori film- filmmakers Barry Barclay, Merata Mita and making—the processes and environments—and

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 7, ISSUE 1, 2018 Kia manawanui 5 how these may create barriers to or encourage Research aims and methods Mäori aspirations. Groundbreaking filmmakers Merata Mita and Barry Barclay wrote To conduct research on Mäori film, my intention about their work as filmmakers in Film in was to create a Kaupapa Mäori film theoretical Aotearoa New Zealand (Dennis & Bieringa, framework—a space to examine the path forged 1996). Barclay’s (1990/2006) seminal piece by Mäori filmmakers and their films and to Our Own Image is an important record of his elucidate and develop Mäori understandings as experiences as a Mäori filmmaker, providing a contribution to wider theoretical and media valuable insights and analyses of filmmaking debates about Indigenous representations and from a Mäori base. Documentary filmmaker creativity. This required an examination of the Kahurangi Waititi (2008) writes about her practical, political and theoretical aspects of practical application of Kaupapa Mäori in Mäori filmmaking, including the film texts. In filmmaking, challenging orthodox filmmaking conducting this work, I experienced challenges practices that promote an individual focus, to my application of Kaupapa Mäori to film as opposed to a collective worldview. This is and was questioned as to whether it fitted in extended and described in detail in her master’s the media studies discipline. thesis, Applying Kaupapa Mäori Processes to There is a struggling but growing movement Documentary Film (K. Waititi, 2007). in Mäori dramatic and documentary filmmak- Barclay’s notion of Fourth Cinema is also ing. Although Mäori filmmaking began in the known as Indigenous Cinema. Firmly situated late 1970s and 1980s and has accelerated over in Aotearoa New Zealand, and emerging from the past five years, relatively few dramatic fea- a Mäori context, Fourth Cinema is conceptu- ture films directed and driven by Mäori have ally and practically informed by tikanga and been made. Kia Manawanui was informed by the Mäori epistemologies, which have resonance work and thinking of a number of Mäori work- with global Indigenous communities. Premised ing in media production. Specifically, it emerged on the thinking that film has the potential to be from the author’s engagement with three his- transformative and uplifting (Barclay, 2003), torical groundbreaking films, Ngati, Mauri and Fourth Cinema aligns with Kaupapa Mäori Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Wëniti—The Mäori approaches to film theory in that it validates and Merchant of Venice, the first dramatic feature affirms Indigenous experiences and identities films respectively of Barry Barclay, Merata Mita in a cinematic context, involving both the film and Don Selwyn. Ngati is described as the first text and the filmmaking processes. However, dramatic feature film directed by an Indigenous Fourth Cinema is the strategic creation of an filmmaker. Mauri was the first, and remains Indigenous cinematic category where none the only, exhibited dramatic feature film solely previously existed, whereas Kia Manawanui directed and written by a Mäori woman, and provides a number of ways of interrogating Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Wëniti was the first film texts and environments that are grounded dramatic feature film entirely in te reo Mäori. in being Mäori. During an informal discussion, More recently, The Dead Lands (Fraser, 2014) Barclay (personal communication, 2007) saw a and Moana (Clements & Musker, 2017) were direct resonance between Fourth Cinema and released in te reo Mäori—neither was directed Kaupapa Mäori approaches to film theory, as by Mäori—and feature film Waru (Grace-Smith there is a shared language and understanding. et al., 2017) was also released; this was directed However, Fourth Cinema is an emerging cat- by eight Mäori women. egory; there is very little written material, and Barclay, Mita and Selwyn remain significant Barclay is the primary author. contributors to our cinematic history, deliberately offering alternative representations of

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Mäori and paving the way for future Mäori our histories on mass media television channels. filmmaking; regrettably, less so for Mäori Some Mäori directors I interviewed spoke about women. Their films offer us unique and trans- the need to strategically and covertly insert formative cinematic representations of Mäori. issues related to Mäori experiences of coloni- As noted above, I drew on a number of sation. This was attributed to the expectation, theorists in the development of the theoretical based on past experiences, that the broadcaster framework. I was fortunate to also have for- would either give a clear direction that certain mal and informal discussions with a number material or references (e.g., the word coloni- of Mäori theorists and filmmakers, including sation) were controversial and should not be Barclay and Selwyn, which significantly con- included or ask for material to be removed (A. tributed to the framework’s development. Moewaka Barnes, 2003). Ella Shohat and Robert Stam (1994) argue that the Eurocentrism of audiences influences Developing a Kaupapa Mäori film cinematic production, where the ideological theoretical framework assumptions of the dominant target audience wield “a kind of indirect hegemony. ‘Universal’ Drawing on a range of writings, formal and becomes a codeword for palatable to the Western informal discussions, analyses of film texts spectator as the ‘spoiled child’ of the apparatus” and my own knowledge, the following key (p. 186). Dominant systems frequently judge areas related to Mäori worldviews, experiences, Mäori stories to be “less” universal or simply filmmaking/production and exhibition contexts not universal. Findings from my master’s the- emerged. sis highlighted the practical ramifications for Mäori documentary makers, who were pres- Storytelling sured by television commissioners to find and explain the universal themes in their work (A. The craft of storytelling in film has been utilised Moewaka Barnes, 2003). Similar criteria do not by Indigenous peoples as a site of resistance appear to be applied to Päkehä stories. The New in the struggle for justice. Indigenous media Zealand Film Commission (NZFC; the main can provide a global site where Indigenous government funder of film) imperative that peoples imagine and share their aspirations of feature films attract a large audience; assump- self-determination (expressed by Mäori as tino tions about the types of stories that have broad rangatiratanga and guaranteed by Te Tiriti o appeal; and the significant amounts of money Waitangi), experiences and histories: a crea- involved, including pressure to find overseas tive, sustaining and political act. It was Mita’s distributors and investors, combine to make a hope that telling these types of stories would Mäori agenda challenging. Additionally harder create a dent in prevailing misrepresentations to realise in feature film are works that speak to (Martin, 1989). an Indigenous audience and threaten a unified Feature film offers a unique site that Mäori sense of national identity. For these reasons, voices can inhabit and in which they can give Barclay’s (1990/2006) notion of “talking in” is expression to diverse realities and experi- vital. It demands the centring of the Indigenous ences. Here stories of length can be told and voice that speaks directly to a Mäori audience shared communally. The drive exists for many from Mäori worldviews and experiences, not Indigenous filmmakers to tell stories about the explaining itself for the benefit of a non-Mäori effects of colonisation; this is potentially unset- audience (pp. 74–80). tling for the coloniser. My master’s thesis raised Although widely understood as entertain- concerns regarding the freedom to talk about ment, dramatic feature film brings highly

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 7, ISSUE 1, 2018 Kia manawanui 7 selected “realities” to the screen. These rep- urbane, articulate and confident of their place resentations and stories are an important part in the world. Combined with the poetic aspects of identity formation and contribute to how of te reo Mäori and Mäori culture, Te Tangata we see ourselves as Mäori. They shape others’ Whai Rawa o Wëniti affirms representations of perceptions of us locally and globally. As part Mäori men as mana tane by presenting alterna- of my master’s study, prior to undertaking tives to the dominant constructions of Mäori a thesis, I researched Mäori responses to the hypermasculinity and its associated elements of films Ngati and The Piano (Campion, 1993), physicality and violence described by Brendan the latter of which was directed and written by Hokowhitu (2004, p. 262). Te Tangata Whai Päkehä Jane Campion (A. Moewaka Barnes, Rawa o Wëniti provides a stunning contrast to 1999). What stood out for me was the role the stereotypical images of Mäori men as war- Ngati played in validating Mäori identity and riors and violent perpetuated in films, including culture; participants expressed a sense of pride Once Were Warriors, The Dead Lands and The and feeling uplifted. In contrast, representations Dark Horse (Robertson, 2014). of Mäori in The Piano resulted in participants Mana wahine theory is skilfully articulated feeling uncomfortable, belittled, irritated and by Mäori theorists, including Tuhiwai Smith, embarrassed (A. Moewaka Barnes, 1999). Jani Pihama, Ani Mikaere, Kathie Irwin, Ngahuia Wilson’s doctoral thesis examines audience Te Awekotuku and Glynnis Paraha. Pihama responses to local films grounded in specific (2001) reveals that ongoing colonial discourses iwi, hapü and whänau connections and under- and ideologies situate Mäori women as inferior standings. A range of responses to images are and subordinate to men—a practice that must recorded, including relief in seeing characters in be challenged by both men and women (p. 258). Once Were Warriors (Tamahori, 1994) that are These writings offer ways to examine represen- familiar, but rejecting constructions of Mäori tations of Mäori women in film, how they are as senselessly violent (Wilson, 2013, p. 225). positioned and the nature of their roles. For Gender is an integral part of identity for- example, it is predominantly the Mäori women mation. As Kathie Irwin (1992) notes, the characters in Merata Mita’s feature film Mauri experiences of Mäori men and women, while who reinforce connections to the land, tüpuna sharing similarities, are not the same. Mana and wairua. This is conveyed in a powerful shot tane and mana wahine are important concepts framing Mäori women approaching the marae. that refer to the strength and dignity of Mäori Dressed in black, they rise over the crest of a men and women. If we are to be consistent hill as if emerging from the land. They move in challenging essentialised representations, as one, expressing unity of purpose and the gender-driven markers of identity that ignore relationship of women to Papatüänuku. As diversity and complexity need to be scrutinised. they near the marae, the voice of women as Mana tane challenges dominant and negative they karanga is given space so it can be heard constructions of Mäori men and, in particular, and experienced. A medium shot reinforces a the negative constructions of Mäori as a war- triangle of women as Kara leads the karanga rior race. Pihama (2001) argues that this has on the tangata whenua side. The power of been seemingly unreflexively internalised by these strong cinematic images makes visible and both Mäori men and Mäori women (p. 253). honours the role and status of Mäori women in Director Don Selwyn wanted to offer a range society. Through image and voice, these repre- of stories including alternative constructions sentations impart the mana of Mäori women to Mäori men as warriors. His intentions are that pervades the film. manifest in the male characters in Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Wëniti, who are represented as

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– Being Maori by Barry Barclay introduced many viewers to Mäori worldviews and tikanga in depth, with Kaupapa Mäori theory takes for granted the minimal interpretation. The series marked the validity of te reo Mäori and the position of establishment of Mäori creative control in a col- importance it holds. The Mäori language pro- laborative environment where the production vides sustenance, a way to conceptualise and and technical crew assisted with the develop- affirm our place and experiences in the world; ment of procedures and practices to incorporate however, fluency in te reo Mäori is not a pre- and uphold tikanga, Mäori worldviews and requisite to taking a position that validates and concepts (Barclay, 1990/2006, p. 17). These advocates for the language. practices, driven by Barclay, broke new ground In a cinematic context, Shohat and Stam and established possible workable alternatives (1994) discuss Eurocentric hierarchies of power for Mäori in the craft of filmmaking. For exam- in language, most evident in Hollywood, where ple, Barclay built on and incorporated tikanga English predominates. Through the telling of and Mäori worldviews in the production of “American” stories and those of other cultures Ngati. in the English language, Hollywood ventrilo- As well as driving practice, Mäori world- quises the world. Shohat and Stam explain that views and concepts are incorporated into film the promotion and validation of the English lan- texts. For example, Barclay (1990/2006) refers guage directly benefits Hollywood and is more to hui as a model that supports the idea of generally an expression of Anglo-American debate as circular rather than linear (p. 14). power. It indirectly invalidates the languages The hui scene set on the local marae in Ngati of Indigenous cultures and diminishes these represents this concept with long camera takes types of linguistic possibilities in cinematic and pauses; a multitude of diverse voices are contexts (pp. 191–193). Hollywood language is given space, regardless of the perceived status then associated with “real” or mainstream cin- of the speakers. ema just as European languages are perceived Another key element is wairua, frequently to be more cinematic (Shohat & Stam, 1994, described as a critical component of Kaupapa pp. 191–193). Mäori, residing “at the heart of Kaupapa Hierarchies of language and concomitant Mäori” (Ratima, 2008, p. 2). In this con- power relations play out in the cinematic context, wairua is loosely defined as the spiritual text in Aotearoa New Zealand, where te reo dimension that extends beyond the tangible. Mäori in feature films continues to be severely Recognising expressions of wairua in films limited. Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Wëniti, the such as Mauri offers rich analyses and ways first feature film in te reo Mäori, came about of understanding, highlighting the need to pay because of Selwyn’s dedication and persever- attention to the feelings and emotions experi- ance. His commitment to the language meant enced by audiences. While hegemonic Western that he employed speakers of te reo Mäori discourse frames Indigenous spirituality as rather than actors, and so additional rehearsal exotic or superstitious, films such as Mauri and time was required. Te Tangata Whai Rawa o Ngati present wairua as the norm, incorporated Wëniti not only honours and legitimises te reo into everyday understandings and practices. Mäori but also establishes it as a cinematic However, understanding and communicating language of depth and beauty. wairua in a cinematic context is complex. Along with te reo Mäori, tikanga is an explicit part of a Kaupapa Mäori approach to production. The groundbreaking television series Tangata Whenua (1974) directed

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Representations: Connections and the concept of kaitiakitanga or guardianship, obligations referring to films that honourably capture Mäori images as taonga (Barclay, 2005). Collectivity and responsibility are articulated Responsibility and accountability in part across the spectrum of Indigenous filmmaking emerge from the “burden of representation” or by practitioners and academics. Being part of negative effects of representation. Shohat and a greater collective of people, and needing to Stam (1994) argue that this burden unjustly contribute and challenge, manifests as a desire sits with the oppressed (p. 183). They refer for transformation, on and off screen. to Memmi’s notion of the “mark of the plu- Notions of collectivity and relationships link ral”, which describes the characterisation of to whänau, hapü and iwi and are evident in the colonised (with their inherent depravity film practices and texts. Filmmaker Kahurangi and deviance) by the coloniser as a collective Waititi (2008) explains how whänau were undifferentiated entity; therefore, any nega- central to her filming of kaumätua. Rather tive individual actions by a member of that than employing a specialist film crew, Waititi’s group are representative of the entire group’s whänau were enlisted and they also participated perceived deviance (Memmi, 2000, p. 151). As in interviews with kaumätua. Waititi found a result, the oppressed group becomes “sorely that the crew possessed a depth of understand- overcharged with allegorical meanings”, making about the kaupapa that enabled them to ing it an almost unbearable experience (Shohat skilfully and respectfully negotiate the filming & Stam, 1994, p. 182). Representations of the process. Whänau members of kaumätua were dominant group do not suffer the same condi- encouraged to attend the interviews for sup- tion, and an aberrant individual member is port and to ask and answer questions. Waititi not seen to be representative of the group as challenges orthodox filmmaking practices that a whole. It suggests that negative stereotyping promote an individual focus, establish power generally is hurtful, but representations do not relationships and clearly delineate roles where all “exercise the same power in the world” only the interviewer is expected to ask questions. (Shohat & Stam, 1994, p. 182). Textually, whänau, hapü and iwi are strong Beverley Singer (2001), a Native American themes in Ngati and Mauri, for example. Ngati film director and writer, expresses concern reinforces notions of collectivity and relation- about the stereotypical nature of representa- ships by privileging the specific iwi of Ngäti tions in all areas of the media, including the Porou while resonating with iwi and Mäori earliest representations of Native Americans generally. Generations are represented as liv- as savage and heathen (p. 1). As a result of ing together, not always in harmony but with such depictions, Indigenous communities have an underlying commitment to an empower- debated and challenged filmic representations ing collective and collaborative model. Sitting that perpetuate dominant discourses and stereo- alongside this are the obligations and loyalties types, understanding that “something vital is at that support the whänau and, by extension, stake” (Shohat & Stam, 1994, p. 181). hapü and iwi (Pere, 1988). The effects of colonial discourses and unequal Obligations and responsibilities are expressed power relationships led Mäori theorists, includ- by many Mäori working in film. The three filming Pihama, Tuhiwai Smith and Hingangaroa makers in this study frequently spoke of the Smith, to call for “theorising back”, “writing responsibility to present alternative images of back” and “talking back” to theories that serve Mäori, te reo Mäori and tikanga on screen. the interests of the dominant group (Pihama, Responsibility extends to the protection of 2001, pp. 72–75; Smith, 1999, p. 7). This dis- Mäori images; Barclay, in particular, advances tinctly Mäori space centres the experiences

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and epistemologies of the Indigenous, critiques 2007). The Waitangi Tribunal claim WAI 748 colonisation and develops strategies for self- led by Barclay and lodged with the Tribunal determination (Smith, 1999, p. 7). Resistance in 1998 charged the NZFC with not meeting and challenge in the form of “writing back” its obligations under the Treaty. At the time and “talking back” are equally applicable to of writing this paper, it is understood that the a Kaupapa Mäori film theoretical approach. claim remains lodged with the Tribunal. To further reveal power relations in film, I To progress Mäori access to funding, an draw on feminist theory, in particular, notions early proposal to the NZFC to establish a Mäori of the “gaze”. Related variations of the gaze film fund articulated the need for a strong emerging from other studies, including the eth- Mäori voice and the opportunity to speak for nographic gaze and the imperial gaze, reveal ourselves, “lest others speak for us” (Gauthier, relationships between power and visuality that 2008, p. 71). After tireless advocacy by Mäori are distinct, with their own ideological and involved in media production, Te Paepae Ataata institutional origins. In her examination of was established to nurture and fund the devel- the imperial gaze, Ann Kaplan (1997) argues opment of Mäori feature films. I attended the that it “reflects the assumption that the white 2007 formal launch of Te Paepae Ataata, where Western subject is central, much as the male Barclay announced with optimism and good gaze assumes the centrality of the male subject” faith that “the house is now restored” and he (pp. 78–79). Gaze, in the context of a Kaupapa would not pursue WAI 748. This fund no longer Mäori film theoretical approach, emerges from exists; an NZFC Mäori filmmaking strategy is a distinctly Indigenous place where Mäori currently in development. have been subjected to persistent and multiple forms of the colonial or Päkehä gaze. In Ngati, Barclay (1990/2006) deliberately flipped the Kia Manawanui: Kaupapa Mäori Film gaze to reveal and disrupt power relationships Theoretical Framework (p. 54). This is established in an early scene when Greg Shaw, depicted as a young male Key concepts emerging from the literature, Päkehä character, arriving in a rural, largely discussions and historical film texts outlined Mäori community, is the observed outsider, previously were analysed to inform the devel- establishing the centrality and agency of Mäori opment of the Kia Manawanui framework. in the film. The process was iterative, alternating between the concepts and their practical application to – Maori access to filmmaking film texts. Six key themes emerged: (1) Mäori voices, (2) Mäori worldviews and concepts, (3) In cinematic environments, analysis of power collectivity and relationships, (4) responsibility operating through structures, policies and insti- and accountability, (5) challenge and resistance, tutional practices that affect Mäori filmmaking and (6) transformation. is required to reveal and develop Mäori-focused Each theme contains sub-themes; they are solutions. Mäori advocacy for the Crown to not positioned hierarchically. Although the the- meet its Te Tiriti o Waitangi obligations is par- matic categories and elements are separated out ticularly evident in broadcasting but is equally for analytical purposes and proved to be a useful relevant to film. Barclay argued that, for a truly and practical way of applying the framework, Indigenous voice to develop, Mäori must not they are interconnected. For example, there are only control funding on specific projects but strong links between theme 4 (responsibility also control wider decision-making on how and accountability) and theme 5 (challenge and funding is distributed to Mäori (Te Ahi Kaa, resistance). Don Selwyn, for example, spoke

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 7, ISSUE 1, 2018 Kia manawanui 11 about his responsibility to challenge dominant exoticised, central or peripheral? An exami- representations of Mäori men, and account- nation of filmmaking practices grounded in ability permeates both the filmmaking processes tikanga and Mäori worldviews does not sug- and the stories Selwyn, Barclay and Mita chose gest there is a set of rules to follow nor is it to tell. Unlike some articulations of Kaupapa conducted to establish a hierarchy of Mäori Mäori theory, te reo Mäori and tikanga are film practices. It is used here to cast light on separated (Pihama, 2001). This separation is how Mäori filmmakers may choose to work not intended to diminish the interconnected- and their inevitable struggles and compromises. ness of language and culture but allows focused analyses of these two elements in film texts. Collectivity and relationships The framework offers ways to examine film texts by theming what emerged from applying Applicable to filmmaking and the film texts, the a Kaupapa Mäori lens and the extent to which theme of collectivity and relationships empha- films progressed these concepts. It is about sises the importance of the collective, which arriving at insights and understandings rather includes whänau, hapü and iwi, without dimin- than a way of measuring the authenticity of a ishing the role of the individual. The meaning film. The intention of Kia Manawanui is also of whänau is not premised on heteronormative to shed light on filmmaking environments in behaviours, and it challenges the Eurocentric Aotearoa New Zealand, including funding, construction of the nuclear family. It implies processes of filmmaking and exhibition along- support, sustenance, mutual respect, loyalty, side aspirations of Mäori filmmakers. Table 1 obligations and responsibilities. These complex outlines key themes and elements with broad structures and relationships offer a collective questions that can be asked as part of the ana- and collaborative model that is potentially lytical process. A comprehensive version is transformative. available in the doctoral thesis (A. Moewaka Barnes, 2011). Responsibility and accountability

The element of responsibility and accountability Key themes relates to the filmmakers rather than the films. It examines expressions of responsibility and – Maori voices accountability as articulated and/or practised by Mäori filmmakers, for example, to provide The theme of Mäori voices encompasses multi- alternative representations. These obligations ple expressions, including telling, legitimating may be shared by Indigenous peoples globally. and centring our stories, our histories, te reo It includes analyses of the struggles and achieve- Mäori and the diversity of Mäori identity. It ments entailed in fulfilling Mäori aspirations raises questions of address and asks who is related to filmmaking, including kaitiakitanga the film primarily speaking to and who is the of the Mäori image. imagined audience. Challenge and resistance Ma–ori worldviews and concepts Challenging power and privilege is integral to The theme of Mäori worldviews and concepts multiple aspects of film analysis, in particular, relates to their incorporation in filmmak- the intentions of Mäori filmmakers and the film ing practices and film texts, asking how they texts. Providing counter hegemonic representa- are represented in film texts: normalised or tions resists and disrupts power relationships;

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TABLE 1 Kia Manawanui: Kaupapa Mäori Film Theoretical Framework Thematic Central concerns Elements may Broad questions categories include (1) Mäori Voices Where the Mäori Te reo Mäori, Who is telling the story? Is the voice is located storytelling, Mäori voice centred? Does the and the nature of histories, film reflect Mäori experiences, that voice. experiences, histories, aspirations and mana wahine, identity in their diversity and Audience mana tane and complexity? responses. identity. Does the film primarily speak to a Mäori audience? How do audiences respond, e.g., emotions, feelings, behaviours? (2) Mäori How Mäori Mäori concepts, How does the film represent Worldviews and worldviews and worldviews and Mäori worldviews and concepts? Concepts concepts are practices, e.g., Is it central to the film or represented in tikanga, wairua. peripheral? Does it honour and film. legitimate or does it marginalise, exoticise or appropriate? Mäori worldviews Are Mäori worldviews expressed and practices in in filmmaking practices and filmmaking. how is this manifested? What are the challenges, struggles and solutions associated with this? (3) Collectivity How notions of Social structures Does the film express notions and Relationships collectivity and (whänau, of individuality or collectivity? the associated hapü and iwi), How does the film express roles and collectivity, collectivity and inter- obligations are kotahitanga and relationships? expressed in film. connectivity What role do Mäori concepts of (tüpuna, The application collectivity and connectivity play whanaungatanga of collectivity and in advancing Mäori aspirations and whakapapa). the nature of the in film? relationships in filmmaking. (4) Responsibility Examining Wider What concerns are raised by and Accountability expressions of obligations and filmmakers who identify as (relates to responsibility and accountabilities Mäori? What motivations/ filmmakers rather accountability that may extend aspirations are articulated by the than films) as articulated to Indigenous filmmaker? by Mäori peoples globally. Are notions of accountability filmmakers. and responsibility expressed?

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Thematic Central concerns Elements may Broad questions categories include (5) Challenge and Power dynamics Colonisation, What power dynamics are Resistance in the filmmaking racism, Te Tiriti occurring in the filmmaking environment. o Waitangi, self- environments? Who benefits determination, from Crown funding? How do The ways in power and dominant structures and funding which challenge counter- policies support or hinder stories and resistance are hegemonic told and driven by Mäori? What articulated by the representations. stories get told? Are Mäori filmmaker. cinematic aspirations addressed How challenge within the wider issues of and resistance Crown obligations, Te Tiriti are represented in and Mäori status as tangata film. whenua? What struggles and achievements are articulated by Mäori filmmakers involved in realising Mäori cinematic aspirations? How does the film depict and/or challenge issues of oppression, colonisation and racism? How does it engage with, challenge or disrupt hegemonic discourses and representations? (6) Transformation The Solutions, Does the film offer liberatory transformative representations and inspirational representations potential of film. that are of Mäori? liberatory, Does it challenge us to rethink validating and internalised hegemonies? How is inspirational. this expressed by the filmmaker Decolonisation or manifested in the film text? and Indigenising the screen.

for example, inverting the colonial gaze is a economic structures and processes may not only challenge frequently presented by Mäori film. produce inequities but also reproduce inequities It is directly relevant to the film texts, through by neglect or absence of conditions. A critique an examination of the camera’s point-of-view, of power examines who benefits from films narrative, character interactions and stances, that tell Mäori stories. For example, where do for example. Mäori sit in a film’s production structure? Are Tino rangatiratanga is not separated out Mäori in decision-making roles and did Mäori from Te Tiriti o Waitangi in the framework involvement lead to further opportunities to because this highlights the wider issues of self- progress both individual aspirations and, more determination and sovereignty that sit alongside broadly, Mäori filmmaking aspirations? What the Crown’s responsibilities and obligations to opportunities and supports are available to Mäori as tangata whenua. Social, political and Mäori women filmmakers?

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Transformation feelings of unease when watching dramas that perpetuated negative constructions of Mäori. Film that speaks, names, validates and claims The participants felt that these constructions from a Mäori base can be transformative for reinforced negative views held by Päkehä, an audience, both Mäori and non-Mäori. This affecting how they, as Mäori, negotiated and is relevant to the shaping of Mäori identities, immediately responded to the drama. Viewing including the identities of our children and the same drama with Mäori appears to help youth. A Kaupapa Mäori cinematic space has mitigate these affects. Secondly, some Mäori the potential to transform notions of the Mäori participants expressed feelings of guilt when place in film and filmmaking environments. they found excerpts amusing while they simul- taneously cringed at Mäori portrayals that reinforced dominant representations. These Discussion responses reveal how, as Mäori, we frequently feel conflicted in our emotional responses and Originally, I developed Kia Manawanui to negotiate our feelings within wider contexts. offer understandings in media studies centred Questions are raised about the extent to which in a Mäori cinematic gaze. I was highly selec- these dramas progress particular types of rep- tive in my theoretical referencing in the textual resentations that, within a local and global analyses of the three historical films in order to context, people may interpret as the way Mäori privilege and test the framework. This is also the are. So few Mäori stories get told that there is result of not wanting to force other theories to little diversity available and each representation fit when Kaupapa Mäori works perfectly well takes on a particular level of power—unlike the because it articulates Mäori understandings dominant culture, who have the privilege to tell, and experiences, offering both richness and hear and see a multitude of stories. complexity of analyses. The framework clari- Kaupapa Mäori film theory, as discussed fied my own approach to film studies and the here, embraces the diversity and complexities requirement that it critique power and domi- of being Mäori and our experiences and under- nant hegemonic discourses and representations. standings of the world. Because of this diversity It was always my intention to build on and the expansiveness of Mäori concepts, the Kia Manawanui, and during its develop- potential of Kaupapa Mäori is also vast and ment I applied it to compare news coverage should not be limited. Kaupapa Mäori film of Waitangi Day on mass media and Mäori theory is an evolving field and my intention, Television. The key themes illuminated the dif- in contributing to its development, is not to be ferences in approach between mass and Mäori definitive or prescriptive. Neither is it meant to news television. It illustrated how Mäori news provide a checklist or set of criteria that films represented diverse Mäori worldviews and must meet to establish a Mäori “authenticity” experiences, whereas mass television focused or be called Mäori. on the absence of “protester” violence where Mäori involvement was implicit. This assisted me in the framework’s refinement. Conclusions More recently, I extended its application to include audience responses to local televi- Kia Manawanui encompasses an analysis of sion dramas under the theme “Voices”. Two both filmmaking environments and film texts, key findings emerged. Firstly, when viewing offering understandings informed by Mäori the material alongside a Päkehä audience, worldviews and experiences. Interrogating film some Mäori participants expressed increased texts in isolation from the environments in

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 7, ISSUE 1, 2018 Kia manawanui 15 which they are produced and received is unlikely Drama) and Ngä Pae o te Maramatanga. Ka nui to uncover the complexities of film production, te mihi ki ä koutou katoa. including the numerous restrictions of state and commercial imperatives that may or may not be consistent with the aspirations of Mäori Glossary filmmakers. However, as history reveals, these tensions have been opportunistically and stra- hapü sub-tribe, kinship group tegically responded to by Mäori filmmakers in hui a gathering or meeting order to produce programmes and films driven iwi nation, tribe by Mäori agendas and creative visions. My kaitiakitanga guardianship hope is that the application of Kia Manawanui karanga call of welcome to a cinematic and televisual context will fur- kaumätua respected elder (male or ther develop and legitimise Mäori-centred film female) theory and Mäori filmmaking. kaupapa topic, platform, general Kaupapa Mäori has resonance with other principles, underlying Indigenous peoples, and conversations sug- base gest that a Kaupapa Mäori approach to film koha gift will be of relevance and by extension contrib- kotahitanga Mäori unity. Historically ute to and support Indigenous media theories connected to iwi unity and filmmaking globally. With resistance mana authority, prestige, related comes hope, signalling the celebratory aspect to Mäori sovereignty and of Kaupapa Mäori film theory and the work, power sense of purpose and commitment of many marae gathering place, ancestral Indigenous filmmakers. With this in mind, the meeting place act of Indigenous filmmaking is a celebration Päkehä people of European origin not only of survival but also of creativity and Papatüänuku Earth mother achievement in adverse circumstances. pöwhiri formal welcome, processes of encounter tane male Acknowledgements tangata whenua hosts, Indigenous peoples of the land Don Selwyn (1935–2007), Merata Mita (1942– taonga treasure, something that is 2010), Barry Barclay (1944–2008) and their highly prized whänau for their generous contributions to my te reo Mäori Mäori language studies. I thank others who gave generously Te Tiriti o a founding document first of their time, including Mäori filmmakers and Waitangi signed in 1840 by hapü theorists; Naida Glavish, who named the theo- and the Crown retical framework; Helen Moewaka Barnes, tikanga Mäori protocols, practices who provided valuable insights that contributed or processes to the development of Kia Manawanui; and tino self-determination Tim McCreanor for his feedback on my drafts. rangatiratanga Supported by the Marsden Fund Council from tüpuna ancestors government funding, administered by the Royal wahine female Society of New Zealand (contract MAU 1307: wairua spiritual essence Affect and Identity in Contemporary Television

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