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THE SHI'A OF INDIA JOHN NORMA X MOLLIS! ER V- > MA, I'll I). LOXDON LUZAC & COMPANY, LTD. 46 Great R u s s i- S t u . hut, W. C 1 1953 Print'// in (,rr,it ilritfiin at the Buki.j.igh I'ri-.ss, Mead, Hkistol. To my Wife I' K ]•: ]• A V E This stinly of 7 //c S'W'<< <;/' / W/« was undertaken at the sugges- tion of Dr. Murray T. '! itus when he was completing his most useful work on Indian Islam. lb realized that the historical development of Islam in India was permeated with, and some- limes controlled by, other influences. Many of these were- truly Islamic yet strangely at variance with ' orthodox positions and their real nature was concealed. Some of the influences were assuredly Shiite, though l>v no means all. Then' was room for some one to explore the part that Shiisin had played in Indian Islam. Mv interest in the subject had commenced during my years as a missionary in Lncknow which is often spoken of as the Capital ol Shiism in India. The stud.' has been continued as opportunity offered alongside of other work and also during two furlough periods at Hartford, Conn., U.S.A., where it was submitted to the Faculty of the Kennedy School of Missions, Hartford Seminary Foundation, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the spring of Il|.|(>. I he account is both religious and historical. With a desire to narrow the field of study consideration was given to confining it to flu' Ismailis, or even b> greatly condensing the chapters on the Twelve Imams and the Religion of the J'.hna 'Ashuriya, often called ' The Twelvers", and most commonly referred to as the Shias. Hut the nexus between this group and the Isnm'iliya was so complete and so intimate, so interesting and so important to an understanding of other sectarian positions, as compared with each other or with the ' orthodox ' position, that it seemed necessary to include these. There are other advantages also. While much has been written on the Itkna 'Ashariya a great deal will not be familiar or available to readers. The full account shows how very early in the development of Islam Shiism became a vital component of the new faith. In India it has been a continuous, and a very active force, in the introduction and spread of Islam. Particularly interesting have been its adjust- ments with Hinduism. vii PREFACE While a wide range of authorities has been drawn on for facts the quotations have been selected, wherever possible, from Indian authors because their diction best reveals the deep, underlying attitudes and thoughts of their respective communities. The partition of India in 1947 interrupted arrangements for earlier publication of The SM'a of India. Other factors have prolonged the delay but the status of the communities depicted in this account has not been materially altered by events that have transpired since. In the prosecution of this study I am indebted to very many for whom references in footnotes are a very imperfect expression of appreciation. Especially helpful for information and perspec- tive for the Ismailis, have been works sponsored by the Islamic Research Association, notably those of W. Ivanow, and A. A. A. Fyzee. From many librarians, in India and in the United States, I have received most courteous assistance. I wish to express deep gratitude to Dr. W. G. Shellabear and Dr. E. E. Calverley of the Department of Islamics in the Kennedy School of Missions for patient guidance and criticism ; to Dr. Murray T. Titus for carefully reading the complete manuscript and giving helpful suggestions ; and to Dr. D. M. Donaldson and the Rev. J. W. Sweetman of the Henry Martyn School of Islamics in Aligarh, U.P., India, for help and courtesies received there. John Norman Hollister. Ghaziabad, U.P., India. viii . SCHEME OF TRANSLITERATION The scheme of transliteration followed for the Arabic letters is that used by the Royal Asiatic Society in its Bombay Branch. 1 . a i . dh . t . 1 . b . r Ji • . J • ? f m . t . z o o J 1- . n . th . s • gh W t- J . w ft . f « • • sh J* . h C • ) cr* • • • • § q • C • h a" J y * > • il . k t . kh J> d i d No marking has been given to words recognized in common usage, or to words that have been Anglicized in form, as for example : Shiite, dais, khalifas, and mutazilism ; nor usually in quotations and references. The word Shia is used in the singular for an individual in preference to Shi'i or Shiite ; Shias as the plural when members of the Ithna 'Ashariya or Twelvers are intended ; and Shi'a for Shiite groups such as the Isma'illya and Ithna 'Ashariya. In all quotations, the spelling is that of the author quoted. ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN REFERENCES BHCR - Bombay High Court Reports. Biog. Diet. Biographical Dictionary of Ibn Khallikan, Tr. by de Shine. BLR Bombay Law Reporter. Bom. Gaz. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Pt. 2, F. L. Faridi. BSOS Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. Bui. H.M.S. - Bulletin of the Henry Martyn School of Islamits. CIR Census of India Reports. Diet. Is. - A Dictionary of Islam, T. P. Hughes. - E & D Elliott, H. M., and Dowson, J., The History of India. ERE Encyclopedia of Religion ard Ethics. EI - Encyclopaedia of Islam. Glossary - A Glossary of Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N.W.F. Province, Vol. I, H. A. Rose. Guide A Guide to Ismaili Literature, W. Ivanow. IGI Imperial Gazetteer of India. Ind. Wit. The Indian Witness. Is. Cul. - Islamic Culture. Is. Rev. - Islamic Review. JA - - - Journal Asiatique JASB - Journal of the Asiatic Society, Bengal. JAOS - Journal of the American Oriental Society. JBBRAS Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. JRAS - Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lit. Hist. A Literary History of Persia, E. G. Browne. Mos. W. - Moslem World. Mus. Rev. The Muslim Review. - N & N News and Notes : A Monthly Paper for Private Circulation. Or. Biog. Diet. Oriental Biographical Dictionary, T. W. Beale. RMM Revue du Monde Musulman. T & C Bombay Tribes and Castes of Bombay, R. E. Enthoven. T & C CP. Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces, R. V. Russell. T & C Punjab - Glossary ol the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N.W.F. Provinces, H. A. Rose. XI CONTENTS Chapter page I. Sects in Islam and the Rise of Shiism - i II. 'Ali the Imam ------- 13 A. THE ITHNA 'ASHARIYA III. The Religion of the Ithna 'Ashariya—I - 24 IV. The Religion of the Ithna 'Ashariya—II - 42 V. The Imams of the Ithna 'Ashariya—I - - 58 VI. The Imams of the Ithna 'Ashariya—II - 78 VII. The Ithna 'Ashariya come to India—I - - 101 The Bahmani and Successor Kingdoms. VIII. The Ithna 'Ashariya Come to India—II - 126 The Mughal Period. IX. The Ithna 'Ashariya Come to India—III - 141 Kashmir. X. The Ithna 'Ashariya Come to India—IV - 151 The Kingdom of Oudh. XI. Muharram - - 164 XII. The Shiite Community To-day - - - 181 B. —THE ISMA'ILIYA XIII. The Rise of Ismailism 195 XIV. The Fatimid Imams 221 (»'). The Mustalians XV. The Religion of the Fatimids - - - 246 XVI. The Mustalian Ismailis Come to India - 265 XVII. The Religion of the Bohras ... 279 XVII I. The Bohra Community Today - - - 293 xiii CONTENTS (/;'). The Nizarians Chapter XIX. Nizaki Imams of Alami't XX. The Religion of the Xizaris XXI. Nizari Imams of the Persian Period XXII. The Nizari Ismailis Come to India I XXI II. The Nizari Ismailis Come to India II XXIV. The Agha Khans XXV. The Religion of the Khojas XXVL The Khoja Community To-day Glossary Bibliography - Index - xiv : CHAPTER I Sects in Islam and the Rise of Shiism Some years ago, at the Muslim Book Society in Lahore, I was given a book entitled Islam men koi Firqe nahin, that is, ' There are No Sects in Islam.' The author, Khwaja Kamal al din, supports his claim by insisting that sects in any religion must differ in their basic beliefs, whereas the so-called sects of Islam agree in accepting all the essential truths, the beliefs which accepted make one a Muslim, and rejected exclude him from Islam. He insists that the term sect, Jtrqa, cannot apply to any group in Islam for they differ in non-essentials only. Other writers, and many speakers, stress the unity of Islam, making light of the schisms that have marked Us history. To do so is wishful thinking, contradicted by the history of thirteen cen- turies. Outstanding treatises on the Islamic sects have been written by Muslim theologians of the Sunni or orthodox school. The intense persecution of sects by Sunni rulers, who treated them as a " race of heretics that were worse than infidels " even 1,1 selling Shias " like beasts in the market place as slaves, is recorded by historians ; and innumerable instances bear witness that the unity claimed has never been realized. A few of the recognized authorities on the sects of Islam are : Kitab Firaq al Shi'a by Al Naubakhti ; Al Farq bain al Firdq by al Baghdad! ; Kitab al MUM wa'l Nihdl by Ibn Hazm and another of the same name by Al Shahrastani ; Ddbistdn al Madhahib by al Islam Muhammad Najm al Ghani Mohsin Fani ; Madhahib by Khan, and Tabsirdt al 'Awdmm by Sayyid Murtada. A tradition referred to by most of them, but not included in the collections of Bukhari and Muslim, is given in two forms by Al Baghdad! with its isndd or chain of references.
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    A STUDY OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR SUBMITTING A THESIS TO BE EXAMINED FOR A HIGHER DEGREE Mohamed Jindani Submitted to University of Wales in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In The Department of Theology and Religious Studies and Islamic Studies University of Wales, Lampeter 2005 ABSTRACT This Thesis entitled The Concept of Dispute Resolution in Islamic Law acquaints the reader with an introduction to the Qur' än, sunnah of the Prophet (s.a. a. s. ) and the many provisions relating to dispute resolution during the period of Divine revelation. The origins of the division of the community into Shia and Sunni is explored and explained in Chapter two. Two furthers chapters on dispute resolution one Sunni School the Mäliki School and one Shia School the Ismä`ili School are examined. The Thesis concludes with a detailed consideration of the concept of mahr, the possibleconflict with English law and the manner in which that conflict may be resolved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My thanks to my Supervisor Dr. Dawoud S. al-Alami of the University, for his supervisionand critical commentsand generalassistance that he gave me and without whose help and support this Thesis would not have reached completion. My thanks go to the Governors of the Institute of Ismail Studies whose generousconsent to my use of their excellent library and other facilities was an invaluable help. My thanksalso go to the library staff in particular to Dr. Duncan Haldane and Mr Al-Noor Merchant. My sincere thanks are also due to Dr. Faquir Muhammad Hunzai also of the Institute of Ismail studies for his translation of one of the Sifn arbitration agreements and all the Traditions of the Prophet (s.a.
  • (TNFJ) – Tehrik-E-Jafaria Pakistan (TJP) – Rawalpindi 28 February 2011

    (TNFJ) – Tehrik-E-Jafaria Pakistan (TJP) – Rawalpindi 28 February 2011

    Country Advice Pakistan Pakistan – PAK38118 – Imamia Student Organisation (ISO) – Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e- Fiqh-e-Jafaria (TNFJ) – Tehrik-e-Jafaria Pakistan (TJP) – Rawalpindi 28 February 2011 1. When were the TNFJ and the ISO banned, and what are the names of their successors? Country Advice PAK33887 (November 2008) provides information on the history and names of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria (TNFJ). Ambiguities in the naming practices of the TNFJ, and the breakaway group Tehrik-e-Jafaria Pakistan (TJP) are discussed in both Country Advice PAK 14999 (February 2002) and Country Advice PAK33887 (November 2008). Country Advice PAK31967 (June 2007) provides detailed information regarding the Imamia Student Organisation (ISO). Pertinent information from these responses is summarised below. It is important to note, as does Country Advice PAK33887 (November 2008), that the various Shi‟a sectarian groups currently operating in Pakistan have a complex history, with factional splits in organisations, and the formation of militant factions creating a range of different actors. The names under which different Shi‟a groups have operated have varied over time, in response to factional splits and government bans. It is in this context that there is a degree of variance and inconsistency in the titles by which the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria (TNFJ) and the Tehrik-e-Jafaria Pakistan (TJP) are referred to in news media, and political discourse; names tend to be used interchangeably.1 Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria (TNFJ) No information was located which indicated the TNFJ was a banned organisation in Pakistan. The group‟s website http://tnfj.org.pk/sec/cont.htm was active at the time this research was conducted, and lists its headquarters in Rawalpindi.2 The naming of the TNFJ and other organisations is discussed below.
  • The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan

    The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan

    The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan George Fiske Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2012 © 2012 George Fiske All rights reserved ABSTRACT The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan George Fiske This study examines the socioeconomics of state formation in medieval Afghanistan in historical and historiographic terms. It outlines the thousand year history of Ghaznavid historiography by treating primary and secondary sources as a continuum of perspectives, demonstrating the persistent problems of dynastic and political thinking across periods and cultures. It conceptualizes the geography of Ghaznavid origins by framing their rise within specific landscapes and histories of state formation, favoring time over space as much as possible and reintegrating their experience with the general histories of Iran, Central Asia, and India. Once the grand narrative is illustrated, the scope narrows to the dual process of monetization and urbanization in Samanid territory in order to approach Ghaznavid obstacles to state formation. The socioeconomic narrative then shifts to political and military specifics to demythologize the rise of the Ghaznavids in terms of the framing contexts described in the previous chapters. Finally, the study specifies the exact combination of culture and history which the Ghaznavids exemplified to show their particular and universal character and suggest future paths for research. The Socioeconomics of State Formation in Medieval Afghanistan I. General Introduction II. Perspectives on the Ghaznavid Age History of the literature Entrance into western European discourse Reevaluations of the last century Historiographic rethinking Synopsis III.