PRIMORSKY

KHABAROVSK Trans- Siberian Railroad

Amur River JAO

Agzu

Samarga

Edinka

POZHARSKY Svetlaya POZHARSKY Ulunga Verkhne Pereval Vostok

Luchegorsk Krasny Yar Kuznetsovo Ignatevka Pozharskoe Maximovka Guberovo Glubinnoe Amgu !. Roshchino TERNEISKY Lazo Novopokrovka KRASNOARMEISKY Rakitnoe Velikaya Kema Tamga DALNERECHENSKY Malaya Kema Melnichnoe !. SKY LESOZAVOD Tury Rog Gornye Klyuchi Ternei Ariadnoe Kirovsky ¯ Novokachalinsk Lake lroad Dalny Kut KIROVSKY ORSKY KHANKA Rai Ilinka Plastun Khanka Gorny km DALNEG Cheremshany Dvoryanka berian P O ISKY Samarka Kamen-Rybolov Krasnorechensky 100 GRANICHNY !. Zharikovo Tr!.ans-SiSpassk-Dalny KY Koksharovka SPASSKY Kamenka KHOROLS AKOLEVS Pogranichny Khorol Y Yakovlevka EVSKY Rudny ! CH UGU CHERNIGOVSKY ! EROVSKY KY Lipovtsy ! Chuguevka KAVAL ! !. ANUCHINSKY Arsenev Yaroslavsky OKTYABRSKY Vesely Yar n M I Mikhailovka Pokrovka KHAILOVSKY Anuchino Olga a Mikhailovka Arkhipovka Nikolo-Lvovskoe !. OLGINSKY P A R T I p USSURIISKY UssuriiskSHKO Terekhovka a ZANSKY TOVSKY Margaritovo NADEZHDINSKY Lazo J Sergeevka Uglovoe Artem ! !. ! ZOVSKY LA Valentin f Primorsky !. P! !. Bolshoi Kamen o ! Russky Preobrazhenie ! . Popova ! a KHASANSKY Poset Slavyanka e S Map 2.1 Zarubino Khasan 165,900 sq. km Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages By Newell and Zhou / Sources: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002; ESRI, 2002.

110 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, J. 2004. McKinleyville, The Russian The region’sThe extends which coast, of krai the CHAPTER 2 1 to aheight rise of mountains The coastline. to the parallel southwest northeast, to the covers muchthe from ofterritory, the stretching Range Mountain Sikhote-Alin The ecology and Geography ber, to whenfall. snow begins osen 20 (averaging temperatures – average temperatures precipitation. January little with weather sunny and dry consistently creating blows winter,In east air cold Siberian Climate Peninsula. Korean entire the than covers 165 Krai Primorsky Size by from only Primorsky of separates Japan, which Sea the To north. the in lies east the Krai and west the in common border China with border of the southeastern the along Situated Location Primorsky Krai temperature of 22 temperature event. July, average ayearly is an Flooding with coast. the along weather, especially rainy fl of air humid summer, masses In mountains. the in and north the in of middle April toward the south and the in March –45 reach and north, koraiensis pine ( of Korean stands intact largest the through runs Bikin, the One rivers, of these border. Russian-Chinese the forms and south to north River, runs which of the tary fl mountains side of onwestern these the Rivers Krai. into Khabarovsk extends of fl of frequency and size the have increased years to eighty seventy over past the logging and ture 50 than longer no of Generally Japan. into Sea the Mountains slopes of Sikhote-Alin the southeastern , 855 oods. Almost all of Primorsky’s rivers, especially those fl those of Primorsky’s all rivers,especially Almost oods. , the best season, with clear dry weather lasting from mid-September to Novem- late from mid-September lasting weather dry clear with season, best , the m (Mount Oblachnaya) and average about average and m(Mount Oblachnaya) ) and broadleaved forests remaining in the in remaining forests broadleaved ) and , , China, and share aborder on Tumen share Korea the North and Delta. China, River , Russia, Far CA: km, these rivers often fl often rivers these km, 100 to ° c , is the warmest time in the inland regions. August brings the warmest warmest the brings August regions. inland the in time warmest the , is East: ° c Daniel in the mountains. Winter snows begin to thaw in the middle of middle the in to thaw snows begin Winter mountains. the in , 900 ° c A ) to the coastal regions. Residents consider fall, or consider fall, Residents regions. coastal ) to the sq. km, approximately sq. km, ow up from the south across the Sea of Japan creating hot, of creating Japan Sea ow the upsouth across from the Reference & 1 , 350 Daniel. km, is washed by the Sea of Japan. by Sea the washed is km, ood after the intense summer rains. Agricul- rains. summer intense the ood after rfe 466 1 , Primorsky Krai, or Primorie, shares a or Primorie, shares Krai, , Primorsky Guide , ow into the River,ow amajor into Ussuri the tribu- 000 10 krai ° c 2 m. The northern part of this range range of this part northern m.The in the south and – south and the in pages . 67 . Short swift rivers fl rivers . Short swift ow from the percent of the owing east, are spawning spawning are east, owing for 400 Conservation km. In the far south far the In km. rfe 30 ° c , and is larger larger is , and in the the in zolotaya zolotaya

Pinus Pinus 111 and

PRIMORSKY grounds for migratory fi sh, including many species of salmon. The Sea of Japan reaches the eastern coast, Key issues and projects which has estuaries and lagoons, beautiful beaches, and a diversity of marine and shoreline wildlife. Logging in the Samarga River basin

PRIMORSKY In the southwest, rare Manchurian fi r (Abies holo- In the spring of 2001, the Primorsky administration phylla) and broadleaved forests of the East Manchurian announced that the Russian logging fi rm Terneiles Mountains, which extend into North Korea and China, had won rights to log almost all of the roadless provide the last habitat for the endangered Far Eastern forests in the Samarga River basin. The local com- leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis), a subspecies on the munity was not involved in the decision-making brink of extinction. The few marshes in the krai are process, and studies show that other economic mostly in the Khanka-Ussuri Plain, which borders Lake measures will be more benefi cial to those living in Khanka in the south and east and stretches north along the region (see p. 126). the Ussuri River. The very shallow Lake Khanka (10 m at its average depth and covering about 4,000 sq. km) is Illegal harvest and export of natural resources the largest body of freshwater in the rfe. The lake’s wet- The region is one of the most corrupt in Russia. lands, extremely valuable for migratory birds, have been degraded by agriculture. The Tumen River Delta in the Conservation of rare and endangered species far south and forming a border with China and North The conservation of habitat for the tigers and Korea also provides wetland habitat for migratory birds, leopards remains a priority for the Russians and marine , and reptiles. the international community. Forest covers 80 percent of the krai. In the north and at higher elevations, Ayan (Picea ajanensis), Infrastructure expansion East Siberian fi r (Abies nefrolepis), and Dahurian larch The building of roads and expanding of ports is (Larix gmelini) dominate. Further south, and in the river localizing and intensifying pressure on Primorsky’s valleys, northern and southern tree species intermix to largely unlogged northern forests (see p. 132). create unique forests that Russian ecologists call the Ussuri . The biological diversity of these forests, the wetlands, and the rich coastal waters is higher than it is almost anywhere else in Russia and rivals that of any temperate ecosystem in the world.

Flora and fauna Primorsky has about two thousand species of fl ora, many of which are endemic. There are more rare and endangered species and subspecies here than in any other region in the rfe. Critically endangered species include the Far Eastern leopard, the most northern subgroup of leopards, of which only about sixty remain in the wild (between thirty and thirty-six in southern Primorsky, fi fteen in Jilin Province, China, and perhaps fi ve or ten in North Korea).1 Most of the estimated four hundred Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) roam Primorsky’s forests. This subspecies of tiger is found only in the forests of Primorsky and southern Khabarovsk, China, and possibly North Korea. Rail lines and highway roads connecting Vladivostok and Khabarovsk, and the development of Razdolnaya and Ussuri River basins, have prevented genetic exchange among large predators and hoofed between populations living in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains and the southwestern part of Primorsky. Newell, Rare cranes, J. 2004. including The the Russianred-crowned craneFar (East:Grus japonensis A Reference, world population Guide ap- for Conservation and Development.proximately 1,800) and McKinleyville, the white-naped crane CA: (G. vipio Daniel, world &population Daniel. estimated 466 atpages 5,500), migrate to Lake Khanka, the Tumen River Delta, and the Ussuri River, as well as

112 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, J. 2004. McKinleyville, The Russian cement industry. mismanagement of the region’s resources for uncertain aims, and antipathy toward foreign foreign toward antipathy and aims, region’s of the formismanagement uncertain resources 57 (pop. Spassk-Dalny helicopters. (pop. 67 Arsenev chines, center, ma- equipment addition industrial washing in to producing and an electrical as hub. Known transport aregional as serves and foodprocessing, and center for agriculture scaly-sided merganser ( merganser scaly-sided chrysaetos ( ( cat include Amur species endangered and rare Other Japan. and Peninsula, Korean the of China, regions , to other wetland the fi personal his region as the former ruled governor Evgeny Nazdratenko 1938 on territory September administrative individual an formed as was Krai Primorsky status Political The Population 11 has Primorsky Largest cities ( largest fi largest Free Economic Zone. One of Russia’s site the of and amuch-discussed ports, coal and border.Jilin Some of Primorsky’s fl other rare and Primorsky the along Mountains Manchurian East the in and of Primorsky Mountains ginseng (Panax ginseng Asian Korea, North and China in extinct of Now Japan. Sea practically amurensis caudatus komarovii dron schlippenbachii dron lapse of the , of Soviet lapse the alossof about with of the Primorsky. other parts in population, The as ments. Vladivostok (“Lord of the East”) (pop. of East”) the (“Lord ments. Vladivostok ( bear Himalayan designated a city in 1950 in acity designated mandshurica and include Nanai, Udege, Taz. Oroki, Orochi, and include Nanai, and Koreans, Kazakhs, Tajiks, Georgians, and Azeris. Indigenous peoples number Indigenous about Azeris. and Tajiks, Georgians, Kazakhs, Koreans, Tatars, Germans, Belarussians, home is Primorsky to Ukrainians, Russian, Predominantly ulation. Most of ports. the military and commercial has center and Siberian Railroad ( Railroad Siberian ofTrans- the terminus eastern the It also is Vladivostok. in located centers are research nippon hortulorum Ketupa blakistoni 1990 krai . The krai ) is found in two main concentrations in the southern part of the Sikhote-Alin ofSikhote-Alin the southern part the in concentrations main two found in ) is sh canneries is also located here. Ussuriisk (pop. here. Ussuriisk located also is sh canneries 2 Most live in the cities and towns in the lowlands and along the coast of southern coast the along and lowlands the in towns citiesand Most the live in s. A controversial leader, Nazdratenko was widely accused of political favoritism, of political accused widely was leader,s. Acontroversial Nazdratenko , with 2 , with ), Oriental white Oriental ), stork ( ), Japanese yew ( yew Japanese ), ), ( Siberian kiwi Far CA: ’s ties with Moscow have been frequently strained, particularly when the particularly ’s Moscow strained, frequently have been with ties , cities, cities, 157 Ursus thibetanus Ursus , fewer than fi than , fewer ). Over seven hundred fi hundred seven Over ). 9, East: , ). 700 302 Daniel Mergus squamatus 30 residents as of as residents , ) is Russia’s) is city, most southeastern one of the km from its start in Moscow). Nakhodka (pop. Moscow). in Nakhodka from its start km 100 towns, 47 towns, Taxus cuspidata ), Steller’s), ( eagle sea , founded , founded A Actinidia arguta Actinidia ve hundred pairs exist), and Amur goral ( goral Amur and exist), ve pairs hundred Reference & Ciconia boyciana ), mandarin duck), mandarin ( , 800 “company towns,” 221 towns,” “company Daniel. 1885 , founded 1885 , founded 2001 , world population approximately ), and Shlippenbach’s and ), rhododendron ( sh species inhabit the coastal waters of waters the coastal the inhabit sh species Felis euptilura Felis ) produces military aircraft, particularly particularly aircraft, military ) produces , is home, is to about 30 ora include the Manchurian apricot ( ora Manchurian include the ), Komarov’s), ( lotus 100 Haliaeetus pelagicus Haliaeetus 613 466 Guide , ), Chinese egret ( egret Chinese ), , 100 000 rfe Aix galericulata Aix ) is the center of the building and and center ofbuilding the ) is the , founded , founded residents between between residents pages Primorsky Krai Ⅲ , has declined steadily since the col- the since steadily declined , has ), ), ( 158 villages, and 619 and villages, rfe , for 400 ’s and premier universities 1860 , founded 1866 , founded percent of the Conservation Nelumbo nucifera var. var. nucifera Nelumbo Cuon alpinus ), golden eagle ( golden), eagle Egretta eulophotesEgretta ), Blakiston’s fi ) is the administrative administrative the ) is rfe efdom for most of Nemorhaedus Nemorhaedus 159 1994 ’s major timber timber major ’s 1 minor settle- , , 200 800 and 2000 and ), Sika deer Sika ), ) is a ) is rfe Rhododen- pairs), pairs), , offi Aquila Prunus Prunus sh-owl sh-owl 20 spp- pop ’s ),

2 cially cially , , 000 113 and .

PRIMORSKY investors. Primorsky governments have tradition- ally viewed neighboring China and the many Chi- nese visitors with circumspection, causing friction particularly on territorial issues between the two

PRIMORSKY countries.

Natural resources Primorsky has abundant natural resources, includ- ing more than 2 billion tons of coal (11 percent is coking coal and approximately 89 percent is lower quality brown coal or lignite) and 1.7 billion cu. m of timber (including the rfe’s largest stocks of Korean pine and ash). The forests in Primorsky, due to the warmer and wetter climate, are denser and grow more quickly than in any other region of the rfe. The krai holds 14 percent of the rfe’s tin resources, 40 percent of its known tungsten deposits, 79 percent of its , 81 percent of its lead reserves, and large deposits of copper, sil- ver, and bismuth. Gold can be found along the northern river basins. There are deposits of datolite and boron and large supplies of fl uorite, graphite, and both therapeutic and potable mineral waters. Diamonds were discovered recently.3 About 10 per- cent of Primorsky is arable, making the region an important agricultural area. Marine species fi shed

include salmon, cod, fl ounder, herring, king crab Yuri Shibnev (Paralithodes kamtschatica), shrimp, and mollusks. In Peter the Great Bay alone there are about 194 The Blakiston’s fi sh-owl (Ketupa blakistoni), a globally endangered species, depends on old-growth valley forests, like those along the species of fi sh, and in the 200 -mile strip along the Bikin River, for survival. northern Primorsky coast there are more than 160 species. According to data acquired during benthic trawl surveys made between 1984 and 1989, the total biomass of fi sh on the shelf and the upper section of the slope in Peter the Great Bay is between 65,000 and 93,000 tons (6.5 tons per sq. km); northern Primorsky is estimated to have between 101,000 and 378,000 tons (3.1 tons per sq. km). The main varieties of benthic fi sh resources include fl ounder (36 percent), cod (26 percent), goby (17 percent), and two species of sea trout (13 percent). Salmon stocks, best preserved in the northern rivers of the eastern Sikhote-Alin Mountain slopes (Samarga, Kabanya, Edinka, and Venyukovka), are important for the local econo- mies and for export; the annual catch of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), the most common species, is about 35 tons in those regions.

Main industries Newell,After a steady J. 2004. decline sinceThe 1989 Russian, industrial productionFar East: began A toReference increase again inGuide 1999 and for Conservation and Development.2000. The fi shing industry McKinleyville, is the most important CA: sector Daniel of Primorsky’s & Daniel. economy, 466 repre- pages senting about 38 percent of total production. Primorsky is by far Russia’s largest producer

114 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, mot–US$7 million U.S.$375 – Import xot–US$9 million U.S.$993 – Export 2000 Krai, Primorsky with trade Foreign 2.1 Figure Source: .Korea S. J. ($127) 33% ($284) China rmrk diitain 2001. Administration, Primorsky 29% 2004. McKinleyville, The ($269) 27% U.S. China ($92) 25% Russian large container, coal, and timber terminals, has overtaken Vladivostok in importance and and importance in Vladivostok overtaken has terminals, timber container, and large coal, complex, port its with of tons but of millions Vostochny-Nakhodka cargo, the handling textiles. and mining, China), from (mainly tourism them among Some ofeconomy sectors the growing, military. are center East forFar the the as soclose—serves Japan and Koreas, the China, region with acrucial industry. Primorsky— the corruptionwithin widespread to the owing known, the northern region of region the northern the in or built planned being are roads shipment other logging and of Several to logs Japan. logging to expedite basin River Samarga the mayacross bebuilt Krai Khabarovsk in krai the through about halfway reached has and Primorsky in wilderness roadless previously through built being is to Nakhodka) endis in (which from Chita road Amilitary of cargo. types all to accommodate soas modernizing Poset and Port Port atZarubino are Commercial route. trade Khasansky China-Japan open anew will Russia, to Kraskino, Hunchun, from built China, recently line railroad of it is exported. Actual fi Actual of it exported. is Primorsky. The Primorsky. Zone Economic Exclusive Russian the in a year fi of the western part of the part western the along running Railroad Trans-Siberian the developed, with well fairly is Infrastructure Infrastructure 40 more and than services transport percent of the Eighty sea. and by rail transportation, is industry other critical sh and fi Japan ($32) 9% .Korea S. ($191) 19% ($26) U.S. 7% sh products, harvesting approximately1 harvesting sh products, Far CA: ($151) Japan 15% krai Other ($98) 26% East: produces between Other ($98) Daniel 10% krai gures for both the fi for the both gures krai and single-track railroads to China and North Korea. A Korea. North and to China railroads single-track and A . Vladivostok has a number of ports, together capable of capable anumber together of ports, has . Vladivostok Reference & percent of the Daniel. and fi reoriented and timber toward modernized being also Ternei and Plastun, Olga, are as such ports coastal smaller Other of cargo. numerous types now handles and port to acommercial from amilitary transformed recently was Bolshoi Kamen tocontinues expand. morsky imported goods totaling totaling morsky imported goods 2000 higher than the 1999 when unoffi fi (timber and fi and (timber Japan and scrap), someproducts, timber, metal and fi (mainly States United pine the nuts), and timber (mainly China are ( million), timber ( ( products marine mostly products, in billion In trade Foreign million), and coal ( coal and million), gures for gures $13 2000 3 million), metal scrap ( scrap metal million), and 4 and sh export. sh export. . Primorsky buys almost one-third of its total of its total one-third buys almost . Primorsky , Primorsky offi , Primorsky shing and timber industries are not are publicly industries timber and shing million cu. m of timber annually, and most and annually, mof timber cu. million 2000 cial trade is factored in, are noticeably noticeably in, are factored is trade cial . A logging road from Nelma to Sukpai to Sukpai Nelma from road . Alogging (eez) 466 Guide sh products) (see fi (see sh products) rfe sh products), (fi Korea South sh products), . , which are probably are much, which higher 5 and outer and Pacifi million tons of fi million $157 ’s international trade are through through are ’s trade international pages Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Krai Primorsky N/A fi million) and Korean pine nuts Korean and million) gure of cially exported almost u.s.$1 ). for 4 The major export markets major markets The export $44 Conservation $864 million), textiles ( textiles million), g. g. c Ocean waters. An- waters. c Ocean u.s.$375 sh and sea products sea sh and 2 million. Pri- . 1) . The offi . The million in rfe ’s ocean sh $462 cial cial

$40

115 and

PRIMORSKY imports, primarily fuel, consumer electronics, and food products, from South Korea. China exports food and consumer products to Primorsky; the ex- ports primarily fuel. Given Primorsky’s wealth of natu-

PRIMORSKY ral resources and importance as the major economic region in the rfe, it seems surprising that foreign investment remains so low. South Korea is the leading investor in the krai’s economy, followed by Japan, and then the United States. Japanese foreign investment, once the largest in the region, fell to only $38 mil- lion in 2000. About one-third of all joint ventures are with Chinese fi rms, the rest with companies from the United States (11 percent), South Korea (11 percent), and Japan (7 percent).

Economic importance in the RFE Of all the regions in the rfe, Primorsky has: Ⅲ The largest and most balanced economy. Ⅲ Thirty percent of the total industrial output (and 1.5 percent of overall Russian output). Ⅲ Thirty percent of the total energy production. Ⅲ Twenty percent of the agricultural production. Ⅲ Second-highest timber production after Khabarovsk. Ⅲ About 15 percent of the total investment. Mezentsev Dima Ⅲ Russia’s largest fi shing industry, providing about Primorsky’s beaches are a popular hunting ground for tigers as one-third of the nation’s annual catch. deer make regular migrations to the shore to lick the sodium from Ⅲ The transportation center of the rfe with the ice- seaweed. free ports of Vladivostok and Vostochny-Nakhodka.

General outlook Primorsky, with its many ports, has long been Russia’s gateway to the Pacifi c. With a regional economy increasingly reliant on trade with the Pacifi c Rim, the region is the economic and social center of the rfe. Structural reform of the Primorsky economy toward sustainable patterns of production and consumption and the development and implementation of sound environmental policies are essential if the rfe in general is to adopt sustainable development. Unfortunately, rather than serving as a model for the other regions, Primorsky has the dubious reputation of being one of Russia’s most corrupt.5 The illegal harvest of natural resources is widespread throughout the rfe, but Primorsky’s situation is worse because much of the trade in endangered and protected species relies on poaching. Sea urchins, protected on paper, have almost been eradicated. Nets strung across protected river mouths catch endangered species of salmon. The roe is prized for export to Japan; the rest of the fi sh is usually discarded. Intensive logging Newell,of ash trees J. for 2004. export toThe China Russian is taking place Far along East: river systems A Reference that are protected Guide to for Conservation and Development.control fl ooding in the McKinleyville, densely populated lowlands. CA: TradeDaniel in parts & Daniel.from endangered 466 pages animals such as tiger, goral, and leopard supplies the vast demand in China. The illegal

116 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, Dima Mezentsev caught this female tiger on fi on tiger atree. in female this sitting caught while lm Mezentsev Dima J. 2004. McKinleyville, The Russian ronmental conservation measures—mainly efforts to establish new protected areas and and protectedareas new to establish efforts measures—mainly conservation ronmental on envi- primarily focused sofar has community international fromthe Assistance unemployed residents destitute. and local of the many leaving collapsed, part, on relied producing large sawnwood,have, that in towns pair, timber and fi Coastal activities. such around Primorsky’s timber, the remote fi communities, of true particularly is This involved trade. the minority in aselect only enriching instead have reinvestment done industry. in little to Such benefi practices little economy on profi quick an reliant helped build has and investors alike Russian away and foreign scared Tragically, corruptionhas the effectively. to regulate or either unable been unwilling government has regional The villagers. local the to without consent log of the Udege land rights secured company where alogging basin, River Samarga the in is battle current The toways deny land. Udege control the over this continue to fi interests timber the and administration enous peoples, but regional the indig- Much belongs Udege, to ofthe an land the markets. Korean and Chinese, Japanese, to logs supply raw to the secure forests into pristine the roads new punching are companies logging Taiga. Russian Ussuri northern forests—the Eastern Far gem of Russian the on the pressure continuesto increase resources for supplies new of natural search The of Russia. all in mostto diverse bethe region’s the to continues degrade poaching ecology, resource by considered scientists This businesses. multimillion-dollar generated pine nuts has Korean and of ginseng harvest Far CA: East: Daniel A shing villages that once relied on processing and boatre- and once on relied processing that villages shing Reference & Daniel. ts through export of raw materials, with with of materials, raw export through ts shing, and mining villages that were built that villages mining and shing, 466 Guide pages Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Krai Primorsky for — Josh Newell region. for the sources energy provide stable clean, and facilities, processing tainable fi properly, establish sus- nontimber forest products use that models business on effective innovative, depend environment will Primorsky’ssaving natural But communities. local for opportunities business to develop small-scale attempts fewer far been have corruption, there of pervasive because part In combat poaching. Conservation t local communities, communities, t local sh and timber timber sh and nd nd

117 and

PRIMORSKY 1.5 million ha (about 10 percent of the krai ’s territory), and Ecology as a haven for migrating birds is critical for the protection of biodiversity. Part of the basin is recognized as a Ramsar wet- Vladimir Karakin and Anatoly Lebedev lands site. It is also an important agricultural and industrial Primorsky Krai lies on the border of the vast Eurasian conti- area. Nearly half of the krai ’s plowed fi elds and the largest PRIMORSKY nental and oceanic plates, in the ancient volcanic zone of the proportion of drained wetlands are located here. Pacifi c Ring of Fire. This geographical position combined Although comprising only about 5 percent of the krai ’s with a monsoon climate, which can cause catastrophic fl oods, total area, southwestern Primorsky includes part of the East typhoons, soil erosion, and landslides, also helps defi ne the Manchurian Mountains and unusual coastal landscapes, region’s unusual ecology. Most of the landscape is mountain- with a shallow continental shelf, both of which boast some of ous. Low-lying valleys and river basins suited for agriculture the highest biodiversity levels in the rfe. This area includes cover only one-fi fth of the region. Primorsky’s global value is Khasansky (435,000 ha) and the western parts of Na- due to its wealth of fl ora and fauna, varied climates, ancient dezhdinsky and Ussuriisky , forming a narrow strip of natural communities, high biological productivity, and di- land south of Vladivostok along the Russian-Chinese border verse forests. Unusual ecosystems found specifi c to Primorsky up to the Russian–North Korean border. Protected areas and include: recreational territories make up 38 percent of the region. The Ⅲ Manchurian fi r and broadleaved forests in and around harbors of Poset Bay were declared natural monuments in the Kedrovaya Pad Zapovednik. 1970s for the crucial conservation role they play. Ⅲ Forests along the Sikhote-Alin Mountain Range. The closure of deer and farms has left people un- Ⅲ Oak and sparse forest-steppes of the Pogranichny and employed, and coupled with the opening of Chinese markets, Khasansky Raions. an illegal trade in trepang (Apostychopus japonicus), a species Ⅲ Estuaries and lagoons along the Sea of Japan coast. of sea cucumber, has skyrocketed, destroying a number of Ⅲ Lake Khanka’s wetlands. Ⅲ Salmon rivers.

The krai can be subdivided into three terrestrial ecoregions: the Sikhote-Alin Range, the Khanka-Ussuri Valley, and southwestern Primorsky. Each region differs in its envi- ronmental characteristics, natural resources potential, and resource management requirements. Most environmental studies and projects have been focused on the Sikhote-Alin, thereby largely ignoring the other two ecoregions. The extensive Sikhote-Alin Range covers about 75 percent of Primorsky. With its high elevation, signifi cant diversity of climate and soil conditions, and location at the junction of different Asian ecozones, this region has the greatest bio- diversity and largest number of ecosystem types in all of Russia. These ecosystem types include, among others, Manchurian, Okhotsk-Kamchatkan, Angarian, and Dauro- Mongolian. Forests of Korean pine, Ayan spruce, fi r, larch, Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica), valley elm (Ulmus japonica), and Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolicus) cover most of the Sikhote-Alin. The range of is al- most exclusively limited to these forests. They provide habitat for brown bear and its southern relative, the Himalayan black bear. There are also Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Amur goral, Sika deer, yellow-throated marten (Martes fl avigula), Manchurian hare (Lepus brachyurus), and other rare and endangered species. The Khanka-Ussuri Valley, composed of wetlands, mixed Newell,grassland, andJ. 2004.forests, and The which Russian includes the narrow Far stripEast: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Yuri Shibnev Development.of the Ussuri River basin McKinleyville, that possesses a similar CA:wetland Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages ecology, accounts for about 20 percent of Primorsky’s terri- The collared scops-owl (Otis bakkamoena) needs large trees tory. The Russian portion of the Lake Khanka Basin is about for nesting.

118 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, the average forests, few have Valley Khanka-Ussuri on the and southwest far the in stretches Considerable practices. logging to poor the in with yellow birch ( birch yellow with nut, giant poplar ( poplar nut, giant birch ( birch stone lower elevations, At slopes. mountain upper on the Ayan spruce and east Siberian fi mainly are north the in Forests toRussia. endemic conifers ( microbiota as such stone pine ( Japanese with tundra of abelt rocky is timberline At Range. of the Sikhote-Alin mountains highest the covers tundra Alpine of Primorsky’s forests. one-quarter 3 is of Group Iforests area total The lesistost the regions, central and northern age the across unequally distributed are Forests 10 remaining the own departments other and enterprises Agricultural state. by the owned are forests of the ( signifi A pine. Korean mainly forests, to conifer-broadleaved Toward krai of the south the pine. of Korean timber supply of 1 povednik a total of 12 a total has statistics, forest tostate according and, of Russia regions a. dobrynin Forests resources. region’s natural the harvesting illegally and species endangered poaching from dissuaded permanently to be are people if resolved to be defi This ecosystems. these within living nities commu- sustainable todevelop made been has progress little (wwf) Fund World as such Wildlife organizations, conservation nature of attention international continued Despite the extinct, confi Today, almost numbers. is in leopard declines this continual iucn the in listed been despite having Russia, in large endangered most the is leopard Eastern Far The Protection. Environmental on Committee now-defunct the and Committee Fisheries Federal the between cooperation of consistent absence the ( Species Trade Endangered in national Convention the on in Inter- listed trepang toget Attempts Zapovednik. Marine) Eastern Morskoi (Far nevostochny Dal- of the waters the in communities sea diverse and rich surveys in 1973 in surveys Tilia amurensis Tilia (area covered by forest) is is by forest) covered (area lesistost cant role is played by Mongolian oak, Amur linden linden Amur oak, by Mongolian role played is cant J. rfe, although this fi Betula ermani , to the problem of protecting Primorsky’s biodiversity, Primorsky’s problem of, tothe protecting s and other protected territories), with an estimated estimated an with territories), protected other s and 2004. there is lower than 25 lower than is there lesistost . 46 ned to isolated portions of southwest Primorsky. Primorsky. of southwest portions toisolated ned —Primorsky is one of the more densely forested forested one more is of densely the —Primorsky million ha of forested territory (including territory of forested ha million , 1983 ), and Manchurian ash. Maple, ash. ), and Manchurian elm, wal- . Populus maximovichii Populus 72 McKinleyville, B. lutea Microbiota decussata Microbiota The – billion cu. m. Approximately m.Approximately cu. billion ) in the fi the ) in 1984

since 1966 since Book Data Red Pinus pumila Pinus gure is gradually decreasing due decreasing gradually is gure ), and there are signifi are there and ), , and 1990 , and Russian r and spruce forests is replaced replaced is forests spruce r and r; Dahurian larch dominates dominates larch Dahurian r; , there is a gradual change change agradual is , there . 1 77 – million ha, almost almost ha, million 1991 ) and various bushes, bushes, various ) and cites) percent, the highest highest the percent, ), and Amur cork cork Amur and ), ), the only genus of genus only the ), percent. In the the In percent. reaches 95 reaches have recorded Far CA: percent. have failed in in failed have ciency needs needs ciency krai. cant stands . Subsequent . Subsequent East: 90 percent. The aver- The Daniel percent percent za- A Reference & is taken up with oak forests ( forests oak upwith taken is forests dominated by Korean pine ( by Korean dominated forests fi with covered are areas only cover forests Plantation stock. Natural forests make up make forests Natural of fl likelihood the increasing changes, fl river decreases, density forest If plains. the in it does as much as not freeze does soil the forests the Beneath melts. snow whenthe important especially are forests the spring, In content soils. of the moisture the helpsnow regulate and river’s of the retain rioration hydrology. winter,forests In the dete- the and erosion, stony scree, toincreased leads forests these stone Destroying pine. of Japanese forests associated the role toplay, do protective as important an have slopes steep on forests oak pine and Korean Dry function. regulatory and fi erosion. Spruce from riverbanks willow, the protect poplar chosenia, alder, of and elm, stands valleys, river the Along centers. population large around and coast, the along exploited for agriculture, been have that lowlands Khanka of the areas in rivers, of spawning valleys the in habitat, than fl erosion and against land the protecting in important very is cover forest region’s Giventhe rains, summer intense yew. Japanese and rhododendrons, Komarov’s lotus, cies of lady’s slipper orchids ( of lady’scies orchids slipper ( jack-in-the-pulpit Japanese ( kiwis apricot, Manchurian include These plants. endangered and of rare species uptoone hundred are there south, far the in Raion Khasansky toPrimorsky. In endemic ( maple Komarov The fi Siberian of East some stands with forests, spruce Ayan and stone birch are regions southern of these forests upper The species. timber uptotwenty be might there of forest, hectare ( Mongolian oak, with Dahurian birch ( birch Dahurian with oak, Mongolian by dominated are rivers other and Razdolnaya, Ussuri, of the dentata ( oak daimyo rare of the groves bay, sparse are there of the coast western Onthe species. forest dominant the as pine Korean Bay,into Peter Great replaces the it sometimes fi Manchurian sis magnolia ginseng, vine ( Asian aralias, tree, cork Amur species, yew, willow endemic Japanese include species Period. Ancient Tertiary the in originating ancient, are Some of these Russia. in not elsewhere found are of Primorsky of vegetation forms and species of the Many meadows. grassy and by sedge replaced are marshes the increases, elevation the As marshy. are plains lowest The agriculturally. developed been have region of the areas Large varieties. broadleaved other ooding, especially in forests that grow on slopes of on more grow slopes that forests in especially ooding, r and Korean spruce ( Phellodendron amurense Phellodendron Daniel. ), castoraralias ( castoraralias ), r forests with grasses and moss have an important water water important an have moss and grasses with r forests 30 ). Forests on coastal rocky outcrops and in the valleys valleys the in outcrops and rocky on coastal Forests ). degrees, those that grow on the upper limits of their r is found, and in the river basins that fl that basins river the in and found, r is 466 Guide Kalopanax Acer komarovi Acer pages Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Picea koraensis Picea r and spruce forests ( forests spruce r and ) trees are also common. Onone common. also are ) trees for 94 Cypripedium ), and various species of fern. of fern. species various and ), 17 Arizema japonica Arizema . . 5 3 percent of the total forest forest total of the percent percent), birch forests, forests, birch percent), Conservation 19 43 ) and microbiota are are microbiota ) and . ). In the far south, south, far the In ). , 5 ooding. 000 Schisandra schinen- percent). Less area area Less percent). Betula davurica ), Asian ginseng, ginseng, Asian ), ha. The largest largest The ha. 27 ), several spe- several ), .2 percent) and and percent) Actinidia Quercus ow ow ) and ) and

ow ow 119 and ),

PRIMORSKY Ecological Program (1991) outlines a comprehensive vision Ginseng for expanding the protected area system. Krai and federal Primorsky Krai is the only region in Russia where Asian government decrees, such as Chernomyrdin decree No. 572 -r ginseng, a globally endangered medicinal plant, grows. (April 23, 1994), have outlined the need for a series of new Historically, it could be found in other portions of RFE, national parks and Territories of Traditional Nature Use PRIMORSKY the Korean peninsula, and northern China. Heavy exploi- (ttps). In 1994–1995, twenty-fi ve-year licenses were granted tation at the beginning of the twentieth century that was to log forest regions in the krai. Areas slated for protection controlled by a state monopoly on ginseng gave way to have been temporarily excluded from the licensing process. a thriving black market that has severely damaged wild Establishing a reserve requires completing an obosnovanie (an populations of the plant and brought it close to extinc- ecological-economic justifi cation). With the licensing process tion. It has disappeared in the wild in Korea, is very continuing apace, obosnovanies should be completed quickly rare in China, and only three wild populations remain in for territories in urgent need of protection. Primorsky Krai: in Chuguevsky, Spassky, and Khasansky. In 1997 Governor Nazdratenko signed an executive order Zapovedniks. There are six zapovedniks in Primorsky, more (No. 550), the Primorsky Krai Target Program to Restore than in any other region of Russia. However, the overall area (Reintroduce) the Primorsky Population of Ginseng in is fairly small (679,423 ha, including 65,900 ha of marine the Period Prior to 2005, a program to protect ginseng areas and 5,690 ha of Lake Khanka), encompassing only 4.1 habitat, to cultivate the plant in special reintroduction percent of the krai ’s territory, a protected area seven times centers, and to implement legal measures against the smaller than in Kamchatka, and 2.5 times smaller than in illegal trade. Owing to revenue shortfalls, this program Magadan or Khabarovsk. Three zapovedniks (Sikhote-Alin- has remained a paper project. sky, Lazovsky, and Khankaisky) used to be administered by — MJ the Federal Committee on Environmental Protection, now part of the Ministry of Natural Resources; the other three are administered by the Russian Academy of Sciences (ras). Over the past few years zapovednik directors have been mak- including stone birch (14.9 percent), and larch forests ing great strides to secure funding from international donors, (10.7 percent). As a result of intensive logging, mining, and but the overall situation within the reserves has been dete- agriculture, conifer forests are being replaced by deciduous riorating because of Russia’s continuing economic crisis. The varieties. Forests categorized as “mature and overmature” number of people who depend on marine and forest resources take up about 41.9 percent of the territory. For conifer forests, for their survival has increased, making it diffi cult to protect this fi gure reaches 42.5 percent, for hardleaved varieties all endangered species even within the zapovedniks. Scientifi c (e.g., oak, ash, elm), 43.1 percent, and for softleaved varieties research has also been drastically curtailed. (e.g., aspen, lime, poplar), 38.2 percent. The overall supply of Kedrovaya Pad. Kedrovaya Pad—the fi rst zapovednik in mature timber is 838.74 million cu. m, of which 547.43 mil- the rfe—was established in 1916, even though World War I lion cu. m are conifer species (including Japanese stone pine). was in progress. Located in the south of Primorsky (Khasan- The average yield for one hectare is between 180 and 200 cu. sky Raion) and centered around a valley and small mountain m, the average annual growth on one hectare is 1.5 cu. m. ridge (692 m), Kedrovaya Pad has an extremely high index The overall average yearly growth is 17.17 million cu. m. of biodiversity. Small enough to be more like a botani- cal garden, the reserve, administered by the ras, provides habitat for sixty species of mammals including Far Eastern Protected area system leopard, Siberian tiger, Himalayan bear, Amur cat, and Sika y. bersenev —As conserving Primorsky’s biodiversity is of deer, as well as for 380 species of birds, some of them rare. global signifi cance, the establishment of an adequate nature Approximately 860 species of vascular plants grow on the preservation system is essential. One way to do so is to territory, and insect diversity is the highest in the rfe, with expand the network of protected areas, and this has occurred some species endemic to the area. Other notable features of in the krai over the past few decades. The protected-area the zapovednik include some of the largest remnant stands of network still, however, contains only about 6.3 percent of the Manchurian fi r and giant yew trees. krai ’s total area (see table 2.1) and fails to protect the region’s Ussuriisky. Established in 1932, together with a mountain- biodiversity adequately because many boundaries have been taiga research station under its aegis, Ussuriisky Zapovednik established without proper consideration of the habitat range is also administered by the ras. There are no high mountains Newell,necessary toJ. protect 2004. endangered The Russianspecies. Possible Far solutions East: in- Aor Referencelarge rivers in the area.Guide The most for valuable Conservation ecosystem is and Development.clude creating more protected McKinleyville, areas, broadening CA:the existing Daniel the &liana-conifer-broadleaved Daniel. 466 pages forest, which has miraculously ones, improving protection regimes, and creating more (and escaped fi res and logging. Forests cover over 95 percent of the bigger) buffer zones around the zapovedniks. The Primorsky territory. It protects many rare and endangered species, such

120 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, Source: 1984 Goraly 9,000 Dalnegorsky Ostrovnoi 12,400 1967(Island) (Black Rocks) Vladivostok city 16,500 Chyornye Skaly Vladivostoksky 1978 Tikhy 26,000 Olginsky Losiny 34,000 Krasnoarmeisky (Moose) 1963 29,000 Tayozhny (Taiga) 63,429 Vasilkovsky Chuguevsky 60,000 Beryozovy (Birch) 1989 Pogranichny, (Plateau) 119,000 Borisovskoe Plato (aquatoria) Poltavsky 182,000 (Vostok Bay) 1979 Zaliv Vostoka 1997 Zakaznik Regional Khasansky Barsovy 106,000 (Leopard) Khasansky 35,000 Zakaznik Federal 1916 1932 Khasansky 1978 Nature Park Khasansky Khankaisky, 17,890 1990 37,980Spassky Ussuriisky 40,432 Kedrovaya Pad (aquatoria) 63,000 Khankaisky Ussuriisky Lazovsky 120,024 Morskoi Dalnevostochny Lazovsky Terneisky, 390,184 Sikhote-Alinsky Zapovednik name and Type Krai Primorsky in areas Protected 2.1Table J. Primorsky Committee on Environmental Protection, 2000. Protection, Environmental on Committee Primorsky 2004. s s McKinleyville, The Size (ha) Raion Raion (ha) Size 300 23,000 4,749 Terneisky Terneisky 4,749 Russian kybsy 1996 Oktyabrsky 1935 Krasnoarmeisky Far CA: East: Established Daniel 1973 1976 1956 1957 1986 1996 1935 A Reference & species of fi species 7 birds, of 63 species), endangered are 120 tiger ( Siberian herethe include protected species endangered The fi and broadleaved, pine, Korean are territory on of the forest types Three protection. it greater affords and has the status of abiosphere status the has and povednik the Raions), Krasnoarmeisky (Terneisky and Primorsky marine aquatoria of In sixfold. almost reduced was reserve of the area the world. But in the in one largest of the and Russia in Zapovednik, at 1 Sikhote-Alinsky. 868 are There tors. deer, stork ( black Sika cat, forest Amur bear, tiger, Himalayan Siberian the as Dalnevostochny Morskoi (Far Eastern Marine). Eastern (Far Morskoi Dalnevostochny Lazovsky. cular plant species, about 50 about species, plant cular of the waters the in found be can organisms tropical even and subarctic arctic, Therefore, meet. Currents Tsusimskoe warm and Primorskoe cold the where regions the it protects that is area of this feature usual un- An colonies. bird and ecosystems shelf marine the protect zapovednik 1940 until Zapovednik Sikhote-Alinsky of the abranch was and 1935 in established also was Raion), (Lazovsky Primorsky species, species, 62 species, endangered and by by of this borders the expanding proposes Program Ecological Primorsky The species. of insect thousands and 80 species, marine mammal tiger ( Siberian protects reserve The atonehowever, time. logged zapovednik the in found be can types of many Forests Resources. of Natural Ministry by the (to 139 of 173 area an only 1951 in dissolved was along its southwestern border. southwestern its along the globally endangered Chinese egret ( egret Chinese endangered globally the include reserve the in nesting Birds invertebrates. of marine for 44 ( deer Daniel. species nest on the territory), and more than 2 more than and territory), on the nest species rare and endangered species. The reserve provides habitat habitat provides reserve The species. endangered and rare 6 56 ), and mountain hawk-eagle ( hawk-eagle mountain and ), 1 , , . The original area of the reserve was 339 was reserve of the area original . The 900 100 land mammal species and 317 and species mammal land 730 21 20 , 891 6 to29 individuals), goral ( goral individuals), is controlled by the Ministry of Natural Resources Resources of Natural Ministry by the controlled is species of vascular plants (including twenty rare and and rare twenty (including plants of vascular species ha at its northwestern border and by border and northwestern atits ha amphibian species, species, amphibian ). There are 1 are There ). species of amphibians, of amphibians, species ha) and it now 120 is and ha) sh. is controlled by the ras by the controlled is Lazovsky Zapovednik, located in southeastern southeastern in located Zapovednik, Lazovsky individuals), goral ( goral individuals), 466 Guide , 800 Ciconia nigra Ciconia , species of vascular plants including 15 including plants of vascular species 932 Established in 1935 in Established 2 . In 1957 . In , , 900 000 Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Krai Primorsky pages ha. In 1960 In ha. , species of land mammals, mammals, of land species 212 306 ha was added. Located in northern northern in Located added. was ha ha, was at the time the largest largest the time atthe was ha, vascular plant species, including including species, plant vascular land mammal species, land mammal for land mammal species, land mammal , it was reestablished but covered but covered reestablished , it was 210 bird species (of which at least atleast which (of species bird zapovednik 7 reptile species, species, reptile . Most of the forests were, were, forests of. Most the ), rare shrews, bats, and rap- and bats, shrews, rare ), , to220 024 zapovednik Spizaetus nipalensis 5 Conservation 150 the area was reduced again again reduced was area the species of reptiles, and and of reptiles, species and was created in 1978 in created was and bird species. bird ha. It is also controlled controlled It also is ha. ), Sika deer ( deer Sika ), , Sikhote-Alinsky , Sikhote-Alinsky individuals), and Sika Sika and individuals), Egretta eulophotesEgretta . There are are . There , which arguably arguably , which r-spruce forests. r-spruce , 000 12 17 , fi zapovednik 600 This , sh species, ha, but it ha, 000 100 375 160 1 556 1951 resident ). There There ). ha species species 1995 to bird bird species species vas-

, za- rare

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PRIMORSKY and Japanese murrelet (Syntliborhamphus wumizusumae), as ploughing for agriculture, and use of agricultural chemicals well as rare Japanese cormorant (Phalacrocorax capillatus), hill are all forbidden. It is however diffi cult to carry out such pigeon (Columba rupestris), and Pleske’s grasshopper-warbler extensive protection as several villages are located near the (Locustella ochotensis pleskei). Some insect species are endemic zakaznik, including a 40,000 -ha military testing ground in to the zapovednik. Barabash Village. PRIMORSKY Lake Khanka. After a long struggle, Khankaisky (Lake Losiny (Moose). Losiny protects moose and other rare Khanka) Zapovednik was fi nally established in 1990, under game animals. Prohibited activities include hunting, plough- the control of the Committee on Environmental Protec- ing for agriculture, use of agricultural chemicals, and tour- tion. The zapovednik, divided into fi ve isolated areas located ism. Geological exploration, natural resources development, in Khankaisky, Khorolsky, Chernigovsky, Spassky, and and scientifi c research are limited. The zakaznik protects the Kirovsky Raions, protects birds and their valuable wetland lower Venyukovka River basin, but should be expanded to habitat. Endangered species include red-crowned crane include the entire basin. The Ecological Program proposes (80 to 90 individuals), reed parrotbill (Paradoxornis heudei, expanding Losiny by 43,000 ha. 350 to 400 wintering birds and 230 nesting pairs), Oriental Tayozhny (Taiga). Located in northern Primorsky white stork (15 nesting pairs), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea (Krasnoarmeisky Raion), Tayozhny, which has never been leucorodia, 3 individuals), white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus commercially logged, covers the entire upper portion of the pelagicus, 2 individuals), swan goose (Anser cygnoides, no Perevalnaya River basin. Spruce and Korean pine broadleaved statistics), and white-naped crane (Grus vipio, 50 individuals). forests cover most of the territory. Seventeen rare and endan- There are 617 vascular plant species, including 49 rare and gered plant species, some rare insect species, ninety breeding endangered species, and 523 algae species. The reserve is home bird species, and mammals such as the Siberian tiger, sable to 48 mammal species, 333 bird species, 6 amphibian species, (Martes zibellina), and (Sus scrofa) can be found. 7 reptile species (including the rare Mongolian racer [Coluber Deer hunting, ploughing, agricultural chemical use, tourism, spinalis]), 60 fi sh species (including the endangered Chinese recreation, and noncommercial fi shing are prohibited. There perch [Siniperca chuatsi] and other rare fi shes), and some rare are limits placed on geological exploration and natural re- and endangered insect species. To fulfi l its obligations under source development. Scientifi c research that does not comply the Ramsar Convention (Lake Khanka Zapovednik is part of with the purpose of the zakaznik is forbidden. But it is hard the Khanka Ramsar site), Russia would have to include more to protect the area because it is easily accessible by road. crucial wetlands into the zapovednik, because two-thirds of Tikhy (formerly Daubikhinsky). Created to protect ducks, the populations of key species such as cranes and Oriental particularly mandarin duck (Aix galericulata), other birds, white stork are currently unprotected. One major problem for and their wetland habitat, this reserve, with over fi fteen the zapovednik is a 16,000 -ha aviation testing ground located natural lakes, is in central Primorsky in an irrigation valley near the reserve where yearlong bombing exercises created between the Sinegorka and Arsenevka Rivers, close to the noise and cause grass fi res, disturbing nesting and migrating town of Arsenev. birds. There is a protected area on the Chinese side of the Poltavsky. Situated in western Primorsky, the reserve was lake but it differs greatly from its counterpart on the Russian reduced in size in 1996, leaving a sliver of unprotected area side in terms of protection. In 1996, both governments agreed between its border and that of Borisovskoe Plateau Zakaznik. to establish an international reserve, but the exact borders The reserve protects large feeding areas for a variety of birds. and protection regulations remain to be agreed upon. All types of hunting are forbidden. Beryozovy (Birch). Located in central Primorsky (Chu- Zakazniks. There are thirteen zakazniks (with an overall area guevsky Raion), the reserve protects a number of species, of 298,700 ha; 1.8 percent of Primorsky’s territory), but only including Siberian tiger and Himalayan bear. All types of Barsovy is a federal-level zakaznik, the rest being regional- hunting as well as land ploughing, tourism, and recreational level reserves. The Primorsky Hunting Service administers activities are forbidden. most of them. Depending on the Ministry of Agriculture for Chyornye Skaly (Black Rocks). Located in eastern Pri- its fi nancing, the service lacks funds to protect the reserves morsky (Dalnegorsky Raion), the reserve stretches along the properly. Many have no rangers on staff to deter poaching. Sea of Japan coast, protecting habitat for Sika deer. All types Barsovy. Barsovy protects lowland river valleys, a good of hunting, commercial logging, chemical use, automobile forest type for fauna. Secondary growth broadleaved forests parking, and tourism are forbidden. Scientifi c research not are the most common, although some virgin forests remain. compliant with the goals of the zakaznik is also forbidden. The major protected species is the Far Eastern leopard. Many Vasilkovsky. Also stretching along the coast of the Sea Newell,rare and endangered J. 2004. vascular The plants Russian can be found Far in the East: area Aof ReferenceJapan, this zakaznik Guide is located forin southeastern Conservation Primorsky and Development.as well as over 150 breeding McKinleyville, bird species. In terms CA: of protect- Daniel(Olginsky & Daniel. Raion). Twenty-eight 466 pages rare and endangered vas- ing biodiversity, this zakaznik is as important as Kedrovaya cular plant species grow here. The zakaznik protects a great Pad Zapovednik. Hunting, commercial fi shing and logging, number of Sika deer and, as a result, a great number of tiger.

122 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, and agriculture. to dissolve it or extend it. it or extend to dissolve whether made been has no decision and expired, has status Its Bay. Peter Great in the Askol) and Popov, Rikorda, Reineke, (Russky, of on islands anumber animals and birds protect sky, but there are plans to create the Yuzhno-Primorsky Yuzhno-Primorsky the to create plans sky, are but there ing natural resources is prohibited here. is resources natural ing develop- and pollutants Dumping species. marine appearing bay for scientifi restricted. also is boats of peopleence and forbidden. pres- are The environment natural the disturb that activity of industrial forms All goral. the toprotect designed 1 including Japan, of Sea Zapovednik, this zakaznik ( Kema-Amginsky decree. Chernomyrdin the toas referred No. 572 decree Federation Russian the with accordance in is plan This Parks. National Kema-Amginsky and Ussuri), (Middle Sredne-Ussuriisky (Upper Ussuri), March Nature parks. National areas. parks. protected Other 1997 in dissolved was duck, Khankaisky. Vladivostoksky. Bay). (Vostok Vostok Zaliv Goraly. Borisovskoe Plato 58 (Plateau). by Vasilkovsky expanding proposes Program Ecological The prohibited. are construction house and activities, recreational tourism, of plants, gathering commercial logging, mercial com- Fishing, endangered. and rare of them sixteen area, the in nest species bird one hundred Over there. bears layan Hima- also are There coast. the along rocks the in live Gorals ecosystem. natural the toprotect created was suburbs, Vladivostok is scientifi as prohibited, are automobile parking and tourism, hunting, of types prey,All its habitat. its leopard, and Eastern Far the schmidtii ( birch Schmidt larch, with reserve important this border, Chinese-Russian the along Primorsky, stretching Parks, see Hotspots # National Sredne-Ussuriisky and Verkhne-Ussuriisky of the (For descriptions pool. water mineral Amginsky and Plateau, Ozyornoe the Mount Kurortnaya, valley, River Maximovka the in waterfalls highest the has which basin, River Amgu of the part upper the basin, River Kema of the most protect would Raion, Krasnoarmeisky in tion por- asmall with Terneisky in Raion mainly Sikhote-Alin, 268 , 100 Ostrovnoi (Island). Ostrovnoi , 000 J. ha. 2002 ), and Korean pine forests, protects in particular particular in protects pine forests, Korean and ), c research confl c research ha) National Park, located on the eastern slope of slope eastern on the located Park, National ha) 2004. Administered by staff of the Sikhote-Alinsky Sikhote-Alinsky of the by staff Administered , but three are planned: the Verkhne-Ussuriisky Verkhne-Ussuriisky the planned: are , but three c research and to establish plantations of dis- plantations toestablish and c research This zakaznik There is only one nature park in Primor- in park one only nature is There No national parks in Primorsky exist as of as exist Primorsky in parks No national McKinleyville, This zakaknik The 3 and # This zakaznik The krai The km of aquatoria. The reserve is is reserve The of aquatoria. km icting with the goals of the of the goals the with icting includes a coastal area along the the along area acoastal includes . Russian 5) Created to protect biota of the biota of toprotect the Created , created to protect species of species toprotect , created . Located in southwestern southwestern in Located has the following: the has , a forested park in the the in park , aforested was established to established was krai , a part of the of the , apart Far CA: -r, commonly East: Betula Daniel zakaznik A

Reference & protected zones such as Group Iforests. as such zones protected of area atotal with regions spa three 4 protects Raion, noarmeisky Kras- in Forests) Pine (Korean monument, Kedrovniki the 94 tocreate plans are there mentioned earlier, decree Chernomyrdin the In tion. protec- for federal-level recommended been have of which and status regional have of which all monuments, natural Natural monuments. parts. The northern part ( unconnected of two consist would Park Yuzhno-Primorsky (Southern Primorsky) and Vladivostoksky Nature Parks. the remainder. the up make forests burnt stone and pine, Japanese aspen, birch, 40 comprise forests Larch pine. Korean and fi unit), service (forest Leskhoz Of the area. the in fi Human-caused basin. Samarga the in converge zones subarctic region, climate subtropical and Sikhote-Alin central of most the in As basin. River Khor logged heavily the east tothe and basin, River Anyui the north tothe basin, River Nelma the lies To forests. rich west the tothese access toget try continually Khabarovsk in companies logging and sides, on all Samarga the surrounds south, the in corridor for anarrow except Krai, Khabarovsk peninsula. political the toas referred sky, often is of Primor- part northernmost the in Mountains Sikhote-Alin of slope the eastern the along located River, Samarga The (forest) basin River 1. Samarga Lebedev Anatoly and Karakin Vladimir Biodiversity hotspots endemic plant species. The southern part ( part southern The species. plant endemic many has area This Mountain. Lysaya including Range sky Partizan- of the part northern the and lakes, two are there on top of which Mount Olkhovaya, basin, River Alexeevka of the part upper the include would Raions, Lazovsky and tion of migrating birds. protec- conventions on the international of three conditions tothe subject is park The area. tothe endemic are of insects some species of protection; need in and rare here are mals krai borderof the southeastern the along Tumenvast in wetlands created Park, Khasansky Kamen. Bolshoi and of Partizansk cities the include would Raions, Shkotovsky and Partizansky Daniel. . Forty-seven species of birds and four species of mam- species four and of birds species . Forty-seven r stands, with between 1 between with r stands, 630 , 000 466 Guide re, however, has marred some of the forests forests some of the marred however,re, has ha of forest administered by the Svetlaya Svetlaya by the administered of forest ha more monuments. Primorsky’s largest largest Primorsky’s monuments. more Primorsky Krai Ⅲ pages Currently, there are 214 Currently, are there 22 for , 700 45 , and 2 and 929 1997 percent consists of spruce of spruce consists percent ha), located in Partizansky Partizansky in located ha), ha of forest. There are also also are There of forest. ha Conservation , protects part of the of the part , protects percent intermixed with with intermixed percent 121 percent of the total; total; of the percent , 6 000 38 ha and other other and ha , 600 approved ha), in

123 9 and

PRIMORSKY The Samarga River and its tributaries are pristine spawn- the entire Samarga watershed has been leased to Terneiles, ing grounds for many species of fi sh, the most valuable being a large timber company based in Primorsky. salmon. For this reason, the regional government prohibits Horrendous social conditions in the Samarga basin, commercial fi shing entirely in these rivers and limits fi shing combined with the lack of export routes for furs and fi sh at the Samarga River mouth along the seacoast. The govern- products, mean that logging companies and regional gov- PRIMORSKY ment does allocate an annual 200 -kg quota to each family of ernmental offi cials may be able to persuade local residents to indigenous peoples. accept the Nelma-Sukpai road. With this very real possibility There are only three settlements in the region: the village and the current uncontrolled poaching of animals and fi sh by of Samarga at the river mouth, the ten-family former Old nearby timber companies, the Samarga basin ecosystem Believers’ village of Unty in the river’s lower reaches, and the is critically threatened. If Terneiles begins harvesting opera- predominantly Udege village of Agzu, which is isolated from tions in the Samarga, the logging will obviously affect the other regions because there is no road. River and winter trails forests and wildlife. The only ecologically and socially provide the only land access in and out of the village. Agzu viable solution for the Samarga is to develop an ecologically has a total population of 205, of which 145 are native Udege. balanced land-use program for the natural resources of the In 1992, the Primorsky regional legislature passed a decree basin; this program must focus on small- to medium-sized calling for the creation of what is called an ethnic territory to businesses, ecotourism, and adequately controlled hunting protect the Udege and their traditional economy of fi shing and tourism. and hunting. This designation is intended as a temporary measure until permanent protection status as a ttp or similar Existing protection measures. The idea of establishing some designation can be conferred. For at least a thousand years, sort of protected area in the Samarga fi rst surfaced in 1990 at the Udege have been living in an ecologically sustainable a meeting of the ussr State Forest Committee, when partici- manner in the Samarga. pants, after pressure from Udege representatives, agreed to The entire territory is divided into twenty-three hunting withdraw the territory from the jurisdiction of the state-run leases, which are granted to Udege families, as well as to Rus- Samarga Lespromkhoz. When the Primorsky Ecological sians and Ukrainians living in the area. The trading company Program appeared in 1991, the Samarga watershed was in- Troika and some small merchants from Khabarovsk purchase cluded as a region to be protected as a Territory of Traditional the furs and other wild animal products. Locals complain Nature Use. However, efforts by Russian and international that one of the Khabarovsk fi rms, Vostok-Pushnina, has a ngos and some offi cials within the now-defunct Committee bad reputation in the Samarga area because the company on Environmental Protection to implement the program have treats the Udege hunters rudely and pays very badly. so far been unsuccessful. The Non-Timber Forest Products Association in Khaba- Threats. Large timber companies have long eyed the Samarga rovsk, in cooperation with Agzu community leaders and forests, primarily because of the region’s proximity to the Friends of the Earth–Japan, began the fi rst phase of a coast and, therefore, accessibility to the Japanese timber mar- development program in 1997. The program seeks to assist ket. In the 1980s, local authorities were able to avert a timber the Udege in using their traditional harvesting methods lease to a Cuban fi rm that had clear-cut large areas in the and selling their forest products on the commercial market. neighboring Sukpai basin in Khabarovsk Krai. In December Troika trading company, based in the nearby town of Ed- 1997, Rimbunan Hijau, a large Malaysian fi rm, won an in- inka, may also assist in this effort. Troika company executives ternational tender to cut 500,000 cu. m in the Sukpai over a distinguish themselves from most of their competition by forty-nine-year period. In the economic planning documents paying attention not only to economic priorities but also to submitted for the tender competition, Rimbunan indicated the importance of resource conservation and nature protec- that the timber logged in the Sukpai would be transported tion. However, since 1999, progress to develop sustainable along a road to be cut through the Samarga basin to the port economic alternatives in the Samarga has been limited. of Nelma on the coast. This plan has not yet been realized, but it or an alternative one, such as the reconstruction of an Recommendations. To promote a sustainable development old railway spur from Sukpai to Obor in Khabarvosk Krai, plan and to promote traditional resource-based economies, will have disastrous consequences for the Samarga forests. For it is necessary to: years, Russian companies have wanted to build the Nelma- Ⅲ Revoke the Terneiles tender for the Samarga. Sukpai road, but have not had the capital to do so. However, Ⅲ Develop a business plan for resource use. in 1997, when Rimbunan executives approached the local Ⅲ Improve the marketing and sale of local forest products Newell,administration J. 2004. in Ternei Theabout gettingRussian logging rightsFar inEast: the A Referencein Japan, Primorsky Guide Krai, and for Khabarovsk. Conservation and Development.Samarga basin, they discussed McKinleyville, the road in great detail.CA: Rim- DanielⅢ Help& Daniel. the Udege acquire466 pagesequipment for small-scale bunan offi cials even lobbied Agzu villagers to gain their sup- timber harvesting and nontimber forest products and port, but the villagers opposed the idea. Since then, almost fi sh processing.

124 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, The Samarga River basin has rich salmon runs. salmon rich has basin River Samarga The J. 2004. McKinleyville, The Russian Far CA: East: Daniel A Reference & Daniel. 466 Guide Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Krai Primorsky pages for Conservation

125 and

Alexander Panichev

PRIMORSKY Ⅲ Establish tax exemptions and related benefi ts for Udege consist in nearly equal proportions of spruce and fi r (28 commercial enterprises. percent), Korean pine and broadleaved species (32 percent), Ⅲ Encourage international and domestic tourism in the region. and larch (21 percent). Topography, including exposure, grade, and humidity, plays an important role in this species distribution. The Bikin basin, the largest intact ecosystem PRIMORSKY 2. Middle and Upper Bikin River basin (forest) in the Sikhote-Alin Range, provides year-round habitat for Located in northern Primorsky along the western slope of fi fty-two mammal species; another eight species migrate in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, between the Iman and Khor and out of the region. Thirty of those species, including Sibe- Rivers, the Bikin River basin comprises more than 700,000 rian tiger and Himalayan and brown (Ursus arctos) bears, live ha of roadless coniferous and broadleaved forest. The forests exclusively in the Bikin’s rich Korean pine and broadleaved

Russian timber giant wins tender to log the Samarga watershed

In spring 2001, Terneiles, one of the largest timber companies Terneiles is positioning itself as a “green” timber company, in the RFE, received a twenty-fi ve-year license to log virtually particularly for the Japanese market. Since 1999, it has been the entire Samarga watershed. The proposed annual cut for working with the Far Eastern Forest Certifi cation Center, the region, according to tender documents, is an astounding an NGO, to obtain Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) timber 800,000 cu. m per year or almost twice what Terneiles is pres- certifi cation for its logging site near the Sikhote-Alinsky ently logging in all of its harvest sites. Reportedly, the tender Zapovednik. Reportedly, this effort is in response to Sumitomo process was done without participation or even knowledge Forestry’s interest in working with a Russian timber company of the peoples living in the Samarga region’s main village of that has some sort of certifi cation. Sumitomo Forestry and Agzu. Most of the residents of the village are Udege and use Terneiles have a long working relationship and together they the entire region to hunt and fi sh. According to Ecodal, a non- run one of the few successful wood-processing operations profi t Russian environmental law fi rm based in Khabarovsk, in the entire RFE. The joint venture produces primarily sawn since the local community was not involved in the process, the wood for the housing market in Japan. So far Terneiles is Primorsky Krai administration acted illegally, and so Ecodal noncommittal about whether it will also seek FSC certifi cation plans to sue. It does appear that the community is against the for any logging operations, if they occur, in the Samarga basin. project. In September 2001, half (102) of the Agzu residents Some environmentalists see Terneiles’s attempts to obtain FSC sent a letter to Primorsky Krai administration asking it to certifi cation as merely a marketing ploy to appease Sumitomo rescind the tender immediately. Most of the local community Forestry and the larger Japanese market; they point out that is against any large-scale logging in the river basin. Instead only a small portion of Terneiles’s holdings would actually they would like to see support of their fi shing and hunting en- be certifi ed. Environmentalists point to Terneiles’s dubious terprises, as well as investment in ecotourism and nontimber actions in the past; the company, for example, spearheaded forest product harvesting and processing. There is evidence an unsuccessful attempt in March 1999 to repeal a 1989 that such an approach would be economically viable. In Soviet ban on the cutting of Korean pine and has been widely October 1999 a team of consultants worked in the watershed accused of shipping the protected species under the guise of and concluded that well-organized local hunting and fi shing, another label from its port of Plastun for years. together with access to markets and modern processing and A conglomeration of several state-run lespromzhozes storage technology, can provide employment to the local during Soviet times, Terneiles in the mid-1990s became an population and stable revenue to the district and regional independent joint-stock company. Since that time, the budgets without destruction of natural forests. company has grown to become one of the most powerful In late September 2001, under pressure to make some ges- timber companies in the RFE. Closely aligned to Terneiles ture of goodwill, Terneiles announced a two-year moratorium are two other major logging companies, Melnichnoe and on all logging in the Samarga. Skeptics, however, point out Roshchinsky Lespromkhozes, which primarily supply the that the company needs time to do a feasibility study to plan company with logs. With this alliance, coupled with its own initial harvest areas and necessary road and logging infra- holdings, Terneiles now controls much of the prime forestland structure. When asked if Terneiles would cease all activities in northern Primorsky. Newell,related J. to the2004. Samarga The concession, Russian a vice president Far of East:the A Reference— JN Guide for Conservation and Development.fi rm, Sergei Naumkin, McKinleyville, replied no. CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages

126 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, of ash and Korean pine near this road. road. this pine near Korean and of ash logging of illegal reports regular been have there particular, of In pine nuts. harvest illegal and poaching, to logging, Bikin of the portion lower-middle upthe opened has road Yar. This of Krasny village Udege the near Bikin the across directly cuts that road Chita-Nakhodka constructed newly however, is, the threat immediate greatest Perhaps the ttp the long as as region the toplague continue will levels, high very reached ment has of by Vostok residents whereunemploy- others and poaching uncontrolled current the as well as threat, This point. access major the be would road this Bikin; upper sion tolog the for permis- service forest Krai Primorsky the and government regional lobby the continually companies Russian region. the to athreat poses also Bikin upper the toward of Svetlaya port and town logging the from runs that road Alogging I forest. attp as protected being from Bikin upper of the forests rich the kept effectively has dispute this but place, took never Logging area. of the portion substantial toa rights claimed which Svetlaya, joint venture, timber Korean South and Russian of the because area this in ha uppermost the toinclude possible not been it has However, Udege. for Udege the todate, by the administered attp basin Bikin upper and middle million-ha Existing protection measures protection Existing Threats of the percent Seventy forests. and the Bureau for Regional Outreach Campaigns, a local alocal Campaigns, Outreach for Regional Bureau the and aunescoregion signifi establish a ttp zakaznik 1998 apotential as headwaters its and Bikin peoples. In 1992 Udege of the activities economic traditional for the nuts and pine Korean for gathering used predominantly is of Ulunga, village the around portion, middle The region. this in lives Raion of Pozharsky population of the Most Rivers. Takhalo confl tothe upstream mouth river the from lower portion, the along place taken has mining coal open-pit and hunting, logging, primarily use, land Intensive zones. land-use into three divided been basin the has economically and geographically, Historically, Book Data Red Russian the in listed are of fi one species dofi as Bikin, the inhabit also of reptiles tenspecies and grouse ( fi Blakiston’s hooded crane ( fi Thirty- seasonal. are remainder the Bikin, the in nest region ve of those species are rare and require protection, including including protection, require and rare are species ve of those , this status was changed to that of akrai tothat changed was status , this cant attempts to make the entire central Sikhote-Alin Sikhote-Alin central entire the tomake attempts cant J. . Originally, there was a plan to make the entire 1 entire the tomake aplan was there . Originally, Falcipennis falcipennis Falcipennis . 2004. sh-owl, scaly-sided merganser, and Siberian Siberian and merganser, scaly-sided sh-owl, , over the past two years there have been been have there years two past , over the sh. Twenty-seven of the region’s insect species region’s of species the Twenty-seven sh. insect Grus monacha , the regional government reserved the upper upper the reserved government regional , the World Heritage site. Greenpeace-Russia World site. Greenpeace-Russia Heritage McKinleyville, The remains unestablished. Russian uence of the Alchan and and Alchan of the uence . In addition to efforts to toefforts addition . In ), osprey ( ). Seven species of amphibians of amphibians species Seven ). 240 bird species that live in the the in live that species bird or as a protected Group aprotected or as ttp . Pandion haliaetus but, in October October but, in Far CA: -level landscape landscape -level that would be 700 East: Daniel , 000 fty- . ), 35

- A Reference & Recommendations Threats 800 about above atelevations grow fi and Spruce villages. Kut Dalny and Dersu the near slopes on found south-facing steep, are forests oak growth second- and marshes, of the fringes the along grow forests larch Scattered poplar. and of cottonwood, willow, stands occasional and valleys the in prevalent ash and elm with region, the in grow forests broadleaved pine and Korean boating, and sportfirafting, for ideal are Rivers Armu and Iman clean swift, The creeks. of smaller anumber and Perevalnaya), and (Armu taries tribu- its Iman, the includes area’s of rivers The network Community. Tribal Iman organization public the established recently have who Udege, Iman by the use of land culture traditional the revive to is development strategy of park objectives key One of the fi peoples Udege Iman the tices; prac- land-use traditional their and culture Udege protect 122 Udege; native for the territories traditional remaining three one is of area The picturesque. especially region the make rocky magnifi cliffs, rivers, alpine Clean endangered. are mammals two and birds, nine insects, twenty-eight lichens, twelve plants, vascular thirty-one region the in species the Of River. Ussuri the fl which River, Iman of the reaches middle the near Sikhote-Alin central of slope the western the along sq. km covers Park National Sredne-Ussuriisky proposed The (forest) basin River Iman Middle 3. Ⅲ Ⅲ Ⅲ Ⅲ of the proposed park. park. proposed of the borders the within forests tothe athreat is and nearby forests zakaznik the establishing adecree territory. governor signed The the ttp focused more ethnically the than rather Zakaznik, Verkhne-Bikinsky the tocreate government regional the lobbied Vladivostok, in based organization nongovernmental nature protection along the entire central Sikhote-Alin. central entire the along protection nature and use resource sustainable toachieve opportunity an create do east tothe basin Samarga for the plan land-use sustainable a todevelop efforts and north tothe Zakaznik Chukensky nearby and Zakaznik Verkhne-Bikinsky of the creation the zakaznik the protect and Promote Promote ecotourism. forest nontimber particularly business, local the Support park. for the of facilities building the Fund newly the otherwise complete zoning; and staff Hire Daniel. of them live in the region. The proposed park would help would park proposed The region. the in live of them living along the Bikin. the along living peoples equipment, Udege of the processing products park. apaper remain will refuge created . In recent years, logging has fragmented some of the some of the fragmented has logging years, recent . In in October October in 466 Guide . The following actions should be taken: be should actions following . The cent vegetation, and beautiful landscapes landscapes beautiful and vegetation, cent 1998 Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Krai Primorsky pages are still not in place. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, notplace. in still are . Staff and facilities tomonitor facilities and . Staff shing. for sh and hunt in the region. region. the hunt in and sh Conservation m. ows into ows r forests r forests , on

1 , 090 127 and

PRIMORSKY Existing protection measures. Both the federal- and the already threatening the forest ecosystems, particularly the ash krai-level protected area programs call for the creation of forests that grow along the river valleys. The proximity of the Sredne-Ussuriisky Park; to date, lack of funds has made this plateau to the krai ’s major population centers (Vladivostok, unachievable. Until the 1950s, the proposed park was part of Nakhodka, and Ussuriisk) increases the threat to the territory nearby Sikhote-Alinsky Zapovednik. The Krasnoarmeisky from hunting, poaching, and uncontrolled tourism, and the PRIMORSKY Raion government supports the halting of logging in Korean value of its timber stands makes it a future target for timber pine forests, has created Peace Zones on the Armu River companies. banks, and, to limit illegal logging, has called for a permit The region is known for a number of wetlands of interna- process for transporting timber. Regional authorities also tional importance that have been proposed as Ramsar sites, promote ecotourism, regulate hunting, and work to preserve and for vulnerable lagoons and estuaries. The Tumen Delta rare species. includes a 40,000 -ha wetland complex with over thirty The raion government approved the creation of Sredne- freshwater lakes and brackish lagoons. About two hundred Ussuriisky in 1997 and, in 1998, Greenpeace-Russia and the species of birds nest or stop over the territory during migra- Federal Committee on Environmental Protection prepared tion, forty-seven are rare species and include red-crowned, the documents necessary to include the park within a pro- Siberian (Grus leucogeranus), and white-naped cranes, white- posed unesco World Heritage Site for the central Sikhote- tailed sea eagle, scaly-sided merganser, and Chinese egret. Alin. In 2001, however, unesco announced World Heritage Currently, poaching and forest fi res are major problems. Site status for Sikhote-Alinsky Zapovednik, but no other Threats to the Tumen wetlands include a number of protected areas in Primorsky. planned international development projects, including the Tumangan Project by the United Nations Development Pro- Recommendations. The following actions should be taken: gramme, a proposal to develop infrastructure for large-scale Ⅲ Once established, the park should be supported: patrols recreation and biotechnology in lands presently used for deer organized, an Udege cultural center created in the village farming. This project could have severe consequences for the of Ostrovnoi, and a variety of trails and programs devel- region’s marine ecosystems. oped to attract ecotourism. Ⅲ Combat illegal timber harvesting and animal poaching, Existing protection measures. Several protected areas both within and on the borders of the park. exist in southwest Primorsky, including two zapovedniks Ⅲ Protect rare species such as ginseng and Siberian tiger. (Dalnevostochny Morskoi and Kedrovaya Pad), two hunting Ⅲ Develop environmental education programs. zakazniks (Barsovy and Borisovskoe Plateau), and Khasansky Ⅲ Acquire communications equipment and vehicles for Nature Park. An international (Russian-Chinese) nature the park. reserve was just created to help give the Far Eastern leopard the habitat necessary for a chance to survive.

4. Southwestern Primorsky region (forest and wetland) Recommendations. Because of an extensive network of hunt- Most Russian ecologists consider the lands along the Chinese ing lands and the planned economic projects, there needs border from the Tumen River to the Razdolnaya River to be to be land-use zoning in southwestern Primorsky Krai to Primorsky’s most important area, outside the Sikhote-Alin, increase coordination among the many competing land-use for biodiversity conservation. The region includes portions interests in the region. This zoning plan should include a of four raions: Khasansky, Nadezhdinsky (western portion), well-developed and interlinked network of protected areas, Ussuriisky (western portion), and Oktyabrsky (southern zones of limited economic activity, and areas for more portion). Existing protected areas in the region include the intensive use. This plan will require the use of a Geographic Khasansky Nature Park, Barsovy Zakaznik, Borisovskoe Information System (gis). Special emphasis must be placed Plateau (Shufan) Zakaznik, and Kedrovaya Pad Zapovednik. on protecting leopard habitats and marine resources. A plan to establish suffi cient ecological corridors to link Threats. The Shufan plateau is the largest remaining habitat existing leopard habitat in southwestern Primorsky with for the remaining wild Far Eastern leopards and is also habi- potential habitats in the Sikhote-Alin also needs to be carried tat for an isolated Siberian tiger population. Manchurian fi r through. The development and maintenance of the protected and broadleaved forests cover this region of great animal and area network must take into account the present habitat plant biodiversity. Other rare and endangered species in the of rare and endangered species and the level of protection region include the Himalayan black bear, dhole, Amur cat, offered by existing protected areas. Ultimately, the regional Newell,spotted bush J. warbler 2004. (Bradypterus The Russian thoracicus), and Far Kruper’s East: Agovernment Reference needs to Guideestablish a single,for Conservation unifi ed protected area and Development.nuthatch (Sitta kruperi ).McKinleyville, CA: Danielbased & onDaniel. existing areas, 466 such pages as Kedrovaya Pad Zapovednik, Within and near Shufan plateau, there are many hunt- and possibly Khasansky Nature Park and the Borisovskoe ers and thus a lot of poaching. Intensive selective logging is Plateau and Barsovy Zakazniks.

128 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, and Snezhnaya ( Snezhnaya and the park’s area, ranging from 100 from ranging area, park’s the 1 above grows tundra alpine stone and pine, Japanese and birch 1 800 than less atelevations predominate forests broadleaved pine and rean The fl the in rivers important most and one largest River, of the Ussuri of the headwaters the protect also would park proposed The climbers. afavorite among Primorsky, is in highest the tain, the since destination recreation apopular been has area The jobs. create and revenue in bring will thus and for ecotourism base a be it will because park the support Locals Zapovedniks. Sikhote-Alinsky and Lazovsky connecting corridor ecological of an provision the including priorities, conservation portant of im- anumber meet would so doing because Park National Verkhne-Ussuriisky proposed the create likely will ernment gov- federal The basin. River upperUssuri the region this call ecologists Russian Rivers. Margaritovka and Milogradovka, Recommendations measures. protection Existing ( Sestra mountains, Three (forest) basin River Ussuri Upper 5. Ⅲ Ⅲ level park. level federal- the manage and tocreate towork together agencies regional and federal toenable on procedures working been also It has issues. jurisdiction and on boundaries authorities) hunting and service forest regional (the users land main the among consensus toachieve working been has Protection on Environmental Committee Primorsky the then Since justifi ecological-economic an coordinated Protection vironmental 1996 In proposed. been The park will strengthen protection for protection strengthen will park The nowhere found else. have fl created have of oneity another bedfordi pygus ( wapiti boar, Manchurian wild bear, sovietica and microbiota species: paleoendemic two protect 9 plants, vascular populations in the 1930 the in populations its in decline great the during here even living inhabitant, aconstant is tiger Siberian The park. proposed the within , , Fund staff, transport, and communications. park. of the status legal the Establish 600 000 rfe 1930 cation ( ), Sika deer, Manchurian snow ( deer deer, Manchurian Sika ), m. The diverse elevations found within close proxim- close within found elevations diverse m.The m and above. Above 1 Above above. mand J. . —a tundra herb. Siberian tiger, Himalayan black black tiger, Himalayan herb. Siberian tundra —a ), goral, and musk deer ( deer musk and goral, ), s; the dome-shaped Oblachnaya (Cloudy) Moun- (Cloudy) Oblachnaya dome-shaped the s; ora and fauna is typical of southern Primorsky. Ko- of southern typical is fauna and ora 2004. m, spruce and fi and m, spruce more at common are r forests obosnovanie 1 of which are rare. The park will also also will park The rare. are of which , 682 McKinleyville, . The following actions should be taken: be should actions following . The The m), form the watershed of the Ussuri, Ussuri, of the watershed the form m), , the Primorsky Committee on En- Committee Primorsky , the s and 1940 s and ) to create Verkhne-Ussuriisky Park. Park. Verkhne-Ussuriisky ) tocreate 1 , Russian 671 , 500 Three different variations for variations different Three m), Oblachnaya ( Oblachnaya m), oral mixtures that scientists scientists that mixtures oral m the forest is mainly stone mainly is forest mthe Moschus moschiferus Moschus , 000 s. Cervus elaphus xantho- elaphus Cervus to180 Capreolus pygargus 132 Far CA: , 000 species of species ha, have 1 East: , Saussurea 854 Daniel ) live ) live m), m), A Reference & also important. are production ginseng and soybean, rice, and herding, deer Sika breeding, Mink population. local for the food enough rfe krai the , the in regions other are than more developed Although production. berry and potato, fruit, rice, poultry, products, dairy on meat, based economy is agrarian local The regions. inaccessible in resources natural vast retains Taiga still Ussuri The infrastructure. by existing accessible areas in and settlements near place takes products of forest nontimber collecting and hunting Commercial Pacifi the throughout for trade gateway Russia’s Asian Primorsky make Vostochny, Nakhodka Vladivostok, and total of the percentage large fl Russia’s fi largest most importantly, fi boron, fl lead, ing includ- materials, raw strategic for several country to the important crucially is Krai Primorsky federation’s area, total 1 than less comprising and population total of Russia’s percentage asmall only Despite representing further. still picture ethnic the enriching times, recent upuntil right and period Soviet the throughout continued settlements agricultural and forest, Development coastal, of the settlers. Chinese permanent with mixed peoples indigenous some areas In elements. Asian and of European wereamixture cultures the so and nationality, wereof mixed developed that settlements The agreements. of international anumber under there wereworking who Korea, and China from workers by seasonal cultivated heavily areas often land, wereallocated They in. streaming Finns and Belorussians, Moldavians, Ukrainians, Russians, Estonians, by the wereestablished settlements Most settlers. ment rfe of the settle- encouraged government federal the as century, teenth nine- early the in began development that industrial scale large- with corresponds of Primorsky settlement Intensive Vladimir Anatoly Karakin, Lebedev, Josh Newell Economy Uneven development. industrial the of portions western and southern the in concentrated heavily limited areas. Economic activity and natural resource use is in concentrated been development has industrial so tainous, created ecological problems. Analysis of Analysis problems. ecological created have activity industrial of intense pockets but there even described in the section “Ecology.” The Prikhankayskaya “Ecology.” Prikhankayskaya The section the in described ecoregions tothe similar are subregions opment. These of devel- patterns distinct with into subregions Primorsky of division zonal atripartite suggests data industrial and eet. Local supplies of regular commercial fi commercial of regular supplies Local eet. Daniel. krai ; the northern and eastern areas are less developed, developed, less are areas eastern and northern ; the 466 by offering incentives, usually land grants, to grants, land usually incentives, by offering shing, fi shing, Guide uorite, coal, commercial timber, and and timber, commercial uorite, coal, sh and marine products. Primorsky has has Primorsky products. marine and sh Primorsky Krai Ⅲ pages sh-processing, and transportation for rfe The region is largely moun- largely is region The catch. The huge ports in in ports huge The catch. Conservation still does not provide does still raion percent of the of the percent sh make upa make sh agricultural 1860 c Rim. c Rim. s, with

129 and

PRIMORSKY Valley, including the wetlands of Lake Khanka, and the plains along the Ussuri River, has the largest share of the Table 2.2 krai ’s economic activities, especially as an area for agricul- Timber industry employment in Primorsky Krai ture. Almost 80 percent of the krai ’s plowed fi elds (600,000 ha), 49 percent of the hay fi elds, and 52 percent of pasture- Year Total Percentage Percentage PRIMORSKY lands are concentrated in this western section. Agroindustry, employed compared with 1991 of total industry mining, and raw material processing all occur here, as well 1991 24,768 100 8.7 as in the western foothills of the Sikhote-Alin. This area has 1992 24,021 97 9.0 the most favorable natural conditions for human settlement. 1993 21,226 86 8.9 Not surprisingly, anthropogenic disturbance is quite high. There are, however, relatively undisturbed sites, particularly 1994 19,499 79 9.7 in the protected areas in Lesozavodsky, Kirovsky, Spassky, 1995 19,767 80 9.5 Khankaisky, Khorolsky, Chernigovsky, Pogranichny, Okty- 1999 12,067 49 6.7 abrsky, Mikhailovsky, and Ussuriisky Raions. The second subregion covers most of the Sikhote-Alin Source: Primorsky Krai Administration, 2001. Range (excluding the northeastern part), 50 percent of the krai ’s territory. This includes relatively developed mountain- ous and taiga areas as well as the southern coastal raions. The krai ’s timber and mining industries are concentrated panies who want their land. Despite declines in industrial here. There is limited agricultural production, mostly small production, due to continued reliance on outmoded technol- plots, geared toward meeting the area’s needs. This region, ogy, unstable economic conditions, and poor enforcement of encompassing western Pozharsky, Dalnerechensky, western existing policies, the environment continues to be affected. Krasnoarmeisky, Chuguevsky, Yakovlevsky, Anuchinsky, The port and ship-repair base and ports and ship traffi c Partizansky, Shkotovsky, and Nadezhdinsky Raions, has create all kinds of oil pollution, vast amounts of uncontrolled managed to maintain a more or less stable level of industrial liquid waste are dumped into the water, and municipal and activity (including logging, hunting, mining, and fi shing) other waste is discharged untreated into coastal ecosystems, with a concurrently stable level of environmental impact. which are extremely productive and valuable for recreation. The third area, 30 percent of the krai ’s territory, includes Poor control over military and naval activities has left areas poorly- and undeveloped regions of Primorsky, where about contaminated by military waste. Recently, the international 3 percent of the krai ’s plowed fi elds are located. These ter- community has become aware of the dumping of nuclear ritories include the eastern and northeastern regions of the waste into the Sea of Japan and the rusting nuclear subma- Sikhote-Alin and the eastern Pozharsky, Terneisky, Dalne- rines in Bolshoi Kamen. A facility has been built to store the gorsky, eastern Krasnoarmeisky, Kavalerovsky, Olginsky, nuclear waste. and Lazovsky Raions, together with the geographically distant southwestern Khasansky Raion. Economic activity in these territories continues to decline with sharp increases in Timber airfares, reduced demand for fur, the disruption of seasonal In Primorsky before 1917, logging took place on a narrow strip investment in forest development, and fewer mining and along the Trans-Siberian Railroad and in some of the river exploration operations. basins the railway crossed. Sawmills were established at the crossings. Industrial forestry began in the 1930s. The timber Environmental impact. Environmental degradation is preva- industry today accounts for about 7 percent of the krai ’s lent in many areas. State rice farms have degraded many of industrial production by volume and employs about thir- the richest wetlands of Lake Khanka. Destructive logging teen thousand workers. The industry used to employ more, methods have fragmented forests growing on the Sikhote- as indicated in table 2.2, but the fi gure is decreasing since Alin Mountain Range. Uncontrolled use of toxic chemicals the collapse of timber processing. Now the industry focuses has polluted rivers, lakes, and bays. Lack of control over land primarily on supplying the export markets of Japan, China, allocation to industries has led to rapid and wasteful use of and South Korea with raw logs of fi r, spruce, larch, Korean resources. Overfi shing has led to serious reductions of fi sh pine, oak, and ash. There is some processing underway, more populations in many of the rivers. The only undisturbed than in any other region of the rfe, notably by the Terneiles- salmon-spawning grounds are now in the northern and Sumitomo joint venture in the coastal town of Plastun. Newell,sparsely populated J. 2004. Samarga, The Edinka, Russian Venyukovka, Far Peya, East: AHowever, Reference exports of processedGuide timber for haveConservation been stagnant at and Development.and Avakumovka River McKinleyville, basins. Indigenous peoples CA: have alsoDaniel about & 10Daniel. percent of total466 exports pages for years. Domestic demand come under threat, particularly by logging and mining com- for processed timber is at an all-time low.

130 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST Development. Newell, ibrhreti rmrk ri 1959–2000 Krai, Primorsky in harvest Timber 2.2 Figure fi forest as such threats anthropogenic and natural have insuffi authorities forestry sharply. Local increased have policy forest of violations and region, the in effectively logging to regulate tremely diffi it ex- made has operations of logging number the in increase dramatic the and industry of the Decentralization pine logs. Korean high-quality with stocked consistently is of Plastun Terneiles’s high. is port species main of the export and ting cut- illegal demand, foreign of the However,sites. because loading and roads access War forbidden tobuild is II, except World after cut heavily pine, of Korean logging Commercial them. toprotect some steps taken has government the rich of Primorsky’s forests, importance great the Recognizing ilo u m cu. million Source: 1988 6 atabout peaked volumes Logging forests. of spruce territories vast threaten of which both moth, gypsy and Siberian the including outbreaks, pest and avoid taxes and to supplement the Forest Service’s budget. budget. tosupplement Service’s Forest and the avoid taxes done is to This use. of noncommercial guise the under cially fi commercial and service forest the both allows that regulations forestry amajorloophole is the in and levels in the m of 1998 3 were levels table totaled which logging, use” one-time or of “noncommercial amount large the is notable is what 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 . According to Forest Service statistics, in in statistics, Service toForest . According 2 J. 9915 901986 1970 1959 1939 . 3 rmrk oetSrie 2001. Service, Forest Primorsky ) This logging is often salvage or sanitary logging logging or sanitary salvage often is logging ) This and 2 and 2004. cient resources to mitigate the effects of disastrous of disastrous effects the tomitigate cient resources cult for the poorly funded government agencies agencies government funded poorly for the cult krai . 3 million cu. m, higher than the 2 the than m, higher cu. million . from 1959 67 McKinleyville, million of million The to2000 Russian 1999 . Figure 2 . Figure . In the statistics for 2000 statistics the . In 9719 992000 1999 1998 1997 977 . 4 rms tolog commer- rms million cu. m in min cu. million , 000 Far CA: .2 cu. m (see m (see cu. 2000 shows harvest harvest shows .2 million cu. cu. million res, res, fl East: , harvest , harvest Daniel oods, oods, A , Reference & n-iennomrillgig 1 45 977 445 — 415 Total 18 logging One-time/noncommercial 4,620,000 Total 16 1,200,000 Others 3,420,000 Subtotal 28,000 Anuchinsky 282 Dalnerechensky LK 1,440 40,000 LuTEK 73,000 LPX 8 — Germes 64,000 442 1,785 Yappi 33,000 31,000 Limonniki 455 Energia 56,000 46 1,887 15,000 Sikhote-Alin 15 65,000 Kirovskles 14 15 — 99,000 Pozhiga 8 13 13 Transpi 32,000 Primsnabcontract 19 22,000 18 6 12 — 11 16 12 — Pavlovskoe 23,000 — 13 — 11 17 17 11 15 19 17 iiayLges 400 4 5 23 15 24 54,000 — Kemales Vostochny 29,000 Loggers Military Aralia 68,000 — 20 23 suisyDK 500 8 4 28 35 34 42 38 69 65,000 Bikin 22,000 88,000 67,000 Izmailikha Ussuriisky DOK 74 DOK Primorsky 17 71 109 Koksharovka 104,000 Prestizh 78,000 13 53 95 90 Vostok 15,000 36 — Dalnerechenskles 149,000 85,000 44 119 27 61 — 92 (Khabarovsk 48Krai) 129 Vyazemsky LPX 139 114 — 110,000 Terneilesstroi 74,000 11924 Primorlesprom 109,000 100 79 71 Sergeevsky LPX52 67 184,000 36 124 78 82 Melnichnoe 100 162,000 46 88 198,000 Amgu 76 400,000 159,000 LPX Kavalerovsky 115 57 LPX Roshchinsky 111 Luchegorskles Terneiles 619,000 Company Leased 333 1998–2000 Krai, Primorsky in production Timber 2.3 Table 387 393 Source:

Daniel. Primorsky Forest Service, 2001. 2001. Service, Forest Primorsky 466 Guide Primorsky Krai Ⅲ Krai Primorsky pages h) 00c.m (0 u ) (000 cu. m) (000 cu. m) (000 cu. m) (ha) area for ,3 262 3,319 2,672 2,137

1,722 1,722 2,227 2,342 Conservation 1998 1999 2000 101 141 114 29 — — 15 7 — 11 23 — 15 4 8 —

20 24 131 and

PRIMORSKY Small enterprises, under the pretext of sanitary cutting, are somewhat more insulated against short-tern economic export unprocessed logs to China. Actual harvest levels in declines and have maintained relatively constant extraction the krai are much higher due to such illegal logging. rates. But enterprises along the western part of the region have to rely on a new and highly unpredictable Chinese Export. Much of this production, as mentioned, is for export. market in which cash transactions are favored and long-term PRIMORSKY One study by the Bureau for Regional Outreach Campaigns investment is not encouraged. Small timber agents who tend puts Primorsky’s exports in 1999 at 1.78 million cu. m.7 to engage in illegal or semilegal procurement in the most ac- Determining an exact fi gure is diffi cult because timber from cessible and valuable fl oodplain areas dominate this market. other regions of Russia fl ows through Primorsky’s rail and sea In 2000, the krai ’s logging companies offi cially received ports, and often this timber is mixed with locally cut timber. about u.s. $114 million for their timber exports. Between the Regardless of the exact fi gure, the industry is extremely two leading exporters, Terneiles shipped out more timber reliant on the export markets of Japan and China and thus than did Primorlesprom. Closer inspection of the composi- susceptible to price and demand fl uctuations in those mar- tion of Terneiles’s exports reveals a high volume of Korean kets. In 1997, during the Asian economic crisis, timber prices pine, mislabeled as pulpwood. The practice of buying il- fell by 30 percent due to oversupply. Logging companies legally logged timber and exporting it with falsifi ed docu- operating on the eastern slopes of the Sikhote-Alin, who have ments and contracts is widespread (see pp. 70 – 74 for a fuller entered into longer-term contracts with Japanese customers, discussion).

Development of specialized coastal ports and construction of logging roads

With the RFE reorienting its economy toward the export pany), whose fi rm hosted Vostochny customs offi cials, puts markets of Japan, China, and South Korea, a major priority it this way: “Because the customs codes are so complicated for Primorsky exporters over the past ten years has been to it is almost impossible for these regulations to be interpreted expand, upgrade, and even create new ports along the coast. accurately by the consignees. You need to have the customs Olga, Plastun, Svetlaya, and Amgu are four coastal ports offi cial interpret each regulation for you to fully understand it that have become major export centers for forest and marine and this is where bribery can come into play.”8 Environmental- resources. Timber exporters have been converting former ists see proper enforcement at these smaller ports as essential military ports at Bolshoi Kamen and Sovetskaya Gavan in to reduce illegal timber and precious metal export fl ows. Khabarovsk Krai. Terneiles has plans to build a shipping termi- Coordinated with the port development has been con- nal in the coastal village of Adimi, at the mouth of a salmon- struction of logging roads. The biggest limiting factor to spawning river, to export timber from the Samarga and Edinka increased log exports has been the lack of road infrastructure, watersheds. Meanwhile, Primorlesprom, another major timber particularly in the northern part of the krai. This is chang- corporation in the region, appears to be focusing on expand- ing, however, as timber companies have ambitious plans to ing capacity at Svetlaya, a port that has the potential to serve build a series of roads. The plan to build a road from Sukpai as the major timber export point for all of northern Primorsky. to Nelma on the eastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai will open Most of the wood exported out of the coastal ports is going to up a million hectares of roadless wilderness and fi r, spruce, Japan. and larch forests in the Samarga and Sukpai River basins and, These coastal ports are being developed for a number in the process, could destroy traditional hunting grounds of of reasons. First, limited road infrastructure in the northern the Samarga Udege and damage a key range in the northern regions of Primorsky makes it cost prohibitive to use the large, habitat of the Siberian tiger. Just north of Nelma, along the multiuse ports of Nakhodka, Vostochny, and Vladivostok. Khabarovsk coast, is the Botchinsky Zapovednik, which may Second, cities such as Olga and Plastun are timber towns; it also be threatened by the road. A road currently under con- is much easier for timber companies to “control” these ports struction is the federally funded interstate from Chita (Eastern than the larger ones. It is, therefore, easier to ship endangered ) to Nakhodka, which, when fi nished, will effectively tree species such as Korean pine from these smaller ports. slice the previously unroaded central and northern Sikhote- Bribery is facilitated by the tremendous latitude in the inter- Alin forest in half. There are also plans underway to build a pretation of customs rules and regulations, and the fact that series of logging roads from Svetlaya and other coastal ports. Newell,the rules J. are 2004. always changing. The RussianPavel Buzytsky (TalbotFar Com-East: A Reference— JN Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages

132 Ⅲ THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST