View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by UniCA Eprints Paper presented at: ATINER (Athens Institute for Education and Research), 4th Annual International Conference on Mediterranean Studies, 20-23 April 2011, Athens. c Francesca Lai Muslim Sardinia in Mediterranean Context Francesca Lai Post-Doc Scholar - Dipartimento di Scienze Archeologiche e Storico-Artistiche Università degli Studi di Cagliari Abstract During the Seventh and the Eighth century A.D., a new cultural and polit- ical presence began to expand in the Mediterranean. The Muslim Empire extended his influence to many lands, from the Middle East to the West, then continues in North Africa and ended its march in Europe. Sometimes, the transitions between different ages entail a complex analysis of facts and historical dynamics. If a study concerning the Late Antiquity and the Dark Age, is geographically limited (e.g. only to the West or to the East Mediter- ranean sea) or is restricted to an analysis of only one of cultural aspects (e.g. Christians Romanized or Muslim World), it is known that it is highly influ- enced by fields of sectorial studies: the final result is a lack of a far-reaching perspective. In addition, many ideal barriers between East and West do not correspond with historic reality: they belong to preconceived and stereotyped categories. On the other side, the course of history shows that interactions between cultures are the main instrument for the development of Countries and communities. Following the common history, we can observe as insular areas from Western Mediterranean bring a rich research field. Sardinia, for example, was a part of geographical environment of the new Muslim Em- pire. At the beginning, Arabs tried to expand their territory: when this action failed, they created bases in the island, especially where major cities and harbours were located. New settlements constituted a useful bridge for commercial trades and migration fluxes with North Africa. The Arabs were interested in occupancy of other insular areas (Malta, Sicilia, Pantelleria, Crete, Cyprus, Rhodes). In this case, evidences connected to Arab and Mus- lim culture, should be included in a ’pan-Mediterranean’ context that would include West and East in a common history. Research is supported by Regione Autonoma della Sardegna (POR Sardegna and FSE 2007-2013, L.R. 7/2007 ‘Promozione della ricerca scientifica e dell’innovazione tecnologica in Sardegna’).. 1 Introduction aim was to gain control of the harbours and sea, especially in a first step, aiming to a pos- The aim of this paper is to find out sible extension to the closer areas. the thread of history that connects some Such as Sardinia, also the other islands of Mediterranean areas in a common destiny. the Mediterranean attended the landing of The chronological focus of this communica- the Arabs in their coasts. We will exam- tion is the rise of the Arabs and the constitu- ine these events in detail, proposing to ex- tion of its Empire. In fact, this event changed tract common elements into different con- the balance of the Mediterranean thalassoc- texts, useful to draw conclusions about the racy. The Muslims carried out strategic ac- conditions of employment (and possible ap- tions: sometimes doing a conquest and an propriation) of the Arab peregrine commu- 1 occupation strictu sensu, sometimes consti- nity in the different islands . tute reprisals, limited by a territorial expan- sion. The characters and boundaries of this fragmented history are not clearly defined, al- West Mediterranean though recently they have acquired its own dignity: in any case, it means to discuss about of a very complex period, characterized Malta The traditional date of the Muslim by a plurality of political entities, ranging conquest of Malta is 870, with the landing from the almost eternal Byzantine Empire to of Ibn Khadadsha and the appropriation of the nascent Muslim Empire, already deeply Aghlabides2. The lack of information about split in the Eighth Century inside. Follow- Islamic Malta has long been discussed. The ing the idea of the famous historian Ferdi- void of history does not follow the numerous nand Braudel (1998), when people consider evidences about the contact with the Arabs Mediterranean people should keep his histor- on the island, like the language or a signifi- ical role, recognizing the existence of more cant presence of Arabic toponims3. In fact, Mediterranean seas. However, each Mediter- Michele Amari wrote: ranean contributes to build up a common We know little or nothing abut Arabic age history. The same people who live in the of Malta4. Mediterranean are, in fact, united by com- 1From this analysis, the island of Sicily will be mon interests and a common desire to con- excluded. In fact, it was administratively integrated nect and relate one each other: in this con- into the Fatimid and Aglabide kingdoms and later text, is not far away our reality, more strictly constituted an independent emirate. As a part of the modern and cybernetic. In fact, the first re- emirate of Cordoba, Balearic Islands escaped to the quirement is to establish relationships, bring- dynamic of intermittent employment that character- ize the island territories analyzed, therefore not will ing a common sense of belonging. consider into this study. Detaching from traditional historiography, 2For a general study for Malta in Medieval Ages, I would contribute with an overview of the before 16th A.D. see Luttrell ed. (1975). 3This was the report of the historian: ‘There re- situation in the Middle Ages, when occurred mains no tradition of rule of the Arabs with regard the expansion of the Arabs and the begin- to institutions and laws: only the language and place ning of new balance of power in the Mediter- names of villages and announced that here, if this ranean. The element that is the connection nation did not stay long, certainly there have been of this thesis isinsularity. The islands were many relations’. Candido (1988, p. 144). 4Certainly, the progress of studies and research used by the Arabs as a basis for their pro- make this sentences less pessimist then Michele posed expansion of its Empire. In fact, the Amari, in his correspondence with Maltese scholar 2 It is noteworthy the conquest of the island Then, after the Muslims got together and did was supported by the Emir of Sicily. This a census, found that the number of slaves ex- event explains how the history of Malta af- ceeded that of the free, but they told the ter the Arab presence was strictly linked at slaves: Fight with us and if you will win the major Italian island. A funerary epigraph you will be free and things will be yours; in the Museum of Malta, known as Sciara but if you will stay below the enemy, we will inscription, gives evidences of the presence be killed together. Once the R¯umarrived of a member of the H. udayl Arab tribe, like on the battlefield, the Maltese (slaves) at- the same family group¯ known in Pantelle- tacked them as one man and, with the help of ria5 . According to Al Idr¯ıs¯ı6 (translation by God, separated them and made great slaugh- Amari): ter among them. After this event, the slaves One hundred miles from Pantelleria, and free men were united and grew in power straight to the east, lies the island of Gandosc so that the Rum they never attacked more. (Gozzo), that has a safe harbour. From Gan- Al H. awq¯al(10th) and Al H. imyar¯ı(14th) dosc to a small island, that names Camuna, describe Malta like a desert region, and the or Comuna (lacking the number of miles): second writer specified that the island was east of this is Malita, big island provided of a inhabited by Byzantines8. safe harbour that opens to the east (Sciark, The ability of Muslims in Malta in the o Marsa Sciark, that is Marsa Scialuk, the production of clocks and hourglasses, told harbour of east). In this island there is a the same Kazw¯ın¯ı, is a reference to the re- city. It is rich in pastures, sheeps, fruits and lations with Sicily. We know about the con- honey. The terminal point of Sicely closer to struction of an hourglass in Palermo wanted Malta is named Ak..r..nta and the distance by the King Roger II. A trilingual inscrip- from this part is 80 miles. tion (Latin, Greek and Arabic) commem- Another writer, geograph and astronomer, orated this event: today the epigraph is Kazw¯ın¯ı,was the author, in the 13th A.D. of located in the Norman Palace, near the ‘Ath¯ar-el-bil¯ad’. In this book, he describes Palatine Chapel. In the same occasion, ¯ the episode of the fight between the Islamic Kazw¯ın¯ı reported that a poet, who named 7 people of Malta and the Byzantines : Ibn Ram¯ad. ¯an, composed some verses in Malta, island close to Spain, has cities, vil- which he told about his island. This com- lages, trees and fruits. The R¯umattacked position was built hoping to obtain the grace after 440 (1048 A.D.). During this battle, by the Norman Prince Roger and to be repa- they offered an agreement provided that the triated. islanders give them the material and women. The archaeological evidence of communi- Francesco Crispi. The review of this materials is pro- ties living on the island (or local elements vided by Candido (1988, p. 138). Hereafter we quote that absorbed Islamic culture) consists of the words of Amari in English translation. some grave with Kufic inscriptions, found 5 The Maltese inscription, founded in the region near the village of Medina9, coins and some of Gozzo is dated on 569/1154 A.D.: Amari (1971, p.