ed. Matthew Luceya and Cecil R. Hopgood (Kafue, Northern 33. Alex Syatwiinda(conversationwiththe author,September30,2001). Rhodesia: Kafue Bookroom, 1943). J. T.McCormackwrites, "In 1968Ibaptised 17schoolgirlsat Kasenga 26. Smith, Siyanza Syamunakristo, pp. 41-45. andperhaps30schoolboys/girlswithMatthewLuceya at Namwala" 27. Young and Gollock, Mukwasi waka-Leza uli muluundu, p. 48. (letter to the author,September24,2001).The trendcontinued, as the 28. In 1910 there were fifteen full members at Kasenga; in 1915 there number of Christians at Kasenga trebled in the last quarter of the were fourteen. By the 1960s the number had risen to about seventy. twentieth century. In November 2001 there were 221 communicant 29. Smith, Siyanza Syamunakristo, p. 34. members, 53 catechumens, and 36 adherents. The number of 30. Smith, Golden Stool,p. 278. preachers,though,hadfallen to 40,butthe preachingplaces remained 31. Young and Gollock, Mukwasi waka-Leza uli muluundu, p. 48. at 16 (B.Nzovu to the author, November 21, 2001). 32. Chapman, Pathfinder, p. 190.

Keeping Faith with Culture: Protestant Mission Among Zoroastrians of Bombay in the Nineteenth Century Farshid Namdaran

he history of Protestant missionary activity among Zo­ Protestant Missions to Zoroastrians T roastrians has proved to be a relativelyrichfield, despite the small size of the worldwide Zoroastrian community, which The earliest recorded attempt, originating in northern Germany, in 1900 numbered 93,000 in India, the focus of this article, and at an organized mission to the Zoroastrians was by a small 108,500 worldwide.1 Protestant missions to this community be­ community of Moravians. In 1747 they commissioned two doc­ gan mainly in India in the nineteenth century, and in Iran only in tors to go to Yezd in Persia, where they had heard the Gebri the twentieth century.' Converts were few, but some made lived," The mission was anutterfailure, for the two doctors never definite contributions to churchlife in India. Caughtas they were reached their destination. between different cultures and religions, these Indian Zoroas­ A little-known Armenian itinerant missionary named trian converts struggled to forge a synthesis between two cul­ Carapet Aratoon, who was trained in Serampore and sent across tures and two religions, ultimately allowing their faith to em­ the subcontinent to Bombay in 1810, was probably the first brace their culture. The cultural distance they sought to span is missionaryto encounterZoroastriansin anynumber,"Heworked reflectedin thediverseworkof twomissionarytheologians of the and preachedin thestreetsandbazaars of Bombayuntil 1820. His period, John Wilson (1804-75) and Greek scholar James Hope journalsarefilled withaccountsof his encounterswithParsis and Moulton (1863-1917), whose writings will be discussed briefly.' the many inquirers he had among them, although he did not Zoroastrians are the followers of Zoroaster, who flourished record any conversions. probably in the sixth century before Christ but about whom The first missionary who had any success in converting historians know little with certainty.' The religion was promi­ Zoroastrians to Christianity was the Scotsman John Wilson.'? nentin Persia and the Middle East until the fall of the last Persian Sent by the Scottish Missionary Society to Bombay in 1830, empirein the seventhcentury A.D., following the Arab invasion. Wilson adopted the deliberately confrontational strategy that Some Zoroastrians fled to India and continued to preserve their was popular at that time." Wilson's work and writings on Parsis cultureandreligion, mainlyin westernIndia,wheretheybecame and their religion helped establish his reputation as a leading known as Parsis (also spelled Parsees). Within Persia itself Mus­ orientalist of his day. He continued his work with the Zoroastri­ lim persecution diminished their numbers until only very small ans of India until his death in 1875. No other missionary sur­ groups of Zoroastrians, known as Gebri, remained in the remote passed himin terms of winning converts from Zoroastrianism to towns of Yezd and Kerman. Christianity. The Zoroastrian sacred book, the Avesta, is a collection of Not until the last decade of the nineteenth century did a writings, the most ancient of which is the Gathas, seventeen major missionary society such as the Church Missionary Society hymns traditionally ascribed to Zoroaster himself," The French­ (CMS) send missionaries specifically to the Zoroastrians. In 1895 man Anquetil du Perron was the first to translate it into a Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Arthur Freeman volunteered his European language (1771).6 John Wilson, in the early nineteenth services to the society and was sent to Bombay lito conduct a century, was the first Protestant missionary to deliberately set mission amongst the educated natives especially the Parsis.r'" outto learnandwriteaboutthe Parsireligion?The bookhe wrote He conducted a vigorous though brief mission among the Parsis on the subject (1843) was unfortunately based mainly on the with the aid of Rostamji Mistry, a Parsi convert. Freeman died in Avestan book of Vendidad, whereas later scholars showed that 1900, and Mistry resigned in the same year. the most authentic teachings of Zoroaster are in the Gathas. Another attempt by five female volunteers under the aus­ pices of the CMS is also recorded. In 1896 they were commis­ sioned lito form a missionary settlement of lady volunteers in orderto workamongsttheParseeladies."13The Parsicommunity Farshid Namdaran, a retired medical doctor of Persian descent residing in the United Kingdom, is a convertfrom Zoroastrianism. His M.Th., by research, reacted sharply to this attempt, with hostile articles appearing in obtained from the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western Parsi-controlled newspapers warning the community of such a World, School of Divinity (New College), University of Edinburgh, was on move." I have discovered no official reports or papers that Christian missionto Zoroastrians. indicate what happened to this effort.

Apri12003 71 Apparently the final attempt to reach the Parsis was the Bible and perhaps also helped in the publishing of Wilson's commissioning of James Hope Moulton by the council of the famousbookon Parsi religion." Nauroji wentto Scotland in 1843 YMCA of India to work and lecture among the Parsi community to study at New College, Edinburgh, and was ordained by the in Bombay for one year in 1915.15 It seems that this was the last Free Presbytery of Edinburgh. At this early stage he demon­ organized effort by a missionary organization to evangelize the strated his strong personality by insisting that unless he was Zoroastrians until the end of the First World War. ordained on terms of full equality with the missionaries, withfull "evangelistic power and liberty," he would not enter the service Five Converts of the Free Church of Scotland." On his return to Bombay in 1847, Nauroji chose Surat as his For the period 1839-1900 I have found evidence of fifteen Parsis missionary field. He worked there with the Irish Presbyterian from Bombay or nearby cities who converted to Christianity and mission until 1857, when he was offered the post of minister of were baptized. A first group of conversions occurred in 1839-59 Ambroli Church in Bombay." He worked for nearly forty years under Wilson and the Scottish Presbyterians and a second group among the Parsis and other communities in that city." Two of his under the Anglicans in the 1890s. Some relevant details of these published sermons show how deeply committed he was to the baptisms appear in the accompanying table. cause of spreading the Gospel to all of India." In the late 1880s he Thoughthe total number of converts is small, the proportion was also employed as lecturer in Bible studies in the Free Church that eventually was ordained (six out of fifteen) is high. It seems College, and in the 1890s he became the founding presidentof the remarkable that a comparatively small community of Parsis Parsi Christian Association." His standing in the Parsi commu­ should produce such a number of high-caliber converts. Their nityof Bombayincreased withage, so muchso thatin 1896,onthe contribution to the activities of the mission in western India, occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of his ordination, many including developing an indigenous church during the latter prominent community members attended the celebration. He part of the nineteenth century, seems to have been significant. becameknownas the GrandFatherof IndianChristians and died Sufficientmaterial exists to give a briefaccount of the lives of five at the age of eighty-six in 1908. of the converts who were ordained." Nauroji married a Christian Indian woman, but little is known about her except that she helped him in his work. They Dhanjibhai Nauroji. Coming from a wealthy, influential Parsi had at leasttwo daughters, who continued to be employedby the family of Bombay, Nauroji entered a missionary school as a Free Church of Scotland in Bombay after their father's death. teenager. He was converted and then baptized in 1839, the first Nauroji's wife preceded him in death, probably in the early Parsi convert to be baptized. This event caused a great stir and 1890s. unrest within the Parsi community. Missionary Wilson had to A letterNauroji wrote shortlybefore his death, whichshows appear in court and publicly defend his actions, and the mission­ clearly his changed attitude towardhis former religion, exempli­ ary school suffered from the temporary withdrawal of all the fies the sentiments of Christian Parsis of his time and no doubt Parsi and other pupils. Nauroji was disinherited and rejected by those of more recent generations." He wrote, his fanlily and became dependent on the missionary society for financial support." I was born a Parsi and am still a Parsi of the Parsis. With the At hisbaptism, Nauroji read a personal declaration in which exception of that which is of the highest importance to man, I mean, religious faith, I am one with my brethren according to he rejected Zoroastrianism.In a letter to Wilson a few months flesh. Whatever touches them touches me. Their joy and sorrow later, he referred to it as Satan's religion. At least in this early are mine. I love them, and if need be, I am ready to lay down my stage of his Christian experience, Nauroji rejected the idea that life for them.... I am proud to belong to a race which stands Zoroastrianism contained any true representation of God or foremost by reason of many high qualities among the races of the could serve as any preparation for Christianity. East. The love whichI bearto my Parsibrethrenleadsme earnestly Nauroji became a close companion of Wilson and, with the to desire that, in regard to higher matters also, they andI stood on help of fellow convert Hormazdji Pestonji, revised the Gujarati the same platform, that we saw eye to eye and felt heart to heart in regard to the great things God has revealed to us for our spiritual and eternal welfare. I am Parsi Converts to Christianity, 1839-1900 ------. confident that the time is coming when this de­ sire shallbe fulfilled, and thoughI maynotlive to Name (*= ordained) Date Person Baptizing Denomination Place see it, yet I rejoice in the anticipation of it.

Dhanjibhai Nauroji* (DN) 1839 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay He clearly affirms here his membership in Hormazdji Pestonji* 1839 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay the Parsi community and his recognition of the Framji Bahmanji 1839 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay positive qualities of Parsi culture. Hemanifests Sorabji Khersedji* (SK) 1841 G. Valentine Anglican Bombay inclusiveness in talking about the great things Nasserwanji 1848 DN Presbyterian Surat that God has revealed and looks forward to a S. Edulji 1855 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay Ruttonji Nowroji* 1856 W. S. Price/SK Anglican Nasik time when Parsis will turn to Christ. Behramji Kersasji 1856 J. Wilson Presbyterian Bombay Merwanji 1859 J. Wilson/Glasgow Presbyterian Surat Sorabji Khersedji. Like Nauroji, Sorabji came Shapurji D. Bhabha" ? ? Presbyterian ? from a wealthy family and attended the mis­ Rostamji Mistry* (RM) 1891 ? Anglican Bombay sionschool." After his conversionand baptism Dorabji Patell 1895 T. A. Freeman/RM Anglican Bombay in 1841, Sorabji's family rejected him, and he Meherbai Patell 1895 T. A. Freeman/RM Anglican Bombay also became dependent on the missionaries [unnamed] 1895 R. S. Heywood Anglican Poona financially." Sorabji was sent outof Bombay to Dorabji H. P. Khandwalla 1896 T. A. Freeman/RM Anglican Bombay Ahmadabad, where he worked as an assistant

72 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 catechist in a missionary station run by the Society for the Sorabji and his wife founded and ran three successful mis­ Propagation of the Gospel. In 1844 he returned to Bombay and sionary schools in Poona, where they allowed the liberating worked under Bishop Carr, where he met missionaries Robert message of the Gospel to transcend culture and to transform and Nesbit and John Murray Mitchell. In 1853 he was employed by renew old customs and traditions without necessarily destroy­ the CMS to work with William Salter Price in Nasik, principally ing them. Franscina was the main force behind these schools and helping Price to run the orphanage and later building the Chris­ campaigned relentlessly in Britain and India to raise funds. Most tian settlement of Sharanpur, near Nasik." In Nasik he met and of herda ughters worked atonetime or otherin theseschools, and married Franscina, the adopted daughter of Sir Francis Ford, indeed one took over from her after her death and continued the commanderof an English regiment. He raisedhis family in Nasik work until the 1920s. but in 1867 moved from there to take up a civil service position with the British government." Nine years later he moved with Hormazdji Pestonji. Born in 1820, Pestonji was part of the first his family to Poona, where his wife opened the Victoria High group of Parsis to present themselves for baptism, in 1839.These School. Bishop Johnson of Calcutta admitted him to deacon's baptisms provoked a great uproar within the Parsi community orders at Agra in 1878, and for a while he worked in [unir as and led to a great deal of persecution, perhaps more for Pestonji honorary missionary and later in Poona, where he also taught than the others, for he was married with a baby daughter at the church history at the divinity school. He died in 1894. time. His wife and daughter were taken away from him by the No record remains of Sorabji's baptismal testimony or of family, and his wife was given in marriage to another man. After early letters, and therefore it is difficult to say with certainty how many years of legal struggle, he was reunited with his daughter, he regarded Zoroastrianism at the time of his conversion, but his who later went on to marry a prominent Indian pastor. His views were probably similar to those of Nauroji, for they came unconventional and rather controversial lifestyle did not endear from a very similar environment and background. It is therefore him to the contemporary missionary writers, which perhaps very likely that Sorabji understood Zoroastrianism to be totally explains the dearth of material about him, compared with the false and publicly rejected it, and in turn was rejected by the Parsi information available on Nauroji or Sorabji. According to Eliza­ community. beth Hewat, Pestonji was the first Indian ordained in Bombay." In time, however, Sorabji, as did Nauroji, came to accept the His talents lay in linguistics, and he worked on the translation of Parsi community and to be accepted by them. Sorabji appears to the New Testament into Gujarati at Wilson College, Bombay. He have engaged in continuous dialogue with the Parsis, informally then served for a few years with the Irish Presbyterian Mission in with family and friends, and formally with Parsi priests and the Kathiawar. Panchayat." The best documentation of this interaction is in a When Pestonji was posted to [ambusar, however, he refused book by Sorabji's daughter Cornelia, in which she describes her to go. He left India to write a pamphlet highly critical of the father's attempt to engage in dialogue with Parsi priests. He conduct of missionaries toward native ministry. The controversy published two books on Zoroaster and Christianity in this at­ that this response caused culminated in a settlementthat enabled tempt. Cornelia's account documents the change in attitudes on the mission to destroy all copies of the pamphlet. Meanwhile, bothsides thatmusthave taken place duringhis lifetime. She also refers frequently to the pride her father felt in being a Parsi and how he made sure that the children were brought up to regard After his baptism, Sorabji themselves as Parsis

April 2003 73 Rostamji Mistry. Mistry's name first appears in 1893 in reports accepted Christianity is how to reconcile Zoroastrian culture from Poona Divinity School, where he was studying. He was with Christian faith. Wilson's answer was to totally reject Parsi involved in a controversy with the European students, who religion and culture. Since the first wave of conversions took objected to his receiving privileges equal to theirs. Shortly there­ place mainly under his influence, the converts' early attitude after he left to work as an evangelist among the Parsis in Bombay naturally reflected that of Wilson. Wilson's approach, coupled and later was joined by Freeman. They worked together until with his lack of knowledge of the Gathas, led him to dismiss 1900, when Freeman died. Through their activities a number of Zoroaster and his religion as unworthy of any attention and to Parsis were baptized and the Parsi Christian Association was accuse the Parsis of practicingpolytheism. Heevenwentso far as formed. When Freeman died, however, the CMS did not replace to label Zoroaster an impostor." him. Mistry soon resigned, and the mission to Parsis ended. A different approach to this challenge appeared nearly a century later in the work of Moulton. Building on the contribu­ Changing Approaches to Zoroastrian Culture tions of J. N. Farquhar and others, and basing his understanding of Zoroastrianism on the Gathas, Moulton accepted Zoroaster as This historical sketch of missions to the Zoroastrians has men­ a prophet from God and his teachings as containing truths that tioned two missionaries each of whom was remarkable in his lack only fulfillment by Christ. 35 Moulton's conclusion was thus ownway-JohnWilson, whocameto Bombayin 1830,andJames that Parsis need not reject their culture but must seek its fulfill­ Moulton, who arrived for a brief mission in 1915. In between mentandtransformation,whichonlyChristcando. The writings these two dates we have traced the life histories of some of the of these two authors demonstrate clearly how missionary atti­ Parsi converts to Christianity who were also remarkable people tudes and approaches had changed during the course of nearly in terms of their contribution to churchlife in India. We have also a century. traced the story of their struggles with the challenges they faced To discover the answer of the converts to this challenge, we following conversion. examined brief accounts of several of them. We saw that, under The challenge to Christians who seek to bring Zoroastrians the influence of Wilson, the converts initially rejected the Parsi to Christ and, even more so, to the Zoroastrians who have culture. As time passed, however, it became clear that the con­ Noteworthy

Announcing preting, and Living the Scriptures in the Multi-cultural Con­ The Central and Eastern European Association for Mission text of the Contemporary Church" is the theme for a confer­ Studies was inaugurated November 28,2002, at a meeting in ence and a series of related missions courses to be held June Budapest of the Missiological Research Fellowship. Anne 6-12, 2003, at Regent College, Vancouver. Contact: Marie Kool, Budapest; Peter F. Penner, Prague; Scott [email protected] or call (800) 663-8664. Klingsmith, Vienna; Jan Gorski, Krakow; Sergei Shirokov, The Project for Archives Documentation and Oral His­ Moscow; and Vladimir Federov, St. Petersburg, compose the tory of the International Association for Mission Studies will founding executive committee. A journal and a mission con­ hold a conference on the theme "Rescuing the Memory of ference during 2003 are being considered. Contact: Mission in New Zealand and the Pacific" at the BibleCollege [email protected]. of New Zealand, Auckland. The June 24, 2003, gathering is a The premiere issue of Quest, a biannual interdisciplinary follow-up to aconference held last year in Rome.Contact: John journalforAsian Christianscholars, was publishedin Novem­ Roxborogh,[email protected] ber 2002. David Kwang-Sun Suh of the Asian Christian Association for Mission Studies will meet June 25-26 at the Higher Education Institute, Hong Kong, is editor. The pub­ same location. Contact: Cathy Ross, [email protected]. lishers are the Association for Christian Universities and Some 150scholars andchurchleaders from Britain, North Colleges in Asia, Hong Kong, and the United Board for Chris­ America, Australia, and New Zealand attended an interna­ tian Higher Education in Asia, New York. Contact: Wendy tional conference, "The Future of Christianity in the West," Chan, managing editor, at Hong Kong Baptist University, held December 5-7,2002,at the UniversityofOtago, Dunedin, [email protected]. New Zealand. For details, visit http://telperion.otago.ac.nz/ The Baptist World Alliance, which serves 206 Baptist theoweb/ conference. conventions and unions worldwide, will hold a Summit on The Christianity in Asia Project of the University of Baptist Mission in the 21st Century, May 5-9, 2003, in Cambridge's Centre for Advanced Religious and Theological Swanwick, England. Themes to be highlighted include Les­ Studieswill coordinateseminars and consultationsduring the sons from the History of Missions, Mission and the next several years that will "present Asian Christianity in all Marginalized, and Paradigm Shifts in Missiology. Contact: its theological variety and facilitate its interactionwith theolo­ Ruby Burke, [email protected], or visit www.bwanet.org. gies from other contexts in order to enrich the understanding "New Trends in Ecumenism" is the theme of an interna­ of world Christianity," reports project director Sebastian tional conference to be held May 9-12, 2003, at Lund Univer­ Chang-Hwan Kim in December 2002.The center also plans to sity, Lund, Sweden. The Nordic Institute for Missionary and publish seminar papers, conference summaries, the Bulletin of Ecumenical Research and the Nordic Ecumenical Council Christianity in Asia, and a journal Christianity in Asia. For are cosponsors. Contact: [email protected]. details, visit www.divinity.cam.ac.uk or e-mail Kim at "The Bible and the Nations: Translating, Reading, Inter- [email protected].

74 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 verts were unable and unwilling to distance themselves from day lives and finding solutions, and doing so long before either their cultural background. The outworking of their newly ac­ Farquhar or Moulton were able to articulate them in theological quired faith within their Zoroastrian/Parsi culture is demon­ terms. strated clearly by the family life of the Sorabjis, most clearly in Western culture was not the sole source of conflict in this their innovativeblend of Westernand Eastern educational meth­ cultural struggle, for Parsi culture in its own way was also a ods at home and later in their missionary schools. Nauroji's life hindrance. Parsis exhibited undue reverence for fire, ancestors, also demonstrates how, during his longlife, he was able to accept nature, and angels, and they laid undue importance on ceremo­ much of the Parsi culture and be accepted by the Parsi commu­ nies, purity rites, and repetitive prayers or mantras. Evidence nity but yet retain his faith and contribute actively to church life. uncovered during the course of this research but not mentioned The picture that emerges from this reviewis thatZoroastrian in this article shows that the Parsi religion underwent quite a Christians, few though they were, showed themselves stalwart considerable reformation during this same period." It is difficult believers who stuck to their faith and gave all for their Lord. to say how muchwas due to the influence of the missionaries and Ultimately, however, they saw no reason to give up their rich the converts and how muchwas due to secular pressures, but the heritage and embrace another culture. Early missionaries, in missionaries and the converts undoubtedly had some part in the contrast, unconsciously assumed that once people from other process. religions converted to Christianity, they would adopt a Western form of Christianity. The missionaries often looked with suspi­ Reflections ciononChristianexpressions thatcontained elements from other cultures. It seems, therefore, that the real struggle the Parsis had In this article we have considered the lives of some converts who after accepting Christ was less with their personal faith and were from a different culture, place, and time than ours. Issues of convictions and more with the cultural baggage that both the culture, however, are especially prominent even to this day. missionaries and the Parsis carried. The struggle, inother words, Right at the beginning, whenJesus commissioned his disciples to was primarily cultural, not religious. The case histories of con­ take the Gospel to all nations, it was inevitable that they would verts show that they were tackling these issues in their day-to­ encounter such cultural issues. Thus when Peter and Paul took

The Geneva Ecumenical Centre and the Bossey Ecu­ Global Mapping International, Colorado Springs, Colo­ menical Institute libraries, both part of the World Council of rado, received the first Henry Parsons Crowell Award for Churches,receiveda $2.7milliondonationfrom BanquePictet, Excellence and Innovation in the Extension of Evangelical Geneva, to develop an ecumenical research center. Together Christianity. It included a gift of $50,000 in recognition of they house the largest collection on twentieth-century GMI's "significant and innovative" programs that "enhance ecumenism. The grant will enable the libraries and archives to the effectiveness" of missions, leadership training, and evan­ become more accessible for research via the Internet. gelism. The United College of the Ascension, Birmingham, an Died. Paul Rowntree Clifford, 89, British Baptist minis­ internationalecumenicalmissioncommunityin whichpeople ter, theological educator, and ecumenical statesman, January from more than twenty countries live, worship, and learn 18, 2003, in Rowhook, Sussex. As president of Selly Oak together, launched a residential program for missionaries. Colleges in Birmingham,England(1965-79),Clifford appointed The program offers preparation for and reflection on mission. Lesslie Newbigin in 1974 as lecturer in Christian mission and For details, e-mail Kirsteen Kim k.kirnfsbham.ac.uk, or visit ecumenical theology. He was instrumental in creation of a www.ascension.ac.uk. new chair for mission at the University of Birmingham in cooperationwithSelly OakCollegeswithWalterHollenweger Personalia as the first professor of mission in the chair. In the late 1960s, The World Council of Churches announced in November a Clifford joined in founding the International Association for series of program and staff cuts totaling more than $4.5 mil­ MissionStudies. His autobiography, An Ecumenical Pilgrimage lion. In response to a predicted budget shortfall, General (1994),was reviewed in the IBMR in July 1995. Secretary Konrad Raiser said the WCC will reorganize itself Died. George A. F. Knight, 93, missionary and Old around five historic themes: faith and order; mission and Testament scholar, in Dunedin, New Zealand, December 22, ecumenical formation; justice, peace, and creation; interna­ 2002. Born in Scotland and ordained by the Church of Scot­ tional affairs, peace, and human security; and diakonia and land, he directed the Scottish Mission in Budapest, Hungary solidarity. U.S. Office Director Jean Stromberg and Commu­ (1935-40). From 1947 to 1965 he taught Old Testament and nications Officer Philip Jenks are among those leaving the Hebrewat Knox College andthe UniversityofOtago,Dunedin; WCC. St. Andrews University, Scotland; and McCormick Theologi­ An 81-year-oldCombonimissionarysister, CallistaCozzi, cal Seminary, Chicago. In 1965he established and became the was honored by Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Beshir first principal of the Pacific Theological College, Suva, Fiji, for her work in obstetrics. Before returning to Italy in Decem­ retiring in 1973.A prolific author, his major work, A Christian ber, Cozzi, who founded a 200-bed hospital in Sudan, received Theology of the Old Testament (1959), was reprinted in paper­ an honorary doctorate. Last year she received Sudan's Order back in 1999.Under the title What Next? Knight's autobiogra­ of Merit of the first degree. phy was published in 1980.

April 2003 75 the Gospel to the Gentiles, they encountered fierce opposition but allowed the Gospel to do its transforming work. Then the from some Jewish Christians who wanted the converts to follow communityneededan academic suchas Moultonto reflect on the Jewish culture and traditions. Yet, led by the Spirit, the apostles outworking of the Gospel within the lives of the converts and the trusted in the transforming power of the Gospel to work within effect of the missionary attacks on the Parsi community, and then the lives of the new Christians in their own cultural setting rather to express these insights in theological terms in his writing. thanimposinga foreign oneuponthem. The consequences of this The Parsis had allowed themselves to become captives of type of transformation cannot be predicted, and it often takes a their tradition and culture at the expense of the essential message long time to bear fruit. in their Zoroastrian faith. In a similar vein Martin Luther in his This study illustrates the process of transformation in a timespokeof "theBabyloniancaptivityof the church";in ourday tightly knit community of Parsis in nineteenth-century Bombay. Lesslie Newbigin described the presentWestern churchas being The community needed a Wilson to shake it out of its long the captive of its own culture." Perhaps a Wilson or Luther from slumber. It also needed righteous indignation within its mem­ the non-Western world is needed to shake the Western church bers for them to take a fresh look at their own religion. The out of its slumber and allow it to be transformed by the power of converts were essential in that they kept faith with their culture the Gospel.

Notes------­ 1. David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World historians mention them, including Stock, History of the Church Christian Encyclopedia, 2d ed. (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001),1:360,4. By Missionary Society; Stephen Neill, History of Christianity in India, the year 2000, Zoroastrians numbered slightly over 200,000in India 1707-1858 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); Elizabeth and 2.5 million worldwide. Hewat, Christ and Western India: A Study of the Growth of the Indian 2. Robin E. Waterfield, Christians in Persia (London: George Allen & Church in Bombay City from1813, 2d ed. (Bombay: J. Kellock, Wilson Unwin, 1973),gives a good account of missions to various religious College, 1953);idem, VisionandAchievement, 1796-1956: A Historyof communities of Persia. the Foreign Missions of the Churches United in the Church of Scotland 3. The sourcematerialsin this studywereobtainedfrom publishedand (Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1960); J. Murray Mitchell, In archival materials from various missionary societies. Most of the Western India: Recollections of My Early Missionary Life (Edinburgh: names and life histories of the converts were obtained from letters David Douglas, 1899); Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India and reports theysentto theirhomemissionarysocieties. Particularly (Edinburgh: Oliphat, Anderson, & Ferrier, 1908); and s. good sources, where these exist, are the baptismal and ordination Satthianadhan, Sketches of Indian Christians (London: Christian testimonies that each person wrote. Literature Society for India, 1896). 4. MaryBoyce,Textual Sources fortheStudyofZoroastrianism(Manchester: 17. Dhanjibhai Nauroji, From Zoroaster to Christ: An Autobiographical Manchester Univ. Press, 1984), gives the most up-to-date materials Sketch of the Rev. Dhanjibhai Nauroji, the First Modern Convert to on Zoroastrianism. Christianity from the Zoroastrian Religion (Edinburgh: Oliphant, 5. M. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings,and Religion of the Anderson, & Ferrier, 1909). Parsis, 2d ed. (London, 1884). 18. Smith, Life of John Wilson. Wilson contemplated publication of a 6. Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, The Western Response to Zoroaster translation into Gujarati of his book on Parsi religion, which he (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958). proposed that Nauroji should prepare for lithographic printing in 7. John Wilson, The Parsi Religion as contained in Zend-Avesta and Edinburgh. There is no evidence that this task was ever actually propounded and defended by the Zoroastrians ofIndia,unfolded, refuted, carried out. and contrasted with Christianity (Bombay: American Mission Press, 19. Neill, HistoryofChristianityin India,pp. 401-2. Nauroji, who had the 1843). full support of Wilson in this matter, became one of the first Indian 8. John Holmes, Historical Sketches oftheMissionsofthe UnitedBrethren ministers employed by the Free Churchof Scotlandand sent to India forPropagating theGospel amongtheHeathen, fromtheirCommencement as a missionary on a par with the European missionaries. This step to theyear1817 (London, 1827).The section on failed missions gives set a precedent, which was to be of greatest significance for the an account of the mission to the Gebri. church at a later date. 9. CarapetAratoon, "To W.Wardin Seramporefrom Bombay," Oxford, 20. Wilson had founded this indigenous church in the 1830s. Regent College, Baptist Missionary Archives, 1810-16. 21. J. Murray Mitchell, on behalf of the Church of Scotland Missionary 10. George Smith, The LifeofJohn Wilson (London: John Murray, 1879). Committee, to Dhanjibhai Nauroji regarding the congregation at 11. "Report of the Proceedings of the Scottish Missionary Society," Poona, Edinburgh, NationalLibrary of Scotland, Special Collections Scottish Missionary Register, 1822.Karl Gottlieb Pfanderhad used this 23Nov. 1876.At someperiodduringthe 1870sNaurojiseemstohave technique among the Muslims in Persia. overseen the native congregation in Poona as well. 12. Church Missionary Society, Extracts from the Annual Letters of the 22. Dhanjibhai Nauroji, The Work of Faith: A Sermon Preached in the Missionaries for Year1895-96 (London: Church Missionary Society, Bombay Free Church Esplanade, onthe19thDec. 1875,onBehalfoftheFree 1896), p. 169. Church MissionofThisCity:Containing a BriefSketch oftheMissionary 13. Eugene Stock, The History of the Church Missionary Society, vol. 3 Career of the Late Rev. John Wilson D.D., Father and Founder of the (London: Church Missionary Society, 1899), p. 758. Mission(Bombay: Caxton Printing Works, 1876),p. 13;LifeandDeath 14. C. D. Snell, liThe Student Voluntary Missionary Union," Church in Christ: A Discourse Preached before theNativeCongregation oftheFree Missionary Intelligencer, 1895, pp. 354-60. Church of Scotland's Mission, Bombay, on the Occasion of the Death of 15. James Hope Moulton, The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Mrs. Isabella Wilson (Byculla: Education Society's Press, 1867). Zoroastrianism (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1917).The foreword by 23. William Walker, Glimpse ofMission Workand Some MissionSchools in J. N. Farquhar gives a full account of this commission. Western India (London: S. Harris, 1887). The Parsi Christian 16. The discussion of converts focuses mainly on Dhanjibhai Nauroji Association, which was limited to Bombay, faded away upon and Sorabji Khersedji.Their ownwritings and the writings of others Nauroji's death. about them have been used as sources for this discussion. Some 24. In Nauroji, From Zoroaster to Christ,pp. 84-85. originallettersand reports writtenby bothNauroji and Sorabji, kept 25. Parsisof this periodwerereferred to primarilyeitherby family name in archives of their respective missionary societies, havebeen useful (as with Nauroji) or by given name (Sorabji), No attempt is made in giving insight into their lives. Finally, a number of missionary here to achieve a modem consistency in citations.

76 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.2 26. [Cornelia Sorabji], "Therefore": An Impression of Sorabji Kharsedji Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism (ca. 1880) and The Comparison of Langrana andHis WifeFranscina (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1924), Zoroastrianism with Christianity (ca. 1885). I have been unable to pp. 30-40. A detailed description is given of the various attempts the locate either volume. family made to get Sorabji back. Finally, the family abducted him 31. Neill, History of Christianityin India,p. 524. and set him adrift on a raft in the ocean. He was eventually rescued 32. Sorabji, "Therefore," p. 58. by Portuguese sailors and brought back to Bombay. 33. Hewat, Christand Western India, p. 133. 27. Sorabji Khersedji to Rev. H. Venn, Secretary, Corresponding 34. Wilson, Parsi Religion, chap. 8. Committee Church Missionary Society, 1861, London, Univ. of 35. Moulton, Treasure of theMagi, pp. 224-54. See Eric J. Sharpe, Not to Birmingham Library, CMS Archives Special Collections, CI 3/046/ DestroyBut to Fulfil: The Contribution of J. N. Farquhar to Protestant 51861. Missionary ThoughtinIndiaBefore 1914(Uppsala: SwedishInstituteof 28. Sorabji, "Therefore," p. 54. Missionary Research, 1965). 29. The Panchayat (from Persian panch, "five") was the highest Parsi 36. Moulton, Treasure of theMagi, pp. 171-93. court, originally composed of five high priests who made the most 37. Lesslie Newbigin, A Word in Season: Perspectives on Christian World important decisions regarding the community. Missions (Edinburgh: St. Andrew Press, 1994). 30. Sorabji, "Therefore." According to Cornelia he wrote two books:

My Pilgrimage in Mission Marcella Hoesl, M.M.

ntering the Maryknoll Sisters in 1957 continued a jour­ charge was the entire English-language program and religious E ney that Ibegan in high school, when I seriously consid­ instruction. In relation to the latter I attended a workshop on ered "going on mission." Even in grade school we filled "mite" catechesis in Mexico City, where I metJacques Audinet, from the boxes with our coinage to support African babies. My German­ Institut Superieur de Pastorale Catechetique of Paris, who was American parents were deeply religious, and that influence leading the sessions. We had lively discussions and began ad­ cannot be underestimated in my formative years. In Cincinnati, dressing the impact of culture on religious instruction. Through Ohio, where I was born in 1935, there was a strong Catholic his influence I was offered a scholarship to study at the Institut Students Mission Society (CSMS), strongly supported by Arch­ in Paris. A major change was about to take place in my life. bishop John McNicholas, who was instrumental in founding the Maryknoll Fathers. Every Catholic high school had a CSMS Impact of Vatican II committee, and I was elected to be secretary for the Cincinnati chapter. Its goals were to foster an understanding and apprecia­ Our local and regional superiors, who held a far-reaching vision tion of mission activities worldwide. National meetings were in of both mission and education, were supportive of the idea of order. I well remember attending one held at Notre Dame furtherstudy. Iwasapprovedto acceptthe invitationaftertaking University, where many religious congregations displayed their final vows. As part of our preparation for the vows, we studied wares, books about their particular works, and of course their Ad gentes, Vatican II's Decree on the Church's Missionary Activ­ religious habits! My vocation gradually but surely took hold. ity. An early English edition of the document called it simply The period before Vatican II was a high-water mark for "Missions." vocations in the Roman Catholic Church. I was part of a large In 1966 I flew to Paris, managed to learn some French, and group of young women who entered the Maryknoll Sisters. After began studies. Being right after Vatican II, it was a heady time for novitiate and vows we could not wait to be sent to foreign lands theological studies. We sat at the feet of some brilliant theolo­ overseas, where we would convert the "pagans"-such was our gians, includingJean Danielou,Yves Congar, andClaudeGeffre. romantic understanding of mission at the time. In 1961 three Studies, the challenging events of the famous sit-ins in 1968, othersisters and Iweresentto Yucatan, Mexico, to join in staffing rapid changes in the church, and new ways of doing theology the girls' high school run by Maryknoll there. We learned a little affected all of us. As a result of Vatican II, congregations such as Spanish by osmosis but worked mainly in English, reflecting the ours were asked to reflect deeply on their particular charism or view that English was the way forward for the students. Our reason for founding. Not only did we move beyond wearing imperial instinct was showing itself, although at the time we did habits, we entered more fully into interpreting our original not fully fathom that aspect. charism in light of the "signs of the times" and our post-Vatican On weekends several of us went to the poorer sections to II understanding of being church-in-the-world. I enjoyed my teach catechism, which brought me closer to what I thought theological studies immensely and went on from the catechetical mission was all about. A few years later I was sent to Puebla, center to complete a licentiate in theology, and then a doctorate Mexico, to work in a large Jesuit school that spanned the years in systematic theology at the Institut Catholique in Paris, gradu­ from early childhood to the first years of college. My particular ating in 1973. Moving in New Directions Marcella Hoesl, M.M., is currently Professor of Systematic Theology and former Academic Dean atOblate School ofTheology in SanAntonio,Texas. Her I envisioned returning to Latin America after completing these service as a Maryknoll Sister includes experience in Mexico, Guatemala, studies, but it did not happen immediately. Instead, my next southern Sudan,and the United Kingdom. assignment entailed beginning a mission renewal program with

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