Cote D `Ivoire

Cote d `Ivoire

Review 2003 0 http://www.countrywatch.com Acknowledgements

There are several people without whom the creation of this year's edition of the CountryWatch Country Reviews could not have been Contributors accomplished. Robert Kelly, the Founder and Chairman of CountryWatch envisioned the original idea of CountryWatch Robert C. Kelly Country Reviews as a concise and meaningful source of Founder and Chairman country-specific information, containing fundamental demographic, socio-cultural, political, economic, investment and environmental Denise Youngblood-Coleman Ph. D. information, in a consistent format. Special thanks must be Executive Vice President and conveyed to Robert Baldwin, the Co-Chairman of CountryWatch, Editor-in-Chief who championed the idea of intensified contributions by regional specialists in building meaningful content. Today, the CountryWatch Mary Ann Azevedo M. A. Country Reviews simply would not exist without the research and Managing Editor writing done by the current Editorial Department at CountryWatch. The team is responsible for hundreds of thousands of pages of Julie Zhu current information on the recognized countries of the world. This Economics Editor Herculean task could not have been accomplished without the unique talents of Mary Ann Azevedo, Julie Zhu, Ryan Jennings, Ryan Jennings Cristy Kelly, Ryan Holliway, Anne Marie Surnson and Michelle Economics Analysts Hughes within the Editorial Department. These individuals faithfully expend long hours of work, incredible diligence and the highest Ryan Holliway degree of dedication in their efforts. For these reasons, they have my Researcher and Writer utmost gratitude and unflagging respect.A word of thanks must also be extended to colleagues in the academic world with whom Cristy Kelly specialized global knowledge has been shared and whose Research Analyst contributions to CountryWatch are enduring. Accordingly, I am indebted to Stanton Doyle, the former co-Editor of CountryWatch, Anne Marie Surnson Richard Marcus, the Director of the International Studies Program at News Wire Manager California State University and former Africa Editor for CountryWatch, Brigette Allen former Latin America Editor for Michelle Hughes CountryWatch, and Christina Surowiec, former Regional Editor for News Wire Editor CountryWatch.Finally, without the extraordinary assistance of our Information Technology department, the CountryWatch Country Cesar Rosa Reviews could not be published. Cesar Rosa works responsively Chief Information Officer with the Editorial Department to ensure the annual production of the CountryWatch Country Reviews. John Torres ensures our technical John Torres capacity functions efficiently. As such, I am truly indebted to them Technical Network Manager for their efforts. Finally, my utmost gratitude is extended to my mentors in the disciplines of Anthropology, International Development and International Relations, who taught me about the tensions between states and nations in the contemporary world, the value of ethnographic research as the best lens to understanding the complexity of the human condition, and that policy is meaningless unless it positively impacts the quotidian lives of people across the planet.

Denise Youngblood Coleman Ph. D.,

Executive Vice President and Editor in Chief CountryWatch

COUNTRYWATCH REVIEW 2010 EDITION

Denise Youngblood Coleman Ph.D. Editor in Chief

CountryWatch, Inc. Houston, Texas

Table of Contents

Country Overview...... 1

Key Data ...... 1 Political Overview ...... 7

History ...... 7 Political Conditions...... 8 Freedom Rankings ...... 23 Human Rights ...... 32 Government Functions ...... 35 Government Structure...... 36 Principal Government Officials ...... 39 Leader Biography ...... 41 Foreign Relations ...... 42 National Security ...... 44 Defense Forces ...... 46 Economic Overview ...... 49

Economic Overview ...... 49 Real GDP and GDP Per Capita...... 51 Nominal GDP and Components ...... 51 Government Spending and Taxation ...... 52 Money, Prices and Interest Rates ...... 52 Trade and the Exchange Rate ...... 53 The Balance of Payments ...... 53 Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units ...... 54

2010 Review Energy Consumption and Production QUADS ...... 55 World Energy Price Summary ...... 56 CO2 Emissions ...... 56 Agriculture Consumption and Production ...... 57 World Agriculture Pricing Summary ...... 58 Metals Consumption and Production ...... 59 World Metals Pricing Summary ...... 60 Investment Overview ...... 63

Foreign Investment Climate ...... 63 Taxation ...... 65 Stock Market...... 66 Partner Links...... 67 Social Overview ...... 79

People ...... 79 Human Development Index ...... 81 Status of Women...... 88 Culture and Arts ...... 90 Etiquette ...... 91 Travel Information ...... 92 Diseases/Health Data ...... 105 Environmental Overview ...... 111

Environmental Issues ...... 111 Environmental Policy ...... 112 ...... 112 Global Environmental Snapshot ...... 113

2010 Review Global Environmental Concepts...... 124 International Environmental Agreements and Associations...... 141 Appendices ...... 151

Bibliography ...... 151

2010 Review 3 4 2010 Review Chapter 1 Country Overview Key Data Country Overview

Country Overview

Key Data Region: Africa

Population: 21,377,030 as of 2009 Total Area: 322,460 Sq. Km.

Total Land: 318,000 Sq. Km.

Coastline: 515 km

Climate: Tropical along coast, semiarid in far north; three seasons- warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), hot and wet (June to October).

Average Daily Temperature: Capital: Yamoussoukro January: 25.5C / 77.9 July: 24.9C / 76.8

Annual Rainfall: 1421.0mm / 55.9

Languages: French (official); there are also over 70 native languages spoken

Currency: 1 CFAF = 100 centimes

National Holiday: National Day, 7 August

Capital City: Yamoussoukro

Boundaries: Liberia: 716 km Ghana: 668 km Guinea: 610 km Burkina Faso: 584 km Mali: 532 km

Largest Cities: City: Abidjan Population: 4,011,262 Year: 2009

1 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Country Overview Key Data

City: Bouake Population: 641,787 Year: 2009

City: Yamoussoukro Population: 234,788 Year: 2009

Ethnic Groups: 42%...... Akan

18%...... Voltaiques or Gur

16%...... Northern Mandes

11%...... Krous

10%...... Southern Mandes

3%...... other

Religions: 34%...... Christian

27%...... Muslim

21%...... no religion

15%...... animist

3%...... other

Flag:

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 2 Key Data Country Overview

Côte d’Ivoire

Country Map

B Bobo Dioulasso Bougour ag iba Kolondieba oé Diébougou Orodara Hamale lé Kadiana u Mali o a Mandiana B Banfora Manankoro Burkina Tingréla Gaoua San Faso kara Niellé ni Wa ° Wangolodougou 10 Samatiguila Kouto D i Batié o B é n o a o g Varalé u a

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d o n K Aboisso S a Bingerville a B s Dabou s a n d r Liberia a Grand- Abidjan Bassam Grand- Newtown Half Nyaake Sassandra Lahou Assini Gulf of Guinea San-Pedro Côte d´Ivoire Harper Tabou Cape Départment border National capital Palmas Road D partment capital Railroad International border 4° D partements have the same names as their capitals. Atlantic 0 50 100 150 km Ocean 0 50 100 mi

8° 6° 4° © MAGELLAN GeographixSMSanta Barbara CA (800) 929-4627

3 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Country Overview Key Data

Africa

Regional Map

20° 20° 0° 40°

Black Sea C a 40° s Atlantic p i a n Ocean S e Africa a Algiers Tunis Madeira Strait of Gibraltar (Portugal) Oran Tunisia Casablanca Rabat Mediterranean Sea Tripoli Morocco Alexandria Canary Islands Banghäzï (Spain) Cairo Tindouf Pe La´youn rsia Algeria Libya n Gulf Western Egypt Sahara (Morocco) Tropic of Cancer Al Jawf Aswän

20° Mauritania Mali Faya- e Port Nouakchott l Red Largeau N i Sudan Senegal Tombouctou Niger Sea Dakar Eritrea r Chad Khartoum g e Äsmera The Gambia N i Burkina Banjul Niamey Lake Sudan Faso Chad Gulf of Aden Bissau Al Fäshir Djibouti Guinea Bamako Ouagadougou Kano N'Djamena Conakry Benin Togo Nigeria Addis Somalia Freetown Côte Ababa Porto- Benue Central Guinea D'Ivoire Ghana Novo Bissau Monrovia Accra Lagos African Ethiopia Abidjan Cameroon Republic Sierra Lomé Bangui Jübä Leone Liberia Malabo Yaoundé Equatorial Guinea Z a i re Uganda Mogadishu Gulf of Guinea Kisangani Equator Saõ Tomé Kenya ° Libreville Congo Kampala 0 Sao Tome & Gabon Rwanda Lake Nairobi Annobón Zaire Kigali Victoria Principe (Eq. Gui.) Brazzaville Burundi Bujumbura Mombasa Kinshasa Lake Tanganyika Cabinda Kalemie (Angola) Tanzania Dar es Salaam Luanda Ascension Seychelles (St. Helena) Atlantic Lake Mtwara Lubumbashi Malawi Comoros Ocean Angola Moroni Antsiranana Lilongwe Lobito Zambia Nacala Malawi Z a Lusaka St. Helena m Harare b (U. K.) e z i Madagascar Mozambique Zimbabwe Antananarivo Beira 20° Namibia Bulawayo Mozambique Botswana Channel Tropic of Capricorn Toliara Windhoek Gaborone Pretoria Maputo

Lüderitz Mbabane Johannesburg Swaziland 0 500 1000 1500 km Maseru O ra n g e Durban 0 nautical miles 1000 Indian South Africa Lesotho Disputed Areas are in Gray Ocean Cape Town Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection Port Elizabeth

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 4 Key Data Country Overview

5 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Country Overview Key Data

Chapter 2 Political Overview

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 6 History Political Overview

Political Overview

History

Unlike most of West Africa, little is known of the early history of Côte d'Ivoire. It is thought that a Neolithic culture existed there. France made its initial contact with Côte d'Ivoire in 1637, when missionaries landed at Assinie near the Gold Coast (now Ghana) border. Early contacts were limited to a few missionaries because of the inhospitable coastline and settlers' fear of the inhabitants.

In the 18th century, two related ethnic groups invaded the area, the Agnis, who occupied the southeast, and the Baoules, who settled in the central section. In 1843-44, Admiral Bouet-Williaumez signed treaties with the kings of the Grand Bassam and Assinie regions, placing their territories under a French protectorate. French explorers, missionaries, trading companies and soldiers gradually extended the area under French control inland from the lagoon region.

Côte d'Ivoire officially became a French colony in 1893. Captain Binger, who had explored the Gold Coast frontier, was named the first governor. He negotiated boundary treaties with Liberia and the United Kingdom (for the Gold Coast), and later started the campaign against Almany Samory, a Malinke chief who fought against the French until 1898.

From 1904 to 1958, Côte d'Ivoire was a constituent unit of the Federation of French West Africa. It was a colony and an overseas territory under the French Third Republic. Until the period following World War II, governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. France's policy in West Africa was reflected mainly in its philosophy of "association," meaning that all Africans in Côte d'Ivoire were officially French "subjects" without rights to representation in Africa or France.

During World War II, the Vichy regime remained in control until 1943, when members of General Charles de Gaulle's provisional government assumed control of all French West Africa. The Brazza- ville conference in 1944, the first Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in 1946, and France's gratitude for African loyalty during World War II, led to far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946. French citizenship was granted to all African "subjects," the right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished.

A turning point in relations with France was reached with the 1956 Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre), which transferred a number of powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa and also removed remaining voting inequalities.

In December 1958, Côte d'Ivoire became an autonomous republic within the French community as a result of a referendum providing community status to all members of the old Federation of French West Africa except Guinea, which had voted against association. Côte d'Ivoire became independent on Aug. 7, 1960 and permitted its community membership to lapse

7 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

Note on History: In certain entries, open source content from the State Department Background Notes and Country Guides have been used. A full listing of sources is available in the Bibliography.

Political Conditions

The Legacy of Felix Houphouet-Boigny

Côte d'Ivoire's contemporary political history is closely associated with the career of Felix Houphouet- Boigny, president of the republic and leader of the "Parti Démocratique de la Côte d'Ivoire" (PDCI). He was one of the founders of the "Rassemblement Démocratique Africain" (RDA), the leading pre- independence inter-territorial political party in the French West African territories (except Mauritania).

Houphouet-Boigny first came to political prominence in 1944 as founder of the Syndicat Agricole Africain, an organization that won improved conditions for African farmers and formed a nucleus for the PDCI. After World War II, he was elected by a narrow margin to the first Constituent Assembly. Representing Côte d'Ivoire in the French National Assembly from 1946 to 1959, he devoted much of his effort to inter-territorial political organization and further amelioration of labor conditions.

After his 13-year service in the French National Assembly, including almost three years as a minister in the French government, he became Côte d'Ivoire's first prime minister in April 1959. The following year he was elected Côte d'Ivoire's first president.

In May 1959, Houphouet-Boigny reinforced his position as a dominant figure in West Africa by leading Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina) and Dahomey (Benin) into the Council of the Entente, a regional organization promoting economic development. He maintained that the only true road to African solidarity is through step-by-step economic and political cooperation, recognizing the principle of nonintervention in the internal affairs of other African states.

Following from his service in the French National Assembly, Houphouet-Boigny was a close ally of the socialists under Francois Mitterand. He married these socialist roots to his authoritarian rule, creating what has been described as a paternalistic autocracy. He both recognizing the needs of the poor and built great, passionate monuments hallmarked by the building of the Bascilica of Our Lady of Peace (modeled on the one in Rome) in his hometown of Yamoussoukro.

Until 1990, Houphouet's "Parti Démocratique de la Côte d'Ivoire" (Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire or PDCI) was the sole permitted party in the country. In 1990, Houphouet liberalized the political system and called for multi-party elections. Opposition parties, independent newspapers, and independent trades unions were legalized. Several dozen parties formed following Houphouet's announcement, including the "Front Populaire Ivorienne" (Ivorian Popular Front or FPI), the largest of the opposition parties. The opposition won 10 seats in the National Assembly out of a possible 175, and Houphouet

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 8 Political Conditions Political Overview was reelected. Despite some accusations of irregularities, all participating political parties accepted the final results.

The 1990s

In 1993, Houphouet died and was replaced by his constitutional successor, National Assembly Presi- dent Henri Konan Bédié. The constitution called for Bédié to serve out the rest of Houphouet's term, which ended in October 1995.

In the first months of his rule, Bédié filled top government posts, including the media and the judiciary, with his associates. He was also elected chairman of the PDCI. Bédié eliminated voices of dissent by bringing charges against journalists who had criticized the government. The parliament also adopted electoral reforms in late 1994, which made candidates for the presidency or parliament who were not of direct Ivorian descent ineligible. This measure effectively eliminated Ouattara, Bédié's primary opponent, from challenging Bedie in the presidential elections.

Mass demonstrations protested the new electoral code, but Ouattara stated he would respect the code. Only two candidates were deemed eligible by the electoral commission, specifically, Bédié and Fran- cis Wodíe of the Parti Ivorienne du Travail (Ivorian Labor Party or PIT). This same issue would come back to haunt Bédié, however, and would ultimately cost Cote d'Ivoire its political stability.

The Bédié government received criticism from Amnesty International for the alleged repression of opposition groups. This criticism was in response to the detention of many opposition members connected with the boycott of the elections and pre-election unrest, and the death of several opposition activists while in custody. Bédié received additional criticism for the arrest of several journalists connected to the opposition.

The primary opposition parties, the "Front Populaire Ivorienne" (Ivorian Popular Front or FPI) and the "Rassemblement des Républicains" (Republican Rally or RDR), boycotted the presidential election of Oct. 22, 1995 because of Ouattara's disqualification and the absence of an independent electoral commission (among other grievances). Their "active boycott" produced violent demonstrations and hundreds of arrests (with a number of those arrested not tried for two and one-half years). The boycott also resulted in the operation of only one of sixty polling stations in the opposition dominated Centre-Ouest region. Bédié won the election with 95.2 percent of the vote to Francis Wodié's (PIT) 3.8 percent.

The government underwent extensive reorganization in August 1996. Several government officials connected with the unrest prior to the elections, as well as allegedly involved in an attempted coup d'etat in 1995, were removed.

In early 1997, student protests, initially prompted by the late payment of student grants, and the revival of the banned Federation of Scholars and Students of Côte d'Ivoire (FESCI) drew a violent response from government forces. Bédié, however, soon released three students arrested during the protests and granted amnesty to all student activists. In April 1997, the university was closed after it sustained considerable damage from student demonstrations. It was reopened for classes at the end of May, although the residence halls remained closed. FESCI initiated a boycott of classes in response to the closing of the university, retracting only after the government lifted its ban of the organization in September 1997.

9 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

In August 1997, Bédié proposed the establishment of a Senate and other legislation to allow the president of the Senate to succeed the president as head of state in the event of the death of the president. Other legislation to make presidential candidate eligibility requirements part of the constitution was also proposed. These requirements were somewhat relaxed compared to those of the previous elections. Opposition parties welcomed further electoral reforms, including increased proportional representation and the establishment of an election control and arbitration commission, which would include opposition members and international observers.

These reforms proved not to be flexible enough. In November 1999, police detained the local leadership of former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara's party in the northern town of Korhogo. Seven members of the opposition "Rassemblement des Republicains" (RDR) were arrested following public order offences. The seven were detained, and 11 national leaders of the RDR were sentenced to two years in jail. Five others were given one-year prison terms, following an RDR protest in Abidjan that was accompanied by the destruction of buses and damage to the premises of a pro-government daily. Alas- sane Ouattara himself escaped to exile in France. Bédié's unwillingness to allow Ouattara to run for president wrought unrest.

On December 24, 1999, military leaders upset with the Bédié administration overthrew the government. General Guei, leader of the coup d'etat, installed the National Council for Public Salvation, including a government of the FPI and the RDR. Until that point, the remaining 26 seats in the National Assembly were divided fairly equally between the only two other parties of national scope. The "Rassemblement des Républicains" (RDR) held 14 seats, and "Front Populaire Ivorienne" (FPI) held 12.

The FPI is the oldest opposition party, strongest in the territory of its Bete tribe leader, Laurent Gbagbo. It is a moderate socialist party, more concerned with democratic reform than radical economic change. Members of the PDCI's reformist wing formed the non-ideological RdR in September 1994. They had hoped that former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara would run and prevail in the 1995 presidential election (but he was disqualified from standing in the election by subsequent legislation requiring five-year residency). The RdR is strongest in the Muslim north. Few of the 80 or so other political parties have made much of an impact on the political scene.

Failure of the government to pay soldiers' allowances was the source of frustration for the military, which ended in a full take-over of power by the Ivorian military. Looting ensued, and a 6 p.m. curfew in Abidjan was enforced. Bédié sought refuge in the French Embassy, and soon sought exile in France. Guei promised a democratic society in a television address on the evening of the coup de'tat, Decem- ber 24, stating: "One basic element should be noted: Democracy and the rules of democracy will be scrupulously respected and I will personally ensure that they are respected."

The National Assembly was quickly dissolved and Guei was less than democratic. Following the coup d'etat, he continued to centralize power under the military in an effort to guard against coup attempts and counter insurgencies to his rule. He granted amnesty to military leaders jailed under Bédié. He removed RDR ministers and subsequent reshuffled the cabinet on May 18 leading to an increased number of military leaders in state leadership roles. In addition, family members of ousted President Bédié complained of intimidation, robbery and even torture by Guei's military. He significantly limited press freedom with dire consequences. Journalists were accosted, detained, beaten and terrorized.

From 2000 to 2002

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 10 Political Conditions Political Overview

In late January 2000, the military regime granted amnesty to the political leaders of the RDR that were imprisoned by Bédié's government. After taking office, Guei designed a new constitution, which was then put to vote in a referendum. The referendum passed in July 2000, with good voter turnout, a peaceful vote, and a substantial majority voted in favor of the new constitution. Yet, at the heart of the referendum was the north-south divide.

In this regard, it is estimated that as much as one third of the population of Cote d'Ivoire might be of foreign parentage. Northerners view themselves as long ostracized by the southern nexus of power, while southerners look at northerners as of dubious nationality. Indeed, it was met with fervent opposition from northerners and international interests, who said that the referendum was artificially exclu- sionary.

The principal reforms under this constitution were four fold: First, presidential candidates must have at least one Ivorian-born parent and must never have used another nationality. Second, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 years old. Third, the presidential term was changed to five years rather than seven. Fourth, there was to be a single electoral ballot to be cast with a list of all of the candidates rather than a separate ballot paper for each candidate.

It is the first of these revisions that brought about the most controversy. Opposition to this measure led to the removal of several ministers belonging to the RDR in early May. Specifically, the RDR presidential candidate, Alassane Outtara, became ineligible under this revision due to doubts about the nationality of his parents and because he has worked for international organizations as a national of Burkina Faso.

The United Nations mandated that Cote d'Ivoire hold elections before October. Many people ques- tioned if constitutional reform was not more about marginalizing Outtara and thus whether elections would be of questionable character. If so, the argument followed that elections might do more harm than good to the quality of Ivorian governance. Following the referendum, Guei fought back against his critics, and defended his removal of RDR ministers, arguing, "A minister is not in the service of his party but in that of the entire nation even though he was chosen based on his affiliation to the party."

Of note, the constitutional provision to limit a person's candidacy for presidency based on his parentage was originally conceived by Bédié in October 1999 overtly as an attempt to subvert the possibly of Outtara winning the intended 2000 presidential elections. Thus, while Guei had received significant criticism from the RDR, he boasted the support of the Democratic Party for this measure.

In July, there were seven candidates for the presidential elections besides Guei. Mel Eg Theodore, a former leading member of Democratic Party, Alassane Ouattara of the Rally of Republicans, Henri Konan Bédié, the former president, Francis Vangah Wodie, minister of higher education under Bédié turned leader of the Ivorian Workers' Party, Robert Gbai Tagro of the Republican Party Pastor Faustin Leka of the Ivorian Party for Democracy, and Laurent Gbagbo of the Ivorian Popular Front were all running. By September there were 19 candidates registered for the elections. Guei banned 14 of the 19 candidates. The two most significant banned parties, the RDR and the PDCI, boycotted the elections in protest of their candidates being banned. The remaining candidates were Laurent Gbagbo (FPI), Rob- ert Guei, Francois Wockie (PIT), Théodore Mel (UDCI), and Nocolas Dioulou.

The elections were held on Oct. 22, 2000. The following day, Guei stopped the counting and declared himself winner with 52 percent of the vote. There was immediate outrage at home and abroad as opposition leaders warned there would be an uprising. They were right. In a remarkable popular uprising, tens of thousands of people took to the streets to oust Guei, an estimated 200 civilians lost their lives.

11 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

The top officers in the 10,000 strong military were divided over what to do. Ultimately, the army shifted allegiances and backed the actual winner of the elections, Laurent Gbagbo. Guei fled the country.

Most concerning in these battles was that as the streets of Abidjan became quiet, the fighting moved to suburbs. Churches and especially mosques were the target of Guei's paramilitary supporters. It is estimated that 155 of the 200 killed were Outtara sympathizers. The Panafrican News Agency called those who were killed "Martyrs of Democracy" for having foiled Guie's attempted constitutional coup. For their part, the European Union, the OAU, South Africa, Great Britain, the United Nations, and the United States joined Outtara in calling for new elections with looser eligibility requirements. France was the only major power to recognize the results of the election. French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin said France would "respect the results" and that it was up to the Ivorian people to decide the legitimacy of the elections.

As the country moved towards November parliamentary elections, the constitutional crisis and the associated north-south divide became a significant issue once again. The Supreme Court upheld the ruling that Outtara could not run for president under the new constitution. The National Electoral Com- mission authorized his candidacy in the parliamentary elections, but their decision was legally contested. The Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court overturned the NEC's decision and barred Outtara from running in the parliamentary elections. As a result of Outtara's ban, the new clashes erupted in the streets, this time between Ouattara supporters and Gbagbo supporters.

Parliamentary elections were held on Dec. 10, 2000. At least 16 people were killed as Muslims accused southerners of intimidation and harassment. Of the 175 seats, Gbagbo's FPI won a total of 91 seats. The PDCI-RDA won 70 seats, however, 29 of 32 northern districts boycotted the elections. This raised questions about the credibility of the elections. In the words of the editor of Cote d'Ivoire's "Le Jour," Diegou Bailly, "The recent legislative elections clearly revealed the regionalist nature of the vote in Cote d'Ivoire." Others argue that more than just regionalism has raised the specter of a crisis of nationalism in what was once one of sub-Saharan Africa's most stable country.

At the heart of Cote d'Ivoire's stability problem laid a leadership crisis. The late President Houphouët- Boigny was not a democrat. He did not promote the diversity of political parties and, consequently the Cote d'Ivoire he left behind lacked political cohesion and was replete with a bureaucracy that discour- ages foreign investment. Like the late President Tito of Yugoslavia, Houphouët-Boigny was an autocrat adept at using his oppressive power to bridge the country's ethnic, regional and economic cleavages. As a result, Cote d'Ivoire enjoyed nearly 30 years of stability under Houphouët-Boigny. Houphouët-Boigny confronted internal opponents with a carrot more often than a stick whenever possible. This process may have institutionalized the corruption Cote d'Ivoire suffers from today, but it did maintain his singular popularity with key opponents in politics and civil society.

By contrast, both Bédié and Guei have tried to rule by intimidating their opponents. This has bred more resentment than resolve. As argued by Robert Kaplan shortly after Houphouët-Boigny's death, a Cote d'Ivoire without a national centrality brought together by skilled leadership or effective force is at risk of seeing greater instability before stability. This might be an urbanized version of what has already happened in Somalia. The hope was that the elections would bring about national unity, however, the revision of the constitution and the subsequent barring of Ouattara exacerbated the crisis left in the wake of Houphouët-Boi- gny's death. Adding to this problem was a concomitant crisis of ideology. As a deputy managing director of the International Monetary Fund, Outtara enjoyed the broad support of an international

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 12 Political Conditions Political Overview community seeking to open trade one of sub-Saharan Africa's most industrialized countries. Outtara was also a prodigy of Houphouët-Boigny who, though an autocrat, enjoyed international support.

President Gbagbo was a socialist. As such, he looked to marginalize the country from a global economy that he saw as exploitative. In December 2000, Gbagbo sent an envoy to Tripoli to meet with Lib- yan President Quadafi. In addition to supporting Quadafi's Africa Union Bill in the OAU, Gbagbo announced that Cote d'Ivoire would open an embassy in Tripoli.

Another coup d'etat was staged in Abidjan in January 2001. On January 7, a band of mutinous soldiers briefly took over both a state radio and television station and called the nation to arms against the government. The coup d'etat was a failure. The government gave no specifics on the perpetrators of the coup but announced they suspected foreign involvement. Later President Gbagbo pointed a finger at Ouattara, who denied any involvement.

The government's accusation of foreign involvement in the coup prompted a renewed wave of violent anti-foreign sentiment. Gangs of youth took to the streets, harassing or beating foreigners and destroying their property. Anti-foreign sentiment was further compounded by a remark made later that month by Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade regarding the discrimination against Burkinabes in Cote d'Ivoire. Wade declared that a Burkinabe could face more discrimination in Cote D'Ivoire than in Europe. This prompted Ivorians to protest outside the Senegalese Embassy and called for Senegalese nationals to leave the country. By February 1, the BBC reported that thousands of West African immigrants living in Cote d'Ivoire had fled across the border to escape harassment. Public reaction to such incidents brought attention to the very serious problem of xenophobia in a country where up to 40 percent of the population are non-nationals.

It should be mentioned that xenophobia is a relatively new aspect of the Ivorian political and social landscape. President Houphouet-Boigny welcomed immigrants from neighboring countries to work in Cote d'Ivoire from which the economy drew much of its strength. It was former president Bédié's political rhetoric, distinguishing naturalized Ivorians or " ivoirite" as the true inheritors of political power, that brought ethnic tensions to the surface and led to such deadly clashes within the past few years.

The parliamentary election went ahead in all but twelve northern districts where polls for twenty-seven seats were disrupted by RDR supporters protesting the Supreme Court's ruling. There were several reports of destruction of ballot boxes and attacks upon election officials. Elections in these districts were later held without incident on Jan. 14, 2001. The ruling FPI party won a slight majority, with ninety-six seats, followed by the former ruling party, the PDCI, which won ninety-four seats. After boycotting the parliamentary contest, the RDR did participate in Feb. 25, 2001 national municipal elections where they won the majority of council seats, sixty-three, followed by the PDCI, which won sixty, and the FPI, who with thirty-three.

Until the municipal election, Western donors had refused to recommence international aid. Given that political parties were allowed to participate in a relatively peacefully maintained municipal election and the country saw political stabilization as well as economic reforms in 2001, many donors began to reconsider their positions over the past few years regarding financial assistance to Cote d'Ivoire. France resumed aid in February 2001. In June 2001, the European Union also resumed its aid to Cote d'Ivoire after a three-year hiatus. By February 2002, Cote d'Ivoire also paid off a US$44.5 million debt to the World Bank and economic relations between the World Bank and Cote d'Ivoire have resumed as well.

13 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

Meanwhile, in late December 2000, Human Rights Watch published a formal reprimand of the government for abuses following the presidential elections. Specifically, it argued that while all sides of the conflict perpetrated crimes against civilians, the government targeted specific ethnic, regional and religious groups.

The Presidential Guard fired on unarmed protestors. People were detained, tortured and murdered. Police and gendarmes beat the detainees at the academy with ropes, belts, iron bars, sticks and branches; burned them with cigarettes or pieces of burning plastic or clothing; doused them with cold water and forced to swim in dirty open sewers; forced them to walk back and forth on their knees; made them lie down and look into the sun; tear-gassed them in close quarters and sprayed their eyes, mouth and genitals with mace; and forced them to fight with each other. Human Rights Watch backed Ouattara's call for a formal investigation.

In February 2001, United States Ambassador to Cote d'Ivoire, George Mu, denounced Cote d'Ivoire's poor human rights record, which includes torture, arbitrary arrests and acting with impunity. Later in the year, a Belgian NGO called Genocide Prevention, and 150 Cote d'Ivoirians filed a suit against Gen- eral Guei and President Gbagbo as well as two other government ministers for human rights abuses including rape and torture.

Cote d'Ivoire came under renewed fire from the international community when the BBC released a report on child slavery on cocoa farms in Cote d'Ivoire. The government denied knowledge of any human trafficking although the BBC report claimed that 90 percent of the cocoa farms in Cote d'Ivoire use child slavery. The government rejected that number and even went so far as to assert that the farmers who exploit children were themselves victims of the multinational chocolate companies who demand very low prices of these beans. Farmers, the government argued, were forced to resort to use slave labor in order to make any sort of profit.

Still, the government initiated steps to stop child slavery in Cote d'Ivoire and has been training police, military and other officials to identify, intercept and stop child trafficking. The government also proposed a program in 2002 to train armed forces on democracy and human rights so that the public can once again trust the government and military. In December 2001 and again in January 2002, Gbagbo's campaign promises of reconciliation for the country were realized when President Gbagbo, the exiled former president Bédié', General Guei and exiled opposition leader Ouattara, all met under politically peaceful conditions to conduct a dialogue concerning a return to stability for the once prosperous and exemplarity west African country. Presi- dent Gbagbo even opened consideration as to the state of Ouattara's nationality, with the possibility of granting him Cote d'Ivoian status. Such a move would indeed solidify the effectiveness of the talks and re-establish political respect from the greater international community.

Though Cote d'Ivoire became rather politically stable and peaceful since mid-2001, it remained to be seen if the feeling of reconciliation would last -- especially if Ouattara was again denied participation in the next presidential election and the current government continued with the political marginaliza- tion of northern Cote d'Ivoirians. Complicating matters was the need for international aid to stimulate a deteriorating economy, and a hopeful outlook for national unification.

Cote d'Ivoire from 2002-2004

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 14 Political Conditions Political Overview

The time for stability was short-lived. In September 2002, there was an attempted coup d'etat orches- trated by disgruntled military officers. The situation grew into a larger regional conflict between the sitting government and rebel forces. The rebels' motivation for their activities lies in their desire to remove President Gbagbo from office, and also to avenge the killing of the country's former military ruler, Robert Guei, who died on the first day of fighting in September 2002.

Following the attempted coup d'etat, French troops arrived in Cote d'Ivoire's capital city of Yamous- soukro for the purpose of launching emergency evacuations of French citizens and other foreign nationals trapped in the West African country. United States troops arrived in Cote d'Ivoire as well. Many of the foreign nationals, including 100 American students, were successfully evacuated to neighboring Ghana. Other foreign nationals caught in the political crossfire included the national foot- ball teams from Senegal, Sierra Leone and the Gambia.

Most of the action was centered in Bouake, Cote d'Ivoire's second largest city. Bouake, as well as various central and northern parts of the country have been controlled by the military ranks who engi- neered the attempted coup d'etat. About several hundred people were killed and even more have been injured. The conflict also stirred tensions between the Christians in the south and Muslims in the north, especially when some rebels observed that the government discriminated against Muslims. Mean- while, Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire's largest city, appeared to be free of chaos or violence.

By the first week of October, officials from Togo, Nigeria and Ghana were expected to help mediate talks between the government of Cote d'Ivoire and the rebel military forces, in an attempt to to quell any further violence. These West Africa leaders' efforts were to no avail since the country's leader, Laurent Gbagbo, refused to sign a ceasefire accord with the rebel forces. Instead, the government forces launched an offensive against the rebels.

In the event that discussions failed, regional governmental officials had previously agreed to formulate a "buffer force" until a more permanent regional force could be established. It was generally feared that if the situation was left unchecked, the country could end up in a similar vacuum of violence and unrest that had befallen many other West African countries. By mid-October, however, a cease-fire accord was finally signed and French troop took up positions along front lines to monitor the cease- fire.

The tentative peace collapsed, however, in December 2002 and fighting resumed between a growing cadre of rebels and government forces. Another round of peace talks were scheduled for mid-Decem- ber. By this time, the government appeared to have consolidated control of the Christian south of the country loyal to Gbagbo, while rebels held the Muslim north.

By late 2002, it was estimated that half the country was controlled by the government while the other half was held by rebels. Still, reports also suggested that government troops, supported by various mer- cenary cadres, re-established control of the western towns of Man and Danane. As fighting intensified, French troops became increasingly drawn into the conflict.

As the conflict between government forces and rebel forces increased in Cote d'Ivoire, French authori- ties put together a cease-fire agreement aimed at ending the three-month civil war. The cease-fire was the fulcrum for a longer-term peace deal in which a power-sharing government would be installed in exchange for the relinquishment of arms by rebels. In this way, President Gbagbo's powers would be limited by the role of a new Prime Minister. As well, rebel groups would be represented in certain cabinet posts.

15 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

The rebels, who controlled about half the country, wanted Gbagbo to step down from office. Mean- while, Gbagbo's supporters did not want him to compromise with either the rebels or the foreign diplo- mats. Indeed, many Gbagbo supporters demonstrated for three days in opposition of the French- brokered peace deal, even attacking various French targets in the main Ivoirian city of Abidijan. In response, the president asked his supporters to stop their protest activities.

In late January 2003, despite efforts to stabilize the country, the government and the main rebels in Cote d'Ivoire said they did not trust the other side to honor their respective commitment to the French deal.

Meanwhile, thousands of civilians escaped the fighting and violence by heading to the neighboring country of Liberia. Ironically, Liberia is itself a war-ravaged country with rebels battling the government. By mid-January 2003, however, Liberia had become increasingly involved in the insurgency across the Ivoirian border, especially as Liberian rebels operated with more frequency from bases in the western part of Cote d'Ivoire. Caught in the cross-fire were many Liberian refugees who initially fled to Cote d'Ivoire to escape the violence and fighting at home in Liberia. As such, the number of displaced persons and refugees increased in the trans-border region.

Both Liberia, as well as the other neighboring country of Burkina Faso, were implicated in supporting the rebels. The alleged complicity of Liberia and Burkina Faso led to attacks against the people from these neighboring countries within Cote d'Ivoire. In this regard, French troops discovered mass graves in a rebel-held area leading observers to blame government troops for the apparent massacre.

A new power-sharing deal and peace agreement was put forth in late February 2003. It was hoped that the new peace deal would help stave off the chaos that plagued Cote d'Ivoire. Nevertheless, fighting continued. In March 2003, an entire neighborhood in rebel-held territory was destroyed. Reports suggested that all the houses in the Bangolo neighborhood were filled with corpses numbering several hundred. A rebel commander stated that 200 to 300 civilians had been butchered. Senior officials in the French army confirmed both the massacre as well as the body count.

In the spring of 2003, political parties and rebels finally agreed to the terms of the power-sharing agreement that included nine rebels. A new "consensus" prime minister was also agreed upon. Seydou Diarra would, thus, be faced with the difficult task of forming a representative cabinet.

A full cease-fire agreement was signed in May 2003 and the war was declared to be over in July 2003. Peace and stability, however, would proove to be shortlived.

In late 2003, after forcing themselves into a television station in the city of Abidjan, soldiers were tele- vised urging Cote d'Ivoire's President Laurent Gbagbo to resume war with the rebel group, New Forces. The soldiers called on peacekeepers to allow them to go to rebel-held areas to "liberate" the country. They also demanded the resignation of the army chief. Notably, they said they were not launching a coup d'etat, but rather wanted to rid the country of rebel forces, which still held up to half of Cote d'Ivoire, mostly in the north. Foreign peacekeepers had to restrain supporters of the president from marching to a rebel-held area.

In August 2004, President Laurent Gbagbo said he would reinstate three ministers who had been sacked a few months earlier two and a half months ago after they failed to show up to meetings. The decision came around the same time that several Ivorian opposition ministers and rebels returned to

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 16 Political Conditions Political Overview participate in the power-sharing government after a four month boycott. The boycott had occurred in protest of the death of 120 people during an illegal opposition rally in March, 2004.

This development presented some hope for the peace process and reflected the realization that the resumption of cabinet meetings was essential to the country's progress. At issue was the need to maintain the prescribed timetable of the Accra peace accords. Rebel disarmament was scheduled to take place on Oct. 15, 2004. The continuing challenges, however, would be the question of how to deal with certain controversial laws on nationality as well the eligibility requirements for presidential candidates. An election was expected to take place the following year.

Throughout 2004, about 10,000 French troops as well as United Nations troops continued to participate in the peacekeeping efforts. But continued conflict between competing groups presented ongoing challenges to peacekeepers and the larger international community in Cote d'Ivoire.

In the fall of 2004, the antipathy between the government-controlled south and the rebel-held north intensified when government forces conducted raids against insurgents in the south.

In fact, when Ivorian air forces bombed the rebels in Bouake, the action spurred intervention by French forces. Indeed, French forces destroyed a government airbase. It was believed that this move caused a number of brutal attacks against French citizens. In the first weeks of November 2004, foreign nationals from Western nation states, as well as neighboring West African countries, expressed fears about being targets of increasing xenophobic attacks. Meanwhile, members of the Africa Union were meeting to discuss the crisis.

Cote d'Ivoire from 2005-2007

In May 2005, representatives of both the rebels and the army in Cote d'Ivoire failed to reach an agreement on a possible disarmament timetable after several days of talks. Still, they did manage to agree to meet again.

The disarmament talks came on the heels of clashes between two ethnic groups in that country, which left several people dead and scores injured by late April 2005. The clashes, which included attacks and looting of homes, as well as violence between individuals brandishing clubs and machetes, occurred when workers belonging to the Guere ethnic group failed to adhere to a strike called by the Dioula ethnic group. The strike had apparently been launched to protest growing security problems in the town of Duekoue, which is 250 miles (400 kilometers) west of Abidjan.

In June 2005, a massacre in a village in the western part of the country left scores of people dead and homes burned to the ground, while the surviving 3,000 inhabitants fled the bloody scene. Reports detailed horrific attacks using machetes and guns carried out against adults and children alike. The main site of the massacre was Guitrozon, on the outskirts of the aforementioned town of Duekoue.

17 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

According to reports on the ground, the attackers were identified as "hunters" due to their brown hunting clothes. Indeed, "hunters" is a euphemism for the Dozos of Cote d'Ivoire. They are generally believed to be aligned with the rebels who control the northern part of the country. Perhaps not sur- prisingly, those killed in the attacks were apparently from the local Guere tribe. The Guere tribe is aligned with the government of President Gbagbo, which controls the south. This bloody situation suggests that peace in Cote d'Ivoire is not immediately at hand. Instead, ethnic and tribal conflicts have been on the rise. Ethnic tensions were already boiling despite efforts over the course of the last few years to bring an end to the bloody civil war.

In late August 2005, rebels who have held control over the northern part of Cote d'Ivoire, said they refused to accept the upcoming elections. Scheduled for Oct. 30, 2005, the elections were intended to continue the peace process, and bring stability to the West African country, which has been in a state of conflict for the past few years.

For their part, however, the rebels from the group, New Forces, said that free and fair elections in October would be impossible. They also called for the resignation of President Laurent Gbagbo, even warning of dire consequences if he remained in power after the elections. Moreover, they refused to disarm unless pro-Gbagbo militias went through an equivalent disarmament process. Overall, they claimed that peace negotiations have not sufficiently addressed the discrimination against northerners - - the very issue which sparked the regional conflict in 2002.

By October 2005, the country's opposition had rejected a proposal by the African Union (AU) to allow President Laurent Gbagbo to remain in office for another year. The AU said the move was intended to prepare the country for elections, but opposition parties rejected the proposal, saying that a neutral leader was needed. They also blamed President Gbagbo for the political turmoil that has been plaguing the country for the last few years. As well, they said that the matter should be presented before the United Nations Security Council.

The country was thusly bracing for an outbreak of conflict as it headed into the election cycle. Indeed, that period of 2005 saw the United Nations threaten to impose sanctions on those intent upon impeding the peace process.

By December 2005, the deadlocked peace process in Cote d'Ivoire garnered a small reprieve when the Chairman of the African Union, Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo, announced that Charles Konan Banny would become the country's transitional prime minister. Banny had worked as the Gov- ernor of the Central Bank of West African States and as such, held strong executive experience. His announcement came after meetings with political parties and President Laurent Gbagbo of Cote d'Ivo- ire, and it followed a previous failed attempt to name an acceptable prime minister weeks prior. As noted just above, relations between the ruling factions and opposition forces deteriorated after the decision by the United Nations to extend Gbagbo's tenure in power after its scheduled end on Oct. 30, 2005, in anticipation of new elections in 2006.

Several days of protests in January 2006 suggested an escalating state of unrest in the country. Clashes between supporters of President Gbagbo and United Nations peacekeepers took place in the western

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 18 Political Conditions Political Overview part of Cote d'Ivoire, soon leading to the decision by the United Nations to withdraw its Bangladeshi troops from the area. Meanwhile, protests in the main city of Abidjan centered around United Nations buildings and French interests. Demonstrators were reacting to the recommendation made by international mediators that the parliament be dissolved in accordance with its mandated expiration date. The parliament had essentially functioned as the last bastion of President Gbagbo's power and as such, the president's supporters were enraged to find his hold on power receeding. After the recommendation by the mediators to dissolve parliament was publicized, the ruling party responded by withdrawing from the transitional government, ending participation in United Nations-backed peace negotiations, and demanding that French and United Nations peacekeepers leave the country.

A month later in February 2006, representatives of the two sides of the ongoing conflict met for talks for the first time since the attempted coup in 2002. With the situation taking a negative turn the month before, the rival factions agreed to meet again to try to find a solution to the power struggle, and to move the country toward stability.

These efforts saw little immediate success. By mid-2006, the militias still loyal the President Gbagbo let the deadline for disarmanent pass without making progress on the matter. Then, by September 2006, governmental leaders and rebel leaders both said that they had not managed to forge a break- through in the reconciliation process. Instead, they still remained at odds with one another over key concerns, such as the path toward elections and disarment.

September 2006 also saw something of a political crisis for the government when a scandal erupted over the dumping of toxic waste in Abidjan. Fumes from the toxic waste were so noxious that they killed several people and caused illness among several more.

In November 2006, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution extending the mandate of the transitional government for another year. The decision paved the way for renewed talks on reconciliation.

Then, after months of negotiations, the government of Cote d'Ivoire and the rebel movement in that country finally forged a peace agreement in the spring of 2007. In March 2007, a peace deal was signed in Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso, between President Gbagbo and the rebel leader, Guillaume Soro. The agreement was reached following an effort to revive the peace process, which had been stalled for some time, as a result of the rebels' opposition to the government of President Lau- rent Gbagbo.

Under the accord, the two sides agreed to form a power-sharing government within a five week period, institute a timetable for disarmament, establish a joint military command, remove the existing buffer zone that has divided the country for the past several years, and set the groundwork for future elections. The power-sharing government included former rebel leader, Guillaume Soro, as prime minister.

19 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions

Previous peace agreements have failed because the parties have not respected the terms. However, Mohamed Ibn Chambas, the executive secretary of the regional body, Economic Community of West African States, said this accord had a strong chance of success because of the direct involvement of Gbagbo and Soro. Meanwhile, France said that the agreement would pave the way for the withdrawal of peacekeepers.

Five years after Cote d'Ivoire devolved into chaos and the country was effectively split into the government-controlled south and the rebel-held north, President Laurent Gbagbo was headed to the Bouake - - the stronghold of the New Forces rebels - for a visit. His trip to Bouake was intended to mark the "flame of peace" ceremony in which weapons stockpiled throughout the conflict were set to be burned. The ceremony in mid-2007 was intended to symbolize the disarmament of the rebels in the north, which was set forth in the peace agreement signed earlier in the year, and also to move the country further along the path toward peace.

Gervais Coulibaly, a spokesperson for Gbagbo said of the president's involvement in the occasion, "It is a powerful symbol of reunification. Loyalist soldiers will be side-by-side with rebel soldiers. The war is truly over." In addition, a public holiday was declared and leaders of neighboring countries were invited to come to Cote d'Ivoire to share in the celebration.

Recent Developments

The spring of 2008 saw former rebels of Cote d'Ivoire commence the process of disarmament despite their ongoing control over the northern portion of the country. The process began when 1,000 of the New Forces rebels put down their weapons, and others promised to follow suit in the forthcoming months. The rebels were expected to then integrate into the national military or assimilate into civilian life. The rebels said they were taking this action six years after the conflict began because the war was finally over. Also anticipated were elections scheduled to take place in November.

In July 2008, President Laurent Gbagbo of Cote asserted that the war that had gripped the country since 2002 was over; he also affirmed that the presidential election would take place on Nov. 30, 2008, as scheduled. Speaking at a public rally in Seguela in the central region of the country, the president said, "I am here to bring you the good news that the war is over, it is definitely behind us."

His statements came just weeks after a violent mutiny took hold in Seguela among demobilized fight- ers. The location of the incident was noteworthy since Seguela had been under the control of the former New Forces (FN) rebels for years.

Editor's Note:

Cote d'Ivoire, also known as Ivory Coast, was conflict-ridden terrain since rebels from the mainly northern part of the country seized control of that region in an attempted coup d'etat in 2002. At that

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 20 Political Conditions Political Overview time, the country devolved into a crisis in 2002 when the New Forces rebels took control of the northern part of the country. Since then, the country has been divided between supporters of the president in the south and rebels in the north. The plan to disarm the rebels in the north and the pro-Gbagbo militias in the south was largely unsuccessful. Meanwhile, French and United Nations troops tasked with keeping the peace between the two sides complained they were not properly provided with resources to do their job effectively. Meanwhile, a transitional government was established to govern affairs; however, rebels eschewed Gbagbo's extended rule, while pro-Gbagbo supporters railed against its imminent end. That said, there were high hopes for a shift in the political landscape following the signing of the 2007 peace accord, which put into place a power-sharing government, as well as plans for disarmament and future elections. This accord was viewed as having a strong chance of success because of the direct involvement of President Gbagbo and former rebel leader, Guillaume Soro, who was now serving as prime minister.

Special Report: Elections of 2008 (delayed until 2009 and again until 2010)

Backgrounder on Parliamentary Elections

Cote d'Ivoire was set to hold a parliamentary election in October 2008. The candidates in contention were: Ivorian Popular Front, Democratic Party of Cote d'Ivoire, Rally of the Republicans, Ivorian Workers' Party, Union of Democrats of Cote d'Ivoire, Movement of Future Forces, and others. The Democratic Party of Cote d'Ivoire was the sole party from 1960 until 1990. The Ivorian Popular Front has been based on democratic socialism and the current President Laurent Gbagbo was the founder of the party in 1982. Pascal Affi N'Guessan is the party's leader. Francis Wodie is the leader of the Ivorian Workers' Party that was founded in 1990, soon after Cote d'Ivoire became a multi-party system. Issues: Since 2002, Cote d'Ivoire has endured a civil war between rebels and the government. Though there have been a series of peace treaties, the most recent, in 2007, has seemed to be the most effective. The rebels, also known as the New Forces, were able to have their leader Guillaume Soro appointed to the position of Prime Minister due to the second one-year extension of President Ggabo's term. The New Forces may become a factor in elections.

Backgrounder on Presidential Election:

Cote D'Ivoire was set to hold a presidential election on Nov. 30, 2008. The political parties that were expected to present candidates were: Ivorian Popular Front (FPI), Movement of Forces of the Future (MFA), Democratic Party of Cote d'Ivoire-African Democratic Rally (PDCI-RDA), Ivorian Worker's Party (PIT), Rally of the Republicans (RDR), Union of Democrats of Cote d'Ivoire (UDCI). The incumbent president, Laurent Gbagbo, has held the office since October of 2000. He was originally elected to serve a standard five-year term; however, his term was extended to eight years due to the civil war that had been plaguing the country since 2002. The election has been set to take place now that a peace deal has been signed between rebel forces and the government. Gbagbo ran in 2000 as a member of the Ivorian Popular Front and won 59.4 percent of the vote. Robert Guei, an indepen-

21 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Political Conditions dent, was second with 32.7 percent of the vote, followed by Francis Wodie of the Ivorian Workers' party with 5.7 percent.

Update: The presidential election in Cote d''Ivoire, which was scheduled for November 30, 2008, was delayed. Leading politicians issued a joint statement saying the presidential race could not be held as scheduled, since preparations for the elections were lagging As such, they called on electoral officials to a new date for the election by year's end. Such a date never materialized in 2008 with attention shifting to 2009 for the possible new timeline for much-anticipated elections.

Electoral Commission reaffirms November 2009 date for presidential election -- In May 2009, Prime Minister Guillaume Soro had announced that Cote d'Ivoire would finally hold its long-awaited presidential election on Nov. 29, 2009. The presidential election was expected to have been held a year earlier in November 2008, but was delayed. At the time, leading politicians issued a joint statement saying the presidential race could not be held as scheduled, since preparations for the elections were lagging. As such, they called on electoral officials to a new date for the election by year's end. Such a date never materialized in 2008 with attention shifting to 2009 for the possible new timeline for much-anticipated elections. Now, that new date had been advanced an attention was focused on the Nov. 29, 2009, election date. Prime Minister Soro, the leader of the former rebel movement known as New Forces, made the announcement after a meeting of the Council of Ministers at the Presidential Palace in Abidjan. In addition to setting the election date, he also said the government had made all the necessary preparations to ensure that the poll went off in "serenity and calm." In late August 2009, the Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) of Cote d'Ivoire reaffirmed the Nov. 29, 2009, date for the much-anticipated presidential election. A statement released by the CEI read, "The slight technical readjustment on the publication date of provisional election lists will not have any repercussion on the Nov. 29 date." At issue was the publication date of the provisional election list, which was originally set for Aug. 24, 2009, but which was delayed for a due to questions about the capacity to handle data on identification and election census. But the CEI statement addressed this issue noting, "All the coordination centers are open today and the analysis has been achieved in more than half of the centers." Note that the Nov. 29, 2009 presidential election date in Cote d'Ivoire was subsequently reported to have been postponed yet again until later in the year.

On February 12, 2010, the president of Cote d'Ivoire, Laurent Gbagbo, dissolved both the government and the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC), in a bid to resolve the political crisis emerging from a voter registration controversy, which stalled the pre-election planning process and fueled instability in cities in the interior of the country. Of particular concern was a ruling by a court in the capital of Abidjan in which the IEC chairman, Robert Mamba, was found guilty of including about 430,000 unqualified persons on the voters' roll. Mamba, backed by opposition groups, rejected this ruling but the situation gave rise to a climate of unrest. President Gbagbo quickly re-appointed Prime Minister Guillaume Soro as the head of government and tasked him with forming a new government. Soro was also asked to name a new IEC to oversee the conduct the elections, which have been postponed several times over the years. Indeed, the electoral calendar adopted in December 2009 called for the presidential election to be held in the period of late February to early March 2010. However, these latest developments have rendered this timeline unfeasible.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 22 Freedom Rankings Political Overview

Editor's Note: Cote d'Ivoire, also known as Ivory Coast, was conflict-ridden terrain after rebels from the mainly northern part of the country seized control of that region in an attempted coup d'etat in 2002. At that time, the country devolved into a crisis in 2002 when the New Forces rebels took control of the northern part of the country. Since then, the country has been divided between supporters of the president in the south and rebels in the north. The plan to disarm the rebels in the north and the pro-Gbagbo militias in the south was largely unsuccessful. Meanwhile, French and United Nations troops tasked with keeping the peace between the two sides complained they were not properly provided with resources to do their job effectively. Meanwhile, a transitional government was established to govern affairs; however, rebels eschewed Gbagbo's extended rule, while pro-Gbagbo supporters railed against its imminent end. That said, there were high hopes for a shift in the political landscape following the signing of the 2007 peace accord, which put into place a power-sharing government, as well as plans for disarmament and future elections. This accord was viewed as having a strong chance of success because of the direct involvement of President Gbagbo and former rebel leader, Guillaume Soro, who was now serving as prime minister. The repeatedly delayed elections would be a test of Cote d'Ivoire's emerging political stability.

-- February, 2010

Written by:

Dr. Denise Youngblood Coleman, Editor in Chief, CountryWatch Inc.

Supplementary sources:

BBC, Africa Confidential, Human Rights Watch, Bond Week, European Report, Erik Gartzke, AllAf- rica, New York Times, Lexis-Nexis, Amnesty International, and FIRST.

Freedom Rankings

23 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Freedom Rankings

Freedom in the World

Editor's Note: This ranking by Freedom House quantifies political freedom and civil liberties into a single combined index on each sovereign country's level of freedom and liberty. The initials "PR" and "CL" stand for Political Rights and Civil Liberties, respectively. The number 1 represents the most free countries and the number 7 represents the least free. Several countries fall in the continuum in between. The freedom ratings reflect an overall judgment based on survey results.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 24 Freedom Rankings Political Overview

Country PR CL Freedom Rating

Afghanistan 5 5 Partly Free

Albania 3 3 Partly Free

Algeria 6 5 Not Free

Andorra 1 1 Free

Angola 6 5 Not Free

Antigua and Barbuda 2 2 Free

Argentina 2 2 Free

Armenia 5 4 Partly Free

Australia 1 1 Free

Austria 1 1 Free

Azerbaijan 6 5 Not Free

Bahamas 1 1 Free

Bahrain 5 5 Partly Free

Bangladesh 5 4 Partly Free

Barbados 1 1 Free

Belarus 7 6 Not Free

Belgium 1 1 Free

Belize 1 2 Free

Benin 2 2 Free

Bhutan 6 5 Not Free

Bolivia 3 3 Partly Free

Bosnia-Herzegovina 4 3 Partly Free

Botswana 2 2 Free

Brazil 2 2 Free

Brunei 6 5 Not Free

Bulgaria 1 2 Free

Burkina Faso 5 3 Partly Free

Burma 7 7 Not Free

Burundi 4 5 Partly Free

Cambodia 6 5 Not Free

25 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Freedom Rankings

Cameroon 6 6 Not Free

Canada 1 1 Free

Cape Verde 1 1 Free

Central African Republic 5 5 Partly Free

Chad 7 6 Not Free

Chile 1 1 Free

China 7 6 Not Free

Colombia 3 3 Partly Free

Comoros 4 4 Partly Free

Congo (Brazzaville) 6 5 Partly Free

Congo (Kinshasa) 5 6 Not Free

Costa Rica 1 1 Free

Cote d’Ivoire 7 5 Not Free

Croatia 2 2 Free

Cuba 7 7 Not Free

Cyprus (G) 1 1 Free

Czech Republic 1 1 Free

Denmark 1 1 Free

Djibouti 5 5 Partly Free

Dominica 1 1 Free

Dominican Republic 2 2 Free

East Timor 3 4 Partly Free

Ecuador 3 3 Partly Free

Egypt 6 5 Not Free

El Salvador 2 3 Free

Equatorial Guinea 7 6 Not Free

Eritrea 7 6 Not Free

Estonia 1 1 Free

Ethiopia 5 5 Partly Free

Fiji 6 4 Partly Free

Finland 1 1 Free

France 1 1 Free

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 26 Freedom Rankings Political Overview

Gabon 6 4 Partly Free

The Gambia 5 4 Partly Free

Georgia 4 4 Partly Free

Germany 1 1 Free

Ghana 1 2 Free

Greece 1 2 Free

Grenada 1 2 Free

Guatemala 3 4 Partly Free

Guinea 6 5 Not Free

Guinea-Bissau 4 4 Partly Free

Guyana 2 3 Free

Haiti 4 5 Partly Free

Honduras 3 3 Partly Free

Hungary 1 1 Free

Iceland 1 1 Free

India 2 3 Free

Indonesia 2 3 Free

Iran 6 6 Not Free

Iraq 6 6 Not Free

Ireland 1 1 Free

Israel 1 2 Free

Italy 1 1 Free

Jamaica 2 3 Free

Japan 1 2 Free

Jordan 5 4 Partly Free

Kazakhstan 6 5 Not Free

Kenya 4 3 Partly Free

Kiribati 1 1 Free

Kuwait 4 4 Partly Free

Kyrgyzstan 5 4 Partly Free

Laos 7 6 Not Free

Latvia 2 1 Free

27 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Freedom Rankings

Lebanon 5 4 Partly Free

Lesotho 2 3 Free

Liberia 3 4 Partly Free

Libya 7 7 Not Free

Liechtenstein 1 1 Free

Lithuania 1 1 Free

Luxembourg 1 1 Free

(FYR of) Macedonia 3 3 Partly Free

Madagascar 4 3 Partly Free

Malawi 4 4 Partly Free

Malaysia 4 4 Partly Free

Maldives 6 5 Not Free

Mali 2 3 Free

Malta 1 1 Free

Marshall Islands 1 1 Free

Mauritania 4 4 Partly Free

Mauritius 1 2 Free

Mexico 2 3 Free

Micronesia 1 1 Free

Moldova 3 4 Partly Free

Monaco 2 1 Free

Mongolia 2 2 Free

Morocco 5 4 Partly Free

Mozambique 3 3 Partly Free

Namibia 2 2 Free

Nauru 1 1 Free

Nepal 5 4 Not Free

Netherlands 1 1 Free

New Zealand 1 1 Free

Nicaragua 3 3 Partly Free

Niger 3 4 Partly Free

Nigeria 4 4 Partly Free

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 28 Freedom Rankings Political Overview

North Korea 7 7 Not Free

Norway 1 1 Free

Oman 6 5 Not Free

Pakistan 6 5 Not Free

Palau 1 1 Free

Panama 1 2 Free

Papua New Guinea 3 3 Partly Free

Paraguay 3 3 Partly Free

Peru 2 3 Free

Philippines 4 3 Partly Free

Poland 1 1 Free

Portugal 1 1 Free

Qatar 6 5 Not Free

Romania 2 2 Free

Russia 6 5 Not Free

Rwanda 6 5 Not Free

Saint Kitts and Nevis 1 1 Free

Saint Lucia 1 1 Free

Saint Vincent and Grenadines 2 1 Free

Samoa 2 2 Free

San Marino 1 1 Free

Sao Tome and Principe 2 2 Free

Saudi Arabia 7 6 Not Free

Senegal 2 3 Free

Serbia* 3 2 Free

Seychelles 3 3 Partly Free

Sierra Leone 3 3 Partly Free

Singapore 5 4 Partly Free

Slovakia 1 1 Free

Slovenia 1 1 Free

Solomon Islands 4 3 Partly Free

Somalia 7 7 Not Free

29 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Freedom Rankings

South Africa 2 2 Free

South Korea 1 2 Free

Spain 1 1 Free

Sri Lanka 4 4 Partly Free

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 30 Freedom Rankings Political Overview

Sudan 7 7 Not Free

Suriname 2 2 Free

Swaziland 7 5 Not Free

Sweden 1 1 Free

Switzerland 1 1 Free

Syria 7 6 Not Free

Taiwan* 1 1 Free

Tajikistan 6 5 Not Free

Tanzania 4 3 Partly Free

Thailand 6 4 Partly Free

Togo 5 5 Not Free

Tonga 5 3 Partly Free

Trinidad and Tobago 2 2 Free

Tunisia 7 5 Not Free

Turkey 3 3 Partly Free

Turkmenistan 7 7 Not Free

Tuvalu 1 1 Free

Uganda 5 4 Partly Free

Ukraine 3 2 Free

United Arab Emirates 6 6 Not Free

United Kingdom 1 1 Free

United States 1 1 Free

Uruguay 1 1 Free

Uzbekistan 7 7 Not Free

Vanuatu 2 2 Free

Venezuela 4 4 Partly Free

Vietnam 7 5 Not Free

Yemen 5 5 Partly Free

Zambia 3 4 Partly Free

Zimbabwe 7 6 Not Free

31 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Human Rights

* Due to the separation of Montenegro from Serbia, Montenegro is now treated as a sovereign country. Although it is not listed above, according to Freedom House, Montenegro has a PL rating of 3 and a CL rating of, 3, thusly classifying one of the world's newest countries as "partly free." Along a similar vein, Kosovo, which also separated from the Yugoslav successor state of Serbia, is not listed above. No calculation is available for Kosovo at this time, however, a future Freedom House ranking may include the world's newest country in its tally. Taiwan has been listed above despite its contested status; while Taiwan claims sovereign status, China claims ultimate jurisdiction over Taiwan.

Source: This data is derived from the latest edition of Freedom House’s Freedom in the World 2008 edition.

-- as of 2009

Human Rights

Overview of Human Rights in Cote d'Ivoire

Cote D'Ivoire is a democratic republic. In September 2002, a failed coup against the Gbagbo government caused a split in the country with the northern 60 percent of the nation in the hands of the rebel New Forces (NF), and the legitimate government retaining control of the rest. In 2003, both sides signed the Marcoussis Accord, which would have allowed for power sharing between them, however, limited progress has been made towards its implementation.

In 2004, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1528, which launched Operation Cote D'Ivoire in which some 6,000 peacekeeping troops were deployed to the more troubled areas of the region. They joined the 4,000 French peacekeeping troops already in the region. While subsequent peace accords were signed, the political processes still remained stalled. The lack of political stability has not allowed Cote D'Ivoire's human rights record to improve. There are numerous abuses committed daily by both the rebels and the government. Throughout recent years, there were persistent reports of rapes, torture, extrajudicial killings, extortion and looting by all sides. Disappearances, arbitrary arrest and indefinite length detention were terror tactics used to suppress those who sought to speak out against the atrocities being committed. Citizen's freedoms of speech, press, assembly, association, and movement are restricted by the government.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 32 Human Rights Political Overview

The police are also known to harass and extort non-citizens, especially non-natives in a country where xenophobia is on the rise. Corruption is widespread from the executive level on down to the town levels. Child abuse, child labor and trafficking in persons are also issues that are on the rise.

Human Development Index (HDI) Rank:

164th out of 177 Human Poverty Index Rank:

84th out of 103 Gini Index:

36.7% Life Expectancy at Birth (years):

45.9 years Unemployment Rate:

13%

Note-This is the urban unemployment rate. The rural rate is estimated to be much higher. Population living on $1 a day (%):

10.8% Population living on $2 a day (%):

38.4% Population living beneath the Poverty Line (%):

37% Internally Displaced People:

500,000

Note-76,000 refugees Total Crime Rate (%):

N/A

33 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Human Rights

Health Expenditure (% of GDP):

Public: 1.4% % of GDP Spent on Education:

4.6% Human Rights Conventions Party to:

• International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment and Punishment of the Crime of Geno- cide

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

• Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

• Conventions on the Rights of the Child

• Convention relating to the Status of Refugees

• Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Signed but not yet ratified)

*Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index that measures the level of well-being in 177 nations in the world. It uses factors such as poverty, literacy, life-expectancy, education, gross domestic product, and purchasing power parity to assess the average achievements in each nation. It has been used in the United Nation's Human Development Report since 1993. *Human Poverty Index Ranking is based on certain indicators used to calculate the Human Poverty Index. Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40, adult literacy rate, population without sustainable access to an improved water source, and population below income poverty line are the indicators assessed in this measure. *The Gini Index measures inequality based on the distribution of family income or consumption. A value of 0 represents perfect equality (income being distributed equally), and a value of 100 perfect inequality (income all going to one individual). *The calculation of the total crime rate is the % of the total population which has been effected by property crime, robbery, sexual assault, assault, or bribery (corruption) related occurrences.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 34 Government Functions Political Overview

Government Functions

Constitution

Cote d'Ivoire's constitution of the Second Republic (2000) provides for a strong presidency within the framework of a separation of powers.

Executive Authority

The executive is personified in the president, elected for a five-year term. The president is the head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces, may negotiate and ratify certain treaties, and may submit a bill to a national referendum or to the National Assembly.

According to the constitution, the president of the National Assembly assumes the presidency for 45- 90 days in the event of a vacancy and organizes new elections in which the winner completes the remainder of the deceased president's term.

The president selects the prime minister, who is the head of government.

Technically, the cabinet or Council of Ministers is selected by the president and is responsible to the prime minister. However, under the current power-sharing agreement, the prime minister and the president share the authority to appoint ministers.

Legislative Authority

The unicameral National Assembly is composed of members elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term concurrently with the president. It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president, although it also can introduce legislation.

Judicial System

The judicial system culminates in the Supreme Court. The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses. There is also an independent Constitutional Council which has seven members appointed by the president that is responsible for, inter alia, the determination of candidate eligibility in presidential and legislative elections, the announcement of final election results, the conduct of referendums, and the constitutionality of legislation.

35 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Government Structure

Administrative Authority

For administrative purposes, Cote d'Ivoire is divided into 19 regions. Each region is headed by a pre- fect appointed by the central government. In 2002, the country held its first departmental elections to select departmental councils to oversee local infrastructure development and maintenance as well as economic and social development plans and projects.

Government Structure

Names: conventional long form:

Republic of Côte d'Ivoire conventional short form:

Côte d'Ivoire local long form:

Republique de Cote d'Ivoire local short form:

Cote d'Ivoire former:

Ivory Coast

Type:

Republic; multiparty presidential regime established 1960

Executive Branch:

Chief of state:

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 36 Government Structure Political Overview

Laurent Gbagbo (won the presidential elections of Oct. 22, 2000)

Elections:

Presidential elections were last held Oct. 22, 2000

Election Results:

Laurent Gbagbo (FPI) 59.4 percent

Robert Guéï 32.7 percent

Francois Wockie (PIT) 5.7 percent

Théodore Mel (UDCI) 1.5 percent

Nocolas Dioulou 0.8 percent

* 14 of the 19 candidates for president were barred from running including the RDR candidate, Alas- sane Ouattara.

Note:

Gbagbo succeeded General Robert Guei as the head of state who took power as head of state by coup in December 1999. Several parties boycotted the elections after 14 of the 19 presidential candidates were barred from running. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. In 2002, an uprising by the New Forces rebels resulted in a state of conflict and eventually, a tenuous ceasefire. In 2005, Gbagbo's continued position as interim head of state caused tensions with the opposition. How- ever, a 2007 peace deal set the country on a more peaceful path. Fresh elections were set for 2009 but postponed repeatedly. February to early March 2010 were noted as possible new dates but circumstances have rendered even this timeline unfeasible.

Head of Government:

Prime Minister Guillaume Soro (since 2007, as set forth in the 2007 peace agreement, which called for a power-sharing government that would include the leader of the New Forces rebels)

Note:

The government was dissolved in 2010 due to a political crisis emerging from a voter registration controversy but Prime Minister Soro was quickly re-appointed and tasked with forming a new government.

37 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Government Structure

Cabinet:

Council of Ministers

Legislative Branch:

Unicameral "Assemblée Nationale" (National Assembly):

225 members; popularly elected for five-year terms from single-seat constituencies

Elections:

Parliamentary elections were last held Dec. 10, 2000.

Election Results:

Seats by party - (225 total) -

FPI 96, PDCI-RDA 94, RDR 5, PIT 4, other 2, independents 22, vacant 2

* 29 of 32 northern districts (RDR stronghold) boycotted the elections in protest of the ban on Alas- sane Ouattara from running for parliament. The districts have since threatened to secede.

Note:

Fresh elections expected but frequently postponed.

Judicial Branch:

Supreme Court or Cour Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administra- tive Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members

Constitution:

Nov. 3, 1960; amended numerous times, most recently on June 23, 2000. A referendum was held ratifying the changes. Most of the changes were modest with the exception of limiting presidential candidacy to people with both parents of Ivorian citizenship.

Legal System:

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 38 Principal Government Officials Political Overview

Based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations

Administrative Divisions:

19 regions; Agneby, Bafing, Bas-Sassandra, Denguele, Dix-Huit Montagnes, Fromager, Haut-Sassan- dra, Lacs, Lagunes, Marahoue, Moyen-Cavally, Moyen-Comoe, N'zi-Comoe, Savanes, Sud-Bandama, Sud-Comoe, Vallee du Bandama, Worodougou, Zanzan

Political Parties and Leaders:

Citizen's Democratic Union or UDCY [Theodore MEL EG]; Democratic Party of Cote d'Ivoire-Afri- can Democratic Rally or PDCI-RDA [Henri Konan BEDIE]; Ivorian Popular Front or FPI [Pascale Affi N'GUESSAN]; Ivorian Worker's Party or PIT [Francis WODIE]; Opposition Movement of the Future or MFA [Innocent Augustin ANAKY]; Rally of the Republicans or RDR [Alassane OUATT- ARA]; Union for Democracy and Peace in Cote d'Ivoire or UDPCI [Toikeuse MABRI]; over 144 smaller registered parties

Suffrage:

18 years of age; universal

Principal Government Officials

Cabinet and Leadership

Pres. Laurent GBAGBO Prime Min. Guillaume SORO Min. of African Integration & Spokesperson of the Govt. Amadou KONE Min. of Agriculture Amadou Gon COULIBALY Min. of Animal Production & Fisheries Alphonse DOUATI Min. of Communications Ibrahim Sy SAVANE Min. of Construction, Urban Development, & Housing Marcel Benoit Amon TANOH Min. of Culture & Francophony Komoe Augustin KOUADIO

39 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Principal Government Officials

Min. of Defense Michel AMANI Min. of Economic Infrastructure Patrick ACHI Min. of Economy & Finance Charles Koffi DIBY Min. of Employment & Civil Service Hubert OULAYE Min. of Environment, Water Resources, & Forests Daniel Ayissi AKA Min. of Family, Women, & Social Affairs Adjoua Jeanne Brou PEUHMOND Min. of the Fight Against HIV/AIDS Christine ADJOBI Min. of Foreign Affairs Youssouf BAKAYOKO Min. of Higher Education & Scientific Research Ibrahima CISSE Min. of Industry & Private Sector Promotion Amah Marie TEHOUA Min. of Interior Desire TAGRO Min. of Justice & Human Rights & Keeper of the Seal Mamadou KONE Min. of Mines & Energy Leon Emmanuel MONNET Min. of National Education Gilbert BLEU-LAINE Min. of National Reconciliation & Institutional Relations Sebastien Dano DJEDJE Min. of New Technologies, Information, & Communication Hamed BAKAYOKO Min. of Planning & Development Paul Antoine Bohoun BOUABRE Min. of Public Health Remi Allah KOUADIO Min. of Reconstruction & Reintegration Fatoumata BAMBA-HAMZA Min. of Solidarity & War Victims Louis Andre DAKOURY-TABLEY Min. of Technical Education & Vocational Training Moussa DOSSO Min. of Territorial Admin. Daniel Cheik BAMBA Min. of Tourism & Handicrafts Sidike KONATE Min. of Trade & Commerce Youssouf SOUMAHORO Min. of Transportation Albert Mabri TOIKEUSSE Min. of Urban Development & Hygiene Theodore Mel EG Min. of Youth, Sports, & Leisure Dagobert BANZIO Ambassador to the US Yao Charles KOFFI Permanent Representative to the UN, New York Alcide Ilahiri DJEDJE

-- as of 2009

Update --

In late August 2009, the Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) of Cote d'Ivoire reaffirmed the Nov. 29, 2009, date for the much-anticipated presidential election. A statement released by the CEI read, "The slight technical readjustment on the publication date of provisional election lists will not have any repercussion on the Nov. 29 date." At issue was the publication date of the provisional election list, which was originally set for Aug. 24, 2009, but which was delayed for a due to questions about the capacity to handle data on identification and election census. But the CEI statement addressed this issue noting, "All the coordination centers are open today and the analysis has been achieved in more than half of the centers." Note that the Nov. 29, 2009 presidential election date in Cote d'Ivoire was subsequently reported to have been postponed yet again until later in the year.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 40 Leader Biography Political Overview

-- as of 2010

Leader Biography

Biography

Name: Laurent GBAGBO Date of Birth: May 31, 1945 Place of Birth: Gagnoa Civil Status: Married Children: Four children

Education

Primary school in Agboville and Gagnoa Lycée Classique d'Abidjan, Baccalauréat June 1965 l'Univer- sité de Lyon, France (Classics, did not graduate) Licence d'Histoire, June 1969 (in Cote d'Ivoire) Maî- trise d'Histoire, June 1970 (Sorbonne) Doctorat d'Histoire, June 1979 (l'Université Paris VII)

Previous Positions

1970-73 Professor of History, Lycée Classique d'Abidjan 1970-73 Director of Education, Lycée Classique d'Abidjan 1974-77 Chargé de Recherche, Lycée Classique d'Abidjan 1974-77 Director, Institute of History

41 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Foreign Relations

1974-77 Created the Front Populaire Ivoirien (FPI) 1988-1996 Secretary General of the FPI 1988-1996 Minister of Parliament 1990-1995 President of the FPI Parliamentary Group 1996- President of the FPI

Present Positions

October 2000 - Present President of the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire

Foreign Relations

General Relations

Throughout the Cold War, Côte d'Ivoire's foreign policy was generally favorable toward the West. In particular, Houphouët-Boigny kept relations with France that was among the closest between any Afri- can country and a former colonial power. The country became a member of the United Nations at independence in 1960 and participates in most of its specialized agencies. It is also an associate member of the European Union. In general, President Bédié initiated and maintained relations with many countries of the European Union and Asia. Côte d'Ivoire maintains a wide variety of diplomatic contacts.

Houphouët-Boigny was one of the first African leaders to establish ties with Israel. In 1973, first Ethi- opia, then the Organization of African Unity (OAU), broke ties with Israel as an act of solidarity with Arab members of the OAU. Virtually all of Africa followed suit including Côte d'Ivoire. However, it was one of the first to re-establish relations with Israel in 1986.

Côte d'Ivoire also sought change in South Africa through dialogue, and its newly-named ambassador was among the first to be accredited to post-apartheid South Africa. Cote d'Ivoire's foreign relations suffered following the December 1999 coup that brought President Guei to power. Many foreign institutions (including the IMF) withheld foreign aid.

Most of the western international community, as well as the OAU, considered the October 2000 elections to have been seriously flawed. Foreign donor institutions which halted aid pending a return to civilian rule have largely continued their freeze. The London Club has also not expressed a willingness to revisit the issue of debt rescheduling. The electoral shifts in the country therefore continue to mar foreign relations.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 42 Foreign Relations Political Overview

Regional and international assistance, however, helped to end the conflict in 2002, and to bring about the establishment of a power sharing government in 2003. The cooperative stance augurs well for Cote d'Ivoire's foreign relations.

Regional Relations

The Ivorian government has historically played an important and constructive role in Africa. President Houphouet-Boigny was active in the mediation of regional disputes, most notably in Liberia and Angola. Côte d'Ivoire is a member of the newly created OAU conflict resolution mechanism. In 1996- 97 Côte d'Ivoire sent a medical unit to participate in regional peacekeeping in Liberia, its first peacekeeping effort.

Côte d'Ivoire is a member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), the African Mauritian Common Organization (OCAM), the Council of Entente Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Nonaggression and Defense Agreement (ANAD), INTELSAT, the Nonaligned Movement, the African Regional Satellite Organization (RASCOM), the Inter-African Coffee Organi- zations (IACO), the International Cocoa Organization (ICCO), the Alliance of Cocoa Producers, Afri- can, Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP), and the Association of Coffee Producing Countries (ACPC). Côte d'Ivoire also belongs to the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the African Develop- ment Bank.

Other Important Relations

Despite electoral wrangling, Côte d'Ivoire continues to maintain extremely close relations with France. President Houphouët-Boigny, who was a minister in the French colonial government prior to independence, insisted that the connection be maintained. President Chirac visited Côte d'Ivoire soon after his election in 1995, followed by the French secretary of state and the ministers of foreign affairs and defense. Examples of Franco-Ivorian cooperation are numerous.

French is Côte d'Ivoire's official language. Ivorian security is enhanced by a brigade of French marines stationed in Abidjan. Some 20,000 French expatriates continue to make their home in Côte d'Ivoire, and the country's currency, the CFA franc, is tied to the French franc. France maintains a military base at Port Bouët and has assisted in the restructuring of the Ivorian armed forces. France was the first country to recognize the victory of President Gbagbo in the October 2000 elections. France was also instrumental in the military efforts in the country during the 2002-2003 civil conflict.

United States-Ivorian relations were friendly and close up until the time of the coup in 1999. While many other countries in the region were undergoing repeated military coups, experimenting with Marxism, and developing ties with the Soviet Union and China, Côte d'Ivoire, under former president

43 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview National Security

Houphouët -Boigny, maintained a close political allegiance to the West. Having served as Côte d'Ivo- ire's first ambassador to the U.S., former president Bédié was also familiar with the United States.

The United States was sympathetic to Côte d'Ivoire's program of rapid, orderly economic development based on austerity measures as well as its moderate stance on international issues. However, bilateral U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) funding, with the exception of self-help and democratization funds, has been phased out.

On hold is the cultural exchange the United States and Côte d'Ivoire maintained, through which prom- inent Ivorian government officials, media representatives, educators and scholars visit the United States to become better acquainted with the American people and to exchange ideas and views with their American colleagues.

Following the decision to bar the majority of parties from the October election, the United States removed all election observers and electoral funding. The U.S. also boycotted the swearing-in ceremony of President Gbagbo. The growing ties between Cote d'Ivoire and Libya under President Gbagbo was seen as likely further harm U.S.-Ivorian relations. The political difficulties of 2002 have left Gbagbo in charge of a temporary power-sharing government in anticipation of new elections.

Note: The political uprising of 2002 evoked critical regional dissonance, as well as incidences of xenophobia against nationals of neighboring countries residing in Cote d'Ivoire. The long-term effects of this situation remained unknown in the immediate aftermath, however, since 2007, a peace agreement has been in effect.

National Security

External Threats Côte d'Ivoire

's government alleges that Burkina Faso and Liberiahave provided support to local insurgents (see section on insurgencies).

Crime Rampant crime poses a significant risk to Côte d'Ivoire's national security. Recent political instability has exacerbated the presence of petty and violent crime throughout the country. Business fraud has

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 44 National Security Political Overview also become prevalent there, as well as the surrounding region. Finally, a narcotics industry has taken root in Côte d'Ivoire. The recent conflict has made it increasingly difficult to maintain law and order throughout Côte d'Ivo- ire(see below section on insurgencies). The United States Department of State warns that street crime is rampant and travel outside of Abidjanat night is dangerous. A lack of training and resources has hampered the ability of law enforcement officials to effectively combat crime in Côte d'Ivoire. In addition to a high incidence of street crime, business fraud is also a common occurrence in Côte d'Ivoire. Once generally confined to Nigeria, the prevalence of such scams has spread to other countries in the region. The perpetrators often target foreigners, including Americans. The con usually begins with an unsolicited e-mail that offers the recipient the promise of high returns on an investment. The hopeful victim is generally required to pay a series of advance fees before collecting any compensation. The criminals then keep the fees, without fulfilling their obligation to pay the duped investor. Criminal elements within Côte d'Ivoireperpetuate the existence of a narcotics industry there. Côte d'Ivoireis a producer of cannabis, mostly for the domestic market. It is also a transshipment point for South American cocaine bound for Europe and South Africa, as well as Southeast and Southwest Asian heroin, destined for Europe and, to a lesser degree, the United States.

Insurgencies After a comparatively stable post-colonial history, Côte d'Ivoirefell into disarray in 1999. A faltering economy, coupled with government mismanagement and corruption, precipitated the nation's first military coup in December of that year, under the direction of General Robert Guei. He subsequently declared himself the winner of the flawed 2000 national elections, prompting supporters of the opposition candidate, Laurent Gbagbo, to stage a massive protest. Guei was forced to flee the country and Gbagbo assumed the presidency, but violence between the rival factions continued. In January 2001, a coup failed to remove him from office.

In September 2002, opposition forces again attempted to overthrow the government, this time killing several high-ranking military officers and the minister of the interior. Government forces quickly pre- vailed over the rebels and General Guei himself was killed. In the aftermath of the coup, the central government took drastic measures to stave off future insurrection. Government forces targeted non- combatants whom they alleged were providing support for rebel forces. They specifically targeted the residents of shantytowns in Abidjan, searching for weapons and rebels amongst them, destroying their homes and ultimately displacing 12,000 people. The government's actions fostered widespread hostility and a civil war erupted, pitting government troops against a rebel force known as the Patriotic Movement of Côte d'Ivoire(MPCI). In October 2002, French forces already in the region facilitated a cease-fire. The cease fire did not last more than a month. In November, the two sides were once again at odds in the western part of the nation. Two more rebel factions - the Ivoirian Popular Movement for the Great West (MPIGO) and the Movement for Justice and Peace (MJP) - allied themselves with the MPCI, to form the New Forces. Under the auspices of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), a peacekeeping force com- prised of 1,200 troops from five West African nations collaborated with 3,000 French troops to maintain an east-west ceasefire line in January 2003. That same month, the French-brokered Linas- Marcoussis Accord precipitated a cessation of hostilities. The former rebels have accepted President Gbagbo's authority and he has moved to include more opposition members in his administration.

In 2004, the United Nations deployed 6,000 peacekeepers to the nation in order to aid the 4,000 French troops already trying to keep the peace in the country. This operation is known as United Nations Operation Cote d'Ivoire. There has been no significant withdrawal of troops.

45 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Defense Forces

In recent years, Côte d'Ivoireremained politically divided, however, the ceasefire and the plan for new elections were expected to abate the antagonism. The central government had yet to reestablish a presence in the northern and western regions of the country, where New Force elements continued to operate.

Terrorism Global terrorism does not pose a specific threat to Cote d'Ivoire. The recent political upheaval led to a severe government crackdown and subsequent abuses perpetuated against civilians, however (see section on insurgencies).

Defense Forces

Military Data Military Branches:

Army, Navy, Air Force Eligible age to enter service:

18 for both compulsory and voluntary Mandatory Service Terms:

18 months for conscripted service Manpower in general population-fit for military service: males age 18-49: 1,973,265 females age 18-49: 1,911,777

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 46 Defense Forces Political Overview

Manpower reaching eligible age annually:

Males age 18-49: 189,354

Females age 18-49: 192,600

Current Capabilities:

Active: 17,050

Reserve: 10,000

Military Expenditures (in US $):

$246.6 million

Percent of GDP:

1.6%

47 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Political Overview Defense Forces

Chapter 3 Economic Overview

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 48 Economic Overview Economic Overview

Economic Overview

Overview For more than three decades after gaining independence from France in 1960, Cote d'Ivoire was one of the most prosperous of the African states with political stability, ethnic peace and an open economy. The harmony came to a halt with a military coup in December 1999, and a failed coup attempt in Sep- tember 2002. The latter quickly evolved into a rebellion that split the country into two. The conflict has taken a heavy toll on economic growth and social conditions, halting the momentum of trade and private investment that had underpinned the rapid economic expansion following the 1994 CFA franc devaluation. Recently, Cote d'Ivoire has been gradually emerging from the political instability and civil conflict that started in 1999. In March 2007, a peace deal was signed in Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso, between Cote d'Ivoire President Gbagbo and the country's rebel leader, Guillaume Soro. Under the accord, the two sides agreed to form a power-sharing government, and Guillaume Soro was appointed as prime minister a few weeks later. Since then, the country has made progress on the road toward reunification, peace, and economic recovery. In August 2007, the IMF approved the Emergency Post- Conflict Assistance (EPCA) for Cote d'Ivoire, in an effort to help the country build the foundation for sustained recovery, and the overall performance under the program has been satisfactory. With improved political stability, economic growth has picked up; the fiscal position has strengthened despite spending pressures in a post-crisis environment; and progress has been made in strengthening public financial management and improving governance. Going forward, further fiscal consolidation is required to ensure sustained economic recovery, and address urgent social, infrastructure, and other post-conflict needs.

Economic Performance

Strong economic growth stopped after the 1999 coup, and the economy fell into recession in 2000 with GDP recording a negative growth of 2.3 percent. An incipient economic recovery in 2001 marked by a growth rate of 0.1 percent and supported by the resumption of budget aid under an IMF program was cut short by the breakout of civil war in September 2002. As a result, GDP registered negative growth of 1.4 percent in 2002 and 1.6 percent in 2003. Since 2004 economic growth has turned positive, with real GDP averaging 1.4 percent from 2004 to 2006, helped by favorable agricultural output and a strong rise in oil production. With improved political stability, GDP growth picked up to 1.6 percent in 2007 driven by upturns in transportation, construction, and trade. The recovery was also supported by growth in real private investment for the first time since 1999. Economic growth was estimated to have accelerated to 2.9 percent in 2008, supported by an increase in oil output, an improving investment climate, and the reunification of the country. Inflation rose to 5.6 percent in 2008 from 1.9 percent in 2007 driven by higher world food and energy prices. Significant revenue collection efforts and expenditure restraint led to decline of the fiscal deficit to 1.1 percent of GDP in 2007 from an average of 1.7 percent of GDP from 2004 to 2006. The fiscal performance continued to improve and a surplus of 2.8 percent of GDP was expected in 2008.

Balance of Payments

49 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview Economic Overview

Cote d'Ivoire depends heavily on its agricultural exports. Cocoa accounts for one-third of total exports, although coffee, cotton, wood and oil are also important. The country has a structural trade surplus and exports have counted for more than 40 percent of GDP since 2002. The civil war severely depressed imports because of the slowdown of economic activity, which helped strengthen the current account in 2002 and 2003. As such, the current account (including official transfers) registered surpluses in 2002 and 2003 of 6.7 percent of GDP and 2.1 percent of GDP, respectively, compared with a deficit of 1.1 percent of GDP in 2001. The current account remained in surplus from 2004 to 2006, and the surplus widened to 2.8 percent of GDP in 2006 from 1.6 percent of GDP in 2004 and 0.2 percent of GDP in 2005, as oil exports rose sharply and imports remained sluggish in line with domestic demand. Despite favorable terms of trade, the current account turned to a deficit of 0.7 percent of GDP in 2007 because of lower oil and cocoa exports and higher imports. In 2008, the current account was expected to register a surplus of 2.3 percent of GDP with a significant increase in exports.

Regional Situation

Cote d'Ivoire is a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU). The economy is the largest of the WAEMU, making up about 40 percent of the WAEMU GDP. Neighboring countries, including Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Guinea, depend heavily on Cote d'Ivoire's transport facilities for imports and exports. With improved political stability, Cote d'Ivoire's economy is recovering strongly, which will also boost growth in the region.

Updated in 2009

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 50 Real GDP and GDP Per Capita Economic Overview

Real GDP and GDP Per Capita

Cote d `Ivoire Real GDP and GDP Per Capita

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 8,530.50 8,649.93 8,771.02 8,893.82 8,934.17 (CFAF billions)

Real GDP Growth Rate (%) 0.5000 1.400 1.400 1.400 0.4000

Private Consumption Spending 5,707.20 6,182.20 6,447.68 6,724.56 7,402.90 (CFAF billions)

Government (G and S) Expenditures 1,055.20 1,160.72 1,276.79 1,404.47 1,473.22 (CFAF billions)

Gross Private Investment (CFAF bil- 1,118.55 1,187.51 1,187.51 1,187.51 1,343.08 lions)

Exports of Goods and Services NIPA 4,000.20 4,169.70 3,993.78 3,825.28 4,822.55 (CFAF billions)

Imports of Goods and Services NIPA 3,127.70 3,292.62 3,350.37 3,409.14 3,931.85 (CFAF billions)

Nominal GDP and Components

Cote d `Ivoire Nominal GDP and Components

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Nominal GDP in National Currency- 8,530.50 9,177.10 9,572.50 9,984.93 11,055.31 Billions (CFAF billions)

Nominal GDP Growth Rate (%) 4.300 7.500 4.300 4.300 10.700

Population (Millions) 17.298 17.654 18.042 18.439 18.832

Population Growth Rate (%) 2.000 2.000 2.100 2.100 2.100

Nominal GDP Per Capita (CFAF) 493,148.36 519,806.38 530,541.74 541,498.81 587,048.99

Nominal GDP Per Capita Growth 2.100 5.400 2.000 2.000 8.400 Rate (%)

51 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview Government Spending and Taxation

Government Spending and Taxation

Cote d `Ivoire Government Spending and Taxation

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Government (G and S) Expenditures 1,055.20 1,160.72 1,276.79 1,404.47 1,473.22 (CFAF billions)

Government Expenditure Growth -9.1000 10.000 9.900 10.000 4.800 Rate (%)

Net (of transfers) National Tax Rate 13.700 14.900 16.400 18.200 15.500 (%)

Fiscal Deficit (-) Surplus (+) (CFAF -117.9360 -206.8280 -294.7420 -420.0240 -249.0560 billions)

Fiscal Deficit/Surplus as percent of -1.3000 -2.2000 -3.0000 -4.2000 -2.2000 GDP (%)

Money, Prices and Interest Rates

Cote d `Ivoire Money, Prices and Interest Rates

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Money Supply (M2) (CFAF billions) 2,081.20 2,294.70 2,836.60 2,997.40 3,547.76

Money Supply Growth Rate (M2) 7.600 10.200 23.600 5.600 18.300 (%)

Inflation Rate (from GDP Price 3.700 6.000 2.800 2.800 10.200 Deflator) (%)

Interest Rate (%) 4.000 4.200 4.200 4.700 4.200

Unemployment Rate (%) 10.000 10.000 10.000 10.000 11.100

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 52 Trade and the Exchange Rate Economic Overview

Trade and the Exchange Rate

Cote d `Ivoire Trade and the Exchange Rate

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Exchange Rate US Dollars (CFAF/$) 527.470 522.890 479.270 447.810 452.372

Foreign Balance-Goods and Services 872.500 877.073 643.404 416.145 890.697 NIPA ($US Millions)

The Balance of Payments

Cote d `Ivoire The Balance of Payments

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Current Account ($US Billions) 0.9200 0.5290 0.3540 0.3540 -1.3520

Capital and Financial Account ($US -0.0140 -0.4130 0.1000 0.1000 1.584 Billions)

Overall Balance ($US Billions) -0.3720 0.4760 0.4540 0.0000 0.2320

Official Foreign Currency Reserves 1.321 1.797 2.251 2.252 2.484 ($US Billions)

Current Account (% of GDP) (%) 5.600 3.000 1.700 1.500 -5.5000

53 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units

Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units

Cote d `Ivoire Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Petroleum Consumption (TBPD) 27.689 26.400 26.000 25.000 24.527

Petroleum Production (TBPD) 39.935 62.935 52.935 60.100 63.376

Petroleum Net Exports (-Imports) 0.0259 0.0773 0.0570 0.0743 0.0706 (Quads)

Natural Gas Consumption (bcf) 45.909 45.909 45.909 45.909 40.678

Natural Gas Production (bcf) 45.909 45.909 52.972 45.909 45.187

Natural Gas Net Exports (-Imports) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0073 0.0000 -0.0073 (Quads)

Coal Consumption (mm st) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Coal Production (mm st) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Coal Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Nuclear Production/Consumption 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 (bil kWh)

Hydroelectric Production/Consump- 1.423 1.495 1.570 1.650 1.619 tion (bil kWh)

Renewables Production/Consump- 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 tion (bil kWh)

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 54 Energy Consumption and Production QUADS Economic Overview

Energy Consumption and Production QUADS

Cote d `Ivoire Energy Consumption and Production QUADS

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Petroleum Consumption (Quads) 0.0560 0.0530 0.0520 0.0500 0.0490

Petroleum Production (Quads) 0.0800 0.1270 0.1070 0.1210 0.1280

Petroleum Net Exports (-Imports) 0.0259 0.0773 0.0570 0.0743 0.0706 (Quads)

Natural Gas Consumption (Quads) 0.0470 0.0470 0.0470 0.0470 0.0420

Natural Gas Production (Quads) 0.0470 0.0470 0.0540 0.0470 0.0460

Natural Gas Net Exports (-Imports) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0073 0.0000 -0.0073 (Quads)

Coal Consumptio (Quads) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Coal Production (Quads) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Coal Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Nuclear Production/Consumption 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 (Quads)

Hydroelectric Production/Consump- 0.0140 0.0140 0.0150 0.0160 0.0150 tion (Quads)

Renewables Production/Consump- 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 tion (Quads)

Total Production/Consumption 0.1420 0.1890 0.1770 0.1850 0.1910 (Quads)

55 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview World Energy Price Summary

World Energy Price Summary

Global World Energy Price Summary

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Petroleum Pricing Summary (Nomi- 41.487 56.590 66.021 77.200 61.092 nal)* ($/barrel WTI Spot)

Natural Gas Pricing Summary (Nom- 5.849 8.785 6.764 9.120 3.850 inal)* ($/mmbtu Henry Hub Spot)

Coal Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 64.330 70.144 62.983 51.119 54.233 ($/ST Central Appalachian Spot)

Petroleum Pricing Summary (Real 41.487 54.836 62.284 71.283 55.884 2003 base)* ($/barrel WTI Spot) ($/ barrel WTI Spot)

Natural Gas Pricing Summary (Real 5.849 8.513 6.381 8.421 3.521 2003 base)* ($/mmbtu Henry Hub Spot) ($/mmbtu Henry Hub Spot)

Coal Pricing Summary (Real 2003 64.330 67.969 59.418 47.201 49.609 base)* ($/ST Central Appalachian Spot) ($/ST Central Appalachian Spot)

CO2 Emissions

Cote d `Ivoire CO2 Emissions

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Petroleum Based (mm mt) 1.071 1.021 1.006 0.9670 0.9560

Natural Gas Based (mm mt) 0.6950 0.6950 0.6950 0.6950 0.6160

Coal Based (mm mt) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Total Carbon Production (mm mt) 1.767 1.717 1.701 1.663 1.572

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 56 Agriculture Consumption and Production Economic Overview

Agriculture Consumption and Production

Cote d `Ivoire Agriculture Consumption and Production

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Corn Total Consumption (Thousand 673.026 644.194 534.418 443.348 378.151 MT)

Corn Production (Thousand MT) 640.213 638.753 531.940 442.988 372.910

Corn Net Exports (Thousand MT) -32.8130 -5.4410 -2.4770 -0.3600 -5.2410

Soybeans Total Consumption (Thou- 0.3000 0.6530 0.7050 0.7610 0.6970 sand MT)

Soybeans Production (Thousand MT) 0.3000 0.6530 0.7050 0.7610 0.7190

Soybeans Net Exports (Thousand 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0210 MT)

Rice Total Consumption (Thousand 703.034 715.358 606.256 513.793 475.501 MT)

Rice Production (Thousand MT) 703.931 715.898 606.310 513.497 448.937

Rice Net Exports (Thousand MT) 0.8970 0.5390 0.0530 -0.2960 -26.5640

Coffee Total Consumption (Thou- 135.465 92.128 50.853 28.069 29.268 sand MT)

Coffee Production (Thousand MT) 230.000 187.000 170.849 156.092 143.484

Coffee Net Exports (Thousand MT) 94.535 94.872 119.996 128.023 114.215

Cocoa Beans Total Consumption 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 (Thousand MT)

Cocoa Beans Production (Thousand n/a n/a n/a 0.0000 0.0000 MT)

Cocoa Beans Net Exports (Thousand 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 MT)

Sugar Total Consumption (Thousand 1,456.28 1,448.01 1,636.33 1,849.14 2,238.09 MT)

Sugar Production (Thousand MT) 1,456.28 1,448.01 1,636.33 1,849.14 1,748.49

Sugar Net Exports (Thousand MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -489.5980

Wheat Total Consumption (Thousand 251.688 292.458 270.552 250.286 218.355 MT)

Wheat Production (Thousand MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Wheat Net Exports (Thousand MT) -251.6880 -292.4580 -270.5520 -250.2860 -218.3550

57 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview World Agriculture Pricing Summary

World Agriculture Pricing Summary

Global World Agriculture Pricing Summary

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Corn Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 98.405 121.588 163.258 223.247 162.007 ($/MT)

Soybeans Pricing Summary (Nomi- 223.133 217.453 317.319 453.314 380.122 nal)* ($/MT)

Rice Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 287.811 303.515 332.393 700.199 584.908 ($/MT)

Coffee Pricing Summary (Nomi- 114.300 114.000 123.300 138.300 141.040 nal)* ($/MT)

Cocoa Beans Pricing Summary 1,544.66 1,590.62 1,958.11 2,572.80 2,884.72 (Nominal)* ($/MT)

Sugar Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 21.068 22.119 20.763 21.323 25.075 (c/lb)

Wheat Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 152.438 191.721 255.206 325.940 228.397 ($/MT)

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 58 Metals Consumption and Production Economic Overview

Metals Consumption and Production

Cote d `Ivoire Metals Consumption and Production

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Copper Consumption (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Copper Production (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Copper Net Exports (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Aluminum Consumption (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Aluminum Production (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Aluminum Exports (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Zinc Consumption (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Zinc Production (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Zinc Exports (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Lead Consumption (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Lead Production (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Lead Exports (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Tin Consumption (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Tin Production (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Tin Exports (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Nickel Consumption (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Nickel Production (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Nickel Exports (MT) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Gold Production (MT) 1.638 1.324 1.168 2.665 2.612

Silver Pricing Summary (Real)* ($/ 6.690 7.112 10.566 13.850 13.500 oz)

59 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview World Metals Pricing Summary

World Metals Pricing Summary

Global World Metals Pricing Summary

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Copper Pricing Summary (Nomi- 3,683.64 6,730.60 7,126.35 6,951.52 5,279.38 nal)* ($/MT)

Aluminum Pricing Summary (Nomi- 1,897.65 2,566.79 2,639.27 2,571.37 1,637.61 nal)* ($/MT)

Zinc Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 1,381.55 3,272.62 3,250.30 1,870.06 1,671.08 ($/MT)

Tin Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/ 7,370.38 8,762.66 14,535.54 18,498.62 13,564.74 MT)

Lead Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 975.650 1,287.49 2,594.96 2,084.76 1,714.65 ($/MT)

Nickel Pricing Summary (Nomi- 14,732.72 24,286.81 37,181.01 21,027.22 13,925.11 nal)* ($/MT)

Gold Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 444.990 604.340 696.430 872.560 977.791 ($/oz)

Silver Pricing Summary (Nominal)* 6.690 7.340 11.200 15.000 14.758 ($/oz)

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 60 World Metals Pricing Summary Economic Overview

61 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Economic Overview World Metals Pricing Summary

Chapter 4 Investment Overview

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 62 Foreign Investment Climate Investment Overview

Investment Overview

Foreign Investment Climate

Background Cote d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of coffee, cocoa beans, and palm oil. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to weather conditions and to fluctuations in international prices for these products. Despite government attempts to diversify the economy, it is still heavily dependent on agriculture and related activities, engaging roughly 68% of the population. Growth was negative in 2000-03 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, foreign divestment and civil war. Political turmoil has continued to damage the economy since 2004, with a rising risk premium associated with doing business in the country, foreign investment shriveling, transportation costs increasing, French businesses fleeing, and criminal elements that traffic in weapons and diamonds gaining ground. The government will continue to survive financially off of the sale of cocoa, which represents 90% of foreign exchange earnings, but the government will probably lose between 10% and 20% of its cocoa harvest to northern rebels who smuggle the cocoa they control to neighboring countries where cocoa prices are higher. The government remains hopeful that ongoing exploration of Cote d'Ivoire's offshore oil reserves will result in significant production that could boost daily crude output from roughly 33,000 barrels per day (b/d) to more than 200,000 b/d by the end of the decade.

Foreign Investment Assessment Openness to Foreign Investment Côte d'Ivoire actively encourages foreign investment. The National Assembly approved a new Ivorian Investment Code in the spring of 1995, containing provisions that modify the Code of June 1985 that is designed to encourage additional private sector investment in the economy. For all practical purposes, there are no significant limits on foreign investment - or difference in the treatment of foreign and national investors - either in terms of levels of foreign ownership or sector of investment. The former investment code was aimed at helping small and medium-sized firms; the new code provides incentives for larger investments as well. Additional incentives are offered to those who choose to invest outside of Abidjan and other established urban industrial areas.

Beginning in 1995, the Ivorian government stepped up its investment promotion campaign through the establishment of an Investment Promotion Center, or "CEPICI," to use its French acronym. CEPICI is designed to provide investment information and assistance for entrepreneurs interested in starting a business or investing in Côte d'Ivoire. CEPICI operates three basic programs: a "one-stop-shop" for investors; an outreach program, designed to match opportunities with potential investors; and a liaison program between the public and private sectors.

Investments from outside the Franc Zone must be approved by the external finance and credit office of the Ministry of Economy and Finance, but this is essentially a foreign exchange control/monitoring measure. For limited partnerships, one or more shareholders must be resident in Côte d'Ivoire. Though regulations exist to control land speculation by foreigners, foreigners in fact own significant amounts of land in Côte d'Ivoire. Transparency of Regulatory System

63 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Foreign Investment Climate

The Ivorian government, working with the IMF and the World Bank, has taken a number of steps to encourage a more transparent and competitive economic environment. Among these steps are: the creation of a centralized Office of Public Bids in the Ministry of Finance in an effort to ensure compliance with international bidding practices; the use of external financial advisors to work with the privatiza- tion committee on the sale of parastatals; the establishment of an inspector general's office for the government; the dissolution of the non-transparent cocoa and coffee marketing board; and the creation of regulatory bodies for the increasingly-liberalized telecommunications and electricity sectors. Labor Force Total: 6.7 million estimated By occupation: 68% agriculture Agriculture and Industry Agriculture products: coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, corn, rice, manioc (tapioca), sweet potatoes, sugar, cotton, rubber; timber Industries: foodstuffs, beverages; wood products, oil refining, truck and bus assembly, textiles, fertilizer, building materials, electricity, ship construction and repair Import Commodities and Partners Commodities: fuel, capital equipment, foodstuffs Partners: France 32.7%, Nigeria 14.4%, UK 7% Export Commodities and Partners Commodities: cocoa, coffee, timber, petroleum, cotton, bananas, pineapples, palm oil, fish Partners: France 19%, Netherlands 17.7%, US 7.1%, Spain 5.6% Telephone System Telephones- main lines in use: 328,000 Telephones- mobile cellular: 1.236 million General Assessment: well developed by African standards but operating well below capacity

Domestic: open-wire lines and microwave radio relay; 90% digitalized

International: country code - 225; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); 2 submarine cables Internet Internet Hosts: 3,795 Internet users: 90,000 Roads, Airports, Ports and Harbors Railways: 660 km Highways: 50,400 km Ports and harbors: Abidjan, Aboisso, Dabou, San-Pedro Airports: 37; w/paved runways: 7 Legal System and Considerations Cote d'Ivoire's legal system is based on French civil law system and customary law. It has a judicial review system in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court. It has not yet accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction Dispute Settlement Enforcement of contract rights can be a time-consuming and expensive process. Court cases move slowly and some do not appear to be judged on their legal or contractual merits. This has led to a widely-held view in the business community that there are corrupt magistrates. The government is attempting to improve the judicial system: by having more cases decided by three-judge panels instead of by a single judge; by computerization and swift publication of decisions; and by training judges in commercial law. The government is also increasing the number of appeals courts to decrease the back- log of cases. A new arbitration tribunal has been established, under the auspices of the Chamber of

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 64 Taxation Investment Overview

Commerce, where businesses may go to settle their commercial disputes. This is designed as a reform measure to avoid the inefficient and corruptible court system. In the end, only time will tell whether the dispute settlement process will become less of a problem under the new system.

Subject to the vagaries of the legal enforcement system, property rights do exist and are respected. Enforcement of real property rights, however, can be complicated by the clash between the traditional property rights of a village or ethnic group and the more modern system of long-term leaseholds (free- hold tenure is generally not granted to private individuals or entities). Banks have experienced difficulties realizing their security interests on real estate loans.

There is no specific Ivorian legislation providing for arbitration for investment disputes, though the use of arbitration provisions was upheld in a 1989 Supreme Court decision. Cote d'Ivoire is a member of the international center for the settlement of investment disputes (ICSID). Corruption Perception Ranking As reported by Transparency International, from the least to most corrupt countries (1-163) Cote d'Ivo- ire ranks 151, making it one of the most corrupt nations in the world (according to this index). Cultural Considerations In Cote d'Ivoire there are a few social rituals that one should be aware of. For instance, meals will consist of men eating first, then women and finally children. Your host may not offer eating utensils. If you must eat with your hands never eat with the left hand as this is considered rude. For More information see: United States' State Department Commercial Guide

Taxation

Corporate income tax

The corporate income tax is 35 percent with a minimum of 0.5 percent turnover on taxable income.

Payroll tax

The payroll tax is 2.8 percent on gross salaries.

Social security contributions

65 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Stock Market

Social security contributions are 15.55 percent on gross salaries.

Value added tax (VAT)

A Value added tax (VAT) of 18 percent applies to many goods and services.

Stock Market

The Bourse Regionale des Valeurs Mobilieres (BRVM) was opened in September 1998 to serve as a regional financial market for the member-states of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UMOEA), which includes Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo. At its inception, the BRVM had 35 listed companies.

Listing requirements include: a share capital of CFAF 200-500 million; 15-20 percent public ownership; five annual reports; balance sheet.

The BRVM has computerized trading with satellite links. Trading occurs on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Trading is now decentralized so that member-countries can trade simultaneously from their national bourse via satellite links.

For more information about the Bourse Regionale des Valeurs Mobilieres, see URL: http://www.brvm.org/.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 66 Partner Links Investment Overview

Partner Links

CountryWatch Selected International Links

International Partner Links - to international business and country sites

Regional Partners - by major world geographic regions

Country Partners - providing information on individual countries

International Trade and Investment - for statistics, policies, regulations

Business Magazines - to search archives and companies

International News - from leading international business media

Company and Country Reference - for background and historical development

International Partner Links

InternationalAffairs.com - Oxford Analytical

InternationalAffairs.com

International BizTech network - Brint.com

International Business & Technology: World Level: @Brint.com

Internet Resources for International Business - Columbia University

Watson Library Business and Economics Internet Resources

International Business and Economics on the Web - Longwood College

67 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Partner Links

International Business

Business and Economics Information

Foreign Economic Statistics on Web - University of Michigan

Statistical Resources on the Web/Foreign Economics

International Business Sources on the WWW - Michigan State University

International Business Resources on the WWW

Virtual International and Business Sources - University of North Carolina

New Vibes

International Trade and Business Links - University of British Columbia

Center for International Business Studies

WebEc International Economic Data - University of Helsinki

WebEc - Economic Data

Regional Partners

Asia-Pacific

Far Eastern Economic Review Issues and Archives

Far Eastern Economic Review

AsiaWeek Issues and archives - Time and CNN.com

AsiaWeek.com | Archives | 2000

Asia Source Business & Economics - Asia Society

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 68 Partner Links Investment Overview

AsiaSource: BusinessandEconomics - A Resource of the Asia Society

Economics and Statistics - Asia Development Bank

Economics and Statistics - ADB.org

Individual Economy Reports - APEC

APEC - Member Economies

Asian Country Information

Asia/Pacific UN Statistics

Europe

Economy and Finance - Eurostat

Eurostat: Economy and Finance

Financial and Economic Statistics - European Central Bank

ECB - European Central Bank

European Business Directory - EuroPages

Europages: The European Business Directory

Central and Eastern Europe Business and Economic Resources - Gonzaga University

CEESource

Business, Markets, Stocks, Currencies - Central and Eastern Europe Online

Central Europe Online Investor Insight - Central Europe - Investor Insight

Latin America

Latin America Network Information Center

69 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Partner Links

LANIC

Business News Americas

Daily Business News from Latin America

Latin America Newsletters

Political and Economic Information

Latin Focus - On Line Source to Economy

LatinFocus

Political Database of the Americas

A Political Database Covering the Americas

Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) Statistics

Statistics

Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) Research and Statistics

Inter-American Development Bank: Research and Statistics

Latin World Country Information

Latin America on the Net: Regions

Zona Latina Media and Marketing

Zona Latina: The Latina America Media Site

Organization of America States (OAS) Information, News, Reports

Organization of American States

Africa

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 70 Partner Links Investment Overview

African Business and Economy

African Business Information Services

All Africa On Line Business allAfrican.com: Business

African Business Network - International Finance Corporation

The African Business Network

Lex Africa Business Guides

Lex Africa: A Network of Laws Firms in Africa

Africa Business Website - MBendi

Africa's Leading Business Website

News Africa On Line

Business, News, and Culture

Africa Economic Analysis

Headlines and Articles

Africa South of Sahara Business & Economy

Africa South of the Sahara - Business & Economy

Middle East

Arabia On Line and Business Directory

Arabia.com

Arab Net Country Information

ArabNet

71 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Partner Links

Arab World On Line Country and Business Information

Country Information

Middle East Economic Survey of Oil, Banking, Finance, Politics

The Middle East Economic Survey

Euro Mediterranean Investment Guides

Euromed Internet Forum on the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership

Doing Business in Arab Mid East Countries - Ali

Middle Eastern Laws

Country Partners

Infonation - UN data comparisons by Country

WebEC - Economics Data

Regions and Countries - World Bank

The World Bank Group Countries and Regions

Business and Technology - BizTech - Brint.com

International BusinessandTechnology: Country Level: @Brint.com

Area and Ethnic Studies Country Information - Galileo Internet Resources

Country Information

Destination Guides - Expedia.com

Travel Information for the World Guide

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 72 Partner Links Investment Overview

PricewaterhouseCoopers Doing Business Guides

Publications: PricewaterhouseCoopers: Global

Quick Tax Guides to 82 Countries - Deloitte Touche

Deloitte Touche Tax

Doing Business in 141 Countries - Tax, Investment, Corporate Structure, Accounting - Ernst & Young

ErnstandYoung's Doing Business In

Political, Economic, Business Reports - Economist Intelligence Unit

EIU

Business Information on the Net - University of Strathclyde

Business Information Sources on the Internet: Country Information

International Data Base - US Census Bureau

International Data Base (IDB)

International Trade and Investment

Trade Statistics - US Office of Trade and Economic Analysis

The Office of Trade and Economic Analysis

Web Resources for International Trade - Federation International Trade Associations

FITA | International Trade Web Resources

International Trade Statistics - International Trade Center

Infobases, Products, and Services

73 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Partner Links

Global Statistics - United Nations, Agencies, Autonomous Organizations

United Nations and International Statistics Programmes

OECD Statistics

Industry Sectors, Economic, and Other

International Corporate Information

Business Magazines

Business Week Issues and Archives

The New York Times: BusinessWeek.com

Forbes Issues and Archives

Forbes Magazine Archives

Fortune Issues and Archives

FORTUNE.com

The Economist Issues and Archives

The Economist

International News

Financial Times - FT.com

Home

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 74 Partner Links Investment Overview

New York Times International

The New York Times: International

Wall Street Journal

Wall Street Journal Interactive Edition

Business News from Reuters

Reuters | Breaking News from Around the Globe

BBC OnLine World News

BBC Online WorldNews

World Business Review - BBC

BBC World Service

CNN.com World News

CNN.com - World News

Company and Country Reference

Companies and Industries - Hoovers On Line

Hoover's Online - CompaniesandIndustries

Companies - Annual Reports Library

The Annual Report Library

Countries - Brittanica.com

Brittanica.com

75 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Partner Links

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 76 Partner Links Investment Overview

77 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Investment Overview Partner Links

Chapter 5 Social Overview

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 78 People Social Overview

Social Overview

People

Population

The population of Côte d'Ivoire is over 20 million. The overall population density is 48 persons per sq km (124 per sq mi). Urbanization is high at 3.7 percent per annum.

Cultural Demography

Côte d'Ivoire has more than 60 ethnic groups, usually classified into five principal divisions: Akan (east and center, including Lagoon peoples of the southeast), Krou (southwest), Southern Mande (west), Northern Mande (northwest), and Senoufo/Lobi (north center and northeast). The Baoules, in the Akan division, probably comprise the largest single subgroup with 23 percent of the population. They are based in the central region around Bouake and Yamoussoukro. The Betes in the Krou division comprise 18 percent, the Senoufos in the north fifteen percent, and the Malinkes 11 percent. Most of the principal divisions have a significant presence in neighboring countries.

Of the more than five million non-Ivorian Africans living in Côte d'Ivoire, one-third to one-half are from Burkina Faso; the rest are from Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Benin, Senegal, Liberia and Mau- ritania. The non-African expatriate community includes roughly 20,000 French and 100,000 Lebanese.

French is the official national language, but Dioula and 73 other languages are spoken.

Close to a third of the population of Côte d'Ivoire is Muslim, another third percent is Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). About fifteen percent follow indigenous animist religions. Christianity dominates in the south and the center of the country. Islam is predominant in the north and northeast. This Muslim/ north, Christian/south divide is perhaps the most significant fissure in the population when considered in social and political terms.

Animism - a belief system, which affords consciousness to natural objects or to nature itself - is still present throughout the country, but increasingly it is part of syncretic religious developments in which Christianity and Islam are practiced concurrent to indigenous beliefs. Sects are recent phenomena. According to most local belief systems, spiritual beings-a creator, ancestral spirits and spirits associated with places and objects-can influence a person's life and luck. The distinction between the spiritual and physical "worlds" is irrelevant. Physical events have spiritual causes.

79 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview People

Also critical to Ivorian religion is lineage group. The spiritual unity of the descent group transcends distinctions among the unborn, the living and the deceased. Religious differences are not based on dis- agreements over dogma or doctrine. Different groups depending on their social and physical environ- ments experience different spiritual and physical dangers. While missionaries viewed this as spiritual "chaos," for Ivorians this diversity is a spiritual obligation to the ancestral spirits. There is no necessary conflict between this recognition of ancestral spirits and the belief in one creator god.

Human Development

At 49.18 years of age (46.62 for males and 51.82 for females), life expectancy in Côte d'Ivoire is low. Meanwhile, the infant mortality rate is 85.71 deaths per 1,000 live births. Literacy is also low at 48.7 percent for the total population, however, that number obfuscates gender differences; while 60.8 percent of males are literate, only 38.6 percent of females over 15 years can read and write.

HIV/AIDS is a growing social, political and economic crisis. According to the World Health Organiza- tion, 11 percent of adults in Côte d'Ivoire are HIV-positive, and the numbers are increasing. In 1986 three percent of antenatal women in Abidjan were HIV-1 positive. By 1998 this figure had reached 14 percent. Outside of Abidjan estimates range from 6 to 13 percent. HIV in high risk groups increased from 27 percent in 1986 to over 84 percent in 1992-93, leveling off at 70 percent later in the 1990s. Separate estimates from the United States government sources taken more recently place the rate of infection for the overall population at 7 percent.

One notable indicator used to measure a country's quality of life is the Human Development Index (HDI), which is compiled annually since 1990 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The HDI is a composite of several indicators, which measure a country's achievements in three main areas of human development: longevity, knowledge and education, as well as economic standard of living. In a ranking of 177 countries and territories, the HDI places Cote d'Ivoire in the low human development category, at 166th place.

Note: Although the concept of human development is complicated and cannot be properly captured by values and indices, the HDI, which is calculated and updated annually, offers a wide-ranging assessment of human development in certain countries, not based solely upon traditional economic and financial indicators.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 80 Human Development Index Social Overview

Human Development Index

Human Development Index (Ranked Numerically)

The Human Development Index (HDI) is used to measure quality of life in countries across the world. The HDI has been compiled since 1990 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) on a regular basis. The HDI is a composite of several indicators, which measure a country's achievements in three main arenas of human development: longevity, education, and economic standard of living. Although the concept of human development is complicated and cannot be properly captured by values and indices, the HDI offers a wide-ranging assessment of human development in certain countries, not based solely upon traditional economic and financial indicators. For more information about the methodology used to calculate the HDI, please see the "Source Materials" in the appendices of this review.

81 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Human Development Index

Country Rank

High Human Development

Iceland 1

Norway 2

Australia 3

Canada 4

Ireland 5

Sweden 6

Switzerland 7

Japan 8

Netherlands 9

France 10

Finland 11

United States 12

Spain 13

Denmark 14

Austria 15

United Kingdom 16

Belgium 17

Luxembourg 18

New Zealand 19

Italy 20

Hong Kong, China (SAR) 21

Germany 22

Israel 23

Greece 24

Singapore 25

Korea, South 26

Slovenia 27

Cyprus 28

Portugal 29

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 82 Human Development Index Social Overview

Brunei 30

Barbados 31

Czech Republic 32

Kuwait 33

Malta 34

Qatar 35

Hungary 36

Poland 37

Argentina 38

United Arab Emirates 39

Chile 40

Bahrain 41

Slovakia 42

Lithuania 43

Estonia 44

Latvia 45

Uruguay 46

Croatia 47

Costa Rica 48

Bahamas 49

Seychelles 50

Cuba 51

Mexico 52

Bulgaria 53

St. Kitts and Nevis 54

Tonga 55

Libya 56

Antigua and Barbuda 57

Oman 58

Trinidad and Tobago 59

Romania 60

Saudi Arabia 61

83 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Human Development Index

Panama 62

Malaysia 63

Medium Human Development

Belarus 64

Mauritius 65

Bosnia-Herzegovina 66

Russia 67

Albania 68

FYR Macedonia 69

Brazil 70

Dominica 71

St. Lucia 72

Kazakhstan 73

Venezuela 74

Colombia 75

Ukraine 76

Samoa 77

Thailand 78

Dominican Republic 79

Belize 80

China 81

Grenada 82

Armenia 83

Turkey 84

Suriname 85

Jordan 86

Peru 87

Lebanon 88

Ecuador 89

Philippines 90

Tunisia 91

Fiji 92

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 84 Human Development Index Social Overview

St. Vincent and the Grenadines 93

Iran 94

Paraguay 95

Georgia 96

Guyana 97

Azerbaijan 98

Sri Lanka 99

Maldives 100

Jamaica 101

Cape Verde 102

El Salvador 103

Algeria 104

Vietnam 105

Palestinian Territories 106

Indonesia 107

Syria 108

Turkmenistan 109

Nicaragua 110

Moldova 111

Egypt 112

Uzbekistan 113

Mongolia 114

Honduras 115

Kyrgyzstan 116

Bolivia 117

Guatemala 118

Gabon 119

Vanuatu 120

South Africa 121

Tajikistan 122

Sao Tome and Principe 123

Botswana 124

85 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Human Development Index

Namibia 125

Morocco 126

Equatorial Guinea 127

India 128

Solomon Islands 129

Laos 130

Cambodia 131

Burma 132

Bhutan 133

Comoros 134

Ghana 135

Pakistan 136

Mauritania 137

Lesotho 138

Congo (RC) 139

Bangladesh 140

Swaziland 141

Nepal 142

Madagascar 143

Cameroon 144

Papua New Guinea 145

Haiti 146

Low Human Development

Sudan 147

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 86 Human Development Index Social Overview

Kenya 148

Djibouti 149

East Timor 150

Zimbabwe 151

Togo 152

Yemen 153

Uganda 154

Gambia 155

Senegal 156

Eritrea 157

Nigeria 158

Tanzania 159

Guinea 160

Rwanda 161

Angola 162

Benin 163

Malawi 164

Zambia 165

Cote d'Ivoire 166

Burundi 167

Congo (DRC) 168

Ethiopia 169

Chad 170

Central African Republic 171

Mozambique 172

Mali 173

Niger 174

Guinea-Bissau 175

Burkina Faso 176

Sierra Leone 177

Source:

87 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Status of Women

This material is derived from the Human Development Report issued by the United Nations.

Updated: 2009

Status of Women

Gender Related Development Index (GDI) Rank:

128th out of 140 Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Rank:

Not Ranked Female Population:

8.4 million Female Life Expectancy at birth:

51.82 years Total Fertility Rate:

5.2 Maternal Mortality Ratio (2000):

690 Total Number of Women Living with HIV/AIDS:

220,000-600,000 Ever Married Women, Ages 15-19 (%):

25% Mean Age at Time of Marriage:

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 88 Status of Women Social Overview

22 Contraceptive Use Among Married Women, Any Method (%):

15% Female Adult Literacy Rate:

38.6% Combined Female Gross enrollment ratio for Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools:

34% Female-Headed Households (%):

14% Economically Active Females (%):

44% Female Contributing Family Workers (%):

N/A Female Estimated Earned Income:

$792 Seats in Parliament held by women (%):

Lower or Single House: 8.5%

Upper House or Senate: N/A Year Women Received the Right to Vote:

1952 Year Women Received the Right to Stand for Election:

1952

89 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Culture and Arts

*The Gender Development Index (GDI) is a composite index which measures the average achievement in a country. While very similar to the Human Development Index in its use of the same vari- ables, the GDI adjusts the average achievement of each country in terms of life expectancy, enrollment in schools, income, and literacy in accordance to the disparities between males and females. *The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is a composite index measuring gender inequality in three of the basic dimensions of empowerment; economic participation and decision-making, political participation and decision-making, and power over economic resources. *Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is defined as the average number of babies born to women during their reproductive years. A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement rate; once a TFR of a population reaches 2.1 the population will remain stable assuming no immigration or emigration takes place. When the TFR is greater than 2.1 a population will increase and when it is less than 2.1 a population will eventually decrease, although due to the age structure of a population it will take years before a low TFR is translated into lower population. *Maternal Mortality Rate is the number of deaths to women per 100,000 live births that resulted from conditions related to pregnancy and or delivery related complications. *Economically Active Females are the share of the female population, ages 15 and above, whom supply, or are able to supply, labor for the production of goods and services. *Female Contributing Family Workers are those females who work without pay in an economic enter- prise operated by a relative living in the same household. *Estimated Earned Income is measured according to Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) in US dollars.

Culture and Arts

Useful links for students of culture:

Foreign Language Phrases for Travelers http://www.gorin.com/phrase/ http://www.dictionaries.travlang.com/otherdicts.html http://www.linguanaut.com/

National Anthems http://www.national-anthems.net/ www.geocities.com/olusegunyayi

Holidays Around the World http://www.oanda.com/cgi/world_holiday.pl?hdnAction=search_countries

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 90 Etiquette Social Overview www.earthcalendar.net/index.php

International Recipes http://www.masterstech-home.com/The_Kitchen/Recipes/Recipe_Indices/InternationalRecipesIn- dex.html http://recipes.wuzzle.org/ http://members.tripod.com/~GabyandAndy/Internation_Recipes.html

Etiquette

Cultural Dos and Taboos

1. Give firm handshakes.

2. A safe and appreciated topic of conversation is discussing both you and your Ivorian friend's fami- lies.

3. When walking in public, don't be offended if someone begins to hiss at you. Hissing is an acceptable way for Ivorians to get other's attention.

4. Always ask permission to photograph people. Be especially sensitive to taking pictures of those living in poverty. Remember, no matter how destitute their lives may seem they have pride. No one likes for a curious tourists taking pictures of their difficult lives.

5. Traditional meals will consist of men eating first, next women, then children. The host may not offer eating utensils. When you must eat with your hands never eat with the left hand.

6. Do not feel awkward if no one speaks during the meal, plenty of conversation will take place after- ward.

91 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Travel Information

Travel Information

International Travel Guide

Checklist for Travelers

1. Take out travel insurance to cover hospital treatment or medical evacuation. Overseas medical costs are expensive to most international travelers, where one's domestic, nationalized or even private health insurance plans will not provide coverage outside one's home country. Learn about "reciprocal insurance plans" that some international health care companies might offer.

2. Make sure that one's travel insurance is appropriate. If one intends to indulge in adventurous activities, such as parasailing, one should be sure that one is fully insured in such cases. Many traditional insurance policies do not provide coverage in cases of extreme circumstances.

3. Take time to learn about one's destination country and culture. Read and learn about the place one is traveling. Also check political, economic and socio-cultural developments at the destination by reading country-specific travel reports and fact sheets noted below.

4. Get the necessary visas for the country (or countries) one intends to visit - but be aware that a visa does not guarantee entry. A number of useful sites regarding visa and other entry requirements are noted below.

5. Keep in regular contact with friends and relatives back at home by phone or email, and be sure to leave a travel itinerary.

6. Protect one's personal information by making copies of one's passport details, insurance policy, travelers checks and credit card numbers. Taking copies of such documents with you, while leaving another collection copies with someone at home is also good practice for travelers. Taking copies of one's passport photograph is also recommended.

7. Stay healthy by taking all possible precautions against illness. Also, be sure to take extra supplies of prescription drugs along for the trip, while also taking time to pack general pharmaceutical supplies, such as aspirin and other such painkillers, bandages, stomach ailment medication, anti-inflammatory medication and anti-bacterial medication.

8. Do not carry illicit drugs. Understand that the punishment for possession or use of illegal drugs in some countries may be capital punishment. Make sure your prescription drugs are legal in the countries you plan to visit.

9. Know the laws of one's destination country and culture; be sure to understand the repercussions of breaking those laws and regulations. Often the transparency and freedoms of the juridical system at home is not consistent with that of one's destination country. Become aware of these complexities and subtleties before you travel.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 92 Travel Information Social Overview

10. For longer stays in a country, or where the security situation is volatile, one should register one's self and traveling companions at the local embassy or consulate of one's country of citizenship.

11. Women should take care to be prepared both culturally and practically for traveling in a different country and culture. One should be sure to take sufficient supplies of personal feminine products and prescription drugs. One should also learn about local cultural standards for women, including norms of dressing. Be aware that it is simply inappropriate and unsafe for women to travel alone in some countries, and take the necessary precautions to avoid risk-filled situations.

12. If one is traveling with small children, one should pack extra supplies, make arrangements with the travel carrier for proper seating that would adequately accommodate children, infants or toddlers. Note also that whether one is male of female, traveling with children means that one's hands are thus not free to carry luggage and bags. Be especially aware that this makes one vulnerable to pickpockets, thieves and other sorts of crime.

13. Make proper arrangements for accommodations, well in advance of one's arrival at a destination. Some countries have limited accommodation, while others may have culturally distinctive facilities. Learning about these practicalities before one travels will greatly aid the enjoyment of one's trip.

14. Travel with different forms of currency and money (cash, traveler's checks and credit cards) in anticipation that venues may not accept one or another form of money. Also, ensuring that one's financial resources are not contained in one location, or by one person (if one is traveling with others) can be a useful measure, in the event that one loses a wallet or purse.

15. Find out about transportation in the destination country. In some places, it might be advisable to hire a local driver or taxi guide for safety reasons, while in other countries, enjoying one's travel experience may well be enhanced by renting a vehicle and seeing the local sights and culture independently. Costs may also be prohibitive for either of these choices, so again, prior planning is suggested.

Tips for Travelers

Cote d'Ivoire (a.k.a. Ivory Coast) is a developing country on the west coast of Africa. Tourism facilities in Abidjan are good; accommodations outside the capital, however, are limited in quality and availability. The ocean currents along the coast are extremely strong and treacherous and result in numerous drownings each year.

A passport is required.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

93 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Travel Information

Foreign citizens traveling to and residing in Cote d'Ivoire are urged to exercise caution and maintain security awareness at all times. Cote d'Ivoire is undergoing a period of extended political, social, and economic uncertainty. There have been several instances of violence ending in bloodshed since December 1999, when a military coup d'etat overthrew the civilian government. Although Cote d'Ivo- ire has returned to civilian rule following presidential elections in October 2000, there have been several violent encounters since that time, most recently during a failed coup d'etat in January 2001. The country has since returned to relative though uneasy calm. Furthermore, the country is experiencing a period of economic decline after years of growth, creating the potential for labor unrest. Foreign citizens should bear in mind that violent demonstrations have occurred in Cote d'Ivoire in the past and that further unrest or military action could recur with little or no warning.

Crime in Abidjan is at a critical level, with numerous carjackings, home invasions, and muggings. Armed assailants should not be resisted; they will not hesitate to use their weapons if challenged.

The Liberia/Cote d'Ivoire border region is unsettled and potentially dangerous. Travelers to this region and other areas of the country may encounter roadblocks, armed military personnel, vehicle searches, and police shakedowns. Travelers arriving at or departing from Abidjan's international airport or over land borders often experience harassment from customs or immigration officials.

Visitors should avoid political rallies and street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times. Travel at night is strongly discouraged.

Crime in Abidjan has increased over the past several years and is now at a critical level. Street crime of the "grab and run" variety, as well as pickpocketing in crowded areas, is widespread. Armed carjack- ing, robberies of businesses, and home invasions are on the rise, and are often targeted at expatriate residents who are seen to be wealthy. Armed criminals have used force when faced with resistance. Travelers displaying jewelry and carrying cameras are especially at risk. Travelers have found it useful to carry limited amounts of cash and only photocopies of key documents. It is particularly dangerous to visit the Treichville, Adjame, Abobo, and the Plateau business districts after dark. The DeGaulle and Houphouet-Boigny bridges, which cross the lagoon in Abidjan, are dangerous areas for pedestrians, even in the daytime. Many hotels, restaurants, nightclubs and supermarkets provide security guards to protect clients and their vehicles.

Visitors should use caution when traveling outside Abidjan, especially through the central western region of Cote d'Ivoire, where an increased incidence of crime has been reported. Traveling at night is discouraged. Those who are contemplating travel to the central western region and other rural areas of Cote d'Ivoire are urged to contact their embassy for the latest travel and security information.

The loss or theft abroad of a passport should be reported immediately to the local police and to your nearest embassy or consulate.

Medical facilities in Cote d'Ivoire are adequate in Abidjan, but limited elsewhere. Many medicines are unavailable.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 94 Travel Information Social Overview

Consult with your medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. When making a decision regarding health insurance, should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to your home country may be very expensive. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or whether you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

While in a foreign country, you may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in your country. The information below concerning Cote d'Ivoire is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Safety of Public Transportation: Fair

Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Good

Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor

Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Automobile accidents are one of the greatest threats to the well-being of Visitors in Cote d'Ivoire. Night driving is particularly hazardous due to poorly lit roads and vehicles. Direct or indirect requests for bribes from the police and other security officials are commonplace, especially at highway check- points and near Abidjan's airport.

Airline travel in West Africa is routinely overbooked; schedules are limited, and airline service is of varying quality. Prudent passengers get the required seat reconfirmation stamped on the ticket; ensure that they have emergency funds for food and lodging in the event of unexpected delays; and arrive at the airport at least two hours before the scheduled departure time.

While in a foreign country, you are subject to that country's laws and regulations. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in your country for similar offenses. Persons violating Ivoirian law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Cote d'Ivoire are strict and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines.

Note: This information is directly quoted from the United States Department of State Consular Infor- mation Sheet.

Sources: United States Department of State Consular Information Sheet

95 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Travel Information

Business Culture: Information for Business Travelers

French is the official language of Côte d'Ivoire. English is a second language for many people, including top government officials and business people. Business correspondence, catalogs and advertising materials prepared in French are essential and readily understood by potential buyers. Business cards or "cartes de visite" are widely used. Members of the expatriate community or those who have received their schooling abroad frequently use academic titles and degrees. Visiting business people ordinarily use their firm's name and their title translated into French.

As a rule, business customs in Côte d'Ivoire are similar to but perhaps more formal than customs in North America. Ivoirian managers in large commercial enterprises tend to follow a western-style business dress code. Tropical weight suits and clothing are appropriate throughout the year and an umbrella is essential during the June to August rainy season.

Many businesses close during the month of August for vacation. Additionally, most businesses and shops close for lunch from 12:30 p.m. until 2:30 - 3:30 p.m. Banks are open until 3:00 p.m. on week- days.

Sources: United States Department of State Commercial Guides

Online Resources Regarding Entry Requirements and Visas

Foreign Entry Requirements for Americans from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1765.html

Visa Services for Non-Americans from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/visa/visa_1750.html

Visa Bulletins from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/bulletin/bulletin_1360.html

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 96 Travel Information Social Overview

Visa Waivers from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/visa/temp/without/without_1990.html - new

Passport and Visa Information from the Government of the United Kingdom http://www.bia.homeoffice.gov.uk/

Visa Information from the Government of Australia http://www.dfat.gov.au/visas/index.html

Passport Information from the Government of Australia https://www.passports.gov.au/Web/index.aspx

Passport Information from the Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/preparation_information/passport_passeport-eng.asp

Visa Information from the Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/preparation_information/visas-eng.asp

Online Visa Processing by Immigration Experts by VisaPro http://www.visapro.com

Sources: United States Department of State, United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Government of Australia: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Government of Canada Depart- ment of Foreign Affairs and International Trade

97 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Travel Information

Useful Online Resources for Travelers

Country-Specific Travel Information from United States http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1765.html

Travel Advice by Country from Government of United Kingdom http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/

General Travel Advice from Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/General

Travel Bulletins from the Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/TravelBulletins/

Travel Tips from Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/tips/index.html

Travel Checklist by Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/preparation_information/checklist_sommaire-eng.asp

Travel Checklist from Government of United Kingdom http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/staying-safe/checklist

Your trip abroad from United States Department of State

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 98 Travel Information Social Overview

http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/brochures/brochures_1225.html

A safe trip abroad from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/safety/safety_1747.html

Tips for expatriates abroad from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/living/residing/residing_1235.html

Tips for students from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/living/studying/studying_1238.html http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/brochures/brochures_1219.html

Medical information for travelers from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/health/health_1185.html

US Customs Travel information http://www.customs.gov/xp/cgov/travel/

Sources: United States Department of State; United States Customs Department, United Kingdom For- eign and Commonwealth Office, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Government of Australia; Gov- ernment of Canada: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade

Other Practical Online Resources for Travelers

Foreign Language Phrases for Travelers

99 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Travel Information

http://www.travlang.com/languages/ http://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/index.htm

World Weather Forecasts http://www.intellicast.com/ http://www.wunderground.com/ http://www.worldweather.org/

Worldwide Time Zones, Map, World Clock http://www.timeanddate.com/ http://www.worldtimezone.com/

International Airport Codes http://www.world-airport-codes.com/

International Dialing Codes http://www.kropla.com/dialcode.htm http://www.countrycallingcodes.com/

International Phone Guide http://www.kropla.com/phones.htm

International Mobile Phone Guide http://www.kropla.com/mobilephones.htm

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International Internet Café Search Engine http://cybercaptive.com/

Global Internet Roaming http://www.kropla.com/roaming.htm

World Electric Power Guide http://www.kropla.com/electric.htm http://www.kropla.com/electric2.htm

World Television Standards and Codes http://www.kropla.com/tv.htm

International Currency Exchange Rates http://www.xe.com/ucc/

Banking and Financial Institutions Across the World http://www.123world.com/banks/index.html

International Credit Card or Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Locator http://visa.via.infonow.net/locator/global/ http://www.mastercard.com/us/personal/en/cardholderservices/atmlocations/index.html

International Chambers of Commerce http://www.123world.com/chambers/index.html

101 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Travel Information

World Tourism Websites http://123world.com/tourism/

Diplomatic and Consular Information

United States Diplomatic Posts Around the World http://www.usembassy.gov/

United Kingdom Diplomatic Posts Around the World http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/embassies-and-posts/find-an-embassy-overseas/

Australia's Diplomatic Posts Around the World http://www.dfat.gov.au/missions/ http://www.dfat.gov.au/embassies.html

Canada's Embassies and High Commissions http://www.international.gc.ca/ciw-cdm/embassies-ambassades.aspx

Resources for Finding Embassies and other Diplomatic Posts Across the World http://www.escapeartist.com/embassy1/embassy1.htm

Safety and Security

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Travel Warnings by Country from Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/

Travel Warnings and Alerts from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_1764.html http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/pa/pa_1766.html

Travel Reports and Warnings by Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/menu-eng.asp http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/updates_mise-a-jour-eng.asp

Travel Warnings from Government of United Kingdom http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/ http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/?action=noTrave- lAll#noTravelAll Sources: United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, the United States Department of State, the Government of Canada: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Government of Australia: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade

Other Safety and Security Online Resources for Travelers

United States Department of State Information on Terrorism http://www.state.gov/s/ct/

Government of the United Kingdom Resource on the Risk of Terrorism http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/Show- Page&c=Page&cid=1044011304926

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Government of Canada Terrorism Guide http://www.international.gc.ca/crime/terrorism-terrorisme.aspx?lang=eng

Information on Terrorism by Government of Australia http://www.dfat.gov.au/icat/index.html

FAA Resource on Aviation Safety http://www.faasafety.gov/

In-Flight Safety Information for Air Travel (by British Airways crew trainer, Anna Warman) http://www.warman.demon.co.uk/anna/inflight.html

Hot Spots: Travel Safety and Risk Information http://www.airsecurity.com/hotspots/HotSpots.asp

Information on Human Rights http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/

Sources: The United States Department of State, the United States Customs Department, the Govern- ment of Canada, the Government of United Kingdom, the Government of Australia, the Federal Avia- tion Authority, Anna Warman's In-flight Website, Hot Spots Travel and Risk Information

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Diseases/Health Data

Health Information for Travelers to Cote d'Ivoire

An outbreak of meningitis is currently occurring in several central, east, and west African countries, including Ethiopia, Chad, Cameroon, Burkino Faso, and Benin. For more information on this outbreak and recommendations, see the following sites:

Travelers' Health Information on Meningococcal Disease

( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/menin.htm)

World Health Organization Disease Outbreak News

( http://www.who.int/disease-outbreak-news/)

Food and waterborne diseases are the number one cause of illness in travelers. Travelers' diarrhea can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites, which are found throughout the region and can contami- nate food or water. Infections may cause diarrhea and vomiting (E. coli, Salmonella, cholera, and parasites), fever (typhoid fever and toxoplasmosis), or liver damage (hepatitis). Make sure your food and drinking water are safe. (See below.)

Malaria is a preventable infection that can be fatal if left untreated. Prevent infection by taking prescription antimalarial drugs and protecting yourself against mosquito bites (see below). Most travelers to malaria risk areas in this region should take mefloquine to prevent malaria. Your risk of malaria is high in all parts of these countries, including cities, except for most of the Cape Verde Islands. For more detailed information about the risk in specific locations, see Malaria in West Africa ( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/regionalmalaria/wafrica.htm).

Yellow fever vaccination is recommended and may be required for entry into certain of these countries. If you travel to West Africa, the easiest and safest thing to do is get a yellow fever vaccination and a signed certificate. For detailed information, see Comprehensive Yellow Fever Vaccination Require- ments ( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/yelfever.htm).

105 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Diseases/Health Data

Dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, onchocerciasis, and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are diseases carried by insects that also occur in this region. Protecting yourself against insect bites (see below) will help to prevent these diseases.

Schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection, is found in fresh water in the region. Do not swim in fresh water (except in well-chlorinated swimming pools) in these countries. (For more information, please see the Swimming Precautions on the Making Travel Safe page at URL http://www.cdc.gov/travel/safety.htm.)

Because motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of injury among travelers, walk and drive defen- sively. Avoid nighttime travel if possible and always use seat belts.

CDC Recommends the Following Vaccines (as Appropriate for Age):

See your doctor at least 4-6 weeks before your trip to allow time for shots to take effect.

• Hepatitis A or immune globulin (IG).

• Hepatitis B, if you might be exposed to blood (for example, health-care workers), have sexual contact with the local population, stay longer than 6 months, or be exposed through medical treatment.

• Meningococcal meningitis, for travel to most of these countries (see meningitis map at URL http://www.cdc.gov/travel/meninmap.htm) from December through June.

• Yellow fever.

• Rabies, if you might be exposed to wild or domestic animals through your work or recreation.

• Typhoid, particularly if you are visiting developing countries in this region.

• As needed, booster doses for tetanus-diphtheria, measles, and a one-time dose of polio vaccine for adults. Hepatitis B vaccine is now recommended for all infants and for children ages 11-12 years who did not complete the series as infants.

To Stay Healthy, Do:

• Wash hands often with soap and water.

• Drink only bottled or boiled water, or carbonated (bubbly) drinks in cans or bottles. Avoid tap water, fountain drinks, and ice cubes. If this is not possible, make water safer by BOTH filtering through an

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 106 Diseases/Health Data Social Overview

"absolute 1-micron or less" filter AND adding iodine tablets to the filtered water. "Absolute 1-micron filters" are found in camping/outdoor supply stores.

• Eat only thoroughly cooked food or fruits and vegetables you have peeled yourself. Remember: boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget it.

• Take your malaria prevention medication before, during, and after travel, as directed. (See your doctor for a prescription.)

• Protect yourself from insects by remaining in well-screened areas, using repellents (applied sparingly at 4-hour intervals) and permethrin-impregnated mosquito nets, and wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants from dusk through dawn.

• To prevent fungal and parasitic infections, keep feet clean and dry, and do not go barefoot.

• Always use latex condoms to reduce the risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases.

To Avoid Getting Sick:

• Don't eat food purchased from street vendors.

• Don't drink beverages with ice.

• Don't eat dairy products unless you know they have been pasteurized.

• Don't share needles with anyone.

• Don't handle animals (especially monkeys, dogs, and cats), to avoid bites and serious diseases (including rabies and plague). (For more information, please see the Animal-Associated Hazards on the Making Travel Safe page.)

• Don't swim in fresh water. Salt water is usually safer. (For more information, please see the Swim- ming Precautions on the Making Travel Safe page.)

What You Need To Bring with You:

• Long-sleeved shirt and long pants to wear while outside whenever possible, to prevent illnesses carried by insects (e.g., malaria, dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, and onchocerciasis).

• Insect repellent containing DEET (diethylmethyltoluamide), in 30%-35% strength for adults and 6%- 10% for children. Unless you are staying in air-conditioned or well-screened housing, purchase a bed net impregnated with the insecticide permethrin. (Bed nets can be purchased in camping or military supply stores.)

• Over-the-counter antidiarrheal medicine to take if you have diarrhea.

107 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Diseases/Health Data

• Iodine tablets and water filters to purify water if bottled water is not available. See Do's above for more details about water filters.

• Sunblock, sunglasses, hat.

• Prescription medications: make sure you have enough to last during your trip, as well as a copy of the prescription(s).

After You Return Home:

If you have visited an area where there is risk for malaria, continue taking your malaria medication weekly for 4 weeks after you leave the area.

If you become ill after your trip-even as long as a year after you return-tell your doctor where you have traveled.

For More Information:

Ask your doctor or check the CDC web sites for more information about how to protect yourself against diseases that occur in West Africa, such as:

For information about diseases-

Carried by Insects

Dengue, Malaria, Yellow Fever

Carried in Food or Water

Cholera, Escherichia coli, diarrhea, Hepatitis A, Schistosomiasis, Typhoid Fever

Person-to-Person Contact

Hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS

For more information about these and other diseases, please check the Diseases ( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/diseases.htm) section and the Health Topics A-Z ( http://www.cdc.gov/health/diseases.htm).

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Note:

This country is located in the West Africa health region.

Sources:

The Center for Disease Control Destinations Website: http://www.cdc.gov/travel/indianrg.htm

109 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Social Overview Diseases/Health Data

Chapter 6 Environmental Overview

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Environmental Overview

Environmental Issues

General Overview: Because Cote d'Ivoire is dependent economically on a small variety of agricultural products for export, very little attention has been given to the environmental effects of this kind of export-driven production. In particular, most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been cleared by the timber industry. In this way, deforestation is a severe problem in Cote d'Ivoire.

Current Issues: - Deforestation

-Threats to bio-diversity

-Over-exploitation of coastal resources

-Water pollution from industrial and agricultural effluents

-Poor waste management, contamination to water supplies, and deteriorating urban conditions

Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Mtc):

4.4

Country Rank (GHG output):

112th

Natural Hazards: -Heavy surf on the coast, which is exacerbated by the lack of natural harbors

-Torrential flooding presents a threat (during rainy season)

111 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Environmental Policy

Environmental Policy

Regulation and Jurisdiction: The regulation and protection of the environment in Cote d' Ivoire is under the jurisdiction of the following: Ministry of Housing, Living Conditions, and the Environment

Major Non-Governmental Organizations: N/A

International Environmental Accords: Party to: Biodiversity Climate Change Desertification Endangered Species Hazardous Wastes Law of the Sea Marine Dumping Ozone Layer Protection Ship Pollution Tropical Timber 83 Tropical Timber 94 Wetlands Signed but not ratified: None Kyoto Protocol Status (year ratified): Cote d'Ivoire is not a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 112 Global Environmental Snapshot Environmental Overview

Global Environmental Snapshot

Introduction

The countries of the world face many environmental challenges in common. Nevertheless, the nature and intensity of problem vary from region to region, as do various countries' respective capacities, in terms of affluence and infrastructure, to remediate threats to environmental quality.

Consciousness of perils affecting the global environment came to the fore in the last third or so of the 20th century has continued to intensify well into the new millennium. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, considerable environmental progress has been made at the level of institutional developments, international cooperation accords, and public participation. Approximately two- dozen international environmental protection accords with global implications have been promulgated since the late 1970s under auspices of the United Nations and other international organizations, together with many additional regional agreements. Attempts to address and rectify environmental problems take the form of legal frameworks, economic instruments, environmentally sound technologies and cleaner production processes as well as conservation efforts. Environmental impact assess- ments have increasingly been applied across the globe.

Environmental degradation affects the quality, or aesthetics, of human life, but it also displays potential to undermine conditions necessary for the sustainability of human life. Attitudes toward the importance of environmental protection measures reflect ambivalence derived from this bifurcation. On one hand, steps such as cleaning up pollution, dedicating parkland, and suchlike, are seen as embellish- ments undertaken by wealthy societies already assured they can successfully perform those functions deemed, ostensibly, more essential-for instance, public health and education, employment and economic development. On the other hand, in poorer countries, activities causing environmental damage- for instance the land degradation effects of unregulated logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, overgrazing, and mining-can seem justified insofar as such activities provide incomes and livelihoods.

Rapid rates of resource depletion are associated with poverty and high population growth, themselves correlated, whereas consumption per capita is much higher in the most developed countries, despite these nations' recent progress in energy efficiency and conservation. It is impossible to sequester the global environmental challenge from related economic, social and political challenges.

First-tier industrialized countries have recently achieved measurable decreases in environmental pollution and the rate of resource depletion, a success not matched in middle income and developing countries. It is believed that the discrepancy is due to the fact that industrialized countries have more developed infrastructures to accommodate changes in environmental policy, to apply environmental technologies, and to invest in public education. The advanced industrialized countries incur relatively lower costs in alleviating environmental problems, in comparison to developing countries, since in the former even extensive environmental programs represent a rather minuscule percentage of total expenditures. Conversely, budget constraints, lagged provision of basic services to the population, and other

113 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Snapshot factors such as debt service and militarization may preclude institution of minimal environmental protection measures in the poorest countries.

A synopsis for the current situation facing each region of the world follows:

Regional Synopsis: Africa

The African continent, the world's second-largest landmass, encompasses many of the world's least developed countries. By global standards, urbanization is comparatively low but rising at a rapid rate. More heavily industrialized areas at the northern and southern ends of the continent experience the major share of industrial pollution. In other regions the most serious environmental problems typically stem from inefficient subsistence farming methods and other forms of land degradation, which have affected an increasingly extensive area under pressure of a widely impoverished, fast-growing population. Africa's distribution of natural resources is very uneven. It is the continent at greatest risk of desertification, especially in the Sahel region at the edge of the Sahara but also in other dry-range areas. Yet at the same time, Africa also harbors some of the earth's richest and most diverse biological zones.

Key Points:

Up to half a billion hectares of African land are moderately to severely degraded, an occurrence reflecting short-fallow shifting cultivation and overgrazing as well as a climatic pattern of recurrent droughts.

Soil degradation is severe along the expanse directly south of the Sahara, from the west to the east coasts. Parts of southern Africa, central-eastern Africa, and the neighboring island of Madagascar suffer from serious soil degradation as well.

Africa contains about 17 percent of the world's forest cover, concentrated in the tropical belt of the continent. Many of the forests, however, are severely depleted, with an estimated 70 percent showing some degree of degradation.

Population growth has resulted in continuing loss of arable land, as inefficient subsistence farming techniques affect increasingly extensive areas. Efforts to implement settled, sustainable agriculture have met with some recent success, but much further progress in this direction is needed. Especially in previously uninhabited forestlands, concern over deforestation is intensifying.

By contrast, the African savanna remains the richest grassland in the world, supporting a substantial concentration of animal and plant life. Wildlife parks are sub-Saharan Africa's greatest tourist attrac-

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 114 Global Environmental Snapshot Environmental Overview tion, and with proper management-giving local people a stake in conservation and controlling the pace of development-could greatly enhance African economies.

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of northern, southern and eastern Africa are currently threatened, while the biological diversity in Mauritania and Madagascar is even further compromised with over 20 percent of the mammal species in these two countries currently under threat.

With marine catch trends increasing from 500,000 metric tons in the 1950s to over 3,000,000 metric tons by 2000, there was increasing concern about the reduction in fisheries and marine life, should this trend continue unabated.

Water resource vulnerability is a major concern in northeastern Africa, and a moderate concern across the rest of the continent. An exception is central Africa, which has plentiful water supplies.

Many Africans lack adequate access to resources, not just (if at all) because the resources are unevenly distributed geographically, but also through institutional failures such as faulty land tenure systems or political upheaval. The quality of Africa's natural resources, despite their spotty distribution, is in fact extraordinarily rich. The infrastructure needed to protect and benefit from this natural legacy, however, is largely lacking.

Regional Synopsis: Asia and the Pacific

Asia-earth's largest landmass-and the many large and nearly innumerable small islands lying off its Pacific shore display extraordinarily contrasting landscapes, levels of development, and degrees of environmental stress. In the classification used here, the world's smallest continent, Australia, is also included in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Asia-Pacific region is home to 9 of the world's 14 largest urban areas, and as energy use for utili- ties, industry and transport increases in developing economies, urban centers are subject to worsening air quality. Intense population density in places such as Bangladesh or Hong Kong is the quintessential image many people have of Asia, yet vast desert areas such as the Gobi and the world's highest mountain range, the Himalayas, span the continent as well. Forested areas in Southeast Asia and the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines were historically prized for their tropical hardwood, but in many places this resource is now severely depleted. Low-lying small island states are extremely vulnerable to the effects of global warming, both rising sea levels and an anticipated increase in cyclones.

Key Points:

115 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Snapshot

Asian timber reserves are forecast to be depleted in the next 40 years. Loss of natural forest is irrevers- ible in some areas, but plantation programs to restore tree cover may ameliorate a portion of the resulting land degradation.

Increased usage of fossil fuels in China and other parts of southern Asia is projected to result in a marked increase in emissions, especially in regard to carbon dioxide. The increased usage of energy has led to a marked upsurge in air pollution across the region.

Acidification is an emerging problem regionally, with sulfur dioxide emissions expected to triple by 2010 if the current growth rate is sustained. China, Thailand, India, and Korea seem to be suffering from particularly high rates of acid deposition. By contrast, Asia's most highly developed economy, Japan, has effected substantial improvements in its environmental indicators.

Water pollution in the Pacific is an urgent concern since up to 70 percent of the water discharged into the region's waters receives no treatment. Additionally, the disposal of solid wastes, in like manner, poses a major threat in a region with many areas of high population density.

The Asia-Pacific region is the largest expanse of the world's land that is adversely affected by soil degradation.

The region around Australia reportedly suffers the largest degree of ozone depletion.

The microstates of the Pacific suffer land loss due to global warming, and the consequent rise in the levels of ocean waters. A high-emissions scenario and anthropogenic climate impact at the upper end of the currently predicted range would probably force complete evacuation of the lowest-elevation islands sometime in this century.

The species-rich reefs surrounding Southeast Asia are highly vulnerable to the deleterious effects of coastal development, land-based pollution, over-fishing and exploitative fishing methods, as well as marine pollution from oil spills and other activities.

With marine catch trends increasing from 5,000,000 metric tons in the 1950s to over 20,000,000 metric tons by 2000, there was increasing concern about the reduction in fisheries and marine life, should this trend continue unabated.

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of China and south-east Asia are currently threatened, while the biological diversity in India, Japan, Australia, the Philippines, Indonesia and parts of Malay- sia is even further compromised with over 20 percent of the mammal species in these countries currently under threat.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 116 Global Environmental Snapshot Environmental Overview

Water resource vulnerability is a serious concern in areas surrounding the Indian subcontinent.

Regional Synopsis: Central Asia

The Central Asian republics, formerly in the Soviet Union, experience a range of environmental problems as the result of poorly executed agricultural, industrial, and nuclear programs during the Soviet era. Relatively low population densities are the norm, especially since upon the breakup of the U.S.S.R. many ethnic Russians migrated back to European Russia. In this largely semi-arid region, drought, water shortages, and soil salinization pose major challenges.

Key Points:

The use of agricultural pesticides, such as DDT and other chemicals, has contributed to the contamination of soil and groundwater throughout the region.

Land and soil degradation, and in particular, increased salinization, is mostly attributable to faulty irrigation practices.

Significant desertification is also a problem in the region.

Air pollution is prevalent, mostly due to use of low octane automobile fuel.

Industrial pollution of the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea, as a result of industrial effluents as well as mining and metal production, presents a challenge to the countries bordering these bodies of water.

One of the most severe environmental problems in the region is attributable to the several billion tons of hazardous materials stored in landfills across Central Asia.

Uzbekistan's particular problem involves the contraction of the Aral Sea, which has decreased in size by a third, as a consequence of river diversions and poor irrigation practices. The effect has been the near-total biological destruction of that body of water.

Kazakhstan, as a consequence of being the heartland of the former Soviet Union's nuclear program, has incurred a high of cancerous malignancies, biogenetic abnormalities and radioactive contamination.

117 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Snapshot

While part of the Soviet Union, the republics in the region experienced very high levels of greenhouse gas emissions, as a consequence of rapid industrialization using cheap but dirty energy sources, especially coal.

By contrast, however, there have recently been substantial reductions in the level of greenhouse gas emissions, especially those attributable to coal burning, with further decreases anticipated over the next decade. These changes are partially due to the use of cleaner energy technologies, such as natural gas, augmented by governmental commitment to improving environmental standards.

Regional Synopsis: Europe

Western Europe underwent dramatic transformation of its landscape, virtually eliminating large-scale natural areas, during an era of rapid industrialization, which intensified upon its recovery from World War II. In Eastern Europe and European Russia, intensive land development has been less prevalent, so that some native forests and other natural areas remain. Air and water pollution from use of dirty fuels and industrial effluents, however, are more serious environmental problems in Eastern than in Western Europe, though recent trends show improvement in many indicators. Acid rain has inflicted heavy environmental damage across much of Europe, particularly on forests. Europe and North America are the only regions in which water usage for industry exceeds that for agriculture, although in Mediterra- nean nations agriculture is the largest water consumer.

Key Points:

Europe contributes 36 percent of the world's chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 30 percent of carbon dioxide emissions, and 25 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions.

Sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions are the cause of 30 to 50 percent of Central and Eastern Europe's deforestation.

Acid rain has been an environmental concern for decades and continues to be a challenge in parts of Western Europe.

Overexploitation of up to 60 percent of Europe's groundwater presents a problem in industrial and urban areas.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 118 Global Environmental Snapshot Environmental Overview

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of western Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia are currently threatened, while the biological diversity on the Iberian Peninsula is even further compromised with over 40 percent of the mammal species in this region currently under threat. As a result, there has been a 10 percent increase in protected areas of Europe.

A major environmental issue for Europe involves the depletion of various already endangered or threatened species, and most significantly, the decline of fish stocks. Some estimates suggest that up to 50 percent of the continent's fish species may be considered endangered species. Coastal fisheries have been over-harvested, resulting in catch limits or moratoriums on many commercially important fish species.

Fortunately, in the last few years, these policies have started to yield measurable results with decreasing trends in marine fish catch.

Recently, most European countries have adopted cleaner production technologies, and alternative methods of waste disposal, including recycling.

The countries of Eastern Europe have made air quality a major environmental priority. This is exemplified by the Russian Federation's addition to the 1995 "Berlin Mandate" (transnational legislation based on resolutions of the Rio Earth Summit) compelling nations to promote "carbon sinks" to absorb greenhouse gases.

On a relative basis, when compared with the degree of industrial emissions emitted by many Eastern European countries until the late 1980s, there has been some marked increase in air quality in the region, as obsolete plants are closed and a transition to cleaner fuels and more efficient energy use takes place.

Regional Synopsis: The Middle and Near East

Quite possibly, the Middle East will exemplify the adage that, as the 20th century was a century fixated on oil, the 21st century will be devoted to critical decisions about water. Many (though far from all) nations in the Middle East rank among those countries with the largest oil and gas reserves, but water resources are relatively scarce throughout this predominantly dry region. Effects of global warming may cause moderately high elevation areas that now typically receive winter "snowpack" to experience mainly rain instead, which would further constrain dry-season water availability. The antiquities and religious shrines of the region render it a great magnet for tourism, which entails considerable economic growth potential but also intensifies stresses on the environment.

Key Points:

119 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Snapshot

Water resource vulnerability is a serious concern across the entire region. The increased usage of, and further demand for water, has exacerbated long-standing water scarcity in the region. For instance, river diversions and industrial salt works have caused the Dead Sea to shrink by one-third from its original surface area, with further declines expected.

The oil industry in the region contributes to water pollution in the Persian Gulf, as a result of oil spills, which have averaged 1.2 million barrels of oil spilt per year (some sources suggest that this figure is understated). The consequences are severe because even after oil spills have been cleaned up, environmental damage to the food webs and ecosystems of marine life will persist for a prolonged period.

The region's coastal zone is considered one of the most fragile and endangered ecosystems of the world. Land reclamation, shoreline construction, discharge of industrial effluents, and tourism (such as diving in the Red Sea) contribute to widespread coastal damage.

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of the Middle East are currently threatened.

Since the 1980s, 11 percent of the region's natural forest has been depleted.

Regional Synopsis: Latin America and the Caribbean

The Latin American and Caribbean region is characterized by exceedingly diverse landforms that have generally seen high rates of population growth and economic development in recent decades. The percentage of inhabitants residing in urban areas is quite high at 73.4 percent; the region includes the meg- acities of Mexico City, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro. The region also includes the world's second- highest mountain range, the Andes; significant expanses of desert and grassland; the coral reefs of the Caribbean Sea; and the world's largest contiguous tropical forest in the Amazon basin. Threats to the latter from subsistence and commercial farming, mineral exploitation and timbering are well publicized. Nevertheless, of eight countries worldwide that still retain at least 70 percent of their original forest cover, six are in Latin America. The region accounts for nearly half (48.3 percent) of the world's greenhouse gas emissions derived from land clearing, but as yet a comparatively minuscule share (4.3 percent) of such gases from industrial sources.

Key Points:

Although Latin America is one of the most biologically diverse regions of the world, this biodiversity is highly threatened, as exemplified by the projected extinction of up to 100,000 species in the next few decades. Much of this loss will be concentrated in the Amazon area, although the western coastline of South America will also suffer significant depletion of biological diversity. The inventory of rainforest species with potentially useful commercial or medical applications is incomplete, but pre- sumed to include significant numbers of such species that may become extinct before they are discovered and identified.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 120 Global Environmental Snapshot Environmental Overview

Up to 50 percent of the region's grazing land has lost its soil fertility as a result of soil erosion, salinization, alkalinization and overgrazing.

The Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean have all been contaminated by agricultural wastes, which are discharged into streams that flow into these major waters. Water pollution derived from phosphorous, nitrates and pesticides adversely affects fish stocks, contributes to oxygen depletion and fosters overgrowth of aquatic vegetation. Marine life will continue to be severely compromised as a result of these conditions.

Due to industrial development in the region, many beaches of eastern Latin America and the Caribbean suffer from tar deposits.

Most cities in the region lack adequate sewage treatment facilities, and rapid migration of the rural poor into the cities is widening the gap between current infrastructure capacity and the much greater level needed to provide satisfactory basic services.

The rainforest region of the Amazon Basin suffers from dangerously high levels of deforestation, which may be a significant contributory factor to global warming or "the greenhouse effect." In the late 1990s and into the new millennium, the rate of deforestation was around 20 million acres of rainforest being destroyed annually.

Deforestation on the steep rainforest slopes of Caribbean islands contributes to soil erosion and landslides, both of which then result in heavy sedimentation of nearby river systems. When these sedimented rivers drain into the sea and coral reefs, they poison the coral tissues, which are vital to the maintenance of the reef ecosystem. The result is marine degradation and nutrient depletion. Jamaica's coral reefs have never quite recovered from the effects of marine degradation.

The Southern Cone of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay) suffers the effects of greatly increased ultraviolet-B radiation, as a consequence of more intense ozone depletion in the southern hemisphere.

Water resource vulnerability is an increasingly major concern in the northwestern portion of South America.

Regional Synopsis: North America

North American nations, in particular the United States and Canada, rank among the world's most highly developed industrial economies-a fact which has generated significant pollution problems, but

121 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Snapshot also financial resources and skills that have enabled many problems to be corrected. Although efforts to promote energy efficiency, recycling, and suchlike have helped ease strains on the environment in a part of the world where per capita consumption levels are high, sprawling land development patterns and recent preferences many households have demonstrated for larger vehicles have offset these advances.

Meanwhile, a large portion of North America's original forest cover has been lost, though in many cases replaced by productive second-growth woodland. In recent years, attitudes toward best use of the region's remaining natural or scenic areas seem to be shifting toward recreation and preservation and away from resource extraction. With increasing attention on the energy scarcity in the United States, however, there is speculation that this shift may be short-lived. Indeed, the energy shortage on the west coast of the United States and associated calls for energy exploration, indicate a possible retrenchment toward resource extraction. At the same time, however, it has also served to highlight the need for energy conservation as well as alternative energy sources.

Despite generally successful anti-pollution efforts, various parts of the region continue to suffer significant air, water and land degradation from industrial, vehicular, and agricultural emissions and runoff. Mexico, as a middle-income country, displays environmental problems characteristic of a developing economy, including forest depletion, pollution from inefficient industrial processes and dirty fuels, and lack of sufficient waste-treatment infrastructure.

Key Points:

Because of significantly greater motor vehicle usage in the United States (U.S.) than in the rest of the world, the U.S. contribution of urban air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide, is disproportionately high in relation to its population.

Acid rain is an enduring issue of contention in the northeastern part of the United States, on the border with Canada.

Mexico's urban areas suffer extreme air pollution from carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and other toxic air pollutants. Emissions controls on vehicles are in their infancy, compared to analogous regulations in the U.S.

The cities of Mexico, including those on the U.S. border, also discharge large quantities of untreated or poorly treated sewage, though officials are currently planning infrastructure upgrades.

Deforestation is noteworthy in various regions of the U.S., especially along the northwest coastline. Old growth forests have been largely removed, but in the northeastern and upper midwestern sections of the United States, evidence suggests that the current extent of tree cover probably surpasses the figure for the beginning of the 20th century.

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Extreme weather conditions in the last few years have resulted in a high level of soil erosion along the north coast of California; in addition, the coastline itself has shifted substantially due to soil erosion and concomitant landslides.

Agricultural pollution-including nitrate contamination of well water, nutrient runoff to waterways, and pesticide exposure-is significant in various areas. Noteworthy among affected places are California's Central Valley, extensive stretches of the Midwest, and land in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Inland waterways, especially around the Great Lakes, have substantially improved their water quality, due to concentrated efforts at reducing water pollution by governmental, commercial and community representatives. Strict curbs on industrial effluents and near-universal implementation of sewage treatment are the chief factors responsible for this improvement.

A major environmental issue for Canada and the United States involves the depletion of various already endangered or threatened species, and most significantly, the decline of fish stocks. Coastal fisheries have been over-harvested, resulting in catch limits or moratoriums on many commercially important fish species. In the last few years, these policies have started to yield measurable results with decreasing trends in marine fish catch.

Due to the decay of neighboring ecosystems in Central America and the Caribbean, the sea surrounding Florida has become increasingly sedimented, contributing to marine degradation, nutrient depletion of the ecosystem, depletion of fish stocks, and diseases to coral species in particular.

Polar Regions

Key Points:

The significant rise in sea level, amounting 10 to 25 centimeters in the last 100 years, is due to the melting of the Arctic ice sheets, and is attributed to global warming.

The Antarctic suffers from a significant ozone hole, first detected in 1976. By 1985, a British scientific team reported a 40 percent decrease in usual regeneration rates of the ozone. Because a sustained increase in the amount of ultraviolet-B radiation would have adverse consequences upon all planetary life, recent environmental measures have been put into effect, aimed at reversing ozone depletion. These measures are projected to garner significant results by 2050.

Due to air and ocean currents, the Arctic is a sink for toxic releases originally discharged thousands of miles away. Arctic wildlife and Canada's Inuit population have higher bodily levels of contaminants such as PCB and dioxin than those found in people and animals in much of the rest of the world.

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Global Environmental Concepts 1. Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases The Greenhouse Effect: In the early 19th century, the French physicist, Jean Fourier, contended that the earth's atmosphere functions in much the same way as the glass of a greenhouse, thus describing what is now understood as the "greenhouse effect." Put simply, the "greenhouse effect" confines some of the sun's energy to the earth, preserving some of the planet's warmth, rather than allowing it to flow back into space. In so doing, all kinds of life forms can flourish on earth. Thus, the "greenhouse effect" is necessary to sustain and preserve life forms and ecosystems on earth. In the late 19th century, a Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius, noticed that human activities, such as the burning of coal and other fossil fuels for heat, and the removal of forested lands for urban development, led to higher concentrations of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, in the atmosphere. This increase in the levels of greenhouse gases was believed to advance the "greenhouse effect" exponentially, and might be related to the trend in global warming. In the wake of the Industrial Revolution, after industrial development took place on a large scale and the total human population burgeoned simultaneously with industrialization, the resulting increase in greenhouse gas emissions could, many scientists believe, be significant enough to have some bearing on climate. Indeed, many studies in recent years support the idea that there is a linkage between human activities and global warming, although there is less consensus on the extent to which this linkage may be relevant to environmental concerns. That said, some scientists have argued that temperature fluctuations have existed throughout the evolution of the planet. Indeed, Dr. S. Fred Singer, the president of the Science and Environment Policy Project has noted that 3,000-year-old geological records of ocean sediment reveal changes in the surface temperature of the ocean. Hence, it is possible that climate variability is merely a normal fact of the planet's evolution. Yet even skeptics as to anthropogenic factors concur that any substantial changes in global temperatures would likely have an effect upon the earth's ecosystems, as well as the life forms that inhabit them.

The Relationship Between Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases: A large number of climatologists believe that the increase in atmospheric concentrations of "greenhouse gas emissions," mostly a consequence of human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, are contributing to global warming. The cause notwithstanding, the planet has reportedly warmed 0.3°C to 0.6°C over the last century. Indeed, each year during the 1990s was one of the very warmest in the 20th century, with the mean surface temperature for 1999 being the fifth warmest on record since 1880. In early 2000, a panel of atmospheric scientists for the National Research Council concluded in a report that global warming was, indeed, a reality. While the panel, headed by Chairman John Wallace, a professor of atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington, stated that it remained unclear whether human activities have contributed to the earth's increasing temperatures, it was apparent that global warming exists.

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In 2001, following a request for further study by the incoming Bush administration in the United States, the National Academy of Sciences again confirmed that global warming had been in existence for the last 20 years. The study also projected an increase in temperature between 2.5 degrees and 10.4 degrees Fahrenheit by the year 2100. Furthermore, the study found the leading cause of global warming to be emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, and it noted that greenhouse gas accumulations in the earth's atmosphere was a result of human activities. Within the scientific community, the controversy regarding has centered on the difference between surface air and upper air temperatures. Information collected since 1979 suggests that while the earth's surface temperature has increased by about a degree in the past century, the atmospheric temperature five miles above the earth's surface has indicated very little increase. Nevertheless, the panel stated that this discrepancy in temperature between surface and upper air does not invalidate the conclusion that global warming is taking place. Further, the panel noted that natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, can decrease the temperature in the upper atmosphere. The major consequences of global warming potentially include the melting of the polar ice caps, which, in turn, contribute to the rise in sea levels. Many islands across the globe have already experienced a measurable loss of land as a result. Because global warming may increase the rate of evapora- tion, increased precipitation, in the form of stronger and more frequent storm systems, is another potential outcome. Other consequences of global warming may include the introduction and proliferation of new infectious diseases, loss of arable land (referred to as "desertification"), destructive changes to existing ecosystems, loss of biodiversity and the isolation of species, and concomitant adverse changes in the quality of human life.

International Policy Development in Regard to Global Warming: Regardless of what the precise nature of the relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and global warming may be, it seems that there is some degree of a connection between the phenomena. Any substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and global warming trends will likely involve system- atic changes in industrial operations, the use of advanced energy sources and technologies, as well as global cooperation in implementing and regulating these transformations. In this regard, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) stipulated the following objectives:

1. To stabilize "greenhouse gas" concentrations within the atmosphere, in such a manner that would preclude hazardous anthropogenic intervention into the existing biosphere and ecosystems of the world. This stabilization process would facilitate the natural adaptation of ecosystems to changes in climate.

2. To ensure and enable sustainable development and food production on a global scale.

Special Entry: The Kyoto Protocol The UNFCCC was adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, and entered into force in 1994. Over 175 parties were official participants.

Meanwhile, however, many of the larger, more industrialized nations failed to reach the emissions' reduction targets, and many UNFCCC members agreed that the voluntary approach to reducing emissions had not been successful. As such, UNFCCC members reached a consensus that legally binding limits were necessitated, and agreed to discuss such a legal paradigm at a meeting in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. At that meeting, the UNFCCC forged the Kyoto Protocol. This concord is the first legally binding international agreement that places limits on emissions from industrialized countries. The major

125 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Concepts greenhouse gas emissions addressed in the Kyoto Protocol include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and methane.

The provisions of the Kyoto Protocol stipulate that economically advanced nations must reduce their combined emissions of greenhouse gases, by approximately five percent from their 1990 levels, before the 2008-2010 deadline. Countries with the highest carbon dioxide emissions, such as the United States (U.S.), many of the European Union (EU) countries, and Japan, are to reduce emissions by a scale of 6 to 8 percent. All economically advanced nations must show "demonstrable progress" by 2005. In contrast, no binding limits or timetable have been set on developing countries. Presumably, this distinction is due to the fact that most developing countries -- with the obvious exceptions of India and China -- simply do not emit as many greenhouse gases as do more industrially advanced countries. Meanwhile, these countries are entrenched in the process of economic development.

Regardless of the aforementioned reasoning, there has been strong opposition against the asymmetrical treatment assigned to emissions limits among developed and developing countries. Although this distinction might be regarded as unfair in principle, associations such as the Alliance of Small Island States have been vocal in expressing how global warming -- a result of greenhouse gas emissions - has contributed to the rise in sea level, and thus deleteriously affected their very existence as island nation states. For this reason, some parties have suggested that economically advanced nations, upon return- ing to their 1990 levels, should be required to further reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by a deadline of 2005. In response, interested parties have observed that even if such reductions were undertaken by economically advanced nations, they would not be enough to completely control global warming. Indeed, a reduction in the rate of fossil fuel usage by developing nations would also be necessary to have substantial ameliorative effect on global warming. Indeed, a reduction in the rate of fossil fuel usage by developing nations would also be necessary to have substantial ameliorative effect on global warming.

As such, the Protocol established a "Clean Development Mechanism" which permits developed countries to invest in projects aimed at reducing emissions within developing countries in return for credit for the reductions. Ostensibly, the objective of this mechanism is to curtail emissions in developing countries without unduly penalizing them for their economic development. Under this model, the countries with more potential emissions credits could sell them to other signatories of the Kyoto Proto- col, whose emissions are forecast to significantly rise in the next few years. Should this trading of emissions credits take place, it is estimated that the Kyoto Protocol's emissions targets could still be met.

In 1999, the International Energy Outlook projected that Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and Newly Independent States, as well as parts of Asia, are all expected to show a marked decrease in their level of energy-related carbon emissions in 2010. Nations with the highest emissions, specifically, the U.S., the EU and Japan, are anticipated to reduce their emissions by up to 8 percent by 2012. By 2000, however, the emissions targets were not on schedule for achievement. Indeed, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates forecast that by 2010, there will be a 34 percent increase in carbon emissions from the 1990 levels, in the absence of major shifts in policy, economic growth, energy prices, and consumer trends. Despite this assessment in the U.S., international support for the Kyoto Protocol remained strong, especially among European countries and island states, who view the pact as one step in the direction away from reliance on fossil fuels and other sources of greenhouse gases.

In 2001, U.S. President, George W. Bush, rejected his country's participation in the Kyoto Protocol, saying that the costs imposed on the global economic system, and especially, on the US, overshadowed the benefits of the Protocol. He also cited the unfair burden on developed nations to reduce emissions,

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 126 Global Environmental Concepts Environmental Overview as another primary reasons for withdrawal from the international pact, as well as insufficient evidence regarding the science of global warming. Faced with impassioned international disapproval for his position, the U.S. president stated that his administration remained interested in dealing with the matter of global warming, but would endorse alternative measures to combat the problem, such as voluntary initiatives limiting emissions. Critics of Bush's position, however, have noted that it was the failure of voluntary initiatives to reduce emissions following the Rio Summit that led to the establishment of the Kyoto Protocol in the first place.

In the wake of the Bush administration's decision, many participant countries resigned themselves to the reality that the goals of the Kyoto Protocol might not be achieved without U.S. involvement. Nev- ertheless, in Bonn, Germany, in July 2001, the remaining participant countries struck a political compromise on some of the key issues and sticking points, and planned to move forward with the Protocol, irrespective of the absence of the U.S. The key compromise points included the provision for countries to offset their targets with carbon sinks (these are areas of forest and farmland which can absorb carbon through the process of photosynthesis). Another compromise point within the broader Bonn Agree- ment was the reduction of emissions cuts of six gases from over 5 percent to a more achievable 2 percent. A third key change was the provision of funding for less wealthy countries to adopt more progressive technologies.

In late October and early November 2001, the UNFCC's 7th Conference of the Parties met in Mar- rakesh, Morocco, to finalize the measures needed to make the Kyoto Protocol operational. Although the UNFCC projected that ratification of the Protocol would make it legally binding within a year, many critics noted that the process had fallen short of implementing significant changes in policy that would be necessary to actually stop or even slow climate change. They also maintained that the absence of U.S. participation effectively rendered the Protocol into being a political exercise without any substance, either in terms of transnational policy or in terms of environmental concerns.

The adoption of the compromises ensconced within the Bonn Agreement had been intended to make the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol more palatable to the U.S. In this regard, it failed to achieve its objective as the Bush administration continued to eschew participation in the international accord. Still, however, the Bonn Agreement did manage to render a number of other positive outcomes. Spe- cifically, in 2002, key countries, such as Russia, Japan and Canada agreed to ratify the protocol, bringing the number of signatories to 178. The decision by key countries to ratify the protocol was regarded as "the kiss of life" by observers. By 2005, on the eve of a climate change conference in London , British Prime Minister Tony Blair was hoping to deal with the problems of climate change beyond the provisions set forth in the Kyoto Protocol. Acknowledging that the Kyoto Protocol could not work in its current form, Blair wanted to open the discussion for a new climate change plan. Blair said that although most of the world had signed on to Kyoto , the protocol could not meet any of its practical goals of cutting greenhouse gas emissions without the participation of the United States , the world's largest polluter. He also noted that any new agreement would have to include India and China -- significant producers of greenhouse gas emissions, but exempt from Kyoto

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because they have been classified as developing countries. Still, he said that progress on dealing with climate change had been stymied by "a reluctance to face up to reality and the practical action needed to tackle problem." Blair also touted the "huge opportunities" in technology and pointed toward the possibilities offered by wind, solar and nuclear power, along with fuel cell technology, eco-friendly biofuels, and carbon cap- ture and storage which could generate low carbon power. Blair also asserted that his government was committed to achieving its domestic goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20 percent by 2010. In the United States , President George W. Bush has said that global warming remained a debatable issue and despite con- clusions reached by his own Environmental Protection Agency, he has not agreed with the conclusion that global warming and climate change are linked with human activities. Bush has also refused to ratify Kyoto on the basis of its economic costs. Australia , an ally of the United States , has taken a similarly dim view of the Kyoto Protocol. Ahead of the November 2005 climate change meeting in Canada in which new goals for the protocol were to be discussed, Australia 's Environment Minister, Ian Campbell, said that negotiating new greenhouse gas emission levels for the Kyoto Protocol would be a waste of time. Campbell said, "There is a consensus that the caps, targets and timetables approach is flawed. If we spend the next five years arguing about that, we'll be fiddling and negotiating while Rome burns." Campbell , like the Bush administration, has also advocated a system of voluntary action in which industry takes up new technologies rather than as a result of compelling the reduction of emissions. But the Austra- lian Conservation Foundation (ACF) has called on its government to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, to establish a system of emissions trading, and to set binding limits on emissions. Interestingly, although it did not sign on to Kyoto , Australia was expected to meet its emissions target by 2012 (an 8 percent increase in 1990 levels in keeping with the country's reliance on coal). But this success has nothing to do with new technologies and is due to state-based regulations on land clearing. Note: The Kyoto Protocol calls for developed nations to cut greenhouse emissions by 5.2 percent of 1990 levels by 2012.

Special Entry: Climate Change Summit in Copenhagen (2009) --

In December 2009, the United Nations Climate Change Summit opened in the Danish capital of Copenhagen. The summit was scheduled to last from Dec. 7-18, 2009. Delegates from more than 190

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 128 Global Environmental Concepts Environmental Overview countries were in attendance, and approximately 100 world leaders, including British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and United States President Barack Obama, were expected to participate. At issue was the matter of new reductions targets on greenhouse gas emissions by 2020.

Despite earlier fears that little concurrence would come from the conference, effectively pushing significant actions forward to a 2010 conference in Mexico City, negotiators were now reporting that the talks were productive and several key countries, such as South Africa, had pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The two main issues that could still lead to cleavages were questions of agreement between the industrialized countries and the developing countries of the world, as well as the overall effectiveness of proposals in seriously addressing the perils of climate change.

On Dec. 9, 2009, four countries -- the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico and Norway -- presented a document outlining ideas for raising and managing billions of dollars, which would be intended to help vulnerable countries dealing with the perils of climate change. Described as a "green fund," the concept could potentially help small island states at risk because of the rise in sea level. Bangladesh identified itself as a potential recipient of an assistance fund, noting that as a country plagued by devastating floods, it was particularly hard-hit by climate change. The "green fund" would fall under the rubric of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, for which developed countries have been committed to quantifying their emission reduction targets, and also to providing financial and technical support to developing countries.

The United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico and Norway also called for the creation of a new legal treaty that would replace the Kyoto Protocol. This new treaty, which could go into force in 2012, would focus largely on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. But Australia went even further in saying that the successor treaty to the Kyoto Protocol, should be one with provisions covering all countries. Such a move would be a departure from the structure of the Kyoto Protocol, which contained emissions targets for industrialized countries due to the prevailing view that developed countries had a particular historic responsibility to be accountable for climate change. More recently, it has become apparent that substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions demanded by scientists would only come to pass with the participation also of significant developing nation states, such as China and India. Indeed, one of the most pressing critiques of the Kyoto Protocol was that it was a "paper tiger" that failed to address the impact of the actions of emerging economies like China and India, with its focus on the developed economies.

Now, in 2009, China -- as the world's biggest greenhouse gas emitter -- was responding this dubious distinction by vocalizing its criticism of the current scenario and foregrounding its new commitments. Ahead of the Copenhagen summit, China had announced it would reduce the intensity of its carbon emissions per unit of its GDP in 2020 by 40 to 45 percent against 2005 levels. With that new commitment at hand, China was now accusing the United States and the European Union of shirking their own responsibilities by setting weak targets for greenhouse gas emissions cuts. Senior Chinese negotiator, Su Wei, characterized the goals of the world's second largest greenhouse gas emitter -- the United States -- as "not notable," and the European Union's target as "not enough." Su Wei also took issue with Japan for setting implausible preconditions.

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On Dec. 11, 2009, China demanded that developed and wealthy countries in Copenhagen should help deliver a real agreement on climate change by delivering on their promises to reduce carbon emissions and provide financial support for developing countries to adapt to global warming. In so doing, China's Vice Foreign Minister He Yafei said his country was hoping that a "balanced outcome" would emerge from the discussions at the summit. Echoing the position of the Australian government, He Yafei spoke of a draft agreement as follows: "The final document we're going to adopt needs to be taking into account the needs and aspirations of all countries, particularly the most vulnerable ones."

China's Vice Foreign Minister emphasized the fact that climate change was "a matter of survival" for developing countries, and accordingly, such countries need wealthier and more developed countries to accentuate not only their pledges of emissions reduction targets, but also their financial commitments under the aforementioned United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. To that end, scientists and leaders of small island states in the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, have highlighted the existential threat posed by global warming and the concomitant rise in sea level.

China aside, attention was also on India -- another major player in the developing world and a country with an industrializing economy that was impacting the environment. At issue was the Indian government's decision to set a carbon intensity target, which would slow emissions growth by up to 25 percent by the 2020 deadline. This strong position was resisted by some elements in India, who argued that their country should not be taking such a strong position when developed wealthy countries were yet to show accountability for their previous commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The matter grew so heated that the members of the opposition stormed out of the parliament in protest as Indian Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh defended the policy. But the political pressure at home in India was leaving the Indian delegation in Copenhagen in a state of chaos as well. In fact, India's top environmental negotiator refused to travel to Copenhagen in protest of the government's newly- announced stance.

China and India were joined by Brazil and South Africa in the crafting of a draft document calling for a new global climate treaty to be completed by June 2010. Of concern has been the realization that there was insufficient time to find concurrence on a full legal treaty, which would leave countries only with a politically-binding text by the time the summit at Copenhagen closed. But Guyana's leader, President Bharrat Jagdeo, warned that the summit in Denmark would be classified as a failure unless a binding document was agreed upon instead of just political consensus. He urged his cohorts to act with purpose saying, "Never before have science, economics, geo-strategic self-interest and politics inter- sected in such a way on an issue that impacts everyone on the planet."

Likewise, Tuvalu demanded that legally binding agreements emerge from Copenhagen. Its proposal was supported by many of the vulnerable countries, from small island states and sub-Saharan Africa, all of whom warned of the catastrophic impact of climate change on their citizens. Tuvalu also called for more aggressive action, such as an amendment to the 1992 agreement, which would focus on sharp greenhouse gas emissions and the accepted rise in temperatures, due to the impact the rise in seas. The delegation from Kiribati joined the call by drawing attention to the fact that one village had to be aban- doned due to waist-high water, and more such effects were likely to follow.

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Kiribati's Foreign Secretary, Tessie Lambourne, warned that the people of Kiribati could well be faced with no homeland in the future saying, "Nobody in this room would want to leave their homeland." But despite such impassioned pleas and irrespective of warnings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that the rise in sea level from melting polar ice caps would deleteriously affect low- lying atolls such as such as Tuvalu and Kiribati in the Pacific, and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, the oil-giant Saudi Arabia was able to block this move.

Meanwhile, within the developed countries, yet another power struggle was brewing. The European Union warned that it would only agree to raise its target of 20 percent greenhouse gas emissions reductions to 30 percent if the United States demonstrated that it would do more to reduce its own emissions. It was unknown if such pressure would yield results. United States President Barack Obama offered a "provisional" 2020 target of 17 percent reductions, noting that he could not offer greater con- cessions at Copenhagen due to resistance within the United States Congress, which was already trying to pass a highly controversial "cap and trade" emissions legislation. However, should that emissions trading bill fail in the Senate, the United States Environment Protection Agency's declaration that greenhouse gases pose a danger to human health and the environment was expected to facilitate further regulations and limits on power plants and factories at the national level. These moves could potentially strengthen the Obama administration's offering at Copenhagen. As well, President Obama also signaled that he would be willing to consider the inclusion of international forestry credits.

Such moves indicated a willingness by the Obama administration to play a more constructive role on the international environmental scene than its predecessor, the Bush administration. Indeed, ahead of his arrival at the Copenhagen summit, President Barack Obama's top environmental advisors promised to work on a substantial climate change agreement. To that end, United States Environmental Protec- tion Agency Administrator Lisa Jackson said at a press conference, "We are seeking robust engagement with all of our partners around the world." But would this pro-engagement assertion yield actual results?

By Dec. 12, 2009, details related to a draft document prepared by Michael Zammit Cutajar, the head of the Ad-hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action, were released at the Copenhagen climate conference. Included in the document were calls for countries to make major reductions in carbon emissions over the course of the next decade. According to the Washington Post, industrialized countries were called on to make cuts of between 25 percent and 40 percent below 1990 levels -- reductions that were far more draconian than the United States was likely to accept. As discussed above, President Obama had offered a provisional reduction target of 17 percent. The wide gap between the released draft and the United States' actual stated position suggested there was much more negotiating in the offing if a binding agreement could be forged, despite the Obama administration's claims that it was seeking greater engagement on this issue.

In other developments, the aforementioned call for financial support of developing countries to deal with the perils of climate change was partly answered by the European Union on Dec. 11, 2009. The European bloc pledged an amount of 2.4 billion euros (US$3.5 billion) annually from 2010 to 2012. Environment Minister Andreas Carlgren of Sweden -- the country that holds the rotating presidency of the European Union at the time of the summit -- put his weight behind the notion of a "legally binding deal." Meanwhile, Yvo de Boer, a top United Nations climate change official, focused less on the

131 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Concepts essence of the agreement and more on tangible action and effects saying, "Copenhagen will only be a success if it delivers significant and immediate action that begins the day the conference ends."

The division between developed and developing countries in Copenhagen reached new heights on Dec. 14, 2009, when some of the poor and less developed countries launched a boycott at the summit. The move, which was spurred by African countries but backed by China and India, appeared to be geared toward redirecting attention and primary responsibility to the wealthier and more industrialized countries. The impasse was resolved after the wealthier and more industrialized countries offered assurances that they did not intend on shirking from their commitments to reducing greenhouse gases. As a result, the participating countries ceased the boycott.

Outside the actual summit, thousands of protestors had gathered to demand crucial global warming, leading to clashes between police and demonstrators elsewhere in the Danish capital city. There were reports of scattered violence across Copenhagen and more than 1,000 people were arrested.

Editor's Note

In the background of these developments was the growing global consciousness related to global warming and climate change. Indeed, as the Copenhagen summit was ongoing, it was clear there was enormous concurrence on the significance of the stakes with an editorial on the matter of climate change being published in 56 newspapers in 45 countries. That editorial warned that without global action, climate change would "ravage our planet." Meanwhile, a global survey taken by Globescan showed that concern over global warming had exponentially increased from 1998 -- when only 20 percent of respondents believed it to be a serious problem -- to 64 percent in 2009. Such survey data, however, was generated ahead of the accusations by climate change skeptics that some climate scientists may have overstated the case for global warming, based on emails derived in an illicit manner from a British University.

2. Air Pollution

Long before global warming reared its head as a significant issue, those concerned about the environment and public health noted the deleterious effects of human-initiated combustion upon the atmosphere. Killer smogs from coal burning triggered acute health emergencies in London and other places. At a lower level of intensity motor vehicle, power plant, and industrial emissions impaired long-range visibility and probably had some chronic adverse consequences on the respiratory systems of persons breathing such air.

In time, scientists began associating the sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released from coal burning with significant acid deposition in the atmosphere, eventually falling as "acid rain." This phenomenon has severely degraded forestlands, especially in Europe and a few parts of the United States. It has also impaired some aquatic ecosystems and eaten away the surface of some human artifacts, such as marble monuments. Scrubber technology and conversion to cleaner fuels have enabled the level of industrial production to remain at least constant while significantly reducing acid deposition. Technologies aimed at cleaning the air and curtailing acid rain, soot, and smog may, nonetheless, boomerang as the perils of global warming become increasingly serious. In brief, these particulates act as sort of a sun shade -- comparable to the effect of volcanic eruptions on the upper atmosphere whereby periods of

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 132 Global Environmental Concepts Environmental Overview active volcanism correlate with temporarily cooler weather conditions. Thus, while the carbon dioxide releases that are an inevitable byproduct of combustion continue, by scrubbing the atmosphere of pollutants, an industrial society opens itself to greater insolation (penetration of the sun's rays and consequent heating), and consequently, it is likely to experience a correspondingly greater rise in ambient temperatures.

The health benefits of removing the sources of acid rain and smog are indisputable, and no one would recommend a return to previous conditions. Nevertheless, the problematic climatic effects of continually increasing emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases pose a major global environmental challenge, not as yet addressed adequately.

3. Ozone Depletion

The stratospheric ozone layer functions to prevent ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth. Nor- mally, stratospheric ozone is systematically disintegrated and regenerated through natural photochemi- cal processes. The stratospheric ozone layer, however, has been depleted unnaturally as a result of anthropogenic (man-made) chemicals, most especially chlorine and bromide compounds such as chlo- roflorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and various industrial chemicals in the form of solvents, refrigerants, foaming agents, aerosol propellants, fire retardants, and fumigants. Ozone depletion is of concern because it permits a greater degree of ultraviolet-B radiation to reach the earth, which then increases the incidences of cancerous malignancies, cataracts, and human immune deficiencies. In addition, even in small doses, ozone depletion affects the ecosystem by disturbing food chains, agriculture, fisheries and other forms of biological diversity.

Transnational policies enacted to respond to the dangers of ozone depletion include the 1985 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Montreal Protocol was subsequently amended in London in 1990, Copenhagen in 1992 and Vienna in 1995. By 1996, 155 countries had ratified the Montreal Protocol, which sets out a time schedule for the reduction (and eventual elimination) of ozone depleting substances (OPS), and bans exports and imports of ODS from and to non-participant countries.

In general, the Protocol stipulates that developed countries must eliminate halon consumption by 1994 and CFC consumption by 1996, while developing countries must eliminate these substances by 2010. Consumption of methyl bromide, which is used as a fumigant, was to be frozen at the 1995 in developed countries, and fully eliminated in 2010, while developing countries are to freeze consumption by 2002, based on average 1995-1998 consumption levels. Methyl chloroform is to be phased out by 2005. Under the Montreal Protocol, most ODS will be completely eliminated from use by 2010.

4. Land Degradation

In recent decades, land degradation in more arid regions of the world has become a serious concern. The problem, manifest as both "desertification" and "devegetation," is caused primarily by climate variability and human activities, such as "deforestation," excessive cultivation, overgrazing, and other forms of land resource exploitation. It is also exacerbated by inadequate irrigation practices. Although the effects of droughts on drylands have been temporary in the past, today, the productivity and sustainability of these lands have been severely compromised for the long term. Indeed, in every region of the world, land degradation has become an acute issue.

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Desertification and Devegetation:

"Desertification" is a process of land degradation causing the soil to deteriorate, thus losing its nutrients and fertility, and eventually resulting in the loss of vegetation, known as "devegetation." As aforementioned, "desertification" and "devegetation" are caused by human activities, yet human beings are also the greatest casualties. Because these forms of land degradation affect the ability of the soil to produce crops, they concomitantly contribute to poverty. As population increases and demographic concentrations shift, the extent of land subject to stresses by those seeking to wrest subsistence from it has inexorably risen.

In response, the United Nations has formed the Convention to Combat Desertification-aimed at implementing programs to address the underlying causes of desertification, as well as measures to prevent and minimize its effects. Of particular significance is the formulation of policies on transboundary resources, such as areas around lakes and rivers. At a broader level, the Convention has established a Conference of Parties (COP), which includes all ratifying governments, for directing and advancing international action.

To ensure more efficacious use of funding, the Convention intends to reconfigure international aid to utilize a consultative and coordinated approach in the disbursement and expenditure of donor funds. In this way, local communities that are affected by desertification will be active participants in the solution-generation process. In-depth community education projects are envisioned as part of this new international aid program, and private donor financing is encouraged. Meanwhile, as new technologies are developed to deal with the problem of desertification, they need to be distributed for application across the world. Hence, the Convention calls for international cooperation in scientific research in this regard.

Desertification is a problem of sustainable development. It is directly connected to human challenges such as poverty, social and economic well-being and environmental protection as well. Broader environmental issues, such as climate change, biological diversity, and freshwater supplies, are indirectly related, so any effort to resolve this environmental challenge must entail coordinated research efforts and joint action.

Deforestation:

Deforestation is not a recent phenomenon. For centuries, human beings have cut down trees to clear space for land cultivation, or in order to use the wood for fuel. Over the last 200 years, and most especially after World War II, deforestation increased because the logging industry became a globally prof- itable endeavor, and so the clearing of forested areas was accelerated for the purposes of industrial development. In the long term, this intensified level of deforestation is considered problematic because the forest is unable to regenerate itself quickly. The deforestation that has occurred in tropical rainforests is seen as an especially serious concern, due to the perceived adverse effects of this process upon the entire global ecosystem.

The most immediate consequence of deforestation is soil degradation. Soil, which is necessary for the growth of vegetation, can be a fragile and vital property. Organically, an extensive evolution process must take place before soil can produce vegetation, yet at the same time, the effects of natural elements, such as wind and rain, can easily and quickly degrade this resource. This phenomenon is known as soil erosion. In addition, natural elements like wind and rain reduce the amount of fertile soil on the ground, making soil scarcity a genuine problem. When fertile topsoil that already exists is removed from the landscape in the process of deforestation, soil scarcity is further exacerbated. Equally signifi-

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 134 Global Environmental Concepts Environmental Overview cant is the fact that once land has been cleared so that the topsoil can be cultivated for crop production, not only are the nutrient reserves in the soil depleted, thus producing crops of inferior quality, but the soil structure itself becomes stressed and deteriorates further.

Another direct result of deforestation is flooding. When forests are cleared, removing the cover of vegetation, and rainfall occurs, the flow of water increases across the surface of land. When extensive water runoff takes place, the frequency and intensity of flooding increases. Other adverse effects of deforestation include the loss of wildlife and biodiversity within the ecosystem that supports such life forms.

At a broader level, tropical rainforests play a vital role in maintaining the global environmental system. Specifically, destruction of tropical rainforests affects the carbon dioxide cycle. When forests are destroyed by burning (or rotting), carbon dioxide is released into the air, thus contributing to an intensified "greenhouse effect." The increase in greenhouse gas emissions like carbon dioxide is a major contributor to global warming, according to many environmental scientists. Indeed, trees themselves absorb carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis, so their loss also reduces the absorption of greenhouse gases.

Tropical rainforest destruction also adversely affects the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is a key nutrient for both plants and animals. Plants derive nitrogen from soil, while animals obtain it via nitrogen-enriched vegetation. This element is essential for the formation of amino acids, and thereby for proteins and biochemicals that all living things need for metabolism and growth. In the nitrogen cycle, vegetation acquires these essential proteins and biochemicals, and then cyclically returns them to the atmosphere and global ecosystem. Accordingly, when tropical rainforest ecosystems are compromised, not only is vegetation removed; the atmosphere is also affected and climates are altered. At a more immediate level, the biodiversity within tropical rainforests, including wildlife and insect species and a wealth of plant varieties, is depleted. Loss of rare plants is of particular concern because certain species as yet unknown and unused could likely yield many practical benefits, for instance as medicines.

As a result of the many challenges associated with deforestation, many environmental groups and agencies have argued for government policies on the sustainable development of forests by governments across the globe. While many countries have instituted national policies and programs aimed at reducing deforestation, and substantial research has been advanced in regard to sustainable and regen- erative forestry development, there has been very little progress on an international level. Generally speaking, most tropical rainforests are located in developing and less developed countries, where economic growth is often dependent upon the exploitation of tropical rainforests. Timber resources as well as wildlife hunting tend to be particularly lucrative arenas.

In places such as the Amazon, where deforestation takes place for the construction of energy plants aimed at industrialization and economic development, there is an exacerbated effect on the environment. After forests are cleared in order to construct such projects, massive flooding usually ensues. The remaining trees then rot and decay in the wake of the flooding. As the trees deteriorate, their bio- chemical makeup becomes more acidic, producing poisonous substances such as hydrogen sulphide and methane gases. Acidified water subsequently corrodes the mechanical equipment and operations of the plants, which are already clogged by rotting wood after the floodwaters rise.

Deforestation generally arises from an economically plausible short-term motivation, but nonetheless poses a serious global concern because the effects go beyond national boundaries. The United Nations has established the World Commission on Forest and Sustainable Development. This body's task is to determine the optimal means of dealing with the issue of deforestation, without unduly affecting nor-

135 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Concepts mal economic development, while emphasizing the global significance of protecting tropical forest ecosystems.

5. Water Resources

For all terrestrial fauna, including humans, water is the most immediate necessity to sustain life. As the population has increased and altered an ever-greater portion of the landscape from its natural condition, demand on water resources has intensified, especially with the development of industrialization and large-scale irrigation. The supply of freshwater is inherently limited, and moreover distributed unevenly across the earth's landmasses. Moreover, not just demand for freshwater but activities certain to degrade it are becoming more pervasive. By contrast, the oceans form a sort of "last wilderness," still little explored and in large part not seriously affected by human activity. However, coastal envi- ronments - the biologically richest part of the marine ecosystem-are experiencing major depletion due to human encroachment and over-exploitation.

Freshwater:

In various regions, for instance the Colorado River in the western United States, current withdrawals of river water for irrigation, domestic, and industrial use consume the entire streamflow so that almost no water flows into the sea at the river's mouth. Yet development is ongoing in many such places, implying continually rising demand for water. In some areas reliant on groundwater, aquifers are being depleted at a markedly faster rate than they are being replenished. An example is the San Joaquin Val- ley in California, where decades of high water withdrawals for agriculture have caused land subsid- ence of ten meters or more in some spots. Naturally, the uncertainty of future water supplies is particularly acute in arid and semi-arid regions. Speculation that the phenomenon of global warming will alter geographic and seasonal rainfall patterns adds further uncertainty.

Water conservation measures have great potential to alleviate supply shortages. Some city water systems are so old and beset with leaking pipes that they lose as much water as they meter. Broad-scale irrigation could be replaced by drip-type irrigation, actually enhancing the sustainability of agriculture. In many areas where heavy irrigation has been used for decades, the result is deposition of salts and other chemicals in the soil such that the land becomes unproductive for farming and must be aban- doned.

Farming is a major source of water pollution. Whereas restrictions on industrial effluents and other "point sources" are relatively easy to implement, comparable measures to reform hydraulic practices at farms and other "nonpoint sources" pose a significantly knottier challenge. Farm-caused water pollution takes the following main forms:

- Nitrate pollution found in wells in intensive farming areas as a consequence of heavy fertilizer use is a threat to human health. The most serious danger is to infants, who by ingesting high-nitrate water can contract methemoglobinemia, sometimes called "blue baby syndrome," a potentially fatal condition.

- Fertilizer runoff into rivers and lakes imparts unwanted nutrients that cause algae growth and eventual loss of oxygen in the body of water, degrading its ability to support fish and other desirable aquatic life.

- Toxic agricultural chemicals - insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides - are detectable in some aquifers and waterways.

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In general, it is much easier to get a pollutant into water than to retrieve it out. Gasoline additives, dry cleaning chemicals, other industrial toxins, and in a few areas radionucleides have all been found in water sources intended for human use. The complexity and long time scale of subterranean hydrologi- cal movements essentially assures that pollutants already deposited in aquifers will continue to turn up for decades to come. Sophisticated water treatment processes are available, albeit expensive, to reclaim degraded water and render it fit for human consumption. Yet source protection is unquestion- ably a more desirable alternative.

In much of the developing world, and even some low-income rural enclaves of the developed world, the population lacks ready access to safe water. Surface water and shallow groundwater supplies are susceptible to contamination from untreated wastewater and failing septic tanks, as well as chemical hazards. The occurrence of waterborne disease is almost certainly greatly underreported.

Marine Resources:

Coastal areas have always been desirable places for human habitation, and population pressure on them continues to increase. Many types of water degradation that affect lakes and rivers also affect coastal zones: industrial effluents, untreated or partially treated sewage, nutrient load from agriculture figure prominently in both cases. Prospects for more extreme storms as a result of global warming, as well as the pervasiveness of poorly planned development in many coastal areas, forebode that catastrophic hurricanes and landslides may increase in frequency in the future. Ongoing rise in sea levels will force remedial measures and in some cases abandonment of currently valuable coastal property.

Fisheries over much of the globe have been overharvested, and immediate conservation measures are required to preserve stocks of many species. Many governments subsidized factory-scale fishing fleets in the 1970s and 1980s, and the resultant catch increase evidently surpassed a sustainable level. It is uncertain how much of the current decline in fish stocks stems from overharvesting and how much from environmental pollution. The deep ocean remains relatively unaffected by human activity, but continental shelves near coastlines are frequently seriously polluted, and these close-to-shore areas are the major biological nurseries for food fish and the smaller organisms they feed on.

6. Environmental Toxins

Toxic chemical pollution exploded on the public consciousness with disclosure of spectacularly polluted industrial areas such as Love Canal near Buffalo, New York. There is no question that pollutants such as organophosphates or radionucleides can be highly deleterious to health, but evidence to date suggests that seriously affected areas are a localized rather than universal problem.

While some explore the possibilities for a lifestyle that fully eschews use of modern industrial chemicals, the most prevalent remediative approach is to focus on more judicious use. The most efficient chemical plants are now able to contain nearly all toxic byproducts of their production processes within the premises, minimizing the release of such substances into the environment. Techniques such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) dictate limited rather than broadcast use of pesticides: application only when needed using the safest available chemical, supplemented as much as possible with nontoxic controls.

While heightened public awareness and growing technical sophistication suggest a hopeful outlook on limiting the damage from manmade environmental toxins, one must grant that previous incidents of

137 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Concepts their misuse and mishandling have already caused environmental damage that will have to be dealt with for many years to come. In the case of the most hazardous radioactive substances, the time scale for successful remediation actually extends beyond that of the recorded history of civilization. More- over, in this era of high population density and rapid economic growth, quotidian activities such as the transport of chemicals will occasionally, seemingly inevitably result in accidents with adverse environmental consequences.

7. "Islandization" and Biodiversity

With increased awareness regarding the adverse effects of unregulated hunting and habitat depletion upon wildlife species and other aspects of biodiversity, large-scale efforts across the globe have been initiated to reduce and even reverse this trend.

In every region of the world, many species of wildlife and areas of biodiversity have been saved from extinction. Nationally, many countries have adopted policies aimed at preservation and conservation of species, and one of the most tangible measures has been the proliferation of protected habitats. Such habitats exist in the form of wildlife reserves, marine life reserves, and other such areas where biodiversity can be protected from external encroachment and exploitation.

Despite these advances in wildlife and biodiversity protection, further and perhaps more intractable challenges linger. Designated reserves, while intended to prevent further species decline, exist as closed territories, fragmented from other such enclaves and disconnected from the larger ecosystem. This environmental scenario is referred to as "islandization." Habitat reserves often serve as oversized zoos or game farms, with landscapes and wildlife that have effectively been "tamed" to suit. Mean- while, the larger surrounding ecosystem continues to be seriously degraded and transformed, while within the islandized habitat, species that are the focus of conservation efforts may not have sufficient range and may not be able to maintain healthy genetic variability.

As a consequence, many conservationists and preservationists have demanded that substantially larger portions of land be withheld as habitat reserves, and a network of biological corridors to connect continental reserves be established. While such efforts to combat islandization have considerable support in the United States, how precisely such a program would be instituted, especially across national boundaries, remains a matter of debate. International conservationists and preservationists say without a network of reserves a massive loss of biodiversity will result.

The concept of islandization illustrates why conservation and preservation of wildlife and biodiversity must consider and adopt new, broader strategies. In the past, conservation and preservation efforts have been aimed at specific species, such as the spotted owl and grizzly bear in North America, the Bengal tiger in Southeast Asia, the panda in China, elephants in Africa. Instead, the new approach is to simultaneously protect many and varied species that inhabit the same ecosystem. This method, referred to as "bio-regional conservation," may more efficaciously generate longer-term and more far- reaching results precisely because it is aimed at preserving entire ecosystems, and all the living things within.

More About Biodiversity Issues:

This section is directly taken from the United Nations Environmental Program: "Biodiversity Assess- ment"

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The Global Biodiversity Assessment, completed by 1500 scientists under the auspices of United Nations Environmental Program in 1995, updated what is known (or unknown) about global biological diversity at the ecosystem, species and genetic levels. The assessment was uncertain of the total number of species on Earth within an order of magnitude. Of its working figure of 13 million species, only 13 percent are scientifically described. Ecological community diversity is also poorly known, as is its relationship to biological diversity, and genetic diversity has been studied for only a small number of species. The effects of human activities on biodiversity have increased so greatly that the rate of species extinctions is rising to hundreds or thousands of times the background level. These losses are driven by increasing demands on species and their habitats, and by the failure of current market systems to value biodiversity adequately. The Assessment calls for urgent action to reverse these trends.

There has been a new recognition of the importance of protecting marine and aquatic biodiversity. The first quantitative estimates of species losses due to growing coral reef destruction predict that almost 200,000 species, or one in five presently contributing to coral reef biodiversity, could die out in the next 40 years if human pressures on reefs continue to increase.

Since Rio, many countries have improved their understanding of the status and importance of their biodiversity, particularly through biodiversity country studies such as those prepared under the auspices of UNEP/GEF. The United Kingdom identified 1250 species needing monitoring, of which 400 require action plans to ensure their survival. Protective measures for biodiversity, such as legislation to protect species, can prove effective. In the USA, almost 40 percent of the plants and animals protected under the Endangered Species Act are now stable or improving as a direct result of recovery efforts. Some African countries have joined efforts to protect threatened species through the 1994 Lusaka Agreement, and more highly migratory species are being protected by specialized cooperative agreements among range states under the Bonn Agreement.

There is an emerging realization that a major part of conservation of biological diversity must take place outside of protected areas and involve local communities. The extensive agricultural areas occupied by small farmers contain much biodiversity that is important for sustainable food production. Indigenous agricultural practices have been and continue to be important elements in the maintenance of biodiversity, but these are being displaced and lost. There is a new focus on the interrelationship between agrodiversity conservation and sustainable use and development practices in smallholder agriculture, with emphasis on use of farmers' knowledge and skills as a source of information for sustainable farming.

Perhaps even more important than the loss of biodiversity is the transformation of global biogeochem- ical cycles, the reduction in the total world biomass, and the decrease in the biological productivity of the planet. While quantitative measurements are not available, the eventual economic and social consequences may be so significant that the issue requires further attention.

Specific sources used for this section:

Bendall, Roger. 1996. "Biodiversity: the follow up to Rio". The Globe 30:4-5, April 1996.

Global Environmental Change: Human and Policy Implications. 1995. Special issue on "People, Land Management and Environmental Change", Vol. 3, No. 4, September 1995.

Golubev, Genady N. (Moscow University) In litt. 29 June 1996.

139 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Environmental Overview Global Environmental Concepts

Heywood, V.H. (ed.). 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. United Nations Environment Pro- gramme. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Heywood, V.H. 1996. "The Global Biodiversity Assessment". The Globe, 30:2-4, April 1996.

Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie. 1996. Paper presented at American Association for Advancement of Science, February 1996. Quoted in Pain, Stephanie. "Treasures lost in reef madness". New Scientist, 17 Febru- ary 1996.

Uitto, Juha I., and Akiko Ono (eds). 1996. Population, Land Management and Environmental Change. The United Nations University, Tokyo.

USFWS. 1994. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service report to Congress, cited in news release 21 July 1994.

Online resources used generally in the Environmental Overview:

Environmental Protection Agency Global Warming Site. URL: http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations: Forestry. URL: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/sofo/en/

Global Warming Information Page. URL: http://globalwarming.org

United Nations Environmental Program. URL: http://www.unep.org/GEO/GEO_Products/Assessment_Reports/

United Nations Global Environmental Outlook. URL: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/media/

Note on Edition Dates:

The edition dates for textual resources are noted above because they were used to formulate the original content. We also have used online resources (cited above) to update coverage as needed.

Information Resources

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For more information about environmental concepts, CountryWatch recommends the following resources:

The United Nations Environmental Program Network (with country profiles) < http://www.unep.net/> The United Nations Environment Program on Climate Change < http://climatechange.unep.net/> The United Nations Environmental Program on Waters and Oceans < http://www.unep.ch/earthw/Pdepwat.htm> The United Nations Environmental Program on Forestry: "Forests in Flux" < http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/flux/homepage.htm> FAO "State of the World's Forests" < http://www.fao.org/forestry/FO/SOFO/SOFO99/sofo99-e.stm> World Resources Institute < http://www.wri.org/> Harvard University Center for Health and the Global Environment < http://www.med.harvard.edu/chge/the-review.html> The University of Wisconsin Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment < http://sage.aos.wisc.edu/>

International Environmental Agreements and Associations

1. Major International Environmental Accords:

General Environmental Concerns

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo, 1991.

Accords Regarding Atmosphere

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Annex 16, vol. II (Environmental Protection: Aircraft Engine Emissions) to the 1044 Chicago Conven- tion on International Civil Aviation, Montreal, 1981

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), Geneva, 1079

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1002

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985 including the Montreal Proto- col on Substances that Depleted the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987

Accords Regarding Hazardous Substances

Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, Bamako, 1991

Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail and Inland Navigation Vessels (CRTD), Geneva, 1989

Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention), Basel, 1989

Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, Helsinki, 1992

Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region (Waigani Convention), Waigani, 1995

European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Geneva 1957

FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Rome, 1985

2. Major International Marine Accords:

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Global Conventions

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention 1972), London, 1972

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by Protocol of 1978 relation thereto (MARPOL 73/78), London, 1973 and 1978

International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1969 (1969 CLC), Brussels, 1969, 1976, and 1984

International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pol- lution Damage 1971 (1971 Fund Convention), Brussels, 1971

Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS), London 1996

International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response, and Co-operation (OPRC), Lon- don, 1990

International Convention Relation to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casual- ties (Intervention Convention), Brussels, 1969

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Montego Bay, 1982

Regional Conventions

Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft (Oslo Con- vention), Oslo, 1972

Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources (Paris Convention), Paris, 1974

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic (OSPAR Conven- tion), Paris, 1992

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Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (1974 Helsinki Con- vention), Helsinki 1974

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (1992 Helsinki Con- vention), Helsinki 1992

Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme

Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, Bucharest, 1992

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983

Convention for the Protection, Management, and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environ- ment of the Eastern African Region, Nairobi, 1985

Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pol- lution, Kuwait, 1978

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Region of the Mediterranean Sea (Barcelona Convention), Barcelona, 1976

Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982

Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Noumea, 1986

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific, Lima, 1981

Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environ- ment of the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 1981

3. Major Conventions Regarding Living Resources:

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Marine Living Resources

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), Canberra, 1980

International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), Rio de Janeiro, 1966

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), Washington, 1946

Nature Conservation and Terrestrial Living Resources

Antarctic Treaty, Washington, D.C., 1959

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Paris, 1972

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Nairobi, 1992

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Bonn, 1979

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Washing- ton, D.C., 1973

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Con- vention), Ramsar, 1971

Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), Paris 1994

FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, 1983

International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994 (ITTA, 1994), Geneva, 1994

Freshwater Resources

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Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, Hels- inki, 1992

4. Major Conventions Regarding Nuclear Safety:

Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention), Vienna, 1986

Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention), Vienna, 1986

Convention on Nuclear Safety, Vienna, 1994

Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Vienna, 1963

5. Major Intergovernmental Organizations

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)

European Union (EU): Environment

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

International Labour Organization (ILO)

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International Maritime Organization (IMO)

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPC Funds)

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Environment Policy Committee (EPOC)

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

World Bank

World Food Programme (WFP)

World Health Organization (WHO)

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

World Trade Organization (WTO)

6. Major Non-Governmental Organizations

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Atmosphere Action Network East Asia (AANEA)

Climate Action Network (CAN)

Consumers International (CI)

Earth Council

Earthwatch Institute

Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI)

European Environmental Bureau (EEB)

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)

Friends of the Earth International (FoEI)

Greenpeace International

International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)

International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF)

International Solar Energy Society (ISES)

IUCN-The World Conservation Union

Pesticide Action Network (PAN)

Sierra Club

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Society for International Development (SID)

Third World Network (TWN)

Water Environment Federation (WEF)

Women's Environment and Development Organization (WEDO)

World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)

World Federalist Movement (WFM)

World Resources Institute (WRI)

World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF)

7. Other Networking Instruments

Arab Network for Environment and Development (RAED)

Global Legislators for a Balanced Environment (GLOBE)

Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC)

United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (UN-NGLS)

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Appendices

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 150 Bibliography Appendices

Appendices

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sources: Key Data

Altapedia. URL: http://www.atlapedia.com/online/country_index.htm

Ethnologue. URL: http://www.ethnologue.com

Infoplease: URL: http://www.infoplease.com

The Statesman's Year-Book 2006. Barry Turner, ed. London: St. Martin's Press.

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.htm

United States Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photogra- phy Group. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

World Climate Data Online. URL: http://www.worldclimate.com

World Gazateer Population Statistics. URL: http://www.gazetteer.de/home.htm

Sources: Political Overview

BBC International News. URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/

151 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

(Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

Britannica Book of the Year. 1998-present. David Calhoun, ed. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Britannica Online URL : http://www.eb.com

Britannica Year in Review. URL: http://www.britannica.com/browse/year

Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/index.html

Christian Science Monitor. URL: http://www.csmonitor.com/ (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

CNN International News. URL: http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/ (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

Current Leaders of Nations. 1997. Jennifer Mossman, ed. Detroit: Gale Research

The Economist Magazine. (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

The Economist Country Briefings. URL: http://www.economist.com/countries/

Eldis Country Profiles. URL: http://www.eldis.org/country/index.htm

Elections Around the World. URL: http://www.electionworld.org/

Election Resources. URL: http://electionresources.org/

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 152 Bibliography Appendices

Europa World Yearbook 1999. Vols. I & II. 1999. London: Europa Publications Ltd.

Europe World Online. URL: http://www.europaworld.com/pub/

Foreign Government Resources. URL: http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/foreign.html

Human Rights Watch. URL: http://www.hrw.org

IFES Election Guide. URL: http://www.electionguide.org

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. URL: http://www.idea.int/

International Who's Who 1997-1998, 61st Edition. 1997. London: Europa Publications Ltd.

Leadership Views, Chiefs of State Online. URL : http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/index.html

Library of Congress Country Studies. URL: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html

New Encyclopedia Britannica. 1998. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.

New York Times. URL: http://www.nytimes.com (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

Patterns of Global Terrorism. n.d. United States Department of State. Washington D.C.: United States Department of State Publications.

Political Handbook of the World. n.d. Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, ed. Binghamton, New York: CSA Publications.

153 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

Political Reference Almanac Online. URL: http://www.polisci.com/almanac/nations.htm

Rulers. URL: http://rulers.org/

The Guardian Online. URL: http://www.guardian.co.uk/ (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

The Statesman's Year-Book 2006. Barry Turner, ed. London: St. Martin's Press.

United Nations Development Programme. URL: http://hdr.undp.org

United Nations Refugee Agency. URL: http://www.unhcr.org

United States Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook.Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photogra- phy Group. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

United States Department of State, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (WMEAT) URL : http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/bureau_ac/reports_ac.html

United States Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. URL: http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/18245.htm

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.html

Virtual Library: International Relations Resources. URL: http://www.etown.edu/vl/countgen.html

World Bank: Governance Indicators. URL: http://info.worldbank.org/governance

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 154 Bibliography Appendices

Note on Edition Dates:

The earlier edition dates are noted above because they were used to formulate the original country reviews and serve as the baseline for some of the information covered. Later editions have been used in some cases, and are cited as such, while other more recent online resources (cited above) contain recent and ever-updated data sets used for research.

Sources: Economic Overview

BP Statistica Review of World Energy. URL: http://www.bp.com/genericsection.do?categoryId=92&contentId=7005893

BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 1998. 1998. Page 1.C. London: The British Petroleum Company.

International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics. 1998 to present. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics Yearbook. 1999 to present. Washing- ton, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook, May 1999. 1999. Washington, D.C.: Interna- tional Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Labour Office, World Employment Report, 1998-99. 1998. Geneva: International Labour Office.

United Nations Statistical Division Online. URL: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/default.htm

United Nations Statistics Division, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics (MBS On Line), November 1999 Edition. 1999. New York: United Nations.

155 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

United Nations, Statistical Yearbook, 43rd Issue. 1999. New York: United Nations.

United Nations, Food & Agricultural Organization, FAOSTAT Database. URL : http://apps.fao.org/

United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html

United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Database

United States Geological Service, Mineral Information

United States Department of State, Country Commercial Guides. Washington, D.C. United States of America. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/index.html

The World Bank, Global Development Finance, Country Tables. 1999 to present. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

The World Bank Group, World Development Indicators. 1999 to present. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

Yearbook of Tourism Statistics, World Tourism Organization. 1998 to present. Madrid: The World Tourism Organization.

Note on Edition Dates:

Methodology Notes for Economic Data:

Estimates by CountryWatch.com of real GDP in most countries are made by converting estimates by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the purchasing power parity value of GDP for a reference year for each country to a 1990 base through the use of the US GDP deflator. CIA reference year esti-

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 156 Bibliography Appendices mates of real GDP for most countries are given in the CIA World Factbook for a recent range of years. The time series estimates for this range is generated for non-reference year values by utilizing the real GDP growth rates given by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the World Economic Outlook.

Exceptions to this method were used for:

Bosnia-Herzegovina Nauru Cuba Palau Holy See San Marino Korea, North Serbia & Montenegro Liberia Somalia Liechtenstein Tonga Monaco Tuvalu In these cases, other data and/or estimates by CountryWatch.com were utilized.

Investment Overview

Corruption and Transparency Index. URL: http://www.transparency.org/documents/cpi/2001/cpi2001.html#cpi < http://www.transparency.org/documents/

Deloitte Tax Guides. URL: http://www.deloittetaxguides.com

Trade Policy Reviews by the World Trade Organization . URL: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp_rep_e.htm#bycountry

United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.html

157 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

United States Department of State, Country Commercial Guides. 1996-2006. Washington, D.C. United States of America. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/index.html

World Bank: Doing Business. URL: http://www.doingbusiness.org

World Bank: Governance Indicators. URL: http://info.worldbank.org/governance

Social Overview

Borden, G.A., Conaway, W.A., Morrison, T. 1994. Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: How to do Business in Sixty Countries.Holbrook, Massachusetts, 1994.

Center for Disease Control. URL: http://www.cdc.gov

Eldis Country Profiles. URL: http://www.eldis.org/country/index.htm

Ethnologue. URL: http://www.ethnologue.com/

Government of Australia Department of Foreign Affiars and Trade. URL: http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo

Government of Canada Foreign Affairs and International Trade. URL: http://www.voyage.gc.ca/consular_home-e.htm

Library of Congress Country Studies. URL: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html

Lonely Planet. URL: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 158 Bibliography Appendices

Steve Kropla's Online Help For World Travelers. URL: http://www.kropla.com/

United Kingdom Ministry of Foreign and Commonwealth Office. URL: http://www.fco.gov.uk/

United Nations Human Development Report. URL: http://www.undp.org/hdro

UNICEF Statistical Database Online. URL: http://www.unicef.org/statis/atoz.html

United States Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook. 2001. Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photography Group. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.html

United States Department of State, Commercial and Business Affairs: Travel Tips. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/cba_travel.html

United States Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs. URL: http://travel.state.gov/

World Health Organization. URL: http://www.who.int/home-page/

Note on Edition Dates:

Methodology Notes for the HDI:

159 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

Since 1990, the United Nations Development Programme, in concert with organizations across the globe, has produced the Human Development Index (or HDI). According to the UNDP, the index measures average achievement in basic human development in one simple composite index, and produces from this index a ranking of countries. The HDI is a composite of three basic components of human development: longevity, knowledge and standard of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy. Knowledge is measured by combination of adult literacy and mean years of schooling. Standard of living is measured by purchasing power, based on real GDP per capita (in constant US$) adjusted for differences in international living costs (or, purchasing power parity, PPP). While the index uses these social indicators to measure national performance with regard to human welfare and development, not all countries provide the same level of information for each component needed to compute the index; therefore, as in any composite indicator, the final index is predicated on projections, predictions and weighting schemes. The index is a static measure, and thus, an incomplete measure of human welfare. In fact, the UNDP says itself the concept of human development focuses on the ends rather than the means of development and progress, examining in this manner, the average condition of all people in a given country.

Specifically, the index is calculated by determining the maximum and minimum for each of the three components (as listed above) and then measuring where each country stands in relation to these scales- expressed as a value between 0 and 1. For example, the minimum adult literary rate is zero percent, the maximum is 100 percent, and the reading skills component of knowledge in the HDI for a country where the literacy rate is 75 percent would be 0.75. The scores of all indicators are then averaged into the overall index.

For a more extensive examination of human development, as well as the ranking tables for each participating country, please visit: http://www.undp.org

Note on History sections

In some CountryWatch Country Reviews, open source content from the State Department Background Notes and Country Guides have been used.

Environmental Overview

Environmental Profiles: A Global Guide to Projects and People. 1993. Linda Sobel Katz, Sarah Orrick, and Robert Honig. New York: Garland Publishing.

The Environment Encyclopedia and Directory, 2nd Edition. 1998. London: Europa.

Environmental Protection Agency Global Warming Site. URL: http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 160 Bibliography Appendices

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations: Forestry. URL: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/sofo/en/

Global Warming Information Page. URL: http://globalwarming.org

Introduction to Global Environmental Issues, 2nd Edition. 1997. Kevin Pickering and Lewis Owen. London: Routledge.

Trends: Compendium of Data on Global Change. URL: http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/em_cont.htm

United Nations Environmental Program. URL: http://www.unep.org/GEO/GEO_Products/Assessment_Reports/

United Nations Global Environmental Outlook. URL: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/media/

United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html

World Climate Data Online. URL: http://www.worldclimate.com

World Directory of Country Environmental Studies. 1996. The World Resource Institute.

World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photography Group.

1998-1999 World Resources Guide to the Global Environment by the World Resources Institute. May, 1998.

1998/1999 Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development. 1998. London: Earthscan Publications.

Note on Edition Dates:

161 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

Other Sources:

General information has also been used in the compilation of this review, with the courtesy of governmental agencies from this country.

News Services:

Business in Asia. Asia Pulse Pte Ltd., Sydney, Australia.

CANA Daily Bulletin. Caribbean Media Agency Ltd., St. Michael, Barbados.

Central and Eastern Africa Report, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Network for Central and Eastern Africa.

Daily News, Panafrican News Agency. Dakar, Senegal.

Electronic News in English, EFE News Services (U.S.), Inc. Washington, D.C.

The Financial Times. URL: http://www.financialtimes.com

Interfax Daily Financial Report, Interfax-America, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA.

Interfax Daily Business Report, Interfax-America, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA.

Interfax Daily News Bulletin, Interfax-America, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA.

Internet News Service, Xinhua News Agency (U.S.) Inc. Woodside, New York.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 162 Bibliography Appendices

The New York Times (daily print version).

PACNEWS, Pacific Islands Broadcasting Association. Suva, Fiji.

Southern Africa Report, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Inte- grated Regional Information Network for Southern Africa.

U.S. and World News, United Press International. Washington, D.C. 1998-1999

West Africa Report, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Network for West Africa. 1998-1999

World News Connection, National Technical Information Service. Springfield, Virginia, USA. 1998- 1999

Note: Some or all these news services have been used to research various sections of this Country Review.

USING COUNTRYWATCH.COM AS AN ELECTRONIC SOURCE:

MLA STYLE OF CITATION

Commentary

For items in a "Works Cited" list, CountryWatch.com suggests that users follow recommended patterns forindentation given in theMLA Handbook, 4th edition.

Individual Works

Basic form, using an Internet protocol:

163 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Appendices Bibliography

Author/editor. Title of Print Version of Work. Edition statement (if given). Publication information (Place of publication: publisher, date), if given. Title of Electronic Work. Medium. Available Protocol (if applicable):Site/Path/File. Access date.

Examples:

Youngblood-Coleman, Denise, editor. Country Review: France. 2003. Houston, Texas: CountryWatch Publications, 2003. Country Review:France. Online. Available URL: http://www.countrywatch.com/cw_country.asp?vCOUNTRY=61 October, 12, 2003.

Note:

This is the citation format used when the print version is not used in the reference.

Parts of Works

Basic form, using an Internet protocol:

Author/editor. "Part title." Title of Print Version of Work. Edition statement (if given). Publication information (Place of publication: publisher, date), if given. Title of Electronic Work. Medium. Avail- ableProtocol (if applicable): Site/Path/File. Access date.

Examples:

Youngblood-Coleman, Denise, editor. "People." CountryWatch.com: France. 2003. Houston, Texas: CountryWatch Publications, 2003.CountryWatch.com: France. Online. Available URL : http://www.countrywatch.com/cw_topic.asp?vCOUNTRY=61&SEC- TION=SOCIAL&TOPIC=CLPEO&TYPE=TEXT. October 12, 2003.

Note:

This is the citation format used when the print version is not used in the reference.

For further source citation information, please email:[email protected] or education@countrywatch.com.

Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 164 Bibliography Appendices

165 Cote d `Ivoire Review 2010 Products from Countrywatch:

Country Reviews Comprehensive reports covering demographic, political, economic, social, corporate, cultural, and environmental information on each of the recognized countries of the world.

Country Wire Provides real-time news for each of the recognized countries; its features articles from a dozen newswire services including but not limited to United Press International, Pan African, Interfax, Xinhua, and the Caribbean News Agency, and accumulates these articles in a one-year, keyword searchable archive.

CountryWatch Data Provides eight years of macroeconomic, economic sector, health, demographic, and environmental statistical data searchable through 5 primary categories and 24 subcategories. All search results may be downloaded into a comma-separated spreahsheet or GIS Mapping software.

CountryWatch Maps Assimilates the data collected from CountryWatch Data and presents this information as thematic world maps using ESRI mapping software as well as offering physical, political, and Political Risk Maps as provided in conjunction with the Political Risk Group, Inc.

CountryWatch@School Provides a Social Studies, curriculum-based, resource that includes quizzes, activities, and lesson plans derived from the Country Reviews and the Country Wire. CountryWatch@School is tailored to grades 8 through 12, and it has been developed in accordance with the National Social Studies Standard. CountryWatch

CountryWatch is an information provider for public and private sector organizations that operate globally. The management of CountryWatch has extensive international experience and has utilized this experience to provide a concise and useful set of political, economic, and business information for its clients in the form of Country Reviews, the Country Wire, CountryWatch Data and CountryWatch Forecast.

This Country Review is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information on the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publication is not intended to provide legal, accounting, investment, or other professional advice.

CountryWatch believes that the information and opinions contained here in are reliable, but does not make any warranties, express or implied, and assumes no liability for reliance on or use of the information or opinions contained herein.

The offices of CountryWatch are located at:

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ISBN: 1- 60523- 656-X Cote d `Ivoire Country Review 2010

ISSN: 1- 60523- 893-5

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