English Closed Compound Words in Articles Related to Kartini Day Found in the Jakarta Post April 2016 and 2017

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ENGLISH CLOSED COMPOUND WORDS IN ARTICLES RELATED TO KARTINI DAY FOUND IN THE JAKARTA POST APRIL 2016 AND 2017

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

By MONICA CHRISTANTI VINNEY Student Number: 134214085

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2017

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ENGLISH CLOSED COMPOUND WORDS IN ARTICLES RELATED TO KARTINI DAY FOUND IN THE JAKARTA POST APRIL 2016 AND 2017

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

By MONICA CHRISTANTI VINNEY Student Number: 134214085

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2017

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ENGLISH CLOSED COMPOUND WORDS IN ARTICLES RELATED TO KARTINI DAY FOUND IN THE JAKARTA POST APRIL 2016 AND 2017

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

By MONICA CHRISTANTI VINNEY Student Number: 134214085

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2017

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

THEODORE ROOSEVELT

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FOR MY BELOVED PARENTS AND FAMILY, MY HONORABLE LECTURERS

AND OF COURSE

MY FABULOUS FRIENDS

MY CRAZIEST BESTIES EVER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The finishing of this thesis cannot be separated from the God’s hand which guides me through the times and the people around me who always support me that

I would like to thank. Firstly, my biggest gratitude is for the Almighty God Jesus

Christ who gives me full strength to pass through all over the difficulties I might find on the way to finish this thesis. Secondly, a great gratitude goes to my parents who always pray for me and support me with their endless love. I give my endless thank also to all of my family for the pray and support that can raise my spirit up to do this thesis.

My great gratitude is also for my advisor Anna Fitriati S. Pd. M.Hum who has guided me along the process of finishing my thesis. I thank her for the ideas to help me solve the problems in finishing my thesis. I also would like to thank my co. advisor Harris Hermansyah Setiajid, M. Hum. for the advice to help me revise this thesis to be better. A special thank is also for my loyal editor, Dina Febriyani, who always has time to help me to edit the format. I thank her for the kindness and her best computer skill that I could learn from her.

Last but not least, this thesis is dedicated for all my great friends, especially

Bu. Bagyo’s family who can always be my second family to lay on whenever I was in good or even bad times. Thank you very much for the smile, laugh and the warmth I could feel whenever we are together. I will see you all on top.

Monica Christanti Vinney

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... ii APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iv LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ...... v STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... vi MOTTO ...... vii DEDICATION PAGE ...... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... x LIST OF TABLES ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...... xiii ABSTRACT ...... xiv ABSTRAK ...... xv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Problem Formulation ...... 4 C. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 D. Definition of Term ...... 5 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 7 A. Review of Related Studies ...... 7 B. Review of Related Theories ...... 10 1. Morphology ...... 10 2. Word-Formation ...... 11 a. Reduplication ...... 11 b. Affixation ...... 12 c. Conversion ...... 13 d. Back-derivation ...... 13 3. Compounding...... 14 a. The Forms of Compound...... 15 b. The Structure of Compound ...... 16

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c. Meaning of Compound ...... 18 d. The Tree Diagram...... 22 C. Theoretical Framework ...... 23 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...... 25 A. Object of the Study ...... 25 B. Approach of the Study ...... 25 C. Method of the Study...... 26 1. Data Collection ...... 26 2. Data Analysis ...... 27 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULT AND DISCUSSION ...... 29 A. The Compound Words Found in the Articles Related to Kartini Day .... 30 B. The Formation of Compound Words ...... 32 1. The Form of Compounding Structure ...... 32 a. Un-inflectional Compounds ...... 32 b. Inflectional Compounds ...... 34 b.1 Plural Suffix Inflection: ...... 35 b.2 Suffix (-r) Inflection: ...... 38 b.3 Suffix (-d) / (-ed) Inflection: ...... 39 b.4 Suffix (-ing) Inflection: ...... 41 b.5 Double Inflection of Suffix (-r) and (-s): ...... 42 2. Meaning of Compounds ...... 44 a. Endocentric Compound ...... 44 a.1 Compound Noun ...... 45 a.2 Compound Adjective ...... 55 a.3 Compound Verb...... 57 b. Exocentric Compounds ...... 58 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 63 APPENDICES ...... 65 Appendix 1. The Data of Compound Words in Articles Related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2016/2017 ...... 65 Appendix 2. Articles Related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2016 ...... 66 Appendix 3. Articles Related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2017 ...... 77

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Some Examples of conversion…………………………………... 13

Table 2. Summary of Compound Nouns Examples……………………… 20

Table 3. Summary of Compound Adjectives Examples…………………. 20

Table 4. Summary of Compound Verbs Examples ……………………… 21

Table 5. Distribution of Compounds……………………………………... 30

Table 6. Distribution of Inflectional Compounds………………………… 30

Table 7. Distribution of Un-inflectional Compounds…………………….. 31

Table 8. Distribution of Endocentric – Exocentric Compounds…………. 32

Table 9. The Formation of Un-inflectional Compounds…………………. 33

Table 10. Inflectional Compounds………………………………………… 35

Table 11. The Category of Endocentric Compound………………………. 44

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

A / Adj : Adjective

ADV : Adverb

Af : Affix

N : Noun

P / Prep : Preposition pℓ : Plural

V : Verb

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ABSTRACT

VINNEY, MONICA CHRISTANTI. English Closed Compound Words in Articles Related to Kartini Day Found in The Jakarta Post 2016 and 2017. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University 2017.

Words are important things in a language as the medium to send the message in a communication. Based on the form, there are two kinds of word; simple words and complex words. In forming the complex words, there are several kinds of word- formation processes and one of them is compounding. Compounding is divided into three types; open, closed and hyphenated. This thesis will discuss the English closed compounds that are found in the articles related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post April 2016 and 2017. There are two problems in this thesis. The first is the distribution of all the type of compounds (open, closed and hyphenated) in the articles. The second is how the compound words are formed. This thesis is population study which is done by collecting all of the data from the articles related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2016/2017. There are 22 open compounds, 42 closed compounds and 32 hyphenated compounds. From the data, the highest amount of compound is closed compound, therefore, this type of compound is discussed further. The analysis is divided into two forms; first is based on the form of structure which uses morphological process and second is based on the meaning of compound which uses dictionaries to consult the meaning of compounds. Based on the form of structure, there are 17 inflectional compound or 40,48% and 25 un-inflectional compound or 59,52% whereas based on the meaning of compound, there are 38 endocentric compounds or 90,48% and 4 exocentric compounds or 9,52%. As the conclusion, closed compounds that are mostly found in the articles related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2016 and 2017 are un- inflectional compounds and endocentric compounds.

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ABSTRAK

VINNEY, MONICA CHRISTANTI. English Closed Compound Words in Articles Related To Kartini Day Found in The Jakarta Post 2016 and 2017. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2017.

Kata merupakan hal penting (dalam sebuah bahasa) untuk menyampaikan pesan dalam suatu komunikasi. Berdasarkan bentuknya terdapat dua macam bentuk kata, yaitu kata-kata yang sederhana dan kata-kata yang kompleks. Dalam membentuk kata-kata kompleks, terdapat beberapa jenis pembetukan kata yang dihasilkan dari proses morfologi dan salah satu diantaranya adalah kata majemuk. Kata majemuk terbagi dalam tiga jenis yaitu kata majemuk bentuk terpisah (dengan spasi), kata majemuk bentuk tertutup (tanpa spasi) dan kata majemuk dengan tanda hubung. Skripsi ini akan membahas tentang kata majemuk tertutup bahasa Inggris yang ditemukan dalam artikel mengenai Hari Kartini pada koran The Jakarta Post 2016 dan 2017. Terdapat dua masalah dalam skripsi ini yang pertama yaitu distribusi semua jenis kata majemuk dalam artikel (kata majemuk bentuk terpisah, kata majemuk bentuk tertutup dan kata majemuk dengan tanda hubung). Rumusan masalah yang kedua yaitu bagaimana kata majemuk terbentuk. Penelitian ini dilakukan melalui metode populasi dengan mengumpulkan data dari artikel mengenai Hari Kartini pada Koran The Jakarta Post April 2016 dan 2017. Data dalam penelitian ini adalah 22 kata majemuk bentuk terpisah, 42 kata majemuk bentuk tertutup dan 32 kata majemuk dengan tanda hubung. Dari data tersebut, jumlah kata majemuk yang paling tinggi adalah kata majemuk bentuk tertutup sehingga, jenis kata majemuk inilah yang akan dianalisis lebih dalam. Analisis kata majemuk tertutup ini terbagi dalam dua bentuk; pertama berdasarkan bentuk struktur kata dengan menggunakan proses morfologi dan kedua berdasarkan makna kata dengan mengunakan kamus untuk mendapatkan arti dari kata majemuk tersebut. Hasil dari analisis kata majemuk tertutup juga berdasarkan dua bentuk analisis seperti diatas. Berdasarkan bentuk struktur kata, terdapat 17 kata majemuk berimbuhan atau sebesar 40,48% dan 25 kata majemuk tak berimbuhan atau sebesar 59,52%. Sedangkan berdasarkan makna kata majemuk, terdapat 38 kata majemuk endosentris atau sebesar 90,48% dan 4 kata majemuk eksosentris atau sebesar 9,52%. Sebagai kesimpulan, kata majemuk tertutup yang paling banyak ditemukan dalam artikel mengenai Hari Kartini pada Koran The Jakarta Post April 2016 dan 2017 adalah kata majemuk berimbuhan dan kata majemuk endosentris.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

English as the language used around the world has two forms that people use to communicate; written and spoken language. Both of those forms have their importance as the tools of communication. Spoken English provides language in speaking form or from the words spoken by someone while written English provides language through the words writing. From this importance of spoken and writing English, we can see that words are the necessary thing in providing the language.

In language, there are thousands words provided and new words that might enter our mind in daily basis. These words might be the simple words or the complex words. Complex words are produced from the process called morphological process which deals with morphology as the main course.

The morphological process produces some types of word-formation which are also as the part of morphology courses. Those types of words formation are reduplication (repetition of the whole or just part of word), affixation (addition of affix), conversion (word-class exchange), back-derivation (deletion of a suffix from complex words) and compounding in which all of these types explain how the complex words are formed.

According to Plag, the most productive type of word formation process in

English is compounding (2003: 169). Compounding is simply defined as the

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combination of two words to form a new word (Plag, 2003:169). However, according to Mc-Carthy, compound is “word formed by combining roots and the much smaller category of phrasal words, that is items that have the internal structure of phrases but function syntactically as word” (2002: 59).

As one of the types of word formation, compounding catches the writer’s interest about how the combination of two different words can produce new word with new meaning. Unlike the other types of word formation which do not use other different words, compounding uses the other different words that are joined together to create new words and new meaning. The new words produced from compounding process can be distinguished into some forms.

There are three distinguished forms of compounding that can be found in the text; open compounds (written in separated words), closed compounds (written as single word) and hyphenated compounds (words joined by hyphen). The words like cell phone and high school are the examples of open compound. Football and peanut are the examples of closed compound while in-depth and runner-up are the examples of hyphenated compound.

Besides the forms, compounding also has two kinds of compound based on the meaning according to its headedness; endocentric and exocentric. Endocentric compound can be divided into compound noun, compound adjective and compound verb. Some common words such as wallpaper, girlfriend, and blackboard are the example of compound nouns. Compound verbs may be found in the words outrun, underestimate, overcome and compound adjectives may also be found in the words homesick, widespread, long-lasting.

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There are still many other examples of compound words out of those examples that have been mentioned previously. Other examples of compound words can be found in any text form around us, for examples in articles, textbooks, novels, magazines, newspapers or dictionaries. The topic can be about sport, politic, health, entertainment or fashion, and this study, especially, discusses compound words that are found in the articles particularly related to Kartini Day. Kartini Day is chosen as the topic of articles for the reason that it is not only because of a recent national event in Indonesia, but it is also an annual special day to celebrate women emancipation.

As a woman, in her young age, Kartini has become a role model for

Indonesian women in proving that women also have roles in society. She tried to erase people’s mindset toward women that women’s role are no more than in the house as housewife and taking care of their child or husband. Through her action, she showed that women also have their right to participate in society and it is reflected in her book Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang which tell her desires toward women written in letters to her cousin and her friends. This is truly her effort to make gender equality between men and women arises. Now Kartini’s spirit has become the reflection for all women in Indonesia to get their rights and to take a role in all social aspects without leaving their nature as women. Therefore, in

Indonesia, Kartini becomes one of prominent figures in struggling the women emancipation.

The object of this study are the articles related to Kartini Day taken from

The Jakarta Post April 2016 and 2017. These two publishing years are considered

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as the most recent time of Kartini Day and they are selected as the object in order to get sufficient data to be analyzed. Due to the fact that all the data do not contain words that reflect about women or Kartini, this thesis just focuses on identifying compound words found in the articles. The analysis of the data are divided in to two categories. The first is based on the structure form of compound and the second is based on the meaning of compound.

B. Problem Formulation

In order to analyze this topic, the writer has formulated these problems of the study as follow:

1. What forms of compound words are found in the articles related to Kartini

Day found in The Jakarta Post April 2016 and 2017?

2. How are the dominant form of compound words in the articles related to

Kartini Day found in The Jakarta Post April 2016 and 2017 formed?

C. Objectives of the Study

According to problem formulation above, there are two objectives to be discussed in this study. The first is to identify the forms of compound words in the articles related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta 2016/2017 by reading all articles thoroughly. After finding all of compounds, the second is to analyze the dominant form of compounds, which are mostly found in the articles using morphological process. Through analysis, the second problem formulation is answered. The analysis will be divided into two categories; the first is based on the structure form and the second is based on the meaning of compound.

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D. Definition of Term

In order to avoid misunderstanding among the readers, here are some information about the terms used in this research. The terms used in this research are word, compound word and Jakarta Post.

The first term is word. “Word is the basic unit of language” (McCarthy,

2002: 4) which gives meaningful sense that builds a language. As an example a word listed in the dictionary like:

WOMEN noun. “AN ADULT FEMALE HUMAN BEING.” Def 1. Oxford

English Dictionary. 2005. Print

It seems that a word is not just a building block of sentence, it is a building block with a meaning which English learner may need to consult a dictionary to discover it. Like in the example above, the word “women” has several words to describe the definition of it. Those words perform not only as the former of a sentence but also a former of a meaning.

The second term is compound. According to McCarthy, compound is “word formed by combining roots, and the much smaller category of phrasal word, that is item that have the internal structure of phrase but function syntactically as word”

(2002: 59). The internal structure of compound seems the same as the phrase which has the head and the modifier. Nevertheless, it performs as a word which is formed from the two words combination. As an example the word blackboard, it is a combination between two words, black and board with each meaning and combined as one with a new meaning that is the board used for writing using chalk.

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The second term is Kartini Day. According to the encyclopedia dictionary,

Kartini Day is a special day of Indonesian in commemorating the birth of Kartini in 1879 who was the national Indonesian heroine and as the pioneer of Indonesian women emancipation. Most of the people in Indonesia celebrate Kartini Day by wearing such of traditional costume to symbolize the unity of the nation. Especially women, they usually wear kebaya in replicating Kartini’s attire which also configures the character of Kartini whose the daughter of Javanese nobleman.

The last term is The Jakarta Post. According to the official website of The

Jakarta Post (http://www.thejakartapost.com/about), it is a name of daily English newspaper in Indonesia which gives any kinds of news in Indonesia. The Jakarta

Post is available not only in printed but also online editions that are free to be accessed in the internet but in this study The Jakarta Post in printed edition is used as the object of the study. The address of general and editorial building is located in Jl. Palmerah Barat 142-143 Jakarta. It is published by PT. Bina Media Tenggara since 1983 and lead by Jusuf Wanandi, Cherly P. Santoso, Endy M. Bayuni and

Riyadi Suparno as board directors.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Review of Related Studies

In this part, there are three studies reviewed from previous researches done by other researchers which are similar to this topic research. The first one is from undergraduate thesis conducted by Leihitu (2016). This study discusses compounding from the new entry words of Oxford dictionary from May 2014 to

May 2015. Leihitu, in her research, tries to focus on the exocentric compounding by analyzing the part of speech of each new entry word and finding the meaning each of them.

The object of her research was taken from Oxford dictionary from May 2014 to May 2015. The data was found in the Oxford dictionary from internet (electronic dictionary) since most of exocentric compounds contains two words and cannot be found in the printed dictionary. Leihitu also uses morphological process to make the result between parts of the speech more significant with the meaning of those data. The findings are 54 new entry words in which 46 noun as the most part of speech that she found and the rest are adjectives and verbs. The meaning of each exocentric word that was found is displayed by checking it in Oxford dictionary from the internet.

The second previous study is also from undergraduate thesis written by

Limjadi (2005) which discusses the similar topic to the present research, compound words. The data of this research are found in the Longman dictionary of contemporary English (cd version). However, in his undergraduate thesis, Limjadi

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tries to focus on the compound adjectives. He figures out the elements and constructions to build compound adjectives and also the function of compound adjectives performed. The data collection of his research is taken from Longman dictionary contemporary English in CD version. He decides to limit the data starting in the word with letter A to C to avoid too much data in his research. In order to describe all of the findings, Limjadi uses descriptive linguistic method in his methodology, so that the data is analyzed based on element and construction.

Another related study is from a journal conducted by Olausson (2008). Her study aims to describe the meaning extension of huvud (‘head’) in modern Swedish compound words. All compound words that contain the word huvud, with the total of 223, are extracted from Svenska Akademins Ordlista (2006, 13) published by the

Swedish Academy. Olausson uses semantic analysis as his method to indicate productivity as well as translating into English and Spanish in which the meaning extension is examined.

Furthermore, this study, on the one hand, tries to compare between English and Spanish in order to find similar patterns of meaning extension and on the other hand to look for traits that have gone along non-parallel paths. Therefore, it could be considered as traits that are distinctive for the Swedish language. According to

Olausson, this study is a kind of great importance for native speakers as well as for second-language learners to possess a large and varied vocabulary in order to understand what is said and written in different contexts and in different areas.

Based on those three previous studies, the writer concludes some points compared to this study. First, there are similarities between those studies and the

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current study. This study is similar to the study conducted by Limjadi in term of methodology in analyzing the data that is using descriptive linguistic method in order to describe all of the findings. The study conducted by Leihitu is also quite similar to this study. Leihitu uses morphological process in identifying the part of speech and the meaning of the data, and so does the writer. The data of this study are identified the part of speech of each word formed in each compounding.

However, some differences are also found despite the main topic between the previous and current study is just the same. Unlike the previous study, the object of this study is taken from articles related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post April

2016 and 2017. In this study, the writer just focuses on the closed compound while other studies, like the study conducted by Leihitu just focuses on analyzing exocentric compounding and by Limjadi which focuses on adjectives compounds.

This study is also different from the study conducted by Ollauson that he tries to analyze the meaning extension of huvud (‘head’) in modern Swedish compound words while this study analysis not only the meaning but also word formation of compounding.

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B. Review of Related Theories

1. Morphology

Morphology is the study of word form and structure. In linguistics, morphology refers to the mental system involved in word formation or to the branch of linguistics that deals with word, their internal structure and how they are formed

(Aronoff and Fudeman, 2011:2). It means that the major point in morphology is to investigate words, their internal structure and how they are formed through the identification of what it called as morpheme.

The term morpheme is used to refer to the smallest part of linguistics. It is indivisible units of semantic content or grammatical function which word are made up (Katamba, 1993:20). By the definition, it can be understood that a morpheme is the smallest unit which has meaning. It cannot be divided into smaller units which are either meaningful by themselves or mark a grammatical function. For example the word fee [fi:], which contain just one morpheme, cannot be divided into [f] and

[i:] since these sounds do not have any meaning but the word birds, arms, trees can be divided into two morphemes which functions separately; first is singular bird, arm and tree and followed by a second morpheme (s). This is what we call as plural inflection which involves in a morpheme.

The word birds, arms and trees previously give us a simple description of internal structure in each word or how such a word can form from morphemes.

Here, morphological process is essentially needed to discuss how the words are formed, or commonly stated as the term “word-formation”.

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2. Word-Formation

Word-formation deals with the formation of word which contain elements or parts to build a word. According to Matthews, word formation may be defined as “the branch of morphology which deals with the relations between a complex lexeme and simple(r) lexeme” (1991: 36). The forms catch, catches, catching, caught are different representation of the lexeme CATCH. They all share a core meaning although they are spelled differently. The forms of catch above are the examples of what we call as inflectional morphology, the forms doesn’t change the meaning between them. Another example of complex word or lexeme in spelling is association = associat (e) + - ion, in which before it is added by suffix

–ion, associate is a verb and after the suffix is added in the final position it changes into association, as a noun. This example is what we call as derivational morphology.

There are some types of word-formation in morphological process such as reduplication, affixation, conversion, back-derivation and compounding. These types will be explained further in the sub-topic below which according to

Szymanek. a. Reduplication

Reduplication or repetition is a kind of morphological process which involves reiteration of the whole base or just a part of it (initial or final segment or syllable) (Szymanek, 1989:71). It is restricted to situation where the repeated part of the word serves derivational or inflectional purposes, one can have suffix form which results final reduplication (repetition in the end of the base) or infix form that

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result infixal reduplication in which the structure of the base itself is broken into .

The examples are sing-song, goody-goody, brain drain, roly-poly, wishy-washy.

Moreover, in other examples the reduplicated material might originate initially, medially or finally. b. Affixation

Affixation might be claimed as the most common morphological process in language. It is probably the most frequent method of producing complex word morphologically in human language. According to Syzmanek, affixation, in general may be defined as “the combination of a bound (derivational or inflectional) morpheme with a steam or root” (1989:62). The morpheme added to the stem called affix and the process known as affixation.

The linguists divides affix into three types; suffix, prefix and infix.

An affix that is attached to the front of its base is called a prefix, while an affix that is attached to the end of its base is called a suffix. Here are some examples of prefix and suffix. Prefixes: de-activate, re-play, re-organize, in-formal, dis-honest, mis- understand. Suffixes: govern-ment, certain-ly, glass-es, hunt-er, kind-ness.

The last type that is less common than prefix and suffix is infix, a type of affix that occurs within a base. There is a bound morpheme that is inserted into the base form. It seems hard to find many example of infix in English but certain swear words or other expressive lexemes like bloody, blooming, etc. may be inserted into the middle of some words like: al-bloody-mighty, air con-bloody-tioner.

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c. Conversion

Conversion is a process of word-class exchange that assigns an already existing word to a new syntactic category. In his book, Szymanek assumes that

“conversion involves the ‘attachment’ of a specific kind of a derivational morpheme, a so-called zero-morpheme” (1982:83). Given this morphological process of conversion cook and empty may be represented as follows:

[cook]V  [[cook]v + Ø]N

[empty]A  [[empty]A + Ø]V

This process is viewed as consisting in the attachment of a ‘zero-morpheme’ to the base. Even though it does not add any affix, conversion resembles derivation because of the change in category and meaning that it brings about. Some examples of conversion are displayed in the table 1 below (Szymanek, 1989:83).

Table 1. Some examples of conversion VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE VERB

Cook Cook Empty Empty Coach Coach Clean Clean Guide Guide Cool Cool Judge Judge Calm Calm d. Back-derivation

Back-derivation (also known as back-formation) is a process or formation of new word by the deletion of a suffix or supposed suffix from another complex word. It is specific kind of morphological process which only found in derivation and not in inflection. The examples of back-derivation are involving elimination of an independent suffix like transcription – to transcript. It may be noticed that the

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concept of back-derivation is talking about the origin of individual words. Here are some English words which are the products of back-derivation:

Beggar  to beg Peddler  to peddle Editor  to edit Negation  to negate Television  to televise The following type of word formation is compounding which will be explained further in the next theory with deep comprehension. 3. Compounding

Compound is a word made up of at least two bases that can occur as independent word. It crucially involves putting together two or more lexical item and representing the major syntactic category N, V, A or sometimes also Adverb,

Pronoun and Participle (Szymanek, 1989:37). The example of compound greenhouse contains the bases green (A) and house (N), which can occur as a word. Its formation may be sketched as follows:

[X]A + [Y]N  [X+Y]N where X and Y are the variables, X is for Adjective (A) and Y is for Noun (N); their combination is in turn a Noun.

It is the same case as blackboard (black (A) and board (N)) and blackbird (black(N) and bird(N)). From the examples mentioned, we can say that compounding is simply a combination of two words to form a new word.

Although compounding is a combination of two words, it have to be distinguished from the syntactic phrases, for example greenhouse and green house.

Both of these words sound as the same but different in structure and meaning.

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Greenhouse is a compounding which means the building that has glass walls used for growing plant but green house is a phrase which means a house with the color of green.

Some very well-established compounds are usually written as one word with or without a hyphen like breakfast and ice-cream. However, many other compounds are not conventionally identified as such by the orthography. Therefore, a words like free trade sometimes written as two separated word by a space or sometimes as free-trade, a hyphenated word.

In morphological process, the simplest possible compound consists of two underived lexeme which are referred to as modifier and its head. Since there are common compounds are right-headed in English, modifier and head can be easily found in such compound like what has been mentioned before, blackboard. Board functions as the head while black functions as its modifier. To get more comprehension about compounding, there are some further explanations in the next sub-theory written below. a. The Forms of Compound

There are three ways of writing compounds. Sometimes it is written with an intervening hyphen (hyphenated compound), sometimes as separated word (open compound) and sometimes as single word (closed compound) (O’Grady,

1997:153). The first is a hyphenated compound, also called as unit modifier, is simply a combination of two words joined by a hyphen or hyphens. The hyphen is a mark of punctuation that not only unites but also separates the component of words; thus, it gives the understanding, readability and ensures correct

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pronunciation. Words that are hyphenated mainly to express the idea of a unit and to avoid ambiguity. Here are the following examples:

Shell-like long-term

Well-to-do low-water

East-central plug-in

East-northeast up-to-date

The second is an open compound or usually written in separated word. It is a combination of two words that are so closely associated. They convey the idea of single concept but are spelled as unconnected words, for examples fruit juice, high school students, banana split, rocking chair, middle class, post office.

The last is closed compound, defined as the combination of two words written in a single word. Some examples that have been discuss in the previous part like blackbird, blackboard and greenhouse are the examples of closed compound. The other examples are copyeditor, wildlife, and audiovisual and there are more examples of closed compound in the data found that will be displayed in the next chapter. b. The Structure of Compound

Compounds exhibit what it is called as a, modifier-head structure. The term head is generally used to refer to the most important unit in a complex linguistic structure (Plag, 2003:135). The head of compound is modified by the other member of the compound. Semantically, it means that inside the set of entities in a compound there is a subset of the entities denoted by the head.

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Regarding to the head, compounds have an important systematic property that is their head usually occurs on the right-hand side. The compound as a whole inherits semantic and syntactic information from its head. Thus, if the head is a noun, the compound will be noun (e.g. blackboard, bathroom), if the head is a verb, the compound will be verb (e.g overcook, hand-wash).

Another property of the compound head is that if the compound is pluralized, the plural marking occurs on the head not in the non-head (Plag,

2003:136). Thus, parks commissioner is not the plural form of park commissioner.

It should be park commissioners, the head is commissioners where it is pluralized.

This rule is applied when the words in compound noun are joined by hyphen

(e.g.brothers-in-law) or separated by spaces like the previous example. In other words, plural inflection is attached to the element of open or hyphenated compound noun that changes in number (e.g. mothers-in-law not mother-in-laws). However, when the compound noun is single word or closed compound, the plural (-s) is usually added in the end of the word (e.g. toothbrushes not toothsbrush). It means that the head and the meaning of compound is taken from the second member of compound.

Concerning to the constituency and headedness of compound, Plag formalizes the structure of compound as follows:

The structure of English compounds

[X Y]Y X = {root, word, phrase} Y = {root, word} Y = grammatical properties inherited from Y

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It is almost similar as what Matthews describes about the formation of compound

(derived from two or more simpler lexeme) that may be sketched as follows

(1991:82):

[X]A + [Y]N  [X+Y]N Black + bird  Blackbird

X and Y are variables, the first ranging over Adjectives (A) and the second over

Nouns (N); their combination is turn into a Noun. Thus, by the same process,

[greyhound]N is derived from [grey]A and [hound]N, blackthorn is from black and thorn, and so on.

From the structure above, it shows us that they are binary and which kinds of element may occupy which position. Furthermore, it also shows us that the right- hand member is the head which the grammatical properties merge to the compound as the whole. c. Meaning of Compound

The meaning of compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts; a blackboard may be green or white. The same case also happen in redcoat.

Not everyone who wears a red coat is a Redcoat. This would be different in the sentences “she has a red coat in her wardrobe” and “she has a Redcoat in her wardrobe” which have been highly significant in America in 1776, since Redcoat is slang for British soldier during the American Revolutionary War.

Other compounds reveal other meaning relation between the parts, which are not entirely consistent because many compounds are idiomatic (Fromkin,

Rodman & Hyam, 2009: 59). A boathouse is a house for boat but a cathouse is not a house for cat (slang for house of prostitution or whorehouse). Peanut oil and olive

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oil are oils that are made from something, but how about baby oil? It refers to oil that is for baby rather than oil made from babies.

In the examples above show that the meaning of compound includes at least to the meaning of individual parts. However, according to Fromkin, many compounds do not seem to relate to the meaning of the individual parts at all

(2009:59). A highbrow does not necessarily have a high brow, nor a does a big wig have a big wig, nor does an egghead have an egg-shaped head. In conclusion, the meaning of many compounds must be learned as if they are individual whole words and some of the meanings may be figured out from the head of compound, but not all.

In other words, meaning of compound must be understood whether it has a head or not. According to Katamba, there two kinds of headedness in compound; headed compounds and headless compounds (1993:304). First, headed compounds or called as endocentric compounds, mean compounds that have the head. It is divided into three kinds of compounds; compound noun, compound verb and compound adjective. Second, headless compounds mean compounds that do not contain the head. Such compound are called exocentric compounds.

The first is compound noun. It is a compound that has a noun as the head. It may contain a noun followed by another noun (NN), an adjective or preposition followed by a noun (AN) (PN), or a verb followed by noun (VN). In this research, the researcher provide summary of some examples of compounds noun taken from some books, such as (Carstairs, McCarthy, 2002) and (Katamba, 1993). In order to get better view of list of the examples, the table is displayed below.

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Table 2. Summary of Compound Nouns Examples

N + N A + N Prep + N V + N

Bookcase Blackboard Undergraduate Swearword

Bedroom Hothouse Oversight Playtime

Wallpaper Bluebird Underworld Breakfast

Football Software Overcoat Breakwater

The Second, compound adjective, is compound that contains adjective as the head. It can contain noun followed by an adjective (NA), adjective followed by an adjective (AA) and preposition followed by an adjectives (PA). The examples of compound adjectives are displayed in the table below, which are also the summary of some examples from two books stated above.

Table 3. Summary of Compound Adjectives Examples N + A A + A P + A

Foolproof Long-winded Underfull

Seaworthy Hard-hearted Overactive

World-wide Good-natured Outspoken

Third, compound verb, is compound that has verb as the head. Variety types of compound verb can be verb followed by verb (VV), noun followed by verb (NV), adjective followed by verb (AV) and preposition followed by verb (PV). There is a table of examples provided below, which also summary from the two books mentioned before, that will give better understanding of compound verbs.

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Table 4. Summary of Compound Verbs Examples

V + V N + V A + V P + V

Stir-fry Air-condition Dry-clean Upset

Freeze-dry Hand-wash Whitewash Overcook

Sleepwalk Steam-clean Outstay

The last, headless compounds or called exocentric compounds are compound which do not contain element that function as the semantic head which is modified by the unhead element (Katamba, 1993: 319). It means that its lexical category or meaning are not determinable from the head. It seems the meaning of compound does not have a correlation from the words combination.

Here is an example of exocentric compound to get further comprehension; greenhouse, from a semantic perspective, this compound is headless made up from adjective and noun. The constituents in greenhouse do not have a head-modifier semantic relationship since the meaning is not a house that is green but a building with glass wall for growing plants. The same way apply in butterfingers and blockhead. For the purpose of semantic interpretation, butterfingers (butter N + finger N) is neither a kind of fingers nor kind of butter, but rather than a person who is apparently incapable in holding things without dropping them. The meaning of blockhead (block N + head N) is neither a kind of block nor head but rather than an idiot.

Obviously, the meaning of exocentric compound is opaque. It is not related at all with the sum of the meanings of its constituents. For this reason exocentric

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compounds tend to be used much less frequently than endocentric compound in creating new words. Therefore, Katamba says that Exocentric compound becomes special because they have idiosyncratic rules of semantic interpretation. d. The Tree Diagram

Tree diagram is used to represent the hierarchical organization of words.

Tree diagram also shows syntactic structure of word analysis. The word itself is not a simple sequence of morpheme but it has internal structure (Fromkin, Rodman and

Hyam, 2009:49). The following examples are taken from compounding which called inflected compounds (Katamba, 1993: 312) like airports and underestimated while the example of uninflected compound is in the word fireman. These examples, according to Katamba, are described using the tree diagram as follows:

N [+pℓ ] V [+past] N [+pℓ ]

N[+pℓ ] Af [+pℓ ] Prep V [+past] N N [+pℓ ]

N N[+pℓ ] V [+past] Af [+past ] N [+pℓ ]

Air port s Under estimate ed Fire men

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C. Theoretical Framework

There are some theories reviewed in this study as the tools in order to answer the problem formulations. This part explains how these theories are used to answer those problem formulations. In this study, morphology is the main core theory to explain compounding. Morphology itself is the study of word form and structure, thus analyzing the internal structure of compounds and how they are formed using morphology is needed.

The next theory discussed in this study is word formation as the branch of morphology which deals with the relations between a complex lexeme and simple(r) lexeme. In this theory, word formation explains the formation of word which contains elements or parts to build a word. There are several types of word formation resulted in morphological processes according to Syzmanek; reduplication, affixation, conversion, back derivation and compounding.

As the focus of this study, compounding will be explained further in the next theory. Through this theory, the readers are given deep explanations about the difference between compounds and phrases since they are almost similar in writing.

Therefore, it helps in answering the first problem formulation that is to get the distribution of compounds found in the data object.

In the sub-theory, compounding are divided into some details. The first is the forms of compound which includes closed compound (written in single word) as the focus of the data in this study. The second is the structure of compound which explains how compounds are formed and what elements in compounds; their head and modifier, grammatical categories or part of speech in each word. Therefore, the

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theory of structure of compound can helps to answer the second problem formulation. The third is meaning of compound which helps to find the meaning of compounds whether the meaning has the relation with the member of compound or not. In this matter, the head of compound can help to find the related meaning easier, whether it is endocentric or exocentric.

The last theory in this study is tree diagram to support the analysis by describing how the elements form a compound. It is reviewed in this study to answer also the second problem formulation.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

A. Object of the Study

The data of this study are compound words found in the articles related to

Kartini Day in the The Jakarta Post 2016 / 2017. Like what have been mentioned in the definition of term, The Jakarta Post is daily English newspaper in Indonesia that gives any kinds of news like crime, politics, economy, features and sports. The

Jakarta Post is available in both printed and online edition, and this study also uses these two editions as the object of the study. There are 8 articles that are related to

Kartini Day; 5 articles from the Jakarta Post in 2016 and 3 articles from The Jakarta

Post in 2017.

B. Approach of the Study

The approach that the writer uses in this study is morphological approach.

Morphology itself is the study of word form and structure. As the branch of linguistics, morphology also deals with word, its internal structure and how it is formed (Aronoff and Fudeman, 2011: 2). Therefore this approach is important in this thesis as the basic theory in analyzing the data, which is compound words as the part of word formation. By applying morphological approach, compound words can be analyzed into separated word with each part of speech.

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C. Method of the Study

1. Data Collection

In this study, the writer used population data collection. According to Best and Kahn, population is defined as “a group of individuals with at least one common characteristic which distinguishes that group from other individuals” (2006:13).

Through population data collection we can collect all the data which depend on the characteristic of interest.

The data were closed compound words found in the articles related to

Kartini Day in the newspaper The Jakarta Post 2016 and 2017. In this study, the

writer focused on the closed compound words since this kind of compound was

mostly found in the articles than open and hyphenated compound. Therefore, the

analysis was about closed compound.

The first step to find the data was by reading all of the articles which

related to Kartini Day. The second was identifying the dominant compound which

is closed compound from the composition number of open, closed and hyphenated

compounds. The most exists compound words found in the articles were then

classified into several categories; based on the form of structure (un-inflectional

and inflectional) and based on the meaning of compound (endocentric and

exocentric).

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2. Data Analysis

After finding all of compound words in the articles, the writer got the data

of how many compounds for each form (open, closed and hyphenated) displayed

on a table later. From this composition, there would be found which compound

that mostly exist in the articles related Kartini Day and the result is closed

compounds. The analysis of this data was divided into two forms, first was based

on the structure of compound and second was based on the meaning of compound.

The structure analysis was divided into inflectional and un-inflectional

compounds and the meaning analysis was divided into endocentric and exocentric

compounds. The structure analysis described the morphological process of

compounds and also displayed the tree diagram, particularly for inflectional

compounds while meaning analysis was identifying the meaning of compound

whether it was endocentric or exocentric.

In analyzing the compound structure, particularly un-inflectional

compounds, the writer provided a table containing the morphological process and

the head-modifier of each compounds whereas for inflectional compounds, the

deeper analysis was needed to describe the formation of the additional item

attached to the compounds.

After analyzing the structure, the next analysis was the meaning of compounds. In finding the meaning of each compound, the writer used Merriam

Webster English online dictionary which provides the etymology of the words to check the word origin and Cambridge English online dictionary which gives the definition of a word in British and American English.

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When the meaning of separable words and the whole compound were related, it meant that it had literal meaning or endocentric compound. It was also easier to decide the head of the compound. However, if the meaning of the whole compound had no relation with the two separable words, it was considered as headless compound or exocentric. For example greenhouse which consists of green

(of the color green) and house (a building in which a family lives). The meaning is not a house that is green but a building with glass wall for growing plants.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter aims to answer the problem formulations with the deep discussion of the data. This chapter is divided into two subchapters based on the problem formulations. The first subchapter describes the distribution of the data in tables. The second subchapter discusses the formations of data.

The first table presents the distribution of compounds (open, closed and hyphenated) with the amount and the percentage of each compound. The total result from this table also shows the highest percentage that represent the most exist compound in the articles. The next table presents the distribution of inflectional – un-inflectional compounds and endocentric-exocentric compound with the amount and the percentage also.

The analysis of compound words uses the morphological process to explain the structure of each compound or what elements that create a compound. The analysis of the structure also describes the two separable words that are combined into one word as a closed compound with each part of speech. After that, determine the type of compound that may be produced based on the head of compound and the meaning of compound.

In purpose to get a better view of how compounds are formed, the analysis of compounds also displays the tree diagrams, particularly for the compounds which have more complex elements like inflectional compound e.g underestimated, headliners. Through the tree diagram, the description of the compound formation becomes easier to be understood.

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A. The Compound Words Found in the Articles Related to Kartini Day

Table 5. Distribution of Compounds

Compound Amount Percentage Open compound 22 22,92% Closed compound 42 43,75%

Hyphenated compound 32 33,33%

Total 96 100,00%

From the table above, the highest percentage is closed compound that is

43,75%. It means that closed compound is the form of compound which mostly found in the articles. Therefore, the table presented below is about the further distribution of closed compounds that are based on the form of structure

(inflectional and un-inflectional) and based on the meaning of compound

(endocentric and exocentric).

Table 6. Distribution of Inflectional Compounds

Part of Compound Suffix Amount Percentage speech (-s/-es) 9 (-er) 2 N (-d) 1 Inflectional (-er) + (-s) 2 40,48% V (-ed) 1 (-d) 1 Adj (-ing) 1 Total 17

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Table of distribution of inflectional compounds above shows that, based on the form of structure, there are 17 inflectional compounds with three part of speech; noun (N), verb (V) and adjective (Adj) from the total closed compound which is 42 compounds with the percentage of 40,48%. There are five suffixes inflected in those closed compounds such as suffix (-s/-es), suffix (-er), suffix (-d) and (-ed), suffix (- ing) and double suffixes (-er) + (-s).

Table 7. Distribution of Un-inflectional Compounds

Part of Compound Amount Percentage speech N 17

Un-inflectional V 3 59,52% Adj 5

Total 25

The table of distribution of un-inflectional compound above shows that, based on the form of structure, un-inflectional compound has the highest percentage that is 59,52% than the inflectional compound that is 40,48%. There are 25 inflectional compounds from the total of 42 closed compounds and noun un- inflectional compounds are identified as the dominant followed by adjective and verb.

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Table 8. Distribution of Endocentric – Exocentric Compounds

Amount Part of speech Endocentric Exocentric N 29 1 V 3 2 Adj 6 1 38 4 Total 90,48% 9,52% 100,00%

While based on the meaning, the table of distribution of endocentric – exocentric compounds above shows that the highest percentage is endocentric

90,48% with the amount 38 endocentric compounds. The exocentric compound only has 4 compounds with the percentage of 9,52%. These findings will be discussed further in the next part.

B. The Formation of Compound Words

1. The Form of Compounding Structure a. Un-inflectional Compounds

Un-inflectional compounds are compounds which have no suffixes inflected. Un-inflectional compounds just consist of two simple words without any suffixes or prefixes. The following twenty three un-inflectional compounds are described in the table below along with the morphological process, the head and modifier. (Note: slash marker (-) in the head and modifier column represents that the compound is exocentric, it has no head and modifier)

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Table 9. The Formation of Un-inflectional Compounds

UN-INFLECTIONAL COMPOUNDS PART OF MORPHOLOGICAL NO COMPOUNDS HEAD MODIFIER SPEECH PROCESS 1 Childbirth [child]N + [birth]N  Birth Child [childbirth]N 2 Grandfather [grand]ADJ + [father]N Father Grand  [grandfather]N 3 Grandmother [grand]ADJ + [mother]N Mother Grand  [grandmother]N 4 Tracksuit [track]N + [suit]N  Suit Track [tracksuit]N. 5 Dockside [dock]N + [side]N  Side Dock [dockside]N 6 Footage [foot]N + [age]N  - - [footage]N. 7 Storyline [story]N + [line]N  Line Story [storyline]N 8 Masterpiece [master]ADJ + [piece]N Piece Master  [masterpiece]N 9 Hometown [home] + [town]  Town Home N N N [hometown]N 10 Graveyard [grave]N + [yard]N  Grave Yard [graveyard]N 11 Handicraft [handy]ADJ + [craft]N  Craft Handy [handicraft]N 12 Birthday [birth]N + [day]N  Birth Day [birthday]N 13 Herself [her]PRONOUN + [self]N Self Her  [herself]N 14 Everyday [every]ADJ + [day]N  Day Every [everyday]N 15 Playwright [play]N + [wright]N  Wright Play [playwright]N 16 Wrongdoing [wrong]ADJ + [doing]N Doing Wrong  [wrongdoing]N 17 Lifetime [life]N + Time Life [time]N[lifetime]N 18 Upheld [up] ADV + [held]V  - - [upheld]V 19 Highlight [high] + [light]  Light High V ADJ V [highlight]V 20 Foreseen [fore]ADV + [seen]V  Seen Fore [foreseen]V

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PART OF MORPHOLOGICAL NO SPEECH COMPOUNDS HEAD MODIFIER PROCESS 21 Household [house]N + [hold]V  - - [household]ADJ 22 Widespread [wide]ADJ + [spread]V Wide Spread  [widespread]ADJ 23 Seaborne [sea]N + [borne]ADJ  Borne Sea Adj [seaborne]ADJ 24 Straightforwar [straight]ADJ + Straight Forward d [forward]ADV  [straightforward]ADJ 25 Teenage [teen]ADJ + [age]N  Teen Age [teenage]ADJ

All of the un-inflectional compounds in the table 9. are also categorized into three part of speech; noun, verb and adjective and described the formation using the morphological process with head and modifier. Almost all of un-inflectional compounds presented above have the head in the second member of compound and the modifier in the first member of compound. b. Inflectional Compounds

Inflectional compounds are compounds which have suffix(es) inflected in the final word. In this analysis the suffix(es) which occur in the compounds are plural (s/es), suffix (-er), suffix (-ed), suffix (-ing) and combination of suffix (-er) and (–s). There are seventeen inflectional compounds with these suffixes displayed in the table below. The further analysis of inflectional compound is discussed afterward with the tree diagrams of each compound to show the formation of the complex elements.

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Table 10. Inflectional Compounds

INFLECTIONAL Part of NO COMPOUNDS SUFFIXES speech 1. Spokespersons 2. Bookshops 3. Bookstores 4. Sunglasses 5. Suffix (–s) / (-es) N Soulmates 6. Themselves 7. Mindsets 8. Textbooks 9. Tribesman 10. Filmmaker Suffix (–r) / (-er) N 11. Housekeeper

12. Adj Outdated 13. Suffix (–d) / (-ed) V Highlighted 14. N Underprivileged

15. Suffix (–ing) V Snowballing

16. Policymakers Double suffixes (–r) and (-s) N 17. Headliners

Table 10. shows that there are seventeen inflectional compounds with five suffixes attached on each of compound. The most dominant suffix is suffix (-s)/(- es). The following analysis just takes one or two compounds from the table 10. to be analyzed that has represented other compounds derived from the same suffix. b.1 Plural Suffix Inflection:

All of compounds that are inflected by plural suffix are noun. Some examples are spokespersons, bookshops and sunglasses.

The first compound is spokespersons. The part of speech of this word is a noun. There are three morphemes; (spoke), (person) and plural inflection (-s) which occurs in both spoke and person. The morphological process of this compound is

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sketched as: [[spokes]N + [person]N]N + [-s]  [spokespersons]N. Spokesperson is quite different with other ordinary plural words. It has plural inflection not only in the second member or in the end of the word person(s), but also in the first member.

Spoke(s), which we usually see it as simple past of speak, originally is from spoke

(irregular as noun) + -s (firstly known in 1510-1520). Therefore, the meaning of the whole compound refers to spokes as a noun. The detail of spokespersons origin is explained in the meaning of compound analysis. The tree diagram of spokespersons is displayed below:

N [+pℓ ]

N [+pℓ ] Af [+pℓ ]

N [+pℓ ] N

Spokes person s

From the diagram, we can see that compounding is done first while the inflection of plural affixation takes place later. It is to show that the plural is owned by the whole compound, spokesperson. Therefore, spokespersons is more than one spokesperson.

The second compound is bookshops. The part of speech of this word is noun.

This compound is made up from three morphemes; (book), (shop) and plural inflection (-s). Its morphological process is [[book]N + [shop]N]N + [-s] 

[bookshops]N, where book and shop, which are noun, form a compound bookshop

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and added by plural (-s). Then, their combination turns into plural noun bookshops which has meaning of a place of business where book are the main item offered for sale. Here is the tree diagram of bookshops:

N [+pℓ ]

N Af [+pℓ ]

N N

Book shop s

Like the previous compound, bookshops has similar inflection process which the compounding is done first in book and shop to form bookshop while the inflection of plural (-s) takes place later. The inflection of suffix (-s) after the compounding is to show that the plural is owned by the whole compound, bookshop, not just the second element, shop(s). Therefore, bookshops as plural noun refers to several numbers of bookshop.

The third is sunglasses. It consists of two words; sun and glasses and three morphemes; (sun), (glass) and plural (-s). The morphological process is stated as follows: [sun]N + [[glass]N + [-es]]N]N  [sunglasses]N where sun and glass are noun. Unlike the two previous compound, the inflectional process of suffix (-es) in sunglasses is done first in the second word, glass(es) because glass cannot be separated with the plural (-es) to create the meaning of glass for eyes. After that, the compounding of sun and glasses takes place later. Their combination turn into

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noun too, sunglasses which means dark glasses that you wear to protect your eyes from bright light of the sun. To get better view of the structure, here is the tree diagram displayed:

N [+pℓ ]

N N [+pℓ ]

N Af [+pℓ ]

Sun glass es

The tree diagram above shows that the suffixation of plural –es occurs first in the second word glass(es). It is show that the plural (-s) is owned by glasses, then it is combined with sun and it results plural noun sunglasses.

b.2 Suffix (-r) Inflection:

The same case also happens in the suffix (–r), where all of the compounds that are inflected by this suffix are noun. One of them is filmmaker. It consists of three morphemes; (film), (make) and affix (-r). The morphological process of filmmaker is stated as follow: [film]N + [[make]V + [-r]]N  [filmmaker]N, where film and maker are a noun. Maker is produced from the suffixation of (–r) which occurs first in the second element make (V). The result shows that there is a change in the part of speech, from verb, make into noun, maker caused by the suffix (-r).

The change aims to create the meaning of maker that is the people of company that

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make something. Therefore, when maker is combined with the other noun, film, it results a noun also; filmmaker, means someone who is in charge of making film.

To get better view of the structure, here is the tree diagram of filmmaker:

N N

V Aff

Film make -r

From the diagram, we can see that the inflection of (-r) in the verb, make is done first and the compounding takes place later. The suffix (-r) in this compound is owned by the noun make(-r) not the compound filmmake(r).

b.3 Suffix (-d) / (-ed) Inflection:

There are only two compounds that are inflected by suffix (-d) or (-ed). They are outdated and highlighted. The first is outdated. It consists of three morphemes;

(out), (date) and affix –d. The morphological process of this compound is described as follows; [[out]ADV + [date]N]ADJ + [-d]  [outdated]ADJ where out is an adjective and date is a noun. Their combination results an adjective, outdate which is attached by the suffix (-ed) to result an adjective too in simple past, outdated which means old fashion. Here is the tree diagram of outdated:

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ADJ

ADJ Af [past]

ADJ N

Out date d

From the tree diagram, we can see that the compounding of outdate is done first while the suffix (-d) occurs later. In this compound, this suffix is a mark of simple past, thus, suffix (d) is owned by the whole compound.

The similar inflection process is also done in highlighted. It consists of three morphemes; (high), (light) and affix (-ed). The morphological process of this compound is: [[high]ADJ + [light]V]V + [ed]  [highlighted]V, where high is an adjective and light is a verb. Their combination results a compound, highlight which later being attached by the suffix (-ed) to create a new compound, highlighted in the form of simple past. The tree diagram of highlighted is displayed as follows:

V[past]

V Af [past]

ADJ V

High light -ed

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The tree diagram above also shares similar structure to the previous compound, outdated, which the compounding of highlight is done first while the inflection of suffix (-ed) occurs later. Their combination results a new compound word, highlighted as verb past. The inflection that occurs in the compound shows that the suffix (-ed) is owned by the whole compound and not the second element only (lighted) where it is attached. b.4 Suffix (-ing) Inflection:

The suffix (-ing) occurs only in the word snowballing which consists of three morphemes; (snow), (ball) and affix (–ing). The morphological process of this compound is described as follows: [snow]N + [[ball]V + [-ing]]V 

[snowballing]ADJ, where snow is a noun and balling is a verb. Balling is formed from the suffixation of (-ing) which occurs in the verb ball. In order to get better view about the structure of snowballing, the following tree diagram is displayed:

N V

V Af

Snow ball ing

From the tree diagram above, the affix (–ing) that occurs in the verb, ball is done first and creates a new verb, balling. After that, the compounding between the

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noun snow and the verb balling is done later which results snowballing as a transitive verb.

b.5 Double Inflection of Suffix (-r) and (-s):

There are not only a single suffix that can occur in the compounds. There are found also some compounds that are inflected by two suffixes such as suffix (- r) and (-s). All of the compounds with these double suffixes are noun and one of the examples is policymakers. This compound is made up from 4 morphemes; (policy),

(make), suffix (-er) and suffix (-s) which occur in the second word, makers. The morphological process is [policy]N + [[make]V + [-r]]N +[-s]  [policymakers]N where both Policy and makers are noun. This compound has double inflections; suffix (-r) and suffix (-s) which occur first in the second element of this compound, make. These suffixes cause the change of the part of speech; from verb make into noun plural makers. Then, it is combined with the other noun, policy and results a noun plural too, policymakers. Here is the tree diagram of policymakers

N [+pℓ ]

N Af [+pℓ ]

N N

V Af

Policy make -er -s

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The tree diagram above describes that suffix (-er) occurs first in the verb make which results a noun maker. This suffix creates the meaning of person who does an action. It is then followed by the combination of policy and maker which produce a compound policymaker. In the end, this compound is inflected by the suffix (-s) as a plural mark that is more than one person. The result of these combinations is a new complex word, policymakers.

From those five kind of suffixes, there are some characteristics of inflectional compounds that are found in the articles. The first is the suffixes that are attached in the compound. There are suffixes that change the meaning

(inflectional suffixes) of compound and suffixes that do not change the meaning

(derivational suffixes). As the examples of inflectional suffixes the suffix (–s)/(-es) in bookshops, textbooks, mindsets, etc., and suffix (–d) in highlighted. These suffixes is just to mark the plural form and the past tenses, therefore when they are attached to the compound their meaning do not change. Otherwise derivational suffixes like suffix (–r)/(-er) in filmmaker and housekeeper and suffix(-ing) in snowballing. Suffix (–r)/(-er) can change the meaning which refers to people who does an action while suffix (–ing) can change the meaning of compound as a verb into an adjective.

The second character is the inflection of compound itself. From the analysis, there are found two ways where the suffix is inflected, the first is after the compounding like bookshops, bookstores, outdated, highlighted, snowballing and so on, the second is before the compounding like sunglasses, filmmaker, housekeeper, policymakers and headliners.

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2. Meaning of Compounds a. Endocentric Compound

This following table is to show the compound words that are found with three categories; compound noun, compound verb and compound adjective.

Table 11. The Category of Endocentric Compounds ENDOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS NO Nouns Adjectives Verbs 1. Childbirth Teenage Highlight 2. Grandfather Widespread Foreseen 3. Grandmother Seaborne Highlighted 4. Tracksuit Straightforward 5. Dockside Outdated 6. Storyline Everyday 7. Masterpiece 8. Hometown 9. Herself 10. Graveyard 11. Handicraft 12. Birthday 13. Playwright 14. Lifetime 15. Spokespersons 16. Bookshops 17. Bookstores 18. Sunglasses 19. Soulmates 20. Themselves 21. Mindsets 22. Textbooks 23. Tribesman 24. Filmmaker 25. Housekeeper 26. Underprivileged 27 Wrongdoing 28. Policymakers 29 Headliners 29 6 3 Total 38

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As table 11. has been presented above, noun endocentric compound has the highest number that is 29 compounds from the total 38 endocentric compounds. It is followed by adjective 6 compounds and verb 3 compounds. For the analysis, each category (noun, adjective, and verb) will explain the meaning of all compounds.

All of the meaning of compounds in this analysis is taken from Merriam Webster dictionary and Cambridge dictionary. a.1 Compound Noun

1. Childbirth (N)

It is formed from two simple words child (N) and birth (N). Child means a young person while birth means the time when a baby comes out from the body of its mother. Their combination results childbirth (N) which means the act or process of giving birth to children. The head is birth as a noun and it’s modified by the other noun, child. Therefore, it can be categorized as a compound noun.

2. Grandfather and Grandmother (N)

It is formed from the words; grand (ADJ) and mother (N), grand (ADJ) and father (N). Grand means higher and large in degree while father or mother means a male or female parent. Thus, if these words are combined, the meaning of grandfather becomes the father of a person’s mother or father and grandmother becomes the mother of a person’s mother or father. The head is in the noun, father and mother which are modified by the adjective, grand.

3. Tracksuit (N)

It is made from two simple words track (N) and suit (N). Track is a noun, means a sport in which people compete with each other by running a race on a

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specially prepared circular path. Suit also is a noun, means a set of cloths or a piece of clothing to be worn in a particular situation or while doing a particular activity.

This combination create a new meaning of tracksuit; a loose top and trousers, worn either by people who are training for a sport or exercising, or as informal clothing.

By the meaning of tracksuit, the head of this compound is suit (N) and it is modified by track (N).

4. Dockside (N)

It is made from the words dock (N) and side (N). Dock is a noun which means an area of water in a port that can be closed off and that is used for putting goods onto and taking them off ships or repairing ships. Side also is a noun which means a place next to something. The head of this compound is side (N) and it’s modified by dock. The combination of this head and modifier results a noun; dockside which has new meaning of the area next to a dock where goods can be stored before being put onto or after being taken off ships.

5. Storyline (N)

It is made from the words story (N) and line (N). Story means a description either true or imagined of a connected series of event while line means a way of dealing with or thinking about someone or something. Their combination might result a new word with new meaning of storyline that is the plot or the series of events that happen in book, film, play, etc. The head of this compound is line which is a noun and modified by another noun, story.

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6. Masterpiece (N)

It is made from the words master (ADJ) and piece (N). Master itself means extremely skilled while piece means something that has been created by an artist, musician or writer. Their combination results a new word masterpiece, as a noun, which means a work of art such as painting, film or book that is made by great skill.

The head of this compound is piece (N) and the modifier is master (ADJ).

7. Hometown (N)

It is made from the words home (N) and town (N). Home means someone’s or something’s origin, or the place where a person feels they belong. Town means a place where people live or work, containing many houses, shops, places of work, places of entertainment etc., and usually larger than a village but smaller than a city.

When home and town are combined into hometown, it results a new meaning of the town or city that a person is from, especially the one in which they were born and lived while they were young. The head of this compound is town as a noun and it’s modified by home, thus it is called a compound noun.

8. Herself (N)

It is made from the words her and self. Her is a pronoun which means relating to or belonging to a certain woman, girl, or female animal. Self is a noun which means the entire person of an individual. Their combination results herself as a noun which means her own self. It is used as the object of a verb or preposition to refer to a woman, girl, or female animal that has already been mentioned. The head of this compound is self and it’s modified by her. Thus, it can be categorized as a compound noun.

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9. Graveyard (N)

It is made from the words grave (N) and yard (N). Grave means a hole in the ground for burying a dead body while yard means an outdoor area next to a building that is often bordered. Their combination also results a noun; graveyard which means a place where people are buried. By the meaning of these two separated word, it is clear that the head of this compound is grave and it’s modified by yard.

10. Handicraft (N)

It is made from the words handy (ADJ) and craft (N). Handy is an adjective which means clever or skillful in using your hands, doing small jobs, etc. Craft is a noun which means an activity that involves making something in a skillful way by using your hands. Their combination turns into noun, handicraft which means an activity that involves making something in a skillful way by using your hands. The head of this compound is craft which has the same part of speech with handicraft as the compound and the modifier is of course handy.

11. Birthday (N)

It is made from the words birth (N) and day (N). Birth means the time when a baby comes out from the body of its mother while day means a period of 24 hours beginning at midnight: one of the seven time periods that make up a week. Their combination turns into a noun too, birthday which means the day when someone was born or the anniversary of that day. The head is birth (N) and it’s modified by the other noun day. Therefore, birthday is categorized as a compound noun.

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12. Lifetime (N)

It is made from the words life (N) and time (N). Life means the experience of being alive while time means the thing that is measured as seconds, minutes, hours, days, years, etc. Their combination creates a new noun lifetime which means the time during which a person is alive. The head is in the noun time and it is modified by the other noun life.

13. Playwright (N)

It is made from the words play (V) and wright (N). Play is a noun which means a story performed on stage. Wright, in old English, is a maker or craftsman, which makes playwright is a maker of plays or artisan. Wright also is a little-used word that refers to a person who constructs or repairs something. The head of this compound is the second noun, wright which is modified by the first noun, play.

14. Spokespersons (N)

It is made from the words spokes and persons. The formation of spokesperson is originally from spokes(man) + person (first recorded in 1970-

1975), where the origin of spokesman itself is spoke (irregular as noun) + s + -man which was used in 1510-1520. However, if we look into the meaning of the separated word, we might find that spoke which is the simple past of speak which means to say words in order to express your thoughts, feelings, opinions, etc., to someone : to talk to someone. The word persons means human being considered as individual. The result of this combination is plural noun, spokespersons which means a man or woman who speaks for or represents someone or something. The head is persons which is modified by spokes

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15. Bookshops and Bookstores (N)

These compounds are made from the words; book (N) and shop (N) or stores

(N) which later being inflected by the suffix (s). Book is a noun which means a set of printed sheets of paper that are held together inside a cover. Shop also is noun which means a building or room where goods and services are sold while store means a large shop where you can buy many different types of goods. Their combination turns into plural noun bookshops and bookstores. These compounds are quite similar in term of structure and meaning since bookshop is another word of bookstore which has meaning of a place of business where book are the main item offered for sale. The head of these compounds are in the second word shops

(N) and stores (N) and modified by the first word book (N).

16. Sunglasses (N)

It is made from the words sun (N) and glasses (N). Sun is a noun, means the star that provides light and heat for the earth and around which the earth moves.

Glasses is also noun, means two small pieces of specially made glass or transparent plastic worn in front of the eyes to improve sight and held in place with a frame that reaches back over the ears Their combination turn into noun too, sunglasses which means dark glasses that you wear to protect your eyes from bright light of the sun.

The head of this compound is in the noun glasses which is modified by the other noun sun.

17. Soulmates (N)

It is made from the words soul (N) and mate (N) which later being inflected by the suffix (s) to form soulmates. Soul means the part of a person that is not

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physical and experiences deep feelings and emotions while mate means friend. The combination of both words result a noun also, soulmates which means someone, usually your romantic or sexual partner, who you have a special relationship with, and who you know and love very much. The head of this compound is mates and it is modified by the other noun which is soul.

18. Themselves (N)

It is made from the words them and selves. Them (objective case of they) is a pronoun usually used as the object of a verb or preposition, to refer to people, things, animals, situations, or ideas that have already been mentioned. Selves is the plural form of self as a noun which means the entire person of individual. Their combination results noun also; themselves which is used as the object of a verb or preposition to refer to people, animals, or things that have already been mentioned.

The head of this compound is the plural noun selves and it’s modified by the pronoun them.

19. Mindsets (N)

It is made from the word mind (N) and set (N) which later being inflected by the suffix (s) to form mindsets. Mind means the part of a person that thinks, reasons, feels, and remembers while set means mental inclination, tendency, or habit. Their combination produce a noun; mindsets which means a particular way of thinking: a person's attitude or set of opinions about something. The head of this compound is sets (N) and it’s modified by mind. This is the reason that the compound, mindsets has the same part of speech with the head of itself.

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20. Textbooks (N)

It is made from the words text (N) and book (N) which later being inflected by the suffix (s) to form textbooks. Text means the original words of a piece of writing or a speech while book(s) means a set of printed sheets of paper that are held together inside a cover: a long written work. Their combination create a new noun word; textbooks which means a book about a particular subject that is used in the study of that subject especially in a school.the head of this compound is books

(N) and it’s modified by text.

21. Tribesman (N)

It is made from the words tribes (N) and man (N). Tribes is noun which means a group of people that includes many families and relatives who have the same language, customs, and beliefs. Man also is a noun which mean an adult male human being. Their combination results a new noun word, tribesman which means someone (especially a man) who is a member of a tribe. Tribesman originally comes from tribe + ‘s + -man which has been used in 1790-1800. That is the reason suffix

(–s) occurs in the middle of the word tribesman not tribemen. The head of this compound is tribes (N) and it’s modified by man.

22. Filmmaker (N)

It is made from the words film (N) and maker (N). Film is a noun which means a series of moving pictures, usually shown in a cinema or on television and often telling story. Maker is also a noun which means the people of company that make something. The combination of both nouns result a noun also; filmmaker,

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means someone who is in charge of making film. The head of this compound is the second noun, maker and it is modified by film.

23. Housekeeper (N)

It is made from the words house (N) and keeper (N). House means a building in which a family lives while keeper means a person whose job is to guard or take care of something or someone. Their combination also turns into a noun, housekeeper which means a person employed to take care of a house; cooking, cleaning, etc. The head of this compound is keeper (N) and it’s modified by house

(N).

24. Underprivileged (N)

It is made from the words under (PREP) and privileged (ADJ). Under is a preposition which means in or to a lower place than (something): below or beneath

(something). Privileged is an adjective which means having special rights or advantages that most people do not have. Even though underprivileged is formed from preposition, their combination result a noun (appears in the sentence: “… to be able to open schools for women and the underprivileged.”), which is the polite word for poor people. Through the meaning of underprivileged, it can be concluded that it is a compound noun despite the head of this compound is privileged which performs as an adjective. In this case, the meaning of the whole compound based on its position in the sentence is essential to be identified to know what compound it is considered.

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25. Wrongdoing (N)

It is made from the words wrong (ADJ) and doing (N). Wrong is an adjective which means not correct while doing is a noun which means to be done or caused by someone. Even though we might look that doing is the result from a suffixation of do (V) plus (-ing), it cannot be separated into two elements because it is seen as a whole word, noun. Their combination turns into noun wrongdoing, means a bad or an illegal action. The head of this compound is in its noun, doing and the modifier is adjective wrong. Thus, the type of this compound is compound noun.

26. Policymakers (N)

It is made from the words policy (N) and maker (N) which later being inflected by the suffix (-s) to form policymakers. Policy is a noun which means a set of ideas or a plan for action followed by a business, a government, a political party, or a group of people. Makers also is noun which means the people or machine that make something. Their combination also results noun, policymakers; a member of a government department, legislature, or other organization who is responsible for making new rules, laws, etc. The head of this compound is in the second noun makers modified by the first noun policy.

27. Headliners (N)

It is made from the words head (N) and line (N) which later being inflected by the suffix (-r) and suffix (-s) to form headliners. Head means the liners or performers which becomes the head. Line means a long narrow mark on a surface.

However, when they are combined into headline (V), it means to be a main performer in a show or concert. Thus, the inflection of suffix (-r) create this

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compound to be a noun, headliner and is attached by suffix (-s) as plural mark in the noun, headliners which means the main performer in a show or concert. The head of this compound is liners (N) while the modifier is the first word head.

a.2 Compound Adjective

28. Teenage (ADJ)

It is made from the words teen (ADJ) and age (N). Teen is an adjective and age is a noun. Teen is another word of teenage in informal while age means the period of time someone has been alive or something has existed. The meaning of teenage (as an adjective) itself is being, or relating to people in their teens (between

13 to 19 years old). The head of this compound is teen (ADJ) and it’s modified by age. Thus, it can be categorized as a compound adjective.

29. Widespread (ADJ)

It is made from the words wide (ADJ) and spread (V). Wide is an adjective which means used to describe something that includes a large amount or many different types of thing, or that covers a large range or area. Spread is a verb which means to (cause to) cover, reach, or have an effect on a wider or increasing area.

Their combination results a new word and new meaning of widespread; that is common over a wide area or among many people. The head of this compound is wide as adjective and modified by spread as the verb.

30. Seaborne (ADJ)

It is made from the words sea (N) and borne (ADJ). Sea is a noun which means the salt water that covers much of the Earth's surface. Borne is an adjective

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which means transported or transmitted by or carried by, it is usually used in combination; soilborne, airborne. Their combination turns into an adjective, seaborne which means carried in a ship sailing across the sea. The head is the adjective borne and it’s modified by the noun sea.

31. Straightforward (ADJ)

It is made from the words straight (ADJ) and forward (ADV). Straight is an adjective which means not having curves, bends, or angles. Forward is an adverb which means toward the front, to or toward what is ahead or in front. The combination of these separated words results an adjective straightforward which means easy to do or understand: not complicated. By the meaning of each separated word, it can be analyzed that the head of straightforward is straight as the adjective and the modifier is forward as the adverb.

32. Outdated (ADJ)

It is made from the words out (ADV) and dated (ADJ). Out is an adverb which usually used to say that no more of something is available. Dated is an adjective which means coming from or belonging to a time in the past or old- fashioned. Their combination produces new word with new meaning that is outdated as an adjective. It means no longer useful or acceptable: not modern or current. In this compound, this adjective performs as the head which is modified by the adverb, out.

33. Everyday (ADJ)

It is made from the words every (ADJ) and day (N). Every is an adjective which means including each person or thing in a group or series. Day is a noun

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which means day means a period of 24 hours beginning at midnight: one of the seven time periods that make up a week. Their combination turns into an adjective, everyday which is used or seen every day: suitable for every day. The part of speech of the compound is just the same as the head; every (ADJ). The adjective is modified by the noun, day.

a.3 Compound Verb

34. Foreseen (V)

It is made from the words fore (ADV) and seen (V). Fore is an adverb which means at an earlier time or period while seen is the past participle of see which means to understand, know, or realize. Their combination results a verb, foreseen, means to know about something before it happens. The head of this compound is seen as the verb and its modifier is fore as the adverb.

35. Highlight (V)

It is made from the words high (ADJ) and light (V). High is an adjective which means having power, an important position or great influence while light is a verb which means to produce light that makes an object or area bright or easy to see. Their combination results highlight as a verb which means to make or try to make people notice, easy to see and know or be aware of (someone or something): to direct attention to (someone or something). The head of this compound is light as verb and modified by high as adjective.

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36. Highlighted (V)

It is made from the words high (N) and light (V) which later being inflected by the suffix (-ed) as simple past marker. High is an adjective which means having power, an important position or great influence while light as a verb means to produce light that makes an object or area bright or easy to see. When they are combined and attached by the suffix (-ed) it results highlighted which means to make or try to make people notice or be aware of (someone or something): to direct attention to (someone or something). The head of this compound is in the verb, light

(V) and it is modified by high as adjective.

b. Exocentric Compounds

The following compounds are exocentric which do not have related meaning with the elements of the compound or the word combination. Therefore, exocentric compounds also do not head and modifier that can be identified through the meaning of compounds.

1. Footage (N)

It is made from the words foot (N) and age (N). Foot is noun which means the part of the body at the bottom of the leg on which a person or animal stands.

Age also is a noun which means the period of time someone or something has been alive. The combination of both nouns results a noun also, footage; a piece of film especially one showing an event. If we look at the meaning of each separated words between foot and age, there is no any relation when they are written as one independent word footage. It is not the age of someone’s foot or how many time

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the foot has been alive, but footage is scenes on film that shows a particular events.

Therefore, it can be considered as exocentric compound since the meaning of the whole compound do not take from the meaning of at least one member of its compound.

2. Household (ADJ)

It is made from the words house (N) and hold (V). House is a noun which means family while hold is a verb simple past of held which means to take and keep something in your hand or arms. Their combination forms a new word with new meaning; household as an adjective. It is not about to take or keep the family or the house but household is related to a house or to the people living in a house. If we take household as an individual word, it might be as a noun which related to a house.

However, household in the article is presented as an adjective to modify the noun as it stated “…still expected to do household work”. Thus, it can be categorized as exocentric compound.

3. Upheld (V)

It is made from the words up (ADV) and held (V). Up is an adverb and held is a verb. Up means in a high position while held which is the simple past of hold means to take and keep something in your hand or arms. Their combination creates new word, upheld as a verb, with new meaning. It does not mean to hold up or hold in high position but it means to support or defend (something, such as a law). It can be seen in the sentence where upheld appears: “…the law was upheld by the Court even though child marriage largely leads to disruption of the constitutional right to education.” This sentence means that the marriage law was supported by the court.

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It seems that upheld has no correlation meaning from the word combination up and held. The meaning of the whole compound is not determinable from the head which is held (V) and the modifier, up (ADV). Thus, it can be categorized as exocentric compound.

4. Snowballing (V)

It is made from the words snow (N) and ball (V) which later being inflected by the suffix (-ing) after the compounding. Snow means soft, white pieces of frozen water that fall to the ground from the sky in cold weather while ball means to make into a ball. When these two separated words are combined and added by (-ing) in the final, the meaning is not to make snow into a ball shape or round like a ball but snowballing (V) means to increase or grow at a faster and faster rate. If we take a look in the construction of the whole compound, semantically, is not equivalent to either of its part. Therefore, snowballing is exocentric compound.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, conclusions are taken based on the problem formulations that have been answered in the analysis result and discussion. From the distribution of the data, there are forty two (42) closed compound words found in the seven articles related to Kartini Day in the Jakarta Post 2016 and 2017. This compound has the highest percentage 43,74% than the two other which are 22,91% of open compounds and 33,33% of hyphenated compounds. The closed compounds, therefore, are analyzed in the chapter 4 with deep analysis.

The analysis of compound, firstly is based on the structure form. In order to describe how the formation of compound based on the structure form, morphological process is needed in the analysis of both inflectional and un- inflectional compounds. It helps to explain what words or elements that form a compound. Especially in the inflectional compounds, the analysis of compound formation is not only using morphological process but also the tree diagram to sketch the complex elements that build a compound.

The analysis based on the form of the compounding structure shows that there are twenty five (25) or 59,52% compounds which are formed from two simple words or un-inflectional compounds and seventeen (17) or 40,48% compounds which have suffix(s) in the final words or inflectional compounds. It means that un- inflectional compounds dominantly appear in the articles related to Kartini Day.

There are five kinds of suffixes inflected in the compounds; nine (9) compounds

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with suffix (-s/-es), two (2) compounds with suffix (-r/-er), three (3) compounds with suffix (-d/-ed), one (1) compound with suffix (-ing) and two (2) compounds with double suffix (-r) and (-s). From the inflection of these suffixes, there are found that the inflections are done in two ways; first is after the compounding and second is after the compounding.

Secondly, the analysis is based on the meaning. From the distribution, endocentric compound has the highest result that is 38 compounds or 90,48% than the exocentric that is 4 compounds or 9,52%. It concludes that the most exist compound is endocentric. It might be because the content of the articles is mostly telling the fact and compound words that are used also should have the literal meaning. Therefore exocentric compounds are less found than endocentric compounds.

Endocentric compound can be categorized into compound noun, compound verb or compound adjective. In the analysis, compounds noun are mostly found in the article which are twenty seven (27) compounds while compound adjective has seven (7) compounds and compound verb has three (3) compounds.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aronoff, Mark and Kristen Fudeman. What is Morphology. Hoboken: Wiley- Blackwell, 2011. Bauer, Laurie. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988. Bauer, Laurie. Introducing Linguistic Morphology 2nd Edition. Washington D.C: Georgetown University Press, 2003. Benczes, Réka. Creative Compounding n English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company , 2006. Best, John W. and James V. Kahn. Research in Education Tenth Edition. London: Pearson Education, 2006. Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halley. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row Publisher, 1968. Curme, George O. English Grammar. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1966. "Kartini, Raden Ajeng". Encyclopedia of World Biography. The Gale Group. Inc. 2004. (http://www.encyclopedia.com). July 18, 2017. Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hyam. An Introduction to Language Tenth Edition. New York: Michael Rosenberg, 2009. Joshi, Manik. "Compound Words in English". A Book By Manik Joshi. n.p. n.d. (www.manikjoshi.com/z-manik-joshi-book-ewp-10-cwe.html). May 8, 2016. Katamba, Francis. Morphology. New York: St. Martin Press, 1993. Leihitu, Stefanie Naomi. "The Analysis of Exocentric Compounding from The New Entry Words of Oxford Dictionary from May 2014 to May 2015." Thesis. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, 2016. Limjadi, Willy. "A Study of English Compound Adjectives Found in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English." Thesis. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, 2005. Mary Ellen Guffey, Carolyn M. Seefer. Bussiness English 12e. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2015. Matthews, P.H. MORPHOLOGY Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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McCarthy, Andrew Carstairs -. Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd, 2002. Merriam-Webster Incorporate. Merriam-Webster. 2017. 20 April 2017. Morris H. Hansen, William N. Hurwitz and Willian G. Madow. Sample Sirvet Methods and Theory - Volume 2 Theory. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1953. Murti, Francisco Dimas Hadhy. "Idiomatic Expressin Seen Thourgh Animal- Related Exocentric Compound Noun." Thesis. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, 2014. Napoli, Donna Jo. LINGUISTICS An Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Naulibasa, Sandy Riady H. THE JAKARTA POST. 21 March 2017. 21 3 2017. O'Grady, William. Contemporary Linguistics An Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Olausson, Ylva. "The Head as an Element in Swedish Compound Words". Linguistic Journal. Vol. 3. No. 2 (2008): p. 49. The Linguistics Journals. (https://www.linguistics-journal.com/2014/01/08/the-head-as-an-element- in-swedish-compound-words/). March 11, 2016. Plag, Ingo. Word-Formation in English. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Spencer, Andrew. Morphological Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Ltd, 1991. Spencer, Anrdrew. Morphological Theory. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1991. Szymanek, Bodgan. Introduction to Morphological Analysis. Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1989. "About Us". The Jakarta Post. PT. Niskala Media Tenggara. n.d. (http://www.thejakartapost.com/about). May 18, 2017. University, Cambidge. Cambridge Dictionary. 18 April 2017. 18 April 2017.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1. The Data of Compound Words in Articles Related to Kartini

Day in The Jakarta Post 2016/2017

OPEN CLOSED HYPHENATED NO COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS COMPOUND 1. New Order regime Birthday state-owned cement 2. junior high school Everyday nation-building Behind-the-scene 3. Human Rights Law Spokespersons footage 4. Native literature Childbirth 46-year-old Polygamy-themed 5. Traditional bun Bookshops drama Largest Muslim 6. Playwright Long-held desire organization 7. Gold buckle heroine Policymakers Family-run hotel 78-year-old 8. High school Bookstores entertainer Non-profit 9. Silver tongue Headliners organization Lesser-known 10. Fishing village Grandfather article 11. boarding school Wrongdoing Raising-up 12. drop out Sunglasses 29-year-old 13. Constitutional Court Tracksuit Less-exposed side 14. Down under Dockside Slice-of-life film 15. Domestic helpers Filmmaker Would-be husband Pre-arrange 16. Islamic preacher Grandmother marriage 119-minute 17. Big screen Footage duration 18. Movie star Soulmates Candy-colored Hyper-realism 19. Silver screen Storyline scenes 20. Low profile Masterpice Pen-pals Anti-colonialism 21. Beauty salons Hometown campaign Young writer- 22. Woman parachuted Household turned-warrior 23. Widespread Half-kilo gold Behind-the-scene 24. Upheld stories

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OPEN CLOSED HYPHENATED NO COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS COMPOUND Film-making 25. Themsleves process 26. Mindsets Open-minded child-marriage 27. Outdated children 12-year compulsory 28. Highlighted education policy Gender-equality 29. Foreseen issues 30. Snowballing A five-year hiatus 31. Textbooks Non-aligned states State-owned TV 32. Underprivileged station 33. Handicraft 34. Housekeeper 35. Teenage 36. Herself 37. Seaborne 38. Tribesman 39. Straightforward 40. Graveyard 41. Highlight 42. Lifetime TOTAL 22,91 % 43,75% 33,33%

Appendix 2. Articles Related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2016

1. Kartini: Between Islam, nation-building and feminism By: Hendri Yulius

Writer of Coming Out and a lecturer of gender and sexuality studies

Jakarta Thu, April 21, 2016 Recently, nine female farmers from the Srikandi Kendeng group held a protest by cementing their feet in boxes in front of the State Palace, demanding the government stop a state-owned cement company’s plans to build a plant in their hometown. Kartini wrote that “women are the pillars of civilization. Not because women are considered capable of the task, but because I myself strongly believe… that women make the biggest contribution to advancement of human morality.” (The Jakarta Post/Dhoni Setiawan)

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Although she is hailed as the symbol of Indonesian women’s empowerment, Raden Ajeng Kartini remains open to various interpretations and imagery. The New Order regime twisted and reduced the significance of Kartini Day, commemorated annually on her birthday of April 21, into a kebaya fashion show to emphasize women’s femininity and domestication.

Meanwhile, modern feminist groups reclaim her as the representation of the early Indonesian feminist, who was not only concerned about women’s issues, but also about the struggle for the independence from Dutch colonialism.

However, Indonesia’s early feminist consciousness was essentially different from the modern one. Only since the mid-1990s have the terms “feminism” and “gender” been widely used. Therefore, Kartini might illustrate the historical development of Indonesian feminist consciousness, which emerged at the intersection of nationalism, Islam and Western values.

Before colonialization, women appeared to have access to high status. The historian Cora Vreede-De Stuers shows that Acehnese women participated in local forces to combat Dutch rule, while many Javanese women became leaders. The modern economy, alongside Western education, significantly transformed society. The historian Denys Lombard asserts that the emergence of ports, urban society and Islam further limited women’s roles. Some local traditions also restricted women from enjoying equal opportunities with men.

Born in 1879 to a feudal family, Kartini, at a young age, wanted to be a teacher to improve the education of young women. She dreamed of studying in the Netherlands to obtain a teacher’s certification and establish a boarding school for women. But Javanese traditions made Kartini leave school at 12 and enter the confinement of her own home. She started to read voraciously and write letters to her Dutch friends -- letters clearly imbued with her anxieties, hopes and dreams for women and independence.

Motherhood, being child bearers and child educators gave women a reason to be involved in public life, increasing their importance in preparing the next generation for the nation’s progress. Hence, motherhood became a vehicle of empowerment.

In one of her letters, Kartini wrote that Europe was the center of civilization and advancement. However, as a female native living under colonial oppression, Kartini witnessed injustice and exploitation, as noted by literary scholar Katrin Bandel.

Furthermore, her interest in Western knowledge coincided with her love and respect for her family and nation. Consequently, although she was fascinated with the advancement of women’s rights in the West, she could not entirely detach herself from either Javanese culture or Islamic values. Some resources even indicated that she was a disciple of famous Islamic scholar K. Saleh Darat as-Samarani (1820- 1903).

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Unlike the modern feminist notion, Kartini instead emphasized that the empowerment of Indonesian women could not simply be separated from their roles of mother and husband. In a letter she highlighted the importance of women and motherhood. “It is from women that humans receive their first education — on a woman’s lap, a child gradually learns to feel, think and speak; I came to realize more and more that the effect of the first education is not insignificant to human life ...”

Moreover, she apparently saw women’s education and advancement as a crucial aspect of nation-building through the development of morality. She wrote that “women are the pillars of civilization. Not because women are considered capable of the task, but because I myself strongly believe… that women make the biggest contribution to advancement of human morality.”

In line with the concept of “maternal feminism” cited by the scholar Elisabeth Locher-Scholten, Kartini thus followed the Javanese gender ideal of being a wife a mother working together with her husband to educate her children, to prepare the next generation. In this context, women’s empowerment also should not conflict with a harmonious marriage.

Kartini thus believed that, “God created women to be men’s partners, and their ultimate purpose in life is to have a husband… I gladly declare that women’s ultimate happiness for now and the next centuries will be to live harmoniously with men!” Kartini clearly reappropriated women’s empowerment discourse to fit the dominant ideologies, such as Islam, nationalism and the Javanese ideal of being a woman.

To understand Kartini’s thoughts means to examine the complexity of the interactions between Islam, nation-building and Western values. Although inspired by Western progress, Kartini developed her concept of women’s empowerment between the boundaries of Islam, Javanese ideals and traditional gender norms.

Sadly, in 1903, Kartini was forced to marry the regent of Rembang and became his fourth wife. She passed away after giving birth to her first child. Yet her figure remains an example of the fluidity of cultural discourses and how feminist discourse in Indonesia cannot be separated from its interactions with local aspects. It is no exaggeration to say that Kartini is a national figure with a transnational mind.

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2. 137 Years After Kartini, It’s Time to End Child Marriage

By: Missiyah Executive Director of Kapal Perempuan (Women’s Ship) Institute Jakarta Fri, April 22, 2016 Stand up for the rights -- School children take part in a peaceful rally to call for a greater state protection on the rights of Indonesian children in Semarang, Central Java, in December 2015. Home Minister Tjahjo Kumolo said on Monday all children in Indonesia will have an identity card with a single number, which will remain valid throughout their lifetime. (Tempo/-)

For hundreds of years, women have been struggling to seize their rights, through organizing themselves and galvanizing a women’s movement to push for better government policies, among other things.

However, many women, particularly those from poor rural families, are still vulnerable to dropping out of school, giving them no other option but to settle for work in the informal sector, leaving them exposed to violence.

Denied of protection and security, they can work up to 15 hours a day for only meager wages and are still expected to do household work. The 2013 Social Barometer Survey revealed women are 1.5 times more likely to earn wages lower than Rp 500,000 (US$38.07) per month, compared with men. Given this situation, what is the significance of Indonesia’s position as the only permanent ASEAN member in the G-20, and the optimism that it will be one of the world’s seven largest economies in the next ten years?

Amid the continued economic growth and rapid development, women remain poor. One factor that perpetuates this cycle among women is child marriage.

One woman in East Lombok, for instance, studied only until second grade and was married at 15. Her two children fared a little better; yet the cycle of poverty may continue for them as with her earnings as a vendor, she only managed to send them to junior high school. As a single parent she tried to avoid the local stigma against widows, and remarried four times. All marriages failed, she said, owing to unfaithful husbands and domestic violence.

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This was just one story shared in sessions of Sekolah Perempuan (informal Women’s School, facilitated by NGOs) which have been held in Pangkajene islands in South Sulawesi, Gresik in East Java, Jakarta, Kupang in East Nusa Tenggara, Padang in West Sumatra, and other areas.

Unlike these poor women the heroine RA Kartini, born on April 21, 1879, was from a noble family; but was similarly unable to go against her parents, and was forced to enter a polygamous marriage. Since her teenage years she had already tried to resist what was then seen as the inevitable fate for girls, and continued to fight for girls’ right to education.

According to a 2014 World Bank study, inequality in Indonesia has worsened and it is girls who are bearing the brunt. Children from poor families fall back into poverty as 71 percent of them are likely to drop out of high school. An earlier 2007 study on education by E-net for Justice, a coalition of NGOs, already showed the dropout rate in poor families reached 77.85 percent.

When the Millennium Development Goals expired in 2015, Indonesia had failed to meet the goal of reducing maternal mortality to 108 per 100,000 live births — which were traced to a high rate of child marriage, as well as poor access to safe pregnancy and delivery services.

Child marriage here rema ins widespread; we rank second among Southeast Asian countries in terms of the number of early marriages. According to the 2010 Basic Health Research, child marriage in Indonesia accounts for 46.7 percent of all marriages.

However, apart from failing to attract wide attention, 137 years after Kartini, whose birthday we commemorate each year as Kartini Day, we also see resistance against the fight to end child marriage. Under the pretext of culture, religion and morality, the issue is conveniently swept under the carpet. The state continues to endorse child marriage through the 1974 Marriage Law, which sets the legal minimum marrying age for girls at 16, while it is 19 for boys.

A Constitutional Court ruling last year turned down a judicial review request of the 1974 Marriage Law. Though advocates for females had urged the minimum marrying age be increased to 18, the law was upheld by the Court even though child marriage largely leads to disruption of the constitutional right to education.

The Court said an increased marriage age would not guarantee a reduction in health problems and divorce. It disregarded Article 31of the Constitution, which states, “every citizen should receive mandatory basic education and the government must take responsibility for its financing”.

Marriage of children under 18 also flouts the National Development Priorities that explicitly stipulates 12 years of compulsory basic education. Apart from violating

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the 2003 education law, child marriage contravenes the 1999 Human Rights Law, and the 1984 ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

It also violates the 2002 law on child protection that states that a child is anyone under the age of 18, and other international commitments, as well as the recently adopted Sustainable Development Goals.

If President Joko “Jokowi” Widodo’s mental revolution aims to create a new life for the nation, changing mindsets and cultural and political practices are a must to reconstruct a new life for children, especially girls, as the foundation of our future. Let’s not leave half of tomorrow’s generation stuck in the trap of poverty. Child marriage must immediately be ended by transforming mindsets and shedding conservative views that legitimize the practice.

It is now time for the House of Representatives to revise the outdated 1974 marriage law and the education law to guarantee children’s right to education through the 12- year compulsory education policy. Such a move would be a decisive step to break the chains of poverty in Indonesia.

3. Manipulation of Kartini Symbol Must End April 21, 2016 By: Faiza Mardzoeki “I have thought a lot about what people say: Live happily! […] People don’t want to see the naked truth. They turn away revolted from reality […] Earlier today, we were so shaken and moved by an example of the suffering in life […]” ( Kartini’s letter to Mrs. Abendanon-Mandri, April 8, 1902 ).

In the early 20th century, a woman not yet 20 years old, named Kartini, thought a lot about the people of her time, especially women.

Not long ago came the sad news on the death of a young woman from a village in the West Java regency of Karawang, a 29-year-old dangdut singer named Irma Bule, who left behind three children. She died after being bitten by a poisonous snake during a performance. Irma Bule worked hard, singing from village to village, with a snake as a gimmick.

It appears she used the snake, not only as an extra attraction to her performance, but also to keep audience members, usually men, at bay.

Irma represents most Indonesian women. Hundreds of thousands of young women travel overseas to work as domestic workers without adequate protection from sexual and physical abuse and extreme exploitation. Irma was also the other face of the domestic helpers or maids in Indonesia who have no rights as workers but rely only on their employers’ benevolence.

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As an activist working with maids and their families for several years, I have seen the horrors they suffer: rejected by hospitals because they had no money, scarred for life by the cruelty of employers, sources of profit for the hordes of “agents” shipping them overseas.

Then there are the thousands working for a pittance at malls, hotels, cafes and beauty salons.

Hundreds of thousands more work long shifts in factories on a paltry minimum wage — if they are lucky — and also often face sexual harassment.

I witnessed close the lines of aching backs and fingers of hundreds of young women slaving for less than the minimum wage in factories on the edge of Jakarta, on so- called “long shifts”, scared even of asking permission to go to the toilet. ______Kartini Day celebrations are meaningless […] if Irma Bule is ignored. And many, like Irma, end up forced into the dark alleys of prostitution and even become victims of trafficking.

That is the fate of most women in the real Indonesia. The feminism that focuses only on a slogan demanding “the freedom to be me” won’t resonate among that majority.

The freedom they seek is from structural abuse and exploitation, from poverty and sexism that poverty, and the exhaustion it can cause, forces them to endure. I do not mean to be pessimistic about the future of Indonesian women. However, real change will only happen if we face reality honestly.

Kartini was designated a national hero by Sukarno in 1964. Since then, every April 21, Kartini’s birthday, the country is invited to celebrate the “the success” of Indonesian women.

In celebrations, women and girls are paraded in a kebaya blouse, their hair in a sanggul or traditional bun, or they join competitions like cooking. Today, there are often also fashion shows or discounts at malls for those women with the money to enjoy consumerism.

But who was Kartini and what did she think? Indonesian men and women living under the New Order regime know little about her.

The beautiful and sharp writings of this heroine are still not taught at school with any seriousness, just as the real, everyday work and social situation of most women is never seriously discussed.

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Any idealization of Kartini, without adequate discussion of what she struggled for, collides with everyday reality, as experienced by Irma Bule and by the hundreds of thousands of women migrant workers and the tens of millions of others living in poverty or just above it.

But why are they absent from public conversation?

Or where they are present, they are used for distorted symbolic purposes. The National Awakening Party ( PAN ) recently elevated another dangdut singer, Zaskia Gotik, as their ambassador to promote the state ideology of Pancasila. Then the Defense Ministry, not wanting to be outdone, appointed her as a doctor for the so-called Pancasila Clinic. Zaskia is renowned for two things. One was her “sexy duck wiggle” which has catapulted her to fame and earned her celebrity status. The other was her notoriety after answering a question on Pancasila saucily, incurring criticism for being disrespectful. Asked about the symbol on the national emblem representing the fifth principle of social justice, she answered “a duck bending over”.

The correct answer is a picture of rice and cotton.

Politicians and state officials are easily smitten with the popularity of a celebrity ( usually female ones ) who they then make spokespersons on important issues. It is the gimmick of hypocrisy.

Kartini Day celebrations are meaningless if the real situation of most women is not addressed, if Irma Bule is ignored.

Such celebrations will only turn into hypocrisy when most women are still entangled in poverty, when they face great risks of death during childbirth due to lack of nutrition and a lack of access to health care.

Also, the actual words and ideas of Kartini must be made available, especially to women and young people. It would not at all be beyond the government’s means to reprint on a massive scale Kartini’s collection of letters titled Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang ( Out of darkness into light ) and distribute the collection to all schools and sell it cheaply in bookshops. The manipulation of Kartini and of women as a symbol must end. The real Kartini must be studied. The real life of the majority of women must be understood.

Perhaps getting the state to help achieve Article Five of Pancasila, namely social justice for all the Indonesian people, including women, is going to need us, women and man to act together. The writer is a playwright, a theater producer and director and the founder of Institut Ungu ( Purple Institute, Women’s Art and Cultural Space ).

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4. Follow Kartini’s inspiration: Write for impact! The Jakarta Post, Apr 21, 2016 By: Rebekah Nivala The writer is USINDO SLS fellow 2015, studying at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.

As Kartini Day (Women’s Emancipation Day) approaches, a day when the people of Indonesia celebrate the work of education and women rights activist Raden Ajeng Kartini, I cannot help but wonder why we remember her on April 21 and not someone else. Without a doubt, there were many other men and women who worked passionately for reform against the reactionary social mores of early 1900 colonized Southeast Asia. Why do we lionize Kartini? Looking as far back as antiquity, we see that the figures studied in history class are those who were written about or who chose to write themselves. Kartini made history because she chose to write. Kartini’s literary contributions were significant given Indonesia’s predominant culture of oral tradition or budaya bertutur. Kartini is perhaps best known for her personal letters, many of which were initially published and circulated in a Dutch magazine and most recently as the book Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang (From Darkness into Light). However, a lesser-known article may shed additional light on the possible reason Kartini became the face of women’s emancipation in Indonesia. “Educate the Javanese!” was an article that implored both local and foreign authorities to act in solidarity for the good of all Indonesians by reforming education in Java. Passionate about education for women, Kartini urged policymakers to increase access to schooling for girls, arguing that it would “give Java energetic, intelligent mothers and promising that, with such access to education, the raising-up of a people will only be a question of time!” Writing allowed Kartini to communicate with and influence her friends’ at home and abroad as well as local and foreign governments that, for a young Javanese woman in the late 1800s, would have been a world away. Kartini’s example of writing with impact, however, is sadly lacking in today’s Indonesia. Visiting libraries and bookstores in Java, I am struck by the dearth of native literature. Across the literary span — from children’s picture books to academic materials — most books available in Indonesian are those written by Western authors and translated into Indonesian. Anything from Dora the Explorer to Harry Potter to Pasi Sahlberg’s Finnish Lessons lines the shelves. Indonesian readers are being influenced by Western authors, but Indonesian writers are not necessarily influencing Western readers.

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This year marks 71 years of independence for Indonesia, which begs the question: How long does it take for a nation to build a strong library of national literature? The answer: It depends. Development of a nation’s literature depends on intent, the education system, the motivation of individual writers, the accessibility of publication processes and the value of intellectual property. To be fair, there are several internationally known contemporary Indonesian authors; Dorothea Rosa Herliany, Dewi Lestari, Linda Christanty, Andrea Hirata, Laksmi Pamuntjak and Leila Chudori. Meanwhile, the literature of Pramoedya Ananta Toer (2006) and Mochtar Lubis (2004) continues to live on. Yet, thousands of stories remain untold, stories that are crying out to be heard, that need to be recorded in order to construct and share a rich tapestry of Indonesian culture. In honor of Kartini, the writer, Indonesians need to write. Is there a book you wish you could read but does not yet exist? Do you have information or a unique perspective you want to share with others? Write it. We are living in the present moment, but this moment will quickly become the history of our future. Writing allows us to preserve our stories, to share them with our contemporaries as well as those who will come after us. As we celebrate the legacy of futuristic writer Kartini, let us encourage parents and teachers to give Indonesia energetic, intelligent young writers, to rise of national literature will only be a matter of time.

5. Moving Forward While Honoring The Past The Jakarta Post 21 Apr 2016 By: Ika Krismantari Courtesy of Ken Setiawan Her father’s past encouraged Ken Setiawan to study human rights and has eventually seen her become an academic with a focus on human rights, striving for the betterment of Indonesia. Ken is the daughter of Hersri Setiawan, a writer and former political prisoner who was sent into exile on Buru Island, Maluku, in the late 1960s for his involvement in Lekra, a cultural group associated with the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). Hersri was imprisoned for years without a formal trial due to the government’s anticommunist agenda that also killed hundreds of thousands of innocent lives in 1965. Recently, Ken followed her father on a journey to Buru Island to trace the steps of his troubled past there. “I went for him, because he asked me to. I thought that by going I would understand his past better, and in doing so, understand a little more about my family and myself,” Ken said in an email sent to The Jakarta Post. The journey has been made into a documentary titled Pulau Buru: Tanah Air Beta (Buru Island: My Homeland) by director Rahung Nasution. It has been screened in various places this year despite protests from religious hardliners.

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Ken has heard about Buru Island since she was little from her father’s stories. “My dad told me stories about what happened in the prison. The food they ate [or lack thereof], how he and his friends were treated [or mistreated] and the songs they sung,” the 34-year-old said. She said her father’s experiences were so central to her family that they became part of her. In fact, it was probably her father’s stories that helped her live a normal childhood. She told the Post her childhood was not hard, as she “didn’t feel anything in particular”. “It may sound strange, but I can’t really imagine my childhood without those stories, and I cannot imagine myself not being the daughter of a former political prisoner. It’s just who I am,” Ken said. She wrote for an online publication that she was proud to be the daughter of a political prisoner. “When I was 6 years old, I told my classmates: ‘My Dad went to jail […] for nothing!’ — and I was proud,” she wrote. Ken’s story is different from the tragic accounts shared by many family members of victims from 1965, who have suffered from discrimination and mistreatment from society and the government, forcing them to cover up their real identities. Born in 1981, Ken spent her childhood in Jakarta, until she was 6 years old. The family then moved to the Netherlands after Ken’s mother, Dutch writer Jitske Mulder, became terminally ill. “My parents feared that if she passed away in Indonesia […] there would be no one there to protect me, after all, as an ex-political prisoner my father could be arrested at any time,” she said, adding that her mother passed away in 1989. The decision to move was also made to secure Ken’s future. Her parents believed that by living in the Netherlands, Ken would be able to access a good education more easily. Growing up in a family where human rights issues are a topic of interest has influenced Ken’s study interests. Besides studying human rights, she was also an active youth member of Amnesty International. “I wrote letters urging governments to release prisoners of conscience and to abolish the death penalty. I was interested in other areas where I saw injustice, such as access to education [particularly for girls], access to clean water and deforestation,” she said. Her parents’ friend told her recently that as a child she had once aspired to become a human rights lawyer. Well, Ken may not be a human rights lawyer, but she has chosen a career path that still promotes the same ideas, but as a researcher and lecturer. Ken launched her academic career as a research and teaching associate at Leiden University in 2005 after obtaining a master’s degree from the same university. Her career expanded as she started teaching in other universities Down Under. Her CV includes teaching experiences at Australian National University in Canberra and Australian Catholic University and the University of Melbourne, both in Melbourne.

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She obtained a PhD in law from Leiden University for her research on national human rights commissions in Indonesia and Malaysia, and her final thesis has been published into a book. Starting 2015, she became a fellow for the prestigious McKenzie Postdoctoral Program at the University of Melbourne. She now resides in Melbourne with her small family. Despite having an established career as an academic, it seems that Ken still can’t move on from her family’s past. Therefore, she has initiated a blog, living1965.org, to share her story and those of others that are affected by the 1965 tragedy. She runs the blog with artist Tintin Wulia, who lost her grandfather in that darkest of periods in Indonesian history. “We talk about our families’ pasts and what they mean to us,” she said. Through her profession and her blog, Ken wants to continuously bring discussion on the 1965 massacre into the public domain to remind the government of its homework — that is, to resolve this human rights issue. “There’s still so much resistance, from within the government and state bodies, as well as from societal groups that keep denying any wrongdoing and refusing to face the past,” she said. But those disheartening attitudes do not stop Ken from moving forward in her fight for justice for the 1965 victims. She keeps revealing the truth behind the tragedy, including to her two children. “I think it’s important not only to understand what happened to my father and therefore our family, but also to understand other injustices in the world,” Ken said.

Appendix 3. Articles Related to Kartini Day in The Jakarta Post 2017

1. Kartini': A politically correct version of ‘her story’ A Less-exposed side of Kartini is being revealed.

By: Tertiani ZB Simanjuntak

The Jakarta Post Fri, April 21, 2017 Window to the world: Kartini, played by Dian Sastrowardoyo, is allowed to read the books in Dutch sent by her brother during her marriage confinement.

Film director Hanung Bramantyo might not have foreseen that his new film Kartini would be in resonance with the snowballing ideas on women’s resistance in the country, which gained momentum on National Women’s Day in December amid heightening pluralism and religious intolerance.

When he started two years ago, cowriting the script based on extensive documentary and field research, his purpose was merely to present the true story of a young lady from a noble Javanese family whose progressive ideas on equality and the right of women to be educated at the turn of the 20th century led her to be named

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a national heroine for female emancipation and to her birth date on April 21 to be commemorated as Kartini’s Day.

However, the film revealed much more than what was written in school history textbooks.

Kartini was not the first slice-of-life film about the rebellious princess of coastal Jepara, Central Java, but by far it was the only one that explored her wide spectrum of interests and her influences.

Hanung was eager to put in the movie the issues of the family in which Trinil — the childhood name Kartini was affectionately called – was brought up, her relations with her siblings, her biological mother and her father’s wife.

Window to the world: Kartini, played by Dian Sastrowardoyo, is allowed to read the books in Dutch sent by her brother during her marriage confinement.

As the film focuses on Kartini’s life as she reached the proper age for marriage — which traditionally was right after she had her first menstrual period — it follows the titular character’s struggle in realizing her objectives to study abroad and to see the world beyond the walls of her palace, her place of confinement.

She negotiates and compromises with her father and other older male members of the family to be able to play on the beach, to continue her relationships with her Dutch friends and later with her would-be husband in a pre-arranged marriage to be able to open schools for women and the underprivileged.

Hanung also inserted Kartini’s ideas to expose to the world the wood carving art of Jepara, the region’s signature handicraft for which it is known today, as well as her understanding of Islam and her suggestion to translate the Quran into the vernacular Javanese language so that people could avoid committing sins in the name of religion out of false interpretations.

With all that crammed into a 119-minute duration it’s understandable that conflict is tense from the beginning and that some narration that influenced the character’s development is excluded.

From the title it’s obvious that Hanung adapted Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s novel Panggil Aku Kartini Saja (Just Call Me Kartini) that tells how Kartini was determined to abandon her noble title Raden Ajeng while her biological mother Ngasirah’s status was reduced to the level of housekeeper after her father Raden Mas Adipati Ario Sosroningrat, the regent of Jepara, was married to a noble lady, Raden Ayu Moerjam.

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Noblesse oblige: Kartini's father, Jepara Regent RM Adipati Ario Sosroningrat (Deddy Sutomo), and step mother RA Moerjam (Djenar Maesa Ayu) send the girls to confinement to become a perfect wife of a noble family.

In the film, however, it’s not told that Ngasirah (Christine Hakim) was the daughter of an Islamic preacher.

A glaring fact that Kartini was a teenage prodigy who spoke and wrote fluent Dutch and had high curiosity with a knack of climbing walls with her two sisters Kardinah and Roekmini could not be seen on screen.

The cast of serene actresses Dian Sastrowardoyo as Kartini, Ayushita as Kardinah and Acha Septriasa as Roekmini — who were in their late 20s to early 30s — was a good choice for commercial purposes, but the thrill of having a girl whose pensées had been published in the Netherlands (under her father’s name or the pseudonym Cloverleaf) during the Dutch occupation, which were later recognized as the embryo of the country’s independence movement, was not there.

Her close relations with his brother Sosrokartono (Reza Rahadian), who at that time was studying in the Netherlands, in the film was mostly reflected in the package of books he sent to the three sisters.

Blossoming: The three sisters: (clockwise) Roekmini (Acha Septriasa), Kartini (Dian Sastrowardoyo) and Kardinah (Ayushita) have the privilege of luxury during their confinement.

The director has a few biopics under his belt, namely 2010’s Sang Pencerah (The Enlightened One) about Ahmad Dahlan, the founder of the second largest Muslim organization in Indonesia, Muhammadiyah, and 2013’s Soekarno: Indonesia Merdeka (Independent Indonesia) about the founding president and a series on the third president, BJ Habibie.

However, Kartini is his first attempt to create candycolored, hyper-realism scenes to deliver the correspondence between Kartini and her pen-pals — the letters that had been compiled in a book entitled Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang (Out Dark Light), first published in the Netherlands.

In theaters since April 19, the film can be seen as a fun alternative to the history books that tries to look both inward and outside the walls that sent Kartini’s soul wandering to another continent, but have remained relevant at home until today.

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2. Understanding Kartini By: A. Kurniawan Ulung

The Jakarta Post Apr 21, 2017

Let there be light: Actress Dian Sastrowardoyo plays Raden Ajeng Kartini, the heroine who fought for women’s empowerment, in the movie Kartini directed by Hanung Bramantyo.

When words are not enough to understand Kartini, photos and film may explain better.

Legendary actress Christine Hakim has conquered a wide range of roles across dozens of films since beginning her career in 1973, but still faced challenges playing MA Ngasirah, the mother of Indonesian heroine Raden Ajeng Kartini.

Directed by Hanung Bramantyo, the biopic film Kartini forced Christine to restrain her ego to adapt to her role as Ngasirah, Jepara regent Ario Sosroningrat’s concubine, who faced unfair treatment because she was not from a noble family.

“As a cast member, this was the first time I felt I was a slave,” she said, laughing.

Christine, and some of her fellow Kartini cast members, revealed the behind-the- scene stories of the film during the book launch of Di Balik Layar Film Kartini: Kumpulan Foto dan Cerita (Behind the Scenes of Kartini: A Collection of Photos and Stories) at the Galeri Indonesia Kaya auditorium in Grand Indonesia shopping mall in Central Jakarta.

Published by Grasindo, the book contains 115 behind-thescene photos and stories from the film-making process, which took 45 days to complete.

During the launch, Christine, actresses Acha Septriasa and Ayu Diah Pasha as well as singer Gita Gutawa read the letters of Kartini, an icon of female emancipation.

Through her letters, Kartini, who was born to an aristocratic Javanese family in Jepara, Central Java in 1879, spoke of the prevailing social conditions, particularly

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discrimination against women, in her country, which was then known as the Dutch East Indies.

She believed that women also deserved the right to study and be involved in public life, thoughts deemed unusual at the time.

Kartini, who dreamed of studying in the Netherlands and establishing schools for women, also expressed her disapproval of polygamy in her letters. However, when her parents arranged her marriage to Rembang regent Djojo Adhiningrat, who already had three wives, she acquiesced, a decision that still sparks controversy today.

Kartini, who died in 1904 at the age of 25 after giving birth to her first child, was declared a national heroine by the late president Sukarno in 1964.

For Ayu, Kartini deserves the title. In her view, Kartini sacrificed herself by accepting the marriage with the regent in order to benefit many other people. By becoming the regent’s wife, she would have the power to establish schools for women.

“[Before the wedding], she stipulated three conditions. First, she wanted to be allowed to continue her studies in Batavia. Second, she wanted the freedom to do what she wanted. Third, she wanted to be allowed to open schools for indigenous women,” Ayu said.

Before Hanung, other directors had already brought the story of Kartini to the big screen, namely Sjuman Djaja with RA Kartini in 1982 and Azhar Lubis with Surat Cinta Untuk Kartini (Love Letter to Kartini) in 2016.

In Hanung’s Kartini, actress Dian Sastrowardoyo plays the heroine.

“Kartini must be played by someone who is not only an actress but also an icon. When we met Dian for the first time, we felt she was the perfect fit to be Kartini. She adores her and already understands her thoughts,” said Robert Ronny, the CEO of Legacy Pictures.

The idea to produce Kartini came to his mind when he met Hanung in 2014. Before the production started, his team conducted two years of research.

“After researching for two years, we discovered many surprising things about Kartini that people do not know,” he said. “Kartini was a tomboy. She was advanced, structured and modern. We want to highlight this side of her in this film.”

Acha, who plays Roekmini, the younger sister of Kartini, said that she was over the moon when cast to star in Kartini in December 2015, especially because she would get the opportunity to work with her idol, Dian.

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“I wanted to become a movie star ever since watching Dian’s movie in 2002,” she said.

Acha said she read Kartini’s letters to explore her role as Roekmini, who always defended her older sister.

“Roekmini was a thinker, who was open-minded and humble, but she rarely talked,” she said. “She always defended her sister and her thoughts.”

Christine hopes that Kartini, which hit theaters on April 19, will help people gain a better understanding of history.

She admitted that before taking part in the movie, she thought Kartini had failed to fight for her ideas, especially after tying the knot with the Rembang regent.

“To be honest, I did not adore Kartini. She was not my inspiration. But, later I realized that I was wrong. This film has changed my views on her,” she said.

3. Farewell To A Pioneer Parachutist By: Duncan Graham

The Jakarta Post Thu, April 20, 2017

Herlina Kasim (right) with former president Sukarno (second right). (Rigel Wahyu Nugroho/File) Herlina Kasim was Kartini with a gun — bold, brave and determined to compete in traditional male areas. First journalism, then the military.

She was the only woman parachuted into the Papuan jungle behind the colonialists’ lines. This was during the 1961 to 1962 Trikora (Tri Komando Rakyat — a strategy for mobilizing the nation) campaign led by general Soeharto, who later became the republic’s second president.

The young writer-turned-warrior was also an exemplar of selfless patriotism. After being rewarded for her exploits by president Sukarno with a belt secured by a half- kilo gold clasp she became known as Srikandi Pending Emas (the gold buckle heroine).

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Then she astonished the nation again by giving the prize back to the palace. She explained her gesture by saying that fighting for her country was honor enough and that the state needed the money for development. When she died earlier this year from diabetic complications aged 75, her passing, unfortunately, was little noticed. As a feminist she was far ahead of her time, a tomboy before the term became acceptable. In early photos she looks selfassured as though wearing khaki was as natural as a floral dress. In one group, she audaciously thrusts hands in pockets. Herlina was born in Malang, East Java, in 1941, the third of six children. Only one was a boy. After completing basic high school in Jakarta, she left home in search of adventure in the Moluccas. It’s not known why she wanted to put about 3,500 kilometers between herself and her family. In Ternate, she worked as a journalist on a weekly paper and got involved in anti- colonialism campaigns. It was a time of gross chauvinism. Emboldened by shipments of Russian weapons and the backing of so-called nonaligned states, Sukarno started Trikora to wrest Irian Jaya, now called Papua, from the Dutch. Western diplomats thought the real purpose was to divert attention from a collapsing economy. Volunteers were sought to fight behind enemy lines. Herlina offered her services and must have had a silver tongue because she persuaded the generals that girls could also be guerrillas. This was decades before women became active combatants in Western nations, with restrictions remaining in some armies. Last year, the United States finally announced that all roles were open to females. In Indonesia, women in the armed forces are usually assigned to administrative and welfare duties. After minimal training Herlina was parachuted into Irian Jaya along with 19 men. Like an earlier seaborne assault that turned into a rout, the drop was not a professional operation. She missed her target, was knocked unconscious and regained consciousness in a field of mud. She then set out to find her companions, not knowing some had been killed. After a week of fruitless wanderings and with supplies running low, she met local tribesmen and was led to a fishing village. Three weeks later, Herlina was ferried to an Indonesian island. She hadn’t fired a shot or seized territory. Trikora cost 400 Indonesian and 126 Dutch lives, but it showed that Indonesia was serious about recovering colonial territory and the Dutch no longer had the stomach for war. Under international pressure, they ceded the province to the United Nations. In a later referendum, selected Irian leaders voted to join Indonesia. By then Herlina had left active duty. For a while she worked in Jakarta as an educator in the Women’s Army Corps, then as a press secretary in the foreign affairs ministry. There are reports that she was involved in a fake news campaign during

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Konfrontasi when Sukarno sent the Army to oppose the creation of Malaysia, but these can’t be confirmed. She also married and had two sons, Rigel Wahyu Nugroho (born 1962), who is now a trader, and five years later Aurigea Bima Sakti who works as a commercial pilot. Both men live in Malaysia. “My mom had a very strong character,” Rigel said by phone and email. “She was disciplined, straightforward, yet a very humble person. She liked to help people, especially the poor. “She hardly ever wore her Army uniform, but didn’t tell me why. She didn’t care much about her rank — not like others. “After she left the Army she was involved in a few businesses, as well as social work together with my dad Harkomoyo. (When Rigel was 9 his parents divorced. His mother later remarried, but had no more children).” “In the early 1970s, she got involved in sports and built the Caprina Soccer Club. Again, it was not for business, but for social activities. It was very successful.” “I think my mom was the only women who had a soccer team in Indonesia and maybe in the world.” Nationally, Herlina kept a low profile until 2011 and the 50th anniversary of Trikora. She reportedly asked president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono to change the name of Papua back to Irian. It seems her motive was to negate the influence of the Free Papua Movement (OPM) because she believed its independence campaign damaged the reputation of Trikora. Irian Jaya became Papua in 2002. Herlina was laid to rest in Jakarta. Her family was offered a place in a heroes’ cemetery, but she had requested an ordinary plot in a public graveyard. To the end, she stayed determined to do things her way.