sustainability

Article The Impact of Earthquake on Poverty: Learning from the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake

Huicong Jia 1,2 , Fang Chen 1,3,4,*, Donghua Pan 5 and Chuanrong Zhang 2

1 Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; [email protected] 2 Department of Geography and Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; [email protected] 3 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China 4 Hainan Key Laboratory of Earth Observation, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572029, China 5 National Disaster Reduction Center, Ministry of Civil Affairs, Beijing 100124, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-10-8217-8105



Received: 13 November 2018; Accepted: 7 December 2018; Published: 10 December 2018


Abstract: How to combine disaster prevention and mitigation, post-disaster reconstruction and poverty alleviation has become a new hot issue. On 12 May 2008, a major earthquake devastated the Wenchuan area in Sichuan Province in the heartland of China. After ten-years have passed, it is a good time to review what we learned from the Great Wenchuan earthquake. The impact of Wenchuan earthquake on poverty-stricken counties, poverty-stricken villages, and poverty-stricken households was analyzed. Suggestions for improving the method of combining disaster prevention, post-disaster reconstruction, and poverty alleviation were proposed. The results from this research could serve as an important reference for formulation of the poverty alleviation and development program after a major earthquake.

Keywords: Wenchuan earthquake; damage; disaster reconstruction; poverty alleviation

1. Introduction

1.1. Wenchuan Earthquake Disaster Situation The 2008 Sichuan earthquake, also known as the Great Sichuan earthquake or Wenchuan earthquake occurred at 14:28:01 China Standard Time on 12 May 2008. Measuring at 8.0 Ms, the earthquake’s epicenter was located 80 km west-northwest of Chengdu, the provincial capital, with a focal depth of 19 km. The map of earthquake intensity published by the China Earthquake Administration (CEA) after surveying 500,000 km2 of the affected area shows a maximum of XI on the China Seismic Intensity Scale (CSIS) (Figure1). Based on the final official assessment by the Chinese government, over 69,000 people lost their lives in the quake, 374,643 were reported injured, with 17,923 listed as missing by 21 November 2008. The earthquake left about 4.8 million people homeless [1,2]. It caused direct economic losses of 845.1 billion Yuan, of which Sichuan Province accounted for 91%, Gansu Province 6%, and Shaanxi Province accounted for 3% [3]. After ten-years have passed, it is a good time to review what we learned from the event. Table1 lists the data used in this study.

Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704; doi:10.3390/su10124704 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, x 2 of 14 counties of Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi provinces increased by nearly 20,000 hectares more than that of before the earthquake. The damaged area of the ecosystem is more than 64,000 hectares [5]. The ecosystem self-adjustment capability and the environment carrying capacity have been seriously degraded. The Wenchuan earthquake-stricken area and the poverty-stricken areas are highly coincident. Among the severely affected counties, there are 43 key poverty alleviation counties, 20 revolutionary old districts, 10 ethnic minority counties, and 4834 poverty-stricken villages [6]. The number of poor people affected by the earthquake in Sichuan reached 2.1 million, and the poverty-stricken population due to the earthquake was nearly 3.7 million [7]. The objective of this study is two-fold: (1) to analyze the impact of Wenchuan Earthquake on poverty, and (2) to summarize and reflect the poverty alleviation model after the earthquake. These Sustainabilitycontributions2018 , may10, 4704 provide new insights into the disaster prevention and mitigation/disaster2 of 15 reconstruction and poverty alleviation in China.

Figure 1. Intensity and areas affected by the Wenchuan earthquake in the poverty counties. Figure 1. Intensity and areas affected by the Wenchuan earthquake in the poverty counties. Table 1. Datasets used in this study.

Datasets Sources Earthquake epicenter and Seismic Intensity Scale China Earthquake Administration National Disaster Reduction Center of the Ministry of Earthquake intensity Civil Affairs National Disaster Reduction Center of the Ministry of Earthquake disaster data Civil Affairs Distribution of poverty counties Aid-the-Poor Development Office of the State Council Socioeconomic statistics of earthquake-stricken areas National Bureau of Statistics County population data National Bureau of Statistics The sixth national census of National Bureau Housing structural data of Statistics Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Cultivated land type data Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences

As a result of this earthquake a large number of people are now classed as “3-no personage”, citizens with no housing, no means of production, and no source of income. In addition, the earthquake also caused serious damages to the ecological environment. More than 13,000 hectares of cultivated Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704 3 of 15 Sustainability 2018, 10, x 3 of 14 land was damaged by the disasterTable [4]. 1. The Dataset areas ofused soil in erosionthis study in. the severely affected counties of Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi provinces increased by nearly 20,000 hectares more than that of before Datasets Sources the earthquake. The damaged area of the ecosystem is more than 64,000 hectares [5]. The ecosystem Earthquake epicenter and Seismic China Earthquake Administration self-adjustmentIntensity Scale capability and the environment carrying capacity have been seriously degraded. EarthquakeThe Wenchuan intensity earthquake-stricken National area Disaster and the Reduction poverty-stricken Center of the areas Ministry are highly of Civil coincident.Affairs AmongEarthquake the severely disaster affected data counties,National there areDisaster 43 key Reduction poverty Center alleviation of the counties,Ministry of 20 Civil revolutionary Affairs oldDistribution districts, 10 of ethnic poverty minority counties counties,Aid-the and-Poor 4834 Development poverty-stricken Office of villages the State [6 Council]. The number of poor peopleSocioeconomic affected by statistics the earthquake of in Sichuan reached 2.1 million, and the poverty-stricken population National Bureau of Statistics dueearthquake to the earthquake-stricken areas was nearly 3.7 million [7]. CountyThe objectivepopulation of data this study is two-fold:National Bureau (1) to of analyze Statisticsthe impact of Wenchuan Earthquake onHousing poverty, structural and (2) data to summarize andThe sixth reflect national the poverty census of alleviation National Bureau model of afterStatistics the earthquake. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, TheseCultivated contributions land type may data provide new insights into the disaster prevention and mitigation/disaster reconstruction and poverty alleviationChinese in China. Academy of Sciences

1.2. Basic Situation of the Wenchuan Earthquake Earthquake-Stricken-Stricken Area Most of the severely affected counties are in high plateau or mountainous areas. Most of them are also located in the high-riskhigh-risk areas of geologicalgeological disasters such as earthquakes, landslides,landslides, and mudslides in in China, China, as as well well as heavy as heavy rains, rains, floods, floods and other, and meteorological other meteorological and hydrological and hydrological disasters. disastThe annualers. The losses annual caused losses by caused the disasters, by the combined disasters, withcombined severe with vegetation severe damagevegetation and damage soil erosion, and soilmake erosion, their ecological make their environment ecological environment and life and productionand life and conditions production even conditions worse. even worse. Most of the areas affected by the Wenchuan earthquake disaster are loc locatedated in the western or southwestern part part of of China, China, with with fragile fragile infrastructure. infrastructure. In the In extremely the extremely severe severeand severely and severe affectedly affectedcounties ofcounties the three of provinces the three (Sichuan, provinces Gansu (Sichuan, and Shaanxi Gansu provinces) and Shaanxi before theprovinces) earthquake before disaster, the earthquakethere were 1056 disaster, villages there without were access,1056 villages 187 villages without without access, electricity, 187 villages 3647 villageswithout withoutelectricity, running 3647 water,villages 371 without villages running without water, telephone, 371 villages 2686 villages without without telephone, broadcasting, 2686 villages and without 1311 villages broadcasting, without andtelevision 1311 villages [8,9]. without television [8,9].

1.3. Poverty Situation before the Earthquake Most of thethe areasareas affectedaffected byby the the earthquake earthquake disaster disaster are are located located in in the the poverty-stricken poverty-stricken areas areas in inChina China (Figure (Figure2). Among 2). Among the 51 severe the 51 and severe medium and affected medium counties, affected there counties, are 43 poverty-stricken there are 43 povertycounties-stricken (accounting counties for 84% (accounting of the total). for There 84% are of the1271 total). townships There and are 1565 1271 administrative townships and villages 1565 administrativein the disaster areas, villages including in the 4834disaster poverty-stricken areas, including villages 4834 (accounting poverty-stricken for 33% villages of the total), (accounting with a fortotal 33% population of the total), of 19.867 with million, a total population including 320,000 of 19.867 poor million, households including and 2.183320,000 million poor poorhouseholds people and(11% 2.183 of the million total) [poor10]. people (11% of the total) [10].

Figure 2. The poverty situation of very severely and severely affected counties in the Wenchuan earthquake. Figure 2. The poverty situation of very severely and severely affected counties in the Wenchuan earthquake. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704 4 of 15

Sustainability 2018, 10, x 4 of 14 1.4. Poverty Situation after the Earthquake 1.4. Poverty Situation after the Earthquake According to the Chinese government’s new poverty line standard [11] from a sample survey of severelyAccording affected to the counties, Chinese the government’s poverty incidence new poverty in poor line villages standard in 2007 [11] wasfrom 34%, a sample the poverty survey depthof severely was 29%, affected and counties, the poverty the severity poverty was incidence 92% [12 in]. poor Based villages on the in total 2007 population was 34%, of the 4834 poverty poor villages,depth was the 29%, number and ofthe poverty-stricken poverty severity people was 92% is 1.46 [12]. million. Based on Due the to total the assistance population of of the 4834 Chinese poor governmentvillages, the number and various of poverty sectors‐stricken of society, people the is incidence 1.46 million. of poverty, Due to povertythe assistance depth, of and the povertyChinese severitygovernment in 2008 and were various 19%, sectors 17%, andof society, 108% respectively. the incidence Therefore, of poverty, the poverty incidence depth, and theand depth poverty of povertyseverity afterin 2008 the were earthquake 19%, 17%, have and increased 108% respectively. compared with Therefore, those before the incidence the disaster. and The the incidence depth of ofpoverty poverty after in 43the poverty-stricken earthquake have counties increased in thecompared disaster with areas those increased before from the disaster. 30% of pre-disaster The incidence to overof poverty 60% of in post-disaster, 43 poverty‐stricken and the ratecounties of returning in the disaster to poverty areas was increased 30% [13 ].from The 30% per capitaof pre‐ netdisaster income to ofover farmers 60% of fell post from‐disaster, an average and ofthe 1873 rate Yuanof returning at the end to ofpoverty 2007 towas less 30% than [13]. 1000 The Yuan per (excluding capita net subsidizedincome of income)farmers afterfell from the earthquake an average [14 of]. The1873 number Yuan at of the households end of 2007 without to less housing, than no1000 sources Yuan of(excluding income, andsubsidized no means income) of production after the has earthquake increased substantially, [14]. The number and the of lives households of the people without face morehousing, severe no sources difficulties. of income, The level and of no economic means of and production social development has increased of thesubstantially, poor villages and hasthe seriouslylives of the deteriorated. people face more severe difficulties. The level of economic and social development of the poorThe villages relief from has theseriously government deteriorated. and the community is mainly a one-time housing repair or reconstructionThe relief subsidyfrom the for government the three months and the after community the earthquake. is mainly Therefore, a one‐time due tohousing the huge repair cost ofor housingreconstruction maintenance subsidy and for reconstruction, the three months the after agricultural the earthquake. production Therefore, and living due standard to the huge of farmers cost of housing maintenance and reconstruction, the agricultural production and living standard of in the disaster areas cannot be recovered to the pre-disaster level in 2009. In spite of data limitation, farmers in the disaster areas cannot be recovered to the pre‐disaster level in 2009. In spite of data changes of the poverty incidence in the severely affected counties from 2007–2016 can be seen from limitation, changes of the poverty incidence in the severely affected counties from 2007–2016 can be Figure3. seen from Figure 3.

FigureFigure 3.3.Changes Changes of theof povertythe poverty incidence incidence in the severelyin the severely affected countiesaffected by counties Wenchuan by earthquake.Wenchuan 2. Theearthquake. Impact of the Wenchuan Earthquake on Poverty

2. TheStudies Impact have of the shown Wenchuan that disasters Earthquake have becomeon Poverty an important factor in poverty and one of the important reasons for returning to poverty [15–19]. Studies have shown that disasters have become an important factor in poverty and one of the 2.1.important The Impact reasons of Wenchuan for returning Earthquake to poverty on Poverty-Stricken [15–19]. Counties

2.1. TheAmong Impact the of Wenchuan very severely Earthquake and severely on Poverty affected‐Stricken counties Counties (or urban areas) affected by the earthquake, there are 15 national key poverty alleviation counties (29%) and 5.12 million persons (25%); 28 provincialAmong keythe povertyvery severely alleviation and countiesseverely (55%), affected 11.12 counties million persons(or urban (53%); areas) seven affected non-poverty by the countiesearthquake, (14%) there and are 4.74 15 million national persons key poverty (23%) [20alleviation]. In terms counties of the number(29%) and of the5.12 affected million counties persons and(25%); the 28 population, provincial thekey impact poverty of alleviation the Wenchuan counties earthquake (55%), on11.12 poverty million counties persons is (53%); greater seven than thatnon‐ ofpoverty non-poverty counties counties. (14%) and The other4.74 million impacts persons of the Wenchuan (23%) [20]. on In poverty-stricken terms of the number counties of and the non-povertyaffected counties counties and were the population, compared (Figure the impact4). of the Wenchuan earthquake on poverty counties is greater than that of non‐poverty counties. The other impacts of the Wenchuan on poverty‐stricken counties and non‐poverty counties were compared (Figure 4). Sustainability 20182018,, 1010,, x 4704x 55 of 14 1514

Figure 4. Comparison of very severely and severely affected poverty-stricken counties and non-poverty Figure 4. Comparison of very severely and severely affected poverty‐stricken counties and countiesFigure 4. by Comparison the Wenchuan of earthquake. very severely and severely affected poverty‐stricken counties and non‐‐poverty countiescounties by thethe Wenchuan earthquake. 2.2. The Impact of the Wenchuan Earthquake on Poverty-Stricken Villages 2.2. The ImpactImpact of thethe Wenchuan Earthquake on Poverty‐‐Stricken Villages To further analyze the impact of the Wenchuan earthquake on poverty villages and non-poverty villages,To deathfurtherfurther populations analyze thethe and impactimpact collapsed of housesthethe Wenchuan caused by earthquake the earthquake on inpoverty these two villages types wereand noncompared‐‐poverty (Figure villages,5). death From Figurepopulations5 it can and be collapsed seen that houses there are caused 4834 by poverty-stricken thethe earthquake villages inin thesethese two(accountingtwo typestypes were for 33%), compared 4.363 million (Figure(Figure persons 5). From (22%), Figure per capita 5 itit netcan income be seen of farmersthatthat therethere is 1873 are Yuan;4834 povertyand 9731‐‐stricken non-poverty villages villages (accounting(accounting (accounting forfor 33%), for 67%), 4.363 andmillion 15.504 persons million (22%),(22%), persons per (78%),capita net the income perincome capita of farmersincomefarmers of isis farmers 1873 Yuan; is 4025 and Yuan. 9731 The non number‐‐poverty of deaths villages or the (accounting(accounting proportion forfor of people 67%), killedand 15.504 by the disastermillion personsof the non-poverty (78%),(78%), thethe villages per capita is much incomeincome more of than farmersfarmers that of isis the 4025 poverty Yuan. villages The number and it is of 6.9 deaths times andor thethe 4.0 proportiontimes of that of of people the non-poverty killed by thethe villages disaster respectively. of thethe non The‐‐poverty number villages of collapsed isis much houses more andthanthan the thatthat number of thethe povertyof collapsed villages houses and per itit isis capita 6.9 timestimes of non-poverty and 4.0 timestimes villages of thatthat are of thethe also non higher‐‐poverty than villages those of respectively.respectively. poverty villages, The numberand the numbersof collapsed of the houses former and are thethe 2.1 number times of and collapsed 1.2 times houses of those per of capita the latter of non respectively.‐‐poverty villages From arethis also perspective, higher thanthan the thosethose impact of of poverty the earthquake villages, and on poverty-stricken thethe numbers of thethe villages formerformer is are smaller 2.1 timestimes than and that 1.2 on timesnon-poverty-strickentimes of thosethose of thethe villages. latterlatter respectively.respectively. From thisthis perspective, thethe impactimpact of thethe earthquake on poverty‐‐stricken villages isis smaller thanthan thatthat on non‐‐poverty‐‐stricken villages.

Figure 5. The impact of the Wenchuan earthquake on poverty and non-poverty villages in very severely Figureand severely 5. The affected impactimpact counties. of thethe Wenchuan earthquake on poverty and non‐‐poverty villages inin very severelyseverely and severelyseverely affected counties.counties. The affected poverty-stricken villages by the Wenchuan earthquake were classified into three categoriesThe affected based on poverty the degree‐‐stricken of influence—Area villages by thethe Wenchuan A1, Area A2, earthquake and Area were A3. The classified poverty-stricken intointo threethree categoriesvillages distributed based on inthethe Area degree A1 of are influence—Areainfluence—Area those with a relatively A1, Area low A2, level and of Area poverty A3. The and poverty a relatively‐‐stricken low villagesdegree of distributed disaster. The inin Area poverty-stricken A1 are thosethose villageswith a relativelyrelatively distributed lowlow in levellevel Area of A2 poverty are those and with a relativelyrelatively a relatively lowlow degreesevere levelof disaster. of the The earthquake poverty but‐‐stricken a relatively villages low distributed level of poverty. inin Area A2 The are poverty-stricken thosethose with a relativelyrelatively villages severedistributed levellevel in of Area thethe earthquake A3 are those but with a relativelyrelatively a high poverty lowlow levellevel level of andpoverty. a severe The levelpoverty of‐ the‐stricken disaster. villages The distributedpoverty-stricken inin Area villages A3 are distributed thosethose with in a Area high A4poverty belong levellevel to those and a with severe a low levellevel degree of thethe of disaster. the disaster, The povertybut with‐‐stricken a high levelvillages of poverty.distributed The inin surveyArea A4 found belong that toto thethosethose distribution with a lowlow of degree the four of the typesthe disaster, of the but with a high levellevel of poverty. The survey foundfound thatthat thethe distribution of thethe fourfour typestypes of thethe Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704 6 of 15 poverty-stricken villages is the following: A3 type of the villages accounts for about 40% of the total 4834 villages, and the other three types each accounts for 20%. Such type analysis provides a rough basis for post-disaster reconstruction arrangements and resource allocation. The villages located in remote areas belong to the A3 type. The villages distributed in mountains areas and most ethnic minority villages also belong to this type. Based on the assessment of disaster poverty impact, it is necessary to further quantify and qualitatively classify the types of poverty-stricken villages. We can develop different types of policies based on the different combinations of poverty levels and disaster levels. In other words, the post-disaster reconstruction and poverty alleviation should consider the relationship between the degree of disaster impact and the degree of poverty.

2.3. The Impact of the Wenchuan Earthquake on Poverty-Stricken Households The Wenchuan earthquake disaster has caused large-scale casualties, damages to buildings and infrastructure, and the loss of cultivated land, which has reduced the stock of assets at the community and farmer levels. All have caused farmers to fall into poverty traps. The impact of earthquakes on the poverty-stricken households was analyzed mainly from four aspects: population, housing, incomes and expenses, and cultivated land change.

2.3.1. The Impact of the Wenchuan Earthquake on the Population The loss of human capital caused by the earthquake was mainly caused by casualties, especially those who were disabled in the earthquake. From the perspective of long-term development, the natural disaster directly reduces the possibility of livelihood restoration after such a disaster. In addition to causing casualties, the earthquake also affects the health of the victims. Figure6 illustrates the population affected by the Wenchuan earthquake. The population of poverty-stricken counties in the disaster areas is concentrated in the category of 200,000–500,000, with a ratio of 17% (as shown in Figure6). The proportion of the population of poverty-stricken counties >1,000,000 is 3.1% while the proportion of <200,000 is 4.9%. The survey report of 15 poverty-stricken villages in Sichuan, Gansu, and Shaanxi Provinces further shows that the proportion of family members’ injury of middle-income and poor-stricken households is higher than that of wealthy households [21]. The proportion of middle-income rural households who became sick due to the disaster is higher than that of wealthy and poverty-stricken households. In terms of gender, women are the majority of the injured people or with poor health conditions due to the disaster. Women account for 64%, 59%, and 52% of injured people, sick people, and people with poor health conditions, respectively [22]. In terms of age, middle-aged and elderly people are the majority among the people who suffered, got illnesses, or had poor health due to the disaster. The proportion of people aged 35–60 who suffered, got illnesses, or had poor health due to the disaster is 49%, 50%, and 47% respectively. The proportion of elderly people over the age of 60 who suffered, got illnesses, or had poor health due to the disaster is 30%, 40%, and 28% respectively [23]. From the perspective of the age distribution of people with poor health after the earthquake, the proportion of middle-aged people is 47%, and the proportion of the elderly is 30%. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704x 7 of 14 15

Figure 6. The population distribution affected by the Wenchuan earthquake. Figure 6. The population distribution affected by the Wenchuan earthquake. 2.3.2. The Impact of Earthquakes on Rural Housing 2.3.2. The Impact of Earthquakes on Rural Housing In terms of the proportion of collapsed houses during the earthquake, that of poverty-stricken householdsIn terms is of 67%, the proportion that of middle of collapsed income householdshouses during is 58%, the earthquake, and that of that wealthy of poverty households‐stricken is households52% [24]. The is damage 67%, that to theof middle farmers’ income houses directlyhouseholds affected is 58%, the labor and inputthat of during wealthy the households reconstruction is period,52% [24]. which The caused damage the differentto the farmers’ incomes forhouses the farmers directly after affected the disaster. the labor input during the reconstructionAccording period, to the Sixthwhich National caused the population different incomes census data, for the the farmers types of after housing the disaster. can be divided into fourAccording categories: to the reinforced Sixth National concrete, population brick and census concrete, data, brick-wood, the types of and housing others can [25 be]. Figuredivided7 intoillustrates four categories: the ratio ofreinforced brick and concrete, other structure brick and building concrete, in brick the areas‐wood, affected and others by the [25]. Wenchuan Figure 7 illustratesearthquake. the From ratio the of data brick and and the other figure structure it can be seenbuilding that inin poverty-stricken the areas affected counties by the 18% Wenchuan of house wereearthquake. of brick–concrete From the constructiondata and the and figure the restit can were be ofseen other that construction; in poverty‐ instricken contrast counties in non-poverty 18% of housecounties were 37% of of brick–concrete houses were of brick–concreteconstruction and construction. the rest were The proportionof other construction; of old-fashioned in contrast buildings in nonof the‐poverty poverty-stricken counties 37% households of houses is greater were thanof brick–concrete that of the ordinary construction. household The and proportion the wealthy of oldhouseholds.‐fashioned The buildings proportion of the of brick–concretepoverty‐stricken structure households housing is greater of poverty-stricken than that of householdsthe ordinary is householdsmaller than and that the of ordinarywealthy households. and wealthy The households. proportion In termsof brick–concrete of the damaged structure degree housing of farmers’ of povertyhousing,‐stricken more than households 98% of the is smaller households than sufferedthat of ordinary different and degrees wealthy of damage, households. but theIn terms wealthy of thehouseholds damaged have degree relatively of farmers’ low degrees housing, of damage. more than The proportion98% of the of households completely collapsed,suffered different partially degreescollapsed, of anddamage, completely but the dangerous wealthy buildingshouseholds of have wealthy relatively households low degrees is 53%, whileof damage. that of The the proportionordinary households of completely is 72%, collapsed, and that partially of the poverty-stricken collapsed, and households completely isdangerous 78% (Figure buildings7). This isof wealthymainly due households to the fact thatis 53%, the wealthywhile that households of the haveordinary a good households family economic is 72%, condition. and that Therefore, of the poverty‐stricken households is 78% (Figure 7). This is mainly due to the fact that the wealthy Sustainability 2018,, 10,, 4704x 8 of 14 15 households have a good family economic condition. Therefore, their houses have a better seismic performancetheir houses have and astrong better seismiccapability performance to withstand and strongthe disaster. capability On tothe withstand other hand, the disaster. the houses On the of almostother hand, all poverty the houses‐stricken of almost households all poverty-stricken need to be rebuilt households and repaired. need to Due be rebuilt to the and different repaired. types Due of houses,to the different the damaged types of houses,degrees the of damagedthe houses degrees during of the the houses disaster during are the different. disaster areAmong different. the Amonghouseholds the householdswhose houses whose need houses to be rebuilt, need to the be proportion rebuilt, the of proportion wealthy households of wealthy is households 44%, that of is medium44%, that households of medium is households 61%, and that is 61%, of poverty and that‐stricken of poverty-stricken households is households 70%. Among is 70%. the households Among the whosehouseholds houses whose need houses to be needrepaired, to be the repaired, proportion the proportion of wealthy of households wealthy households is larger isthan larger that than of mediumthat of medium income income households households and poverty and poverty-stricken‐stricken households, households, with the with proportions the proportions being being 54%, 54%,38%, and38%, 28% and respectively. 28% respectively. The poorer The poorer the farmers, the farmers, the higher the higher is the is proportion the proportion of houses of houses that that need need to be to rebuiltbe rebuilt after after the the disaster. disaster.

Figure 7. Ratio of brick and other structure building in the areas affected by the Wenchuan earthquake. Figure 7. Ratio of brick and other structure building in the areas affected by the Wenchuan 2.3.3.earthquake. The Impact of Earthquakes on Farmers’ Incomes and Expenses The average annual income of wealthy households in 2007 was more than 35,000 Yuan; nearly 2.3.3. The Impact of Earthquakes on Farmers’ Incomes and Expenses three times that of medium income households, and nearly five times that of poor households. The totalThe income average of wealthy annual households income of inwealthy 2008 increased households by 5% in 2007 compared was more with thatthan in 35,000 2007, Yuan; while thatnearly of threemedium times income that of households medium income decreased households, by 21%, andand thatnearly of poorfive times households that of decreasedpoor households. by 24% [The26]. Wealthytotal income households of wealthy increased households their capita in 2008 income increased slightly by 5% in thecompared year following with that the in disaster, 2007, while whereas that ofin mediummedium incomeincome and households poor households decreased per by capita 21%, income and that significantly of poor households reduced. From decreased these analyses by 24% [26].it can Wealthy be seen thathouseholds the impact increased of the earthquake their capita on income the farmers slightly with in different the year incomes following is very the different,disaster, whereas in medium income and poor households per capita income significantly reduced. From these analyses it can be seen that the impact of the earthquake on the farmers with different incomes is very different, and its impact on poor and medium households is much greater than on Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704 9 of 15 and its impact on poor and medium households is much greater than on wealthy households. The income gaps among the farmers increased significantly after the earthquake. In terms of cash expenditure, whether it is before or after the disaster, the family’s daily food, medical care, and education are the three most important ones, accounting for 60% of the total expenditure. Compared with those in 2007, household food and education expenditures in 2008 decreased, while medical expenses increased by 5%. For households with different levels of incomes, the expenditures of wealthy households increased after the disaster, while the average and poor households showed a trend of reduction. In terms of the proportion of food expenditure, wealthy households increased significantly, while that of the average and poor households significantly decreased. In terms of the proportion of medical expenditure, all three types of households improved, but the wealthy households had the largest increase. From the analysis, it can be seen that the earthquake had the least impact on wealthy households, compared with the impact on the average and poor households. More than half of the average and poor households said they had no deposits, while most wealthy households had a certain amount of deposits. After the earthquake, most of the farmers used deposits mainly for housing construction, followed by household living expenses, and fewer households used deposits for medical expenses, education expenditures, and agricultural production.

2.3.4. The Impact of the Wenchuan Earthquake on Farmers’ Cultivated Land Cultivated lands are the main sources of food for farmers. The destruction of cultivated land by the earthquake affected the livelihood of farmers more or less. Figure8 shows the types of cultivated land in Wenchuan earthquake-stricken areas. According to the survey data of 15 villages, 25% of the farmers’ cultivated land was damaged to various degrees. Among them, 20% of poor households, 27% of ordinary households, and 32% of wealthy households suffered from farmland damage. The affected areas of cultivated land of ordinary households and wealthy households are relatively small. In addition, 27% of the farmers’ arable land was occupied by housing. Among them, 26% belongs to poor households, 29% to ordinary households, and 21% to wealthy households [26]. The housing occupation of cultivated land affected the livelihood of poor farmers, resulting in a reduction in their income sources and thus increasing poverty. At the same time, the reduction of cultivated land also turned some ordinary or wealthy households that mainly relied on crop farming into poor households. Therefore, in post-disaster reconstruction work, it is necessary to focus on finding new ways of livelihood for the farmers. Sustainability 20182018,, 1010,, 4704x 10 of 1514

Figure 8. The types of cultivated land in Wenchuan earthquake-stricken areas. Figure 8. The types of cultivated land in Wenchuan earthquake‐stricken areas. 3. Reflections on the Model of Post-Disaster Reconstruction and Poverty Alleviation 3. Reflections on the Model of Post‐Disaster Reconstruction and Poverty Alleviation Despite the damage and the deepening of poverty caused by the Wenchuan earthquake, the largeDespite amount the of investment damage and in disasterthe deepening prevention of poverty and mitigation caused togetherby the Wenchuan with post-disaster earthquake, recovery the andlarge reconstruction amount of investment by the state in anddisaster various prevention levels of and governments mitigation have together also broughtwith post benefits‐disaster to povertyrecovery alleviation and reconstruction [27]. Through by the the state investigation and various of hiddenlevels of high governments risk points have such asalso landslides brought andbenefits debris to poverty flows and alleviation floods, rural [27]. housingThrough land the investigation was rationally of planned hidden tohigh avoid risk high-riskpoints such areas. as Disasterlandslides monitoring, and debris forecasting, flows and early floods, warning rural and housing emergency land responsewas rationally systems planned were established to avoid andhigh improved‐risk areas. to Disaster reduce the monitoring, intensity of forecasting, the hazard influenceearly warning and its and likelihood. emergency Economic response comparison systems ofwere the established severely affected and improved counties byto thereduce Wenchuan the intensity earthquake of the forhazard the years influence of 2008 and and its 2017 likelihood. can be seenEconomic in Figure comparison9. of the severely affected counties by the Wenchuan earthquake for the years of 2008 and 2017 can be seen in Figure 9. To improve the conditions of the infrastructure of rural roads, bridges, culverts, and the resilience of public facilities such as schools and hospitals, a series of activities were carried out. For example, disaster emergency shelters were built; disaster relief materials were distributed; disaster prevention and mitigation education were invested in; and training publicity and drills of disaster prevention and mitigation, were carried out [11,15]. All of these activities improved farmers’ awareness of disaster prevention and mitigation and disaster response. The emergency plans for disaster‐stricken groups were developed and policy‐based agricultural insurance was implemented. The vulnerability of disaster exposures was reduced and the capability of disaster recovery was enhanced to reduce the risk of disasters. SustainabilitySustainability 20182018,, 1010,, 4704x 11 of 1514

Sustainability 2018, 10, x 11 of 14

Figure 9. Economic comparison of the severely affected counties by the Wenchuan earthquake for the yearsFigure of 9. 2008 Economic and 2017. comparison of the severely affected counties by the Wenchuan earthquake for the years of 2008 and 2017. To improve the conditions of the infrastructure of rural roads, bridges, culverts, and the resilience of publicFrom facilities the perspective such as schools of disaster and hospitals,economics, a seriesdisaster of activitiesprevention were and carried mitigation out. For input example, were disasterused to emergencyreduce the shelters negative were economic built; disaster impact relief of materialsthe Wenchuan were distributed; earthquake disaster disaster. prevention In rural andpoverty mitigation‐stricken education areas, it were is directly invested reflected in; and trainingin the reduction publicity of and poverty drills of problems disaster prevention caused by andthe mitigation,disaster. Figure were 10 carried illustrates out [ the11,15 proposed]. All of theseconceptual activities framework improved of farmers’combining awareness disaster prevention of disaster preventionand mitigation/disaster and mitigation reconstruction and disaster with response. poverty The alleviation. emergency plans for disaster-stricken groups were developed and policy-based agricultural insurance was implemented. The vulnerability of disasterFigure exposures 9. Economic was comparison reduced and of thethe capabilityseverely affected of disaster counties recovery by the Wenchuan was enhanced earthquake to reduce for the risk ofthe disasters. years of 2008 and 2017. From the perspective of disaster economics, disaster prevention and mitigation input were From the perspective of disaster economics, disaster prevention and mitigation input were used to reduce the negative economic impact of the Wenchuan earthquake disaster. In rural used to reduce the negative economic impact of the Wenchuan earthquake disaster. In rural poverty-stricken areas, it is directly reflected in the reduction of poverty problems caused by the poverty‐stricken areas, it is directly reflected in the reduction of poverty problems caused by the disaster. Figure 10 illustrates the proposed conceptual framework of combining disaster prevention disaster. Figure 10 illustrates the proposed conceptual framework of combining disaster prevention and mitigation/disaster reconstruction with poverty alleviation. and mitigation/disaster reconstruction with poverty alleviation.

Figure 10. Conceptual framework of combining disaster prevention and mitigation/disaster reconstruction with poverty alleviation.

Post‐disaster recovery and reconstruction could bring together more resources, funds and technology resources that are urgently needed for the development of disaster‐stricken areas [4,7,20]. They could be used directly to improve the living standards and production activities of poor people, and then to help them escape from poverty. As far as the positive economic performance of disasters is concerned, the post‐disaster recovery requires multiplier effects and opportunitiesFigure 10. Conceptualfor post‐disaster framework technological of combining innovations disaster prevention and production and mitigation/disaster development, reconstruction which may be conduciveFigure 10. to theConceptual elimination framework or reduction of combining of poverty disaster in the disasterprevention areas. and mitigation/disaster withreconstruction poverty alleviation. with poverty alleviation.

Post‐disaster recovery and reconstruction could bring together more resources, funds and technology resources that are urgently needed for the development of disaster‐stricken areas [4,7,20]. They could be used directly to improve the living standards and production activities of poor people, and then to help them escape from poverty. As far as the positive economic performance of disasters is concerned, the post‐disaster recovery requires multiplier effects and opportunities for post‐disaster technological innovations and production development, which may be conducive to the elimination or reduction of poverty in the disaster areas. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704 12 of 15

Post-disaster recovery and reconstruction could bring together more resources, funds and technology resources that are urgently needed for the development of disaster-stricken areas [4,7,20]. They could be used directly to improve the living standards and production activities of poor people, and then to help them escape from poverty. As far as the positive economic performance of disasters is concerned, the post-disaster recovery requires multiplier effects and opportunities for post-disaster technological innovations and production development, which may be conducive to the elimination or reduction of poverty in the disaster areas.

4. Conclusions Overall, the Wenchuan earthquake disaster caused a large loss of material capital, human capital, financial capital, and physical capital in the disaster areas, and its impact is far-reaching.

(1) The impact of the earthquake on the population with different characteristics is different. For households with different incomes, the proportion of casualties of wealthy households due to disasters is lower than that of ordinary households and poor households; for different gender and age structures, women are more likely to have suffered from the disaster than men, and older people are more likely to have suffered from the disaster than young people. (2) In terms of the impact of the earthquake on housing collapse, the proportion of collapsed housing of poor households is greater than that of ordinary households and wealthy households. Among the proportion of housing needs to be repaired, the proportion of housing of wealthy households is the largest, and that of the poor households is the smallest. (3) As far as household incomes after the disaster are concerned, there has been an increase in the number of wealthy households, and that of medium and poor households have decreased significantly. The expenditures of wealthy households have increased after the disaster, while the ordinary households and poor households have shown a trend of shrinking. (4) The proportion of damaged cultivated land for ordinary households and wealthy households is larger than that for poor households. In terms of housing occupied farmland, poor households and ordinary households are larger than rich households.

The scope of poverty alleviation and reconstruction after the Wenchuan earthquake was 4834 poverty-stricken villages [2]. LGOPAD (Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Development of the State Council) carried out a pilot project involved in 100 villages. In August 2018, the Sichuan Provincial Government approved 15 counties such as Beichuan County to exit the poverty-stricken counties [28]. The effective ways of reconstruction of the poverty-stricken villages after the Wenchuan earthquake can be summarized with the following aspects: (1) Stimulating the internal vitality of the reconstruction of poverty-stricken villages. In the post-disaster reconstruction process of poverty-stricken villages, the government always aimed at targeting the poor and vulnerable groups, persisting in the development of livelihoods, and adopting various means to improve their confidence and ability in reconstruction and sustainable development. (2) Improving the basic production and living conditions of poverty-stricken villages. According to statistics, the total capital investment of the 100 pilot villages is 183 million Yuan [2]. After the disaster, the poverty-stricken villages resumed reconstruction planning and poverty alleviation funds, and established a platform from various resources to support the reconstruction of poor villages. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4704 13 of 15

(3) Improving the way with a series of special training activities. How to improve the ability to participate in post-disaster reconstruction through training and exchanges to promote poverty alleviation systems is an important way for disaster prevention and mitigation/disaster reconstruction with poverty alleviation in poverty-stricken villages. The reconstruction training of people in the poverty-stricken villages after the disaster may be divided into three types: mobilization training, thematic training, and communication training.

(4) Exploring the multi-sectoral involvement in reconstruction mechanisms of poverty-stricken villages.

Various departments including the LGOPAD, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the national Women’s Federation, and other ministries and commissions have worked with UNDP (the United Nations Development Programme) and relevant departments to explore multi-sectoral cooperation in the recovery and reconstruction mechanisms for poverty-stricken villages. It is an innovation where multiple departments participate in the same project design, implement interrelated and mutually supportive project content, and form a complete project implementation mechanism. Suggestions were given in this study to improve the mode of combining disaster prevention and mitigation/disaster reconstruction with poverty alleviation. The post-disaster reconstruction and poverty alleviation should consider the relationship between the degree of disaster impact and the degree of poverty. The results from this study may serve as an important reference for the formulation of poverty alleviation and development policies for future disaster management.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.C. and H.J.; formal analysis, H.J. and D.P.; data and resources, F.C., D.P. and C.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, H.J.; writing—review and editing, F.C. and C.Z.; supervision, F.C. and H.J.; funding acquisition, F.C. and H.J. Funding: This work was supported by the International Partnership Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, under Grant 131551KYSB20160002, and the National Key R&D Program of China, under Grant 2017YFE0100800, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41671505; 41471428), the State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University (2017-KF-24). Acknowledgments: The authors also would like to thank the editors and the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and advice. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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