Investigating Crisis Communication Strategies in a Government Operating System

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INVESTIGATING CRISIS COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN A GOVERNMENT

OPERATING SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY OF CHINESE GOVERNMENT CRISIS

RESPONSE TO THE 2008 SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE

QIANQIAN NONG

(Under the Direction of Bryan H. Reber)

ABSTRACT

This study applies Coombs’s crisis response strategies, Benoit’s image restoration theory, and Grunig’s excellence theory as theoretical frames to investigate the Chinese Government’s response and image restoration following to the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. This study serves as a test on the applicability of these theories in the context of China, a country in which the political culture of authoritarian communist party leadership plays a crucial role. Through content analysis of prominent media coverage and government released materials, buttressed by case studies of public evaluations, this study indicates that the

Chinese Government established a new credible and transparent government communication style after the earthquake in comparison with its handling of SARS

Crisis of 2002.

INDEX WORDS: The Chinese Government, Sichuan earthquake, Image restoration,

Crisis communication, Crisis response strategy continuum,

Two-way asymmetrical communication

INVESTIGATING CRISIS COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN A GOVERNMENT

OPERATING SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY OF CHINESE GOVERNMENT CRISIS

RESPONSE TO THE 2008 SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE

QIANQIAN NONG

B.A., North China Institute of Science and Technology, China, 2010

A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in

Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF ARTS

ATHENS, GEORGIA

2012

Qianqian Nong

INVESTIGATING CRISIS COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN A GOVERNMENT

OPERATING SYTEM: A CASE STUDY OF CHINESE GOVERNMENT CRISIS

RESPONSE TO THE 2008 SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE

QIANQIAN NONG

Major Professor: Bryan H. Reber

Committee: Bryan H. Reber Lynne Sallot Lijiang Shen

Electronic Version Approved:

Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to show my heartfelt gratitude to my major professor

Dr. Bryan Reber, whose persistent encouragement, patience, motivation, guidance and support enabled me to fulfill the research and writing of this thesis.

Besides my advisor, I am indebted to my thesis committee members

Dr. Lynne Sallot and Dr. Lijiang Shen, from whom I gained insightful comments and support.

Last, I would like to thank Yanjing Li, who served as another coder verifying my research results.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2 SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE ...... 3

3 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 5

3.1 Crisis definition and image damage ...... 5

3.2 Crisis response strategies continuum ...... 6

3.3 Excellence theory of communication ...... 9

4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 16

5 METHOD ...... 17

6 FINDINGS ...... 22

6.1 Crisis strategies application ...... 23

6.2 Communication with news media ...... 26

6.3 Social media application ...... 27

6.4 Image/reputation establishment ...... 32

6.5 In comparison with SARS crisis ...... 41

7 DISCUSSION ...... 44

7.1 Examination of Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum

in the context of China ...... 44

7.2 Examination of Grunig’s model of excellence in the context of

China ...... 48

7.3 Examination of Benoit’s image restoration strategies in the

context of China ...... 52

7.4 The innovative application of social media

...... 54

7.5 Progress made in Sichuan earthquake in comparison to SARS

...... 56

8 CONCLUSION ...... 58

9 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS ...... 60

REFERENCES ...... 62

APPENDICES ...... 71

Appendix A ...... 71

Appendix B ...... 86

Appendix C ...... 88

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A lethal earthquake measuring 8.0 magnitude hit Wenchuan County,

Sichuan Province, a rural and mountainous region in western China, at 2:28 p.m.

(Beijing time), May 12, 2008 (Xin, 2008), leaving about 80,000 people dead or missing (Mu, 2011). According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the epicenter of the earthquake was less than 80 miles northwest of the capital of Sichuan province

Chengdu. Hence, the provincial capital was devastated by this earthquake. The damage of the earthquake had extended to neighboring cities such as Mianyang,

Dujiangyan and Guanyuan (Tao, Wu, Zheng, & Tao, 2010, p. 524). At the same time, people from thousands of miles away around China, from Beijing to Shanghai also sensed the strong tremor (Xin, 2008).

Lerbinger (1997) stated that a crisis is characterized as suddenness, unwanted uncertainty, high risk, and image challenges (p. 3-4). These remarkable characteristics were reflected by an unexpected natural disaster. After the earthquake, the Chinese Government’s image and credibility were at stake, which required them to develop a crisis management mechanism to cope with the natural disaster. Chen (2009) observed, “The Chinese Government was compelled to deal with such critical issues as information provision, openness, speed, and ease of availability, credibility, confidence building, and image/reputation retaining.” (p.

187). As a natural disaster creates unexpected, devastating consequences, the 2

Chinese Government had to make decisions in a timely fashion. Hart, Rosenthal and

Kouzmin (1993) indicated that “political and administrative centralization” play an important role in crisis decision-making.

Bo¨hm (2008) pointed out that politically speaking, the Sichuan earthquake reaffirmed the conviction that for the legitimacy of a state there is nothing as important as developing an efficient crisis management mechanism (as cited in Lai & Hui, 2009, p. 137). This study, therefore, seeks to examine the Chinese

Government’s crisis response capability following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake.

This research analyzes the crisis communication strategies that the

Chinese Government employed when it was faced with such a devastating catastrophe, through the lenses of Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum

(Coombs, 1999), Benoit’s image restoration strategies (Benoit, 1997), and Grunig’s excellence theory (Grunig, 1992). Additionally, it scrutinizes the applicability of these three major models in China. Through a comprehensive analysis of the

Chinese Government’s crisis management in 2008 Sichuan earthquake the theories and strategies are examined and modified to be better applied in this developing but highly authoritarian country. Finally, it measures the Chinese Government’s success, or lack thereof, in handling this earthquake by comparing how the Chinese

Government handled the SARS Crisis in 2002, as well as exposing deficiencies that need to be improved in the future. In addition, this analysis will determine whether the Chinese Government has been making efforts to establish a transparent government, thereby changing people’s stereotypical views on the relationship between news media and the Chinese Government.

CHAPTER 2

SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE

A destructive, large-scaled earthquake, measuring 8.0 magnitude on the

Richter scale and centering 10km below the surface, jolted Wenchuan County,

Sichuan Province, China at 2: 28 p.m. on May 12, 2008, Beijing time. According to a report released in China Daily, this fatal and massive earthquake extensively affected 46.24 million people in 417 counties, 4,656 townships and 47,789 villages, with a total disaster zone of 440,000 square kilometers. 13,685 aftershocks had been detected after the main earthquake, with five measuring above 6.0 on the

Richter scale, 28 rating from 5.0 to 5.9 and 189 from 4.0 to 4.9. (Xinhua News

Agency, June 24).

This earthquake was the second most severe to strike China following the

Tangshan earthquake in 1976, which caused substantial human and property losses.

According to Chen (2009), the 2008 Sichuan earthquake cut off 16 major arteries and six railways and paralyzed the power supply as well as telecom and water supplies in large areas. The quake triggered landslides blocked rivers and formed 35 quake lakes, threatening hundreds of thousands of people’s lives (p. 187). An official report released by the State Council Information Office of the P. R. of China indicated that, up to August 25, 2008, 69,226 people died, 17,923 were missing, and 74,643 were injured (Liu, 25 August 2008). By September 4, 2008, direct economic loss was

4 estimated as 845.1 billion RMB (approximate to 124 billion U.S. dollars), 91.3% of which was directly from Sichuan Province (Yang, 2011).

Since Wenchuan is a non-economically developed area, it was much more difficult for the Chinese Central Government and Wenchuan local government to guarantee the rebuilding of the infrastructure of this county. However, sticking to the core spirit of “putting people as the priority,” the Chinese Government insisted on deploying the upmost resources and funds to build new earthquake-resistant buildings for Wenchuan (Yang, 2011). At the same time, the Chinese Government promoted a preferential policy for all businesses, which advocated that all business, large or small, would receive a relatively lower tax if they were ready to invest in

Wenchuan County. Moreover, the Chinese Government called upon as many volunteers as possible to devote themselves in helping victims in those quake- stricken areas through a wide variety of social media channels. Furthermore, the

Chinese Government, though cooperating with other non-profit organizations, such as Red Cross, orphanages, local and provincial hospitals, etc., encouraged families of good economic condition all over the China and the world to adopt orphans from

Wenchuan County.

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Crisis definition and image damage

Coombs (1999) defined crisis as something “unpredictable but not unexpected, [that] cannot be avoided or completely eliminated” (p. 2). He further explained, “Crises are threats, meaning that they actually do or have the potential to create negative or undesirable outcomes. Threat is often translated to mean damage ” (Coombs, 1999, p. 3). Simply put, surprise, threat, unpredictability, inevitability, and short response time define a crisis. According to Loewendick

(1993), a natural disaster, like an earthquake, would “trigger great financial loss should be (e.g., loss productivity or a drop in earnings), injuries or deaths to stakeholders, structural or property damage, sullied reputations, and environmental harm” (p. 15-17).

Among all damages, reputation and image are of most concern by any organization or leader during a crisis and post-crisis. Coombs (1996) posited

“Reputational damage is a danger during any crisis” (p. 121). Benoit (1997) asserted,

“Image, a central concept to the field of public relations, is essential to organizations

(i.e., corporations, government bodies, non-profit groups) as well as individuals”

(p. 177-186). When a crisis erupts, the organization’s image is at risk and its crisis management ability is tested.

3.2 Crisis response strategies continuum

In essence, image restoration and reputational repair of the organization or individual under attack can be achieved by articulating a range of assorted strategic messages, which basically include “denial, shifting the blame, mortification, corrective action, and minimization” (Benoit, 1997, p. 3). These strategies fit well with Coombs’s clear-cut crisis response strategies, which are comprised of a mix of excuses, attack the accuser, denial, excuse, justification, corrective action and full apology (Coombs, 1999, p. 123).

Coombs (1995) indicated that the internal-external and intentional- unintentional dimensions could be crossed to form the four mutually exclusive crisis types, such as faux pas, accidents, terrorism and transgressions (p. 445). He further specified that accidents, including earthquake, hurricanes, drought and epidemics, etc., were unintentional. The public, hence, could not attribute the blame to human- induced errors (Coombs, 1995, p. 456). Coombs (1999) explained that natural disasters were accidental and unexpected; therefore, it was appropriate for organizations to make excuses. Justification could be used in accidents, malevolence and natural disasters if the damage was truly minimal (p. 127- 128)

Coombs (1999) stated that crisis management was designed to ward off or reduced these reputational or other financial damages by providing guidelines for properly handling crises (p. 3). A reservoir of crisis management guidelines seeks to

“prevent or lessen the negative outcomes of a crisis and thereby protect the organization, stakeholders, and industry from damage” (Coombs, 1999, p. 4). An effective crisis management response can reduce the time it takes to complete the

7 crisis life cycle, prevent a loss of sales, limit reputational damage, preclude the development of public policy issues, alleviate public threats, and minimize damage to life and property (Barton, 1993, p. 3).

According to Coombs (1999), an operational crisis management stems from a general “continuum of crisis communication strategies”, including a range of actions from “defensive to accommodative”. Defensive strategies claim that no crisis exists or try to evade responsibilities for the crisis, which include attack the accuser, denial, excuse, and justification. These strategies place great emphasis on the protection of organizational reputation, even at the expense of victims (p. 122). In contrast, accommodative strategies are comprised of “ingratiation, corrective action, full apology, accept responsibilities for or take remedial action to correct crisis” (p.

123).

According to Benoit (1997), the best way to repair a tarnished image or reputation requires an organization to sincerely apologize and accept full responsibility without deliberately fabricating convincible excuses or shifting blame.

What’s more, the organization should take corrective actions and mortification in order to rebuild a positive image in the public eventually. At this point, his perspective coincides with Coombs’s statements in his crisis communication strategies, which underscore that repairing a damaged image required the organization to acknowledge its mistakes and take responsibility to solve the crisis

(p. 123).

Typically, it is imperative that an organization or government must have detailed understanding of a crisis situation to help select the appropriate or most

8 effective crisis response strategies (Coombs, 1999, p. 121). However, the current research attempts to challenge this statement, by examining whether different political systems also determine the application of different crisis response strategies.

Reputations are usually built from stakeholder experiences with the organization (Coombs, 1999, p. 140). That said, establishing a beneficial relationship with stakeholders plays a critical role in reconstructing a positive reputation.

Maintaining relationships with stakeholders is critical for organizational survival during the crisis, since crises present challenges to organizations that could destroy their relationships with publics (Coombs, 2006). Typically, an effective crisis communication facilitates a good stakeholder relationship. Indeed, “crises have the potential to create an entirely new class of stakeholders, the victims. Victims are those people who have suffered physically, mentally, or financially from the crisis”

(Coombs, 1999, p. 119). To relieve the stakeholders from tension and depression, the crisis team, on the one hand, must assure the stakeholders that the crisis is under control; on the other hand, it should express concern and compassion to the suffered victims (Frank 1994; Mitchell, 1986).

In addition to communication with victims as the most important stakeholders during the crisis, there should be communication with news media, social media publics, internal publics, and external publics when a crisis strikes

(Pauchant & Mitroff, 1992). The current research examines links between a good relationship with stakeholders and successful crisis management.

3.3 Excellence theory of communication

“Communication is a concern throughout the entire crisis management process” (Coombs, 1999, p. 127). Fearn-Banks (2007) indicated, “Crisis communication, a dialog between the organization and its publics prior to, during, and after the negative occurrence, details strategies and tactics designed to minimize damage to the image of the organization” (p. 2). How to communicate with publics and build up a cooperative media relationship is the next concern in crisis management (Coombs, 1999, p. 114).

Coombs (1999) underscored, “a regular two-way communication between the organization and the stakeholders (a dialogue) is the lifeblood of a favorable organization- stakeholder relationship” (p. 134). The ongoing organization- stakeholder dialogue should continue throughout the crisis management process.

Grunig (1992) assumed that the two-way symmetrical communication model, also called the mutual understanding model, was the most excellent model, which was efficacious in achieving dialogic communication with publics (p. 15). However, this research attempts to challenge this standpoint, by examining whether two-way asymmetrical communication is a more excellent model in a highly centralized state such as China. Similar with the aforementioned implication, this research examines whether a different political culture results in the selection of a different model.

Typically, the two-way asymmetrical model, also called the “scientific persuasion model” (Fearn-Banks, 2007, p. 21), refers to the fact that an organization persuades the publics to adhere to its rules or guidelines.

According to Fearn-Banks (2007), “Symmetrical communication involves the organization to negotiate, compromise, bargain, listen, and engage in dialogue with publics. The organization knows what the publics want and need; the publics, in turn, understand the organization’s needs and desires” (p. 22). To better meet the expectations from the audiences and stakeholders, organizations are encouraged to satisfy their emotional, ecological, social, ethical, medical, moral, spiritual, aesthetic, psychological, and existential needs (Pauchant & Mitroff 1992).

During the crisis, stakeholders experience an organization through the media and its crisis management actions. The news media plays an essential role in affecting the perception of stakeholders involved in this crisis (Fearn-Banks, 2007, p.

9). Hence, except for the general population, news media are often the second largest stakeholders for any organization coping with a crisis. Coombs (1999) suggested that any organization should attach great importance to the media relationship, which, if improperly dealt with, can expose organizational misdeeds or generate other negative publicity (p. 140). Scholars Barton (1993), Fearn-Banks

(1996), Lerbinger (1997) and Seitel (1983) concluded that media relations were another crucial concern in crisis management. Fearn-Banks (1996) defined media relations as an establishment of a positive relationship with the news media, in order to structure a corporate image as reliable, professional, accurate, and ethical.

Normally, publics can seek information through traditional and online sources. The traditional information sources include newspapers, news magazines, and television news. Other useful publications include public opinion journals, newsletters and quarterlies. Online sources, like myriad web sites, also provide

11 ample information to publics (Coombs, 1999). The need for speed in crisis communication and in-depth information continue to escalate as technologies, like social media, accelerate the speed of information (Barton, 1993). Marcheses (2007) points out, “social media can take many different forms, including text, images, audio, and video. These sites typically use technologies such as blogs, message boards, podcasts, wikis, and vlogs to allow users to interact.” Mark Dykeman (2008) further stated that social media were the means for any person to publish digital creative content, provide and obtain real-time feedback via online discussions, commentary and evaluations, and incorporate changes and corrections to the original content. Coombs (1999) implied that stakeholders would often have more concerns while they were updating themselves with more information, hence, “the crisis team must answer new inquiries as well” (p. 114). At this point, any organization or government should advance their use of social media to optimum so as to respond to stakeholders’ concerns or inquiries in a timely fashion.

With that said, how to proficiently use social media to manage crises is a new concern for organizations, governments, and corporations. Typically, new communication media like prevailing new social media, which describes the online technologies and practices that people use to share opinions, insights, experiences, perspectives and media itself, have changed the ways organizations communicate with strategic publics (Dykeman, 2008; Marcheses, 2007). The potential impact of blogs and social media on public relations and corporate communications is phenomenal, facilitating more two-way communication by opening up direct channels of communications between organizations and their publics (Key, 2005),

12 and offering a platform for the public to “interact or communicate” (Dykeman,

2008). This study will examine how social media were used by the Chinese

Government to communicate with publics, as well as to rebuild its image during the crisis.

Though new communication technologies speed the transmission of communication and help to make the world a smaller place, they also spread rumors at the same time, which eventually can devastate one’s already established image

(Barton, 1993; Higbee, 1992). Fearn-Banks (2007) said, “The possibilities of rumor were advanced, along with the progress in technology. Specifically, what Internet blogs, sites, and social media have done is to provide faster, easier ways to circulate rumors and thereby cause crises for organizations and individuals.” She further speculated that stakeholders were actively seeking crisis-pertained information on the Internet; even if it’s a source of misinformation and rumor (p. 63). Caruba (1994) postulated that if the crisis team didn’t provide sufficient and accurate crisis information to the media, people would seek other channels to fill this vacuum.

However, the unsound information would keep people from knowing the veracity (p.

85). Consequently, “Crisis managers are encouraged to be quick, consistent, open, sympathetic, and informative” (Coombs, 1999, p. 114).

The openness of the organization is an independent factor while technology is accelerating the spread of information. Coombs (1999) considered openness as “a multifaceted concept,” which means “(a) availability to the media, (b) willingness to disclose information, and (c) honesty” (p. 118). In fact, an organization should fully disclose any available information about a crisis without

13 reservation, or hesitation, considering that lack of honesty or accuracy would severely damage organization-stakeholder relationships, destroy the organization’s reputation, or contribute to financial loss. Fearn-Banks (2007) suggested that an overall “open and honest” policy with stakeholders and news media usually warrants less financial, emotional and perceptual damage from the crisis (p.26). An effective communication must be consistent, which means that organizations should guarantee that the messages that they disseminate are accurate and consistent

(Coombs, 1999, 117).

Re-establishment of credibility always comes with image restoration hand in hand. Gross (1990) indicated that a rumor occurred when an untruthful statement about the organization was circulated, which required an organization to respond immediately by stating that the information was untrue and unjust.

Rumors must be addressed since trust and credibility are two essential elements of persuasive communication and reputation rebuilding. In this regard, a crisis is upgraded; it’s not only limited to the damage incurred by the natural disaster, but rumors devastate the organization’s credibility, which is a vital component of public’s attitude toward the organization. This will further tarnish the organization’s image.

Coombs (1999) defined credibility as a concept used in persuasion, which reflects the receiver’s attitude toward the communicator (p. 46). McCroskey (1997) noted that credibility was a very important concept because it had a significant effect on the persuasiveness of a message (p. 17-20). Kouzes & Posner (1993) conceptualized that credibility was comprised of two components, expertise and

14 trustworthiness. Typically, expertise was the communicator’s knowledge about the subject, which could be explicated as the capability of an organization to control the crisis (Coombs, 1999, 46- 47). Scholars Allen & Caillouet (1994) and Kouzes &

Posner (1993), in their research, found that trustworthiness was the communicator’s goodwill or concern for the receivers, which could be explicated as compassion and sympathy for the affected stakeholders (Coombs, 1999, p. 47).

There are multiple ways to re-establish the credibility of an organization during the crisis. Trust is at the heart of crisis management. Empathy and caring, competence, commitment and accountability can contribute to trust (Coombs, 1999. p. 47). Reynolds & Earley (2010) argued that trusted crisis messages from officials should be accurate, empathetic, honest, and open. They further stressed that messages that were able to lessen victims’ anxiety and fear, and rescue others lives quickly depended not only on what facts are delivered by the leader but also the way in which the facts were delivered by officials. Fearn-Banks (1996) added that if a news conference was warranted and can be arranged in time, it helps eliminate the untenable rumors. Other than that, an effective, credible and informative spokesperson, who is able to answer all questions from the media either in a press conference or interview format, or to present a contrite or unified front to the skeptical public will contribute to rebuilding the tarnished image of an organizations (Eramo, 2009).

. Leadership is another vital factor in enhancing the communication with stakeholders, repairing the tarnished image, and regaining credibility during a crisis.

Lai & Hui (2009) stated that the need for leadership and efficiency in dealing with

15 an enormous scale crisis was imminent (p. 137). Especially in a natural disaster, leaders play a predominantly all-dimensional role in communicating with victims, media and the publics in general. Reynolds & Earley, (2010), found that:

A leader must anticipate what mental stresses followers will be

experiencing and apply appropriate communication strategies to attempt

to manage these stresses among staff or the public and preserve or repair

the organization’s reputation. In an emergency, the right message at the

right time is a ‘resource multiplier’ — it helps leaders to get their job

done”. A leader may become a symbol of order and authority during a

crisis, exercising considerable power to influence behavior that mitigates

further harm.

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The review of literature leads to the following questions:

RQ1: What crisis response strategies did the Chinese Government use, and how do these strategies match with Coombs’s crisis response continuum?

RQ2a: To what extent did the Chinese Government coordinate with national and international media?

RQ2b: Did the Chinese Government adopt a two-way asymmetrical or symmetrical communication with the media?

RQ3: How, if at all, did the Chinese Government employ its social media platforms to interact with the public?

RQ4: What image/reputation did the Chinese Government communication efforts generate?

RQ5: Did the Chinese Government make progress in crisis communication, compared with the handling of the SARS crisis in 2002?

CHAPTER 5

METHOD

This study applied three major relevant to crisis management and communication, including Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum (Coombs,

1999), Grunig’s excellence theory (Grunig, 1992), and Benoit’s image restoration theory (Benoit, 1997), to examine the Chinese Government’s response to the 2008 earthquake crisis. These three theories were selected because of their predominance in the public relations and crisis communication literature. To investigate how people evaluated the Chinese Government’s response to the 2008 earthquake crisis, this study employed an amalgamation of qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The content analysis of media coverage and government communication documents was used to determine the trending attitudes in news articles toward the

Chinese Government’s response to the earthquake. And a qualitatively textual review of public evaluations provided a case study in comparison with its handling of the SARS crisis. Comments from the public, news media, and international community were identified in news coverage. These comments were used to buttress the content analysis findings in developing the chronological case study.

Media coverage, comprised of news articles, press releases, news stories, statements, official speeches, interviews, and transcripts of press conferences conducted by Chinese Government officials from May 12, 2008, when the Sichuan

18 earthquake happened, to June 19, 2011, the most recent reconstruction in the quake area, were used as primary texts of analyses. Specifically, 414 media reports (news articles (N=374) and blog posts (N=40)) were identified and analyzed. Reports came from Beijing Review (N=72), Xinhua Net (N=50), China Daily (N=52), South

China Morning Post (N=55), BBC (N=69), CNN (N=15), The Washington Times (N=8),

The Washington Post (N=19), The New York Times (N=33), and Chinese blogs (N=40).

These media outlets were chosen because of their largest readership or viewership, as well as their nationwide or worldwide popularity. Among the 374 news articles, 8 articles were classified as government documents. See Appendix A for the classifications of publications and the numbers of articles extracted from each publication.

More specifically, the news articles extracted from four trending Chinese publications, including China Daily, Beijing Review, Xinhua Net were used to represent the public and media’s perspectives from China. The English-language publications such as Beijing Review and China Daily provided official news of the

Chinese Government, as well as the background information of how Chinese

Government communicated with their publics through mass media. With a circulation of over 70,000, Beijing Review is distributed throughout China and in 150 countries worldwide. The print circulation of China Daily is over 500,000 as of 2012.

Though Xinhua News Agency provides news in both English and Chinese versions, this study only selected the English-language news articles. It was the largest news agency in China, which delivered the most updated, in-depth, and official news reports. The circulation of Xinhua News is currently 470,000. Meanwhile, news

19 articles from International New agencies, such as CNN, BBC, New York Times, and

The Washington Post, The Washington Times and South China Morning Post, which represented the Western perspectives, were also selected for their predominance in international news coverage. These international news media were analyzed to reduce potential bias in any single publication. South China Morning Post was an

English-language Hong Kong newspaper with a circulation of 104,000, which specifically covered the news in the south of China. The New York Times is the largest American metropolitan newspaper published in New York City with a daily circulation of 1,150, 589. The Washington Post, published in Washington, D.C., was mostly circulated nationwide with a daily circulation of 507, 465. The Washington

Times was published in Washington. D.C., with a daily circulation of 93,763 (Mondo

Times, 2012).

The content analysis was further supplemented by a closed investigation of Chinese-language articles circulated on the Chinese emerging new media platforms, such as Tianya Club (an influential microblogging site shared by tens of thousands of Chinese people around the world similar to MySpace), Sinablog (a

Chinese microblogging website akin to Twitter), QQ space (a blog run by Tencent

QQ, the largest chatting program in China (akin to Skype) and 163 blogs. All these articles represented the opinions from Chinese netizens.

These selected articles represent a three-year timeframe and reflect the

Chinese Government’s continuous efforts in the earthquake management, reconstruction and recovery during and after the earthquake. These articles were singled out based upon the combination of the most relevant keywords such as

“Chinese Government,” “Sichuan earthquake,” “2008 earthquake,” “Wenchuan earthquake,” “State Council,” “PLA,” “People Liberty Army in earthquake,”

“earthquake in China,” “earthquake crisis”. These articles were found from the Lexis

Nexis database, the official websites of each abovementioned media outlets and the

Chinese blogs.

Through analyzing the tones of each selected news article and blog post, this study generated evaluations of publics, media and international community on the Chinese Government earthquake crisis management. The tones were judged by the frequencies of filtered keywords (N=3,344), which were “rescue,” “relief,”

“openness/open/transparency,” “social stability,” “leadership,”

“timely/swiftly/quickly/immediately/rapidly/promptly,” “efficient/effective,”

“instruction/guidance/direct,” “people-centered,” “victim,” “reconstruction,”

“corrupt (ion)” and “substandard/shoddy construction”. The tone of each article was determined upon the general tone of the article. In other words, the tones of all researched articles were not determined solely based on individual keywords, but on the preponderance of keyword tone and the tone of the article as a whole.

Keywords such as “openness/open/transparency,” “social stability,”

“timely/swiftly/quickly/immediately/rapidly/promptly,” “efficient/effective.”

“instruction/guidance/direct,” “people-centered,” were categorized as positive keywords. Keywords including “corrupt (ion)” and “substandard/shoddy construction” were categorized as negative keywords. Keywords such as “relief”,

“rescue,” “leadership,” “reconstruction,” and “victim” were grouped as neutral keywords. The tones of these keywords could not be defined until there were

21 positive or negative adjectives proceeding before the words. See Appendix B for the frequencies and categories of keywords. These keywords were handpicked based on their frequencies in a pilot study, consisting of three articles from each of the abovementioned media outlets (N=27). See Appendix C for the chart of pilot study.

In other words, the most-mentioned keywords were categorized to further analyze the 414 articles.

To increase the reliability of this research, these articles were coded by a

Chinese native speaker. 20 percent of articles from each abovementioned news media were subsequently re-coded by another Chinese native speaker. The second coder was chosen because she was from Sichuan province, the quake-stricken area, and hence, she was quite familiar with the Chinese Government’s response to the earthquake crisis. The second coder conformed to the same keyword list and coding scheme used by the first coder while analyzing the news articles. Out of 414 articles,

86 articles were recoded by a second Chinese native speaker. Holsti’s method for calculating intercoder agreement coefficient was used. There were 85 agreements and one disagreement. The level of reliability for coding is determined by the calculation of an intercoder agreement coefficient. To calculate the agreement coefficient, agreements (N=85) were divided by the total number of articles coded by the two coders (N=86) equaled to a 98.8% reliability rate.

CHAPTER 6

FINDINGS

Framed by the five research questions, this study closely examines the application of Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum (Coombs, 1999),

Grunig’s excellence theory (Grunig, 1992), and Benoit’s image restoration theory

(Benoit, 1997) in the context of China. A combination of content analysis and literature review was used to address these five research questions. Through analyzing 414 news reports, extracted from four Chinese media and International media, it evaluated public reactions to the Chinese Government’s response to the

2008 Sichuan earthquake. The reactions were determined by the contextual meaning of a group of selected keywords, which were “rescue, relief, openness/open/transparency,” “social stability,” “leadership,” “efficient/effective,”

“victim,” “timely/swiftly/quickly/immediately/rapidly/promptly,” “people- centered,” “instruction/guidance/direct,” “reconstruction,” “corrupt (ion),” and

“substandard/shoddy construction.” Figure 6.1 shows the distribution and frequencies of these keywords.

Substandard/Shoddy Construction 0.69% (23) Corrupt(ion) 1% (41) Reconstruction 11% (363) Victim 9% (313) People-centered/irst 0.60% (20) Instruction/guidance/direct/lead 1.67% (56) Eficient/effective 4.72% (158) Timely/swift/rapid/speed/immediately/ 5.95% (199) Leadership 2.63% (88) Openness/open/Transaparency 8% (280) Relief 32% (1062) Resecue 22% (741)

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

Figure 6. 1 Frequencies and Distribution of Keywords

Additionally, this research reveals several communication breakthroughs that the Chinese Government made after the earthquake, including the usage of multiple social media platforms and the adoption of open policy toward news media.

6.1 Crisis strategies application

RQ1: What crisis response strategies did the Chinese Government use, and how did they match with Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum?

The Chinese Government didn’t conform to this continuum from defensive communication to accommodative as Coombs suggested. Instead, it took the accommodative strategies at first, but shifted to defensive strategies at the end.

After the earthquake happened, the government implemented a series of persuasive and effective strategies to cope with the disaster.

Two hours after the earthquake, the State Council held a press conference, admitting its mishaps in making accurate prediction of the earthquake, and clarifying the following rescue and relief strategies they would adopt.

The frequencies of keywords “rescue” and “relief” were 741 (22%) and 1,062 (32%) respectively in total keywords (N=3,344), as shown in Figure 6.1. These statistics not only showcased that the Chinese Government had been emphasizing the rescue and relief efforts throughout the earthquake crisis management, but also indicated that its efforts had won recognition from the media and public. This will be further elaborated in the following paragraphs.

The leadership of the Chinese Government played a key role in guaranteeing the smooth process of earthquake relief and rescue efforts. Figure 6.1 shows that the appearance of “leadership” among the 414 articles analyzed was 88

(2.63%) of the total keywords (N=3,344). This implies that the media attached great importance to the performance of Chinese leadership in the earthquake. Chinese

President Hu Jintao and the premier Wen Jiabao rushed to the quake-stricken area immediately. They required the rescue armies and local governments to prioritize the task of rescue, ensuring the safety of every victim in the quake zone.

The leadership of the Chinese Government is not only evaluated from its rescue and relief efforts, but also extends to its efforts in reconstruction work. As seen in Figure 6.1, from the content analysis of 414 news articles, the keyword

“ reconstruction” showed up 363 times, or 11% of the total keywords (N=3,344), which implies that the Chinese Government has been committed to rebuilding the quake zone. The government allocated 23.1 billion yuan (around 3.3 billion U.S.

25 dollars) as of June 4, 2008 for relief efforts. The Chinese central government ordered other government departments to cut spending by 5 percent to save more money for earthquake reconstruction. The money helped finance a 70-billion-yuan (around

10 billion U.S. dollars) fund for rebuilding (Lu, 2008).

The Chinese Government adopted the policy of being transparent and open to the news media in the earthquake. As seen in Figure 6.1, among the 414 news articles analyzed, the frequencies of words “openness/open/transparency” were 280 (8%) in the total keywords (N=3,344). It was the first time that the government permitted national and international reporters to enter the quake-zone, covering the government’s relief and reconstruction progress. This strategy will be elaborated in of section of 6.4.3, which is about the evaluation from the media.

However, as the causes behind the collapse of substandard school buildings, as well as the issues of embezzlement and corruption in relief resources allocation were uncovered, the Chinese Government returned to adopt defensive strategies in the last phase of earthquake relief. They kept making controversial statements regarding these problems. They argued that embezzlement and corruption were impossible since they had been committed to supervising the distribution of relief resources. In responding to the demonstration of web activists and grieving parents whose children were dead in the collapse of shoddy school buildings, the Chinese Government was trying to arrest the web activists, block the negative news, and suppress the demonstrations. Meanwhile, the government expelled the reporters from the quake zone and threatened them to stop releasing negative news. As seen in Figure 6.1, the frequencies of “substandard/shoddy

26 building” and “corruption” accounted for 23 (0.69%) and 41 (1%) of total keywords

(N=3,344) among the 414 articles analyzed, showing that the death of a large number of school children and the collapse of shoddily constructed school buildings has been a controversial issue in the earthquake. These keywords were coded as the only negative keywords in this research, and they were all found in the International media outlets, including CNN, South China Morning Post, The New York Times, The

Washington Post, and The Washington Times.

6.2 Communication with news media

RQ2: To what extent did the Chinese Government cooperate with national and international media respectively? And did they adopt a two-way asymmetrical or symmetrical communication style with the media?

In a top-down political culture like China, the Chinese Government plays a dominant role in disseminating news and instructions during a crisis. In other words, the central government is the only agency to release the information and data. Apparently, the Chinese media and public are more willing to be subjective to the orders or guidance from the central government.

As seen in Figure 6.1, throughout the 414 surveyed news articles, the frequency of keywords “instruction/guidance/order” are 56 (1.67%) of the total keywords (N=3,344). This statistic implies that the Chinese Government had adopted a two-way asymmetrical communication, which required the media and public to comply with government’s instruction or orders. The Chinese Government employed news media as a channel to inform and instruct the public. Immediately after the earthquake, the Chinese Government designated prominent television

27 stations and radio stations in China to be dedicated to a 24-hour live coverage of earthquake relief and rescue efforts. For instance, the Chinese Government designated China Central Television (CCTV) as the authoritative organization to update publics of donation funds and philanthropic companies. CCTV was authorized to hold philanthropic events, in which donors were rewarded and complimented in public; more volunteers and donations were called for as well.

To establish an image of being responsible and humane, the government took control of media reports by censoring and framing positive tones in Chinese news reports. This research revealed that all articles from Beijing Review, China

Daily, Xinhua Net and the Chinese blogs were expressing positive attitudes toward the Chinese Government’s management of Sichuan earthquake crisis. Any negative entries on the Chinese blogs were deleted and the blogs of activists who were reprimanding the governmental corruption were blocked. However, keywords like

“efficient government,” “open and transparent government,” “considerate and thoughtful leaders,” “timely and immediate rescue efforts” were reiterated and underscored in news reports. The Chinese Government utilized these keywords to dominate the ways that news media reported, and hence influenced the trends of public attitudes.

6.3 Social media application

RQ3: How, if at all, did the Chinese Government employ its social media platforms to interact with the public?

6.3.1. The use of social media in China

The vibrant growth of social media in China provides an easier and more efficient path for the Chinese Government to disseminate information, communicate, gather feedback from people and address their concerns simultaneously during the earthquake crisis. Basically, Social media provided tri-fold functions in Sichuan earthquake. First, they served as disaster relief facilitators, which helped in coordination of the Chinese Government’s rescue and relief efforts. Second, they provided a new channel for the central government to better communicate with the public. Third, they helped to reduce the government control on media, forcing it to be open and transparent to the public.

Immediately after the earthquake, the Internet became one of the most major gathering place for people to exchange thoughts and to share information, express feelings and opinions on a number of issues, ranging from the distribution of relief funds to the conflict of interests between local officials and relief workers, to school building renovations to the plan of the post-quake reconstruction (Xinhua

News Agency, 12 June 2008). The application of social media to cope with this earthquake was another critical change that the government made in this disaster crisis management.

People rely less on conventional news channels to learn news in today's

China. The country has the world's largest population of web surfers; Sinablogs,

Tencent QQ chat-rooms, and image/video-sharing portal Youku are ubiquitous platforms for people to communicate on line. Another network of information sharing was SMS via cell phones (Jiang, 2008). It was estimated that, by June 2008,

29 there were about 225 million Internet users in China, which is about 23% of the population. Internet netizens reacted to the earthquake very quickly and potentially affected the emergency response of the government and the whole society (Qu, et al.,

2009, p. 1).

This was the first time that the Chinese Government used these online tools to connect with the country's 225 million netizens to gather their opinions, instead of simply restricting them through firewalls or other surveillance tools (Oon,

2008). President Hu Jintao reached out to the public by being involved in an online chat with Internet users, the first time ever by a Chinese State leader. "I log on to view domestic and foreign news, to learn of people's interests, and to solicit their advice and opinions about the work of our government and Party," Hu said when asked how he spent his time online. Hu's action demonstrated the openness of the government to public opinion in this digital era, and showcased the Communist

Party's increasingly open and confident government style as well (Zhang & Hu,

2008).

Via the immediately reactive and even proactive media, the central government responded in a timely fashion to people outcries with promises that relief resources would be allocated under close surveillance (Xinhua News Agency,

12 June 2008).

6.3.2. Mass Collaboration on the Internet

Content analysis and review of existing studies show that the contribution of netizens to the quake relief work couldn’t be ignored. Typically, they had raised funds and organized volunteer groups, which provided alternative rescue

30 approaches. Beijing media professor Yu Guoming told the official Xinhua Net that

Chinese Internet users had become a major force in spreading information (Oon,

2008).

The Sichuan earthquake not only caused great loss of lives and property, but it also dislocated many people. Therefore, the PeopleFinder project, a people- searching program based online, was initiated as an effective earthquake crisis management tool using mass collaboration. Basically, this people-searching project, under the support of the Chinese Government, was used to distribute, share, and circulate information among all QQ (a real-time communication tool produced by

QQ.com) users (totaled 812.3 million as of July, 2011), aiming to help people to find their missing family members, relatives and friends in the earthquake (Qiu, et al.,

2010). This project, taking full advantage of China’s largest population, mobilized

Chinese people around the nation to a massive collaboration.

Tianya forum, a popular online community in China, played a critical role during the earthquake in several aspects. First, this forum provided Chinese

Government with a convenient channel to obtain public opinion or feedback during the earthquake. Second, it was also an open place for netizens to gather, share, seek and integrate information or news in forms of words and videos, released by the government (Qu, et al., 2009). Third, the forum contributed to helping the government call on more people to endow funds and materials to victims in the quake zone. This forum, comprised of tens of thousands of netizens, supervised the relief work of the Chinese Government, exerting a huge pressure on it to keep the distribution of relief materials open and transparent (Qu, et al., 2009).

6.3.3 Eradication of rumors

Existing research and content analysis showed that rumors were spread with the advancement of new technology. Government was accused of failing to prepare for this earthquake because it ignored the warning signs (Jacobs & Ma, 2008). In order to further enhance the source credibility and withstand malicious rumors, the

Chinese Government invited several seismologists and other experts from various fields to present in press conferences, on television or radio stations, enhancing the citizens' knowledge about the significance of protecting against and mitigating earthquake disasters, reducing public anxiety and uncertainty about the earthquake situation. For instance, at the press conferences, Zhang Xiaodong, a scientist at the

China Earthquake Networks Center, explained that no seismologists were able to accurately predict earthquakes anywhere in the world with current technology

(Jacobs & Ma, 2008); agricultural economist, Zhang Yuxiang expatiated the process of food supplies in the affected areas; electrical engineer, Gu Junyuan reported on technical difficulties in restoring power; geologist, Yin Yueping described the formation of quake lakes and possible ways of preventing them from flooding; and

Chief Engineer of Water Resources Development, Liu Ning articulated ‘scientific measures’ to insure the safety of reservoirs in the region” (Chen, 2009, p. 192).

6.4. Image/reputation establishment

RQ4: What image/reputation did the Chinese Government communication efforts generate in publics, international community and media?

Neutral 2% (8)

Negative Tone 18% (75)

Positive Tone 80% (331)

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Figure 6. 4 Tones of 414 Articles Analyzed

As showcased in figure 6. 4, 75 articles were written in negative tones on the Chinese Government’s response to the earthquake among 414 articles analyzed.

In contrast, 331 articles expressed positive attitudes toward the Chinese

Government’s earthquake management, which indicates that the Chinese

Government has made progress in crisis management. Eight articles are classified as government documents, whose tones couldn’t be determined without a third party’s statement. It’s noticeable that the 75 articles of negative tones were all found in The

South China Morning Post, The Washington Post, The Washington Times, CNN and The

New York Times. The articles from China Daily, Beijing Review, Xinhua Net and the

Chinese blogs were coded as positive. Additionally, all blog articles with a negative title could not be accessed because they were deleted, perhaps by the government.

Though most articles were extracted from the Chinese government controlled media outlets, the Chinese Government had made progress in comparison with its handling of the SARS crisis in 2002.

6.4.1. Evaluation from the publics

As Figure 6.1 shows, among the 414 surveyed articles, the frequency of keyword “victims” was 313 (9%) in the total keywords (N=3,344), which signifed that the publics and news media attached importance to the Chinese Government’s treatment of the victims in the earthquake. In responding to the victims, the Chinese

Government insisted on carrying out the principle of “people-oriented”/“people- centered,” which underscored that the government had given prominence to the people suffering in the earthquake. This could be verified by the frequencies of keywords “people-centered/people-oriented,” as shown in Figure 6.1, which are 20

(0.6%).

A survey conducted by Horizon Research Consultancy Group and two other organizations showed that most survivors of the May 12 earthquake expressed satisfaction for the rescue and relief performance of the Chinese

Government (Bi, 2008). For example, Wang Yongjing, a 60-year-old farmer and mother, whose home was partly flattened, said, “The government is a big comfort for us. Without its timely rescue and relief work, we could never settle back down. It brings us peace” (Lu, 2008). Xie Liping, a 28-year-old saleswoman in Beijing, said that she and her family had discussed the government's performance nightly over a week and concluded that things had improved markedly from past crises. "They really did a great job," she said (Cody, 24 May 2008).

The Chinese Government made a decision to fly national flags at half-staff from May 19 to 21 in national mourning for those who lost their lives in the earthquake, which demonstrated its commitment to the principle of “people first, life first” (Fang, 20 January 2009). Meanwhile, all public entertainment activities as well as the Olympic torch relay for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing were suspended. This was the first time that the national flag was kept at half-staff to morn ordinary people. Before that, this was only a privilege for state leaders (Wang

& Yu, 2008). This policy not only won support from the public, but also aroused an unparalleled patriotism around the country. "Long live China! Support the people in

Wenchuan," people shouted in Tiananmen Square, referring to the county at the epicenter of the quake (South China Morning Post, 20 May 2008).

In particular, the action of Premier Wen Jiabao aroused an emotional outpouring across the country. For instance, “Today's leaders have also shown their mettle during the earthquake, Premier Wen Jiabao showed great concern for people's welfare,” said Dan Zhongbin, a 76-year-old construction worker, whose house was destroyed by the earthquake (Cody, 25 June 2008). Chen Hui, a middle- aged mother in Chongqing Municipality near Sichuan who was also affected by the quake, texted a message to her son in Beijing, saying, “the 66-year-old premier Wen has worked really hard for the quake relief. He has comforted and moved us”

(Beijing Review, 23 May 2008).

The efficient policies undertaken by the Chinese Government aroused a strong patriotism and unity around the nation, stimulating the progress of relief donations, as well as thousands of volunteers committed to recovery and

35 reconstruction work. According to Xinhua News, people from government organizations, companies, factories to villages across the nation, donated over 44 billion yuan (6.3 billion U.S. dollars) worth of funds and goods to the victims of the

May 12 Sichuan quake as of June 12, 2008 (Jiang, 2008). Chinese overseas also actively responded to the mega-quake by donating about 1.13 billion yuan (around

163.4 million U.S. dollars) worth of funds and relief supplies for victims as of June 3,

2008, according to an official of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State

Council (Zhang, 2008).

6.4.2. Evaluation from the international community

The Chinese Government’s unprecedented policy of being swift, timely, transparent, and efficient in dealing with this earthquake crisis received recognition from all over the world. As Figure 6.1 exhibits, throughout the 414 news articles analyzed, the frequencies of words “timely/swift/immediate/speed/prompt

/quickly and “efficient/effective” are 199 (5.95%) and 158 (4.72%) respectively in the total keywords (N=3,344).

Specifically, Jordan Ryan, the assistant administrator of the United Nations

Development Program praised that the Chinese Government's reaction to the massive disaster was hugely impressive, which should be shared worldwide (Wang,

2010). United States President George W. Bush praised the Chinese government's firm response to the earthquake and specified that the United States would assist the Chinese Government in disaster rescue efforts (Yan, 2008). K. Shanmugam,

Singapore's minister for law and home affairs spoke highly of the “promptness by the Chinese government in providing information and timely updates of the

36 situation,” commented that it was “not only well received by the international community, but also helped facilitate donor countries to prepare humanitarian assistance required in this rescue and recovery effort (Yan, 2008). Girma

Woldegiorgis, the Ethiopian President, said that the Chinese government and its leadership's efficient and timely earthquake relief efforts had gained the praise of the whole world. The Mozambican Prime Minister Luisa Dias Diogo applauded the

Chinese Government and people who had quickly and effectively responded to the earthquake in China's southwestern Sichuan Province. Prince Albert II of Monaco also spoke highly of the Chinese Government's efforts and efficiency in conducting rescue work (Sun, 2008).

Furthermore, it was the first time that the Chinese Government was open and welcomed to all international assistance under such a devastating natural disaster (Celia, 2008), which won applause and support from the international community. For instance, the EU External Relations Commissioner Benita Ferrero-

Waldner said, "I have the utmost respect for the way the Chinese government is dealing with this difficult situation, and the international community will continue to be available for providing any assistance needed" (Yan, 6 June 2008). Javier

Solana, the European Union (EU)’s high representative for the Common Foreign and

Security Policy, commended the Chinese Government for responding to this disaster with a new openness, which helped to focus efforts on saving lives and created a feeling of solidarity across the borders (Fang, 20 January 2009). Apparently, the

Chinese Government’s open policy had invited a flood in aid from foreign countries.

The Foreign Ministry reported that 151 countries and 14 international and regional

37 organizations had "extended solicitude and support" in various forms (Ching, 2008).

Due to proximity, Japanese, Korean and Russian rescue teams were the first three rescue teams to work at the front (Wang & Yu, 2008). The United Nation Children’s

Fund shipped 100 mobile toilets, 50,000 items of clothing for children, and 86 tons of health and nutritional food for children and pregnant women in the quake areas within two weeks. The World Health Organization also sent a professional advisor on mental health to help with victims’ psychological problems (Wang, 2008). U.S. government assistance to China, including contributions from Office of Foreign

Disaster Assistance (OFDA) and the defense department, totaled nearly 3.7 million

U.S. dollars (China Daily, 2008). According to Premier Wen Jiabao, China had received 59.27 billion RMB (around 9 billion U.S. dollars) in total from domestic and overseas donors by September 17, 2008, when the earthquake rescue and relief works were nearing the end, and the reconstruction work was about to commence

(An, 16 September 2008).

All these efforts indicated that the Chinese Government had become more confident, responsible, credible and mature in face of a disaster crisis, which not only fortified the bonds between Chinese people and people around the world, but also enhanced beneficial interaction and communication between China and the international community (Celia, 2008).

6.4.3. Evaluation from the media

The Chinese Government’s rescue and relief efforts were lauded to be swift, timely, and effective. For instance, the International Herald Tribune newspaper hailed China's disaster-relief work as "swift and inclusive" (Sun, 2008).

The Singapore government spoke highly of the Chinese government’s swift response and relief efforts (Yan, 2008). China Daily also commended that the Chinese

Government responded quickly and effectively in face of such a massive killer disaster (Huang, 2008). The BBC attributed the success of rescue and relief work in the devastating earthquake crisis to the Chinese Government’s effective response and appropriate distribution of relief materials (Xinhua News Agency, 2008). South

China Morning Post indicated that the Chinese Government had won recognitions for its swift relief efforts, which was reflected by its rapid and efficient mobilization of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) soldiers to rescue people (Yeung, 2008).

As seen in Figure 6.1, among the 414 surveyed news articles, the frequencies of words “openness/open/transparency” occurred 280 times (8%) in the total number of keywords (N=3,344). This suggests that the new leadership of the Chinese Government appeared somewhat dedicated to establishing a newly found transparency and more open communication during the earthquake, which received positive mentions in the news media.

For example, Beijing Review emphasized that the Chinese Government had been transparent about fund allocation and usage during and after the quake. South

China Morning Post applauded the Chinese Government for its unprecedented openness and transparency in handling this earthquake crisis, which was embodied in its less control and censorship of the mainland media. The openness and transparency had achieved an amazing success (Chan, 2008). It united the citizens to bond together in fighting against this massive tragedy (Zhou & Lee, 2008). The

New York Times contrasted the Chinese Government’s response to the Sichuan

39 earthquake crisis with that to the SARS epidemic of 2002, during which information of the crisis was tightly controlled and foreign reporters were prohibited from covering news. However, in this disaster, coverage of the Sichuan earthquake seemed more unfettered. Numerous Chinese reporters had been conducting an all- dimensional coverage of the quake zone, and foreign correspondents were given unrestricted access (Jacobs & Fan, 2008).

In addition, the leadership of the Chinese Government, especially the quick personal visits of two major Chinese leaders, President Hu Jintao and Premier

Wen JiaBao to the most devastated quake-area, showing their sympathy and compassion to the victims, which not only enhanced solidarity and the resolution of the whole nation in front of the natural disaster, but also won praise from the national and international media (Wang & Yu, 2008). Typically, Xinhua News Agency

(2008) pointed out that the whole Party and the entire nation, under the firm leadership of the central government, had made concerted efforts to create great achievements in quake relief and post-quake reconstruction. China Daily (2008) complimented President Hu Jintao and the Party leadership for establishing steadfast nationwide support network whose efficiency had rarely been seen before.

The Toronto Star described a caring image of Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, who stood at the epicenter with tearful eyes, guiding relief and rescue works, comforting crying children, and inspiring desperate victims (Jiang, 2008). Hong Kong-based daily Ta Kung Pao appraised that the Chinese premier developed an image of being caring and conscientious during the crisis. "As one of China's senior leaders, the premier not only manages the government's daily work but also displays the ruling

40 party's ideals and principles personally," Ta Kung Pao commented. "A premier of

China can not be copied elsewhere" (Beijing Review, 23 May 2008).

However, a more open media, at the same time, revealed the longstanding corruption and mismanagement of funds behind this tragic earthquake. The collapse of scores of schools, while other government buildings were left standing, had caused a great deal of media to question whether the construction of shoddy school buildings was a result of corruption (Ching, 2008). For instance, the Washington

Post reprimanded that the Chinese Government had made little progress in investing in the quality of school construction while confronting unusual explosions of public anger. Instead, it shifted responsibilities to the school educators and administrators (Drew, 2008). The New York Times assailed the Chinese Government for its quest of the demonstration initiated by the grieving parents, who were victimized by the official corruption. Mismanagement of school funds, South China

Morning Post pointed out, had led to the widespread building of substandard facilities. However, the Chinese Government insisted on denying this fact, leaving this problem unsolved (South China Morning Post, 15 May 2008). CNN reproached the Chinese Government in locking up the Internet activist, Ai Weiwei, who had slammed the government for allowing the construction of shoddy schools that collapsed (Evans, 2010).

Overall, it’s self-evident that the Chinese Government did not adopt an absolute open policy during the earthquake. Nevertheless, it still made progress in its media policy, which, to some extent, was reflected by its allowing correspondents entry to quake-hit areas for the first time.

6.5 In comparison with SARS crisis

RQ5: Did the Chinese Government make progress in crisis communication, compared with how it handled the SARS crisis in 2002?

The SARS epidemics crisis started on November 16, 2002 at Foshan, a city in southern China’s Guangdong province and infected 5,326 people and left 347 dead in China mainland. In Hong Kong, 1,755 people were infected and 296 died

(WHO, 2003). Comparing the Chinese Government’s response to the SARS crisis and its response to the 2008 earthquake, it’s evident that the Chinese Government made progress in effectively dealing with crises. During the SARS epidemic, because of a ban on the legitimate dissemination of information, this medical disaster upgraded to a man-made disaster, and even to a social crisis and national identity crisis (Du,

2009). Of course, a government’s image was destroyed ultimately, because people began to distrust the facts or numbers released by the government.

China’s characteristic secrecy concerning the SARS crisis not only blemished the new image of the Chinese Government, but also diminished the confidence of the international community on the crisis communication ability of the Chinese Government (Metzler, 2003). The breakout of the SARS epidemic took place in November 2002. However, the Chinese health ministry didn’t release the effects of the disease until April 3, 2003. The Chinese health ministry, on behalf of the Chinese Government, finally broke a four-month silence to unveil the possible death tolls, but, at the same time, they admitted that the number they released was probably underestimated (Beech, 2003). In fact, the epidemic had escaped the nation’s border and appeared in no fewer than 13 countries (Elegant, 2003).

Tragically, this dishonesty in information distribution destabilized the Chinese

Government’s image and reputation around the world.

Zhang Wenkang, the head of China’s Ministry of Public Health, also served as a spokesperson for the ministry during the SARS epidemic. However, due to his inaccurate information dispersal and improper strategies in addressing the crisis, the image of the Chinese Central Government was severely damaged seemingly overnight. Zhang had been employing defensive strategies initially to address this emergency. Even though Zhang continuously made efforts to repair the image of the

Chinese Government, they were all basically unsuccessful because there was a contradiction lying in his statements. In addition, public opinion surveys and media commentary indicated that Zhang’s response actually impaired the image of the

Chinese Government. Zhang was finally fired for his failure to provide up-to-date and accurate SARS information and to be well prepared for the sudden public health crisis (NewsmaxWires, 2003).

In contrast, after the devastating earthquake struck Sichuan province, the

Chinese Government adopted accommodative strategies at first, admitting its mistakes of insufficiently preparing for this disaster, and assuming responsibility to take corrective actions afterwards. It is obvious that the Chinese Government had been making consistent efforts in building a transparent and credible government during the earthquake, aiming to build a transparent media-government relationship, which changed people’s stereotypical view of the Chinese government’s media control. Meanwhile, it developed a series of new policies in dealing with this crisis, such as sustainable development based on people-oriented

43 rule. This policy was targeted to rebuild a credible reputation of government among the public.

During the SARS epidemic period, it was clear to see that rumors, induced by deficient information disclosure, had caused public panic and tarnished the government’s image. Actually, information disclosure, instead of creating more trouble and constraining political power, promotes public trust. In response to the

Sichuan earthquake, because of adequate information disclosure, the government could not only complete their duties efficiently, but also obtained help from the whole society and the international community. The response also helped maintain a high level of confidence of the government (Du, 2009).

CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION

This discussion will address the following points:

• The crisis communication strategies adopted by the Chinese Government are

in conflict with Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum.

• The Chinese Government adopted two-way asymmetrical communication as

the optimum model of excellence.

• Benoit’s image restoration strategies were reflected in the Chinese

Government’s response to the earthquake.

• The Chinese Government employed social media tools in an innovative way

to cope with the earthquake.

• The Chinese Government made remarkable progress in crisis communication

strategy in comparison with its handling of SARS.

7.1 Examination of Coombs’s crisis response strategies continuum in the context of

China

Based on the findings, it’s clear that the Chinese Government didn’t conform to Coombs’s crisis response continuum while handling the earthquake crisis. According to Coombs, one or more of the crisis response strategies, “attack the accuser, denial, excuse, justification, ingratiation, corrective action, full apology,” have to be taken to address a crisis (Coombs, 1999, p. 123). Coombs (1999) also suggested that natural disasters allow an organization to employ an excuse strategy,

45 arguing that it had little responsibility in the crisis. (p. 128). Contrary to Coombs’s recommendation, the Chinese Government prioritized the strategies of corrective action and full apology at the very beginning of the earthquake. A few hours after the earthquake erupted, the Chinese Government held a press conference, assuming its responsibility by admitting that the calamitous tragedy that followed the earthquake was attributed to its backwardness of seismological technologies, which couldn’t predict the disaster. At the same time, the State Council held press conferences immediately after the quake, announcing that it would take corrective actions by systematically carrying out a series of operational crisis communication strategies.

The government established a national first-grade emergency-responsive mechanism for the first time shortly after the quake (Mu, 2008; Jiang, 2008), which set priorities for relief and rescue efforts, clarified the responsibilities of governmental and non-governmental organizations, and called for wide-ranged public participation. This mechanism required that all the resource allocation and distribution be executed with openness and transparency. Second, the Chinese

Government appointed its Information Office as its authoritative office to be on behalf of the Command of the Rescue Operations in charge of crisis communication.

Third, the Chinese Government soon held live press conferences in a timely manner to provide the public with accurate information. All the subordinated governments and offices were required to execute these orders (Chen, 2009, p. 191-192).

However, as negative coverage of shoddily constructed school buildings exploded, and more and more activists on the Internet were engaged in exploring

46 the causes of the collapsing schools, the government began to return to the defensive strategies of attacking accusers, denying the truth and making excuses. At first, it denied that multiple collapses of school buildings were affected by shoddy construction that arose from corruption and embezzlement. The government continued to argue that it was caused by the strength of the quake (South China

Morning Post, 2008). It furthered claimed that the earthquake was too strong to be predicted, regardless of its advanced seismological technology. Apparently, there was a contradiction lying in the statements of Chinese Government throughout the earthquake, which made them more unreliable to the public. Angry and grieving parents, whose children died in the collapsing buildings, organized demonstrations and demanded explanations from the government on why so many school buildings crumbled while adjacent government buildings remained intact (The Washington

Post, 23 June 2008). In responding to them, the government didn’t fulfill its promise to further investigate this issue, but sidestepped the parents’ demonstration and rallies by offering compensation for parents in exchange for their silence. Besides, the government began to ban reports on school construction and protests by parents (Jacobs, 2008).

The government even stopped its initial open policy toward the media; instead, it detained or pressured a number of foreign journalists to leave the quake- hit area after they tried to report on the parents’ demonstration (The Washington

Post, 23 June 2008). Meanwhile, the Internet activists and journalists who had been publishing critical articles on line were blocked or arrested by the government.

Clearly, the defensive strategies that the Chinese Government adopted in the last

47 phase of earthquake management not only incurred more wraths and reprimand from the public, but also tarnished the government’s image.

There are two possible explanations to account for this phenomenon. First, it is possible that the government was concerned about the forthcoming Beijing

Olympic Games, which were scheduled to kick off on August 8, 2008. Specifically, the

Chinese Government feared that the continuous disclosure of increasing death tolls and casualties, causes behind the collapsing school buildings, and slow progress in reconstruction would give rise to social turmoil, exerting negative impact on the

Olympic Games.

In responding to the Olympics, the Chinese Government launched an inhumane pre-Olympics repression. It returned to censor the Internet and blockrf all websites that posted negative news of the government. Additionally, the Chinese

Government harassed and locked up critics, intimidated journalists, selectively denied visas, and silenced grieving parents who lost children in the earthquake (The

New York Times, 2008). At this point, the Chinese Government had shifted its initial accommodative strategies to defensive strategies at the end of the earthquake crisis management.

Second, though embezzlement and corruption likely couldn’t be avoided in such pandemonium, the inherent hierarchical culture of the Chinese Government also perpetrated these problems. Despite the stern warnings issued from top officials (Xinhuan News Agency, 28 May 2008), “potential embezzlement of donations and relief funds cannot be properly checked without adherence to substantive transparency” (Lai & Hui, 2009, p. 139). In this regard, embezzlement

48 and inappropriate allocation of relief funds and materials were attributed to the top- down and centralized political system.

7.2 Examination of Grunig’s model of excellence in the context of China

The strategies that the Chinese government embraced to cope with the media also reflected its conflicts with Coombs’s crisis response continuum. In essence, the Chinese Government endorsed the two-way asymmetrical communication as the model of excellence throughout the earthquake crisis.

According to Grunig (1992), the two-way symmetrical communication model is the most excellent model to employ in communicating with the media and external public, which is also called the mutual understanding model (p. 285-326).

However, given that a different political culture determined the application of different communication models, the two-way asymmetrical communication model seems to have been regarded as the most effective in the context of China. In times of this natural disaster, the authoritarian government was in control of the disaster relief materials distribution and the mobilization of military troops. At this point, the Chinese Government became the only news source for the disaster relief progress, on which media could rely to obtain updated information. In return, the

Chinese Government needed media as a vehicle to spread information, commands, and updated news around the nation. With that being said, the asymmetrical communication model appears to be the most efficient in communicating messages in such a top-down country, in part because this model contributes to maintaining the stability of society at large, and in part because the publics and media are willing to subject themselves to the orders or instructions from the central government.

This two-way asymmetrical communication model was illustrated by the following operative strategies that the Chinese Government implemented to format news media and communicate with the public.

First, this model was mostly reflected in the agenda setting policy adopted by the Chinese Government. The government took control of news media reports by attempting to reframe or reiterate pro-government key phrases in news coverage, which contributed to shaping public impressions of the government. Such key phrases as “this government is people-oriented,” “we are open, transparent and responsible,” “the government’s rescue and relief efforts are impressive” “efficient and effective crisis management strategies” “open policy was put in the first place,” were selected and emphasized, and thus, appeared frequently in news coverage. In doing so, the government potentially redirected the trending attitudes in public toward the government. Consequently, Chinese media and even the international media attach more importance to those concepts (Chen, 2009, p. 192).

Second, the media were used as a dominant vehicle for the government to inform and communicate with publics. Immediately after the earthquake, the central committee directed the media to distribute its significant instructions and relevant news about earthquake relief. For instance, the Chinese Government designated every authoritative television and radio station to deliver 24-hour live coverage of the rescue operation in a comprehensive, penetrable and accurate way (Huang,

2008). “Within 20 minutes of the quake, Xinhua Net released a flash confirming a big tremor from the China Earthquake Administration; about 10 minutes later, the

China Central Television (CCTV) started the non-stop live coverage on the disaster

50 and relief work. Such coverage had never been seen in China before for any domestic natural disaster” (Wang & Yu, 12 June 2008). The public likely perceived the government as being open and transparent. Meanwhile, the comprehensive and timely information accelerated the progress of earthquake crisis relief, which reduced rampant rumors ultimately.

Third, the government employed its authoritative power to advocate nationwide cooperation and assistance for the quake-stricken area. For instance, the

Chinese Government employed its influential power to appeal to 19 provinces and municipalities to assist the quake-hit regions by contributing at least 1 percent of their financial income for three years (Beijing Review, May 2011). In front of an enormous public crisis, the power of cohesion was required in the whole nation and society, in order to combat the disaster collectively and effectively. The most striking action that the Chinese Government made in handling this earthquake crisis was its triggering of nationalism and patriotism nationwide. The Government advocated the principle of being “People Centered,” setting victims as priorities, which stressed that the lives and benefits of publics should be placed as first priority.

This policy suggests that the Chinese Government had already understood the importance of building a favorable stakeholder relationship even prior to the crisis.

Throughout the earthquake relief, the Chinese Government emphasized several messages “Never abandon, never give up,” “make the best efforts to rescue any lives,” and “rescue any victims at all cost.” Even after the “72 golden rescue hours,” the record of rescues was continuously refreshed (Celia, 3 July 2008).

Fourth, given that the central government was in control of the military troops, it’s the ONLY office to mobilize all the resources and rescue troops. For instance, under the command of the government, 130,000 PLA soldiers and paramilitary police forces were rapidly mobilized within days of the disaster. The operation moved 5 percent of China’s 2.3 million military personnel to the disaster zone, using airlift and parachute drops, rail transportation, motorized transport and foot marches to reach remote, cut-off towns and villages (Jiang, 2008).

However, different from how it employed this model in the past, the

Chinese Government applied this model in an innovative way in this earthquake, keeping the information more transparent and open. During his second visit to the quake zone, Premier Wen Jiabao emphasized that both Chinese local government and central government were obliged to conform to the open policy (Lu, 2008).

The openness of Chinese Government was demonstrated by its allowance of foreign journalists into the quake areas. According to Wang Guoqing, deputy director of the State Council Information Office, overseas reporters were permitted to the quake-hit areas to cover relief work, resettlement of residents and reconstruction. In addition, the Chinese Government kept updating the number of causalities and the scale of the damage (Xinhua News Agency, 12 June 2008). This was a major breakthrough compared with its management of the SARS outbreak in

2002, during which information was withheld from the public and every piece of news released by the media was strictly censored.

Wang Guoqing continued to state that officials had to ensure everyone’s safety from aftershocks, building collapse and epidemics; hence, some specific

52 quake-areas were cordoned off. But relevant Chinese Government departments would designate spokespersons to answer questions outside the cordoned-off areas, or send text messages to reporters’ mobile phones, keeping them abreast of the up- to-date news, or emailed them the contact numbers and other details of their press officers in every county of Sichuan Province (Xinhua News Agency, 12 June 2008).

Sichuan provincial information office figures showed that at least 545 overseas reporters from 144 media organizations in 30 countries and regions visited Sichuan to cover the disaster (Mu, 2008). China's unprecedented transparency in dissemination of information not only won praise from across the world, but also promoted unanticipated donations from around the globe as a result.

7.3 Examination of Benoit’s image restoration strategies in the context of China

As Benoit (1997) advocates, image restoration strategies including “denial, shifting the blame, mortification, corrective action, and minimization,” are essential to organizations in crisis, but the best strategies to repair a tarnished image are mortification and corrective action (p. 3). In effect, Benoit’s image restoration strategies nearly mirror Coombs’s crisis response strategies.

Benoit’s image restoration strategies were reflected in the Chinese government’s response to the earthquake. After the earthquake, the Chinese

Government made a sincere apology to the public and guaranteed to execute effective relief efforts immediately. These strategies not only polished tainted image, but also boosted public confidence in the government.

Communist Party leadership played a vital role in communicating with stakeholders, repairing the tarnished image, and regaining credibility during a crisis.

The Communist Party leaders had been committed to developing a caring image during the crisis. Within the first hour of reports of a devastating earthquake, Hu

Jintao, the president of the People’s Republic of China, appeared in the frontline quake-ravaged area, ordering all-out national efforts to rescue victims, and underscoring that rescue efforts and people’s well-being in the quake-affected areas should be equal priorities. Four hours after the earthquake, Wen Jiabao, the Premier of the People’s Republic of China, flew to the quake area and visited some of the worst hit areas and directed rescue operations (Jing, 2008; Du, 2008). He even tried every effort to check upon the rescue work and encouraged rescuers to do their utmost to save lives (Li, 23 April 2010). The presence of these two predominant

Chinese leaders at the quake-ravaged area enhanced public confidence in the

Chinese Government’s competence to cope with this massive earthquake, which improved the image of the government to a greater extent (Lai & Hui, 2009, p. 138).

As Benoit posited, the strategies of denial and shifting the blame would blemish the image and reputation that the government had already established. As the number of students’ deaths from the substandard school buildings was increasingly exposed, more reporters and grieving parents were demonstrating to seek responses from the government. However, the government denied that the collapsing buildings were caused by corruption or embezzlement by suppressing the demonstration unmercifully. Being dishonest and irresponsible, the government was reproached by the news media and the public, with its image blemished as a result.

In responding to the public’s censure on its negligence in predicting the earthquake, the government shifted the blame back to the public, claiming that the pre-earthquake signs that the public saw were rumors and couldn’t be verified.

Meanwhile, the government asserted that such a large-scaled earthquake couldn’t be predicted with the current technology. These contradictory statements not only damaged the image that the government had already established, but also aroused a greater degree of suspicion and anger toward the government.

7.4 The innovative application of social media

The emergence of social media is a double-edged sword to the Chinese

Government, presenting opportunities and challenges at the same time. They provided a cutting-edge communication platform for the government, which facilitated the government to strengthen relationships with the public during the crisis. However, they also posed immense challenges to the government, pressuring it to be open and honest, and to develop a new two-way symmetrical communication.

Social media contributed to creating a new image for the Chinese

Government and leaders in the earthquake. For instance, stories about the caring

Premier Wen Jiabao who devoted himself to rescuing children in the collapsing school buildings and encouraging rescued children to be tougher, were featured in miscellaneous blogs and videos online. Some admirers of Premier Wen set up a

Facebook page for him. Thousands of followers commented on the wall, complimenting that what Premier Wen did in the earthquake had moved China and even the whole world. President Hu registered an account in a blog, through which

55 he responded to the netizens’ concerns and questions from time to time. This not only facilitated the communication between the government and public, but also constructed an impression of a humane and people-oriented government on the public.

Social media was an inventive and efficient way to gather nationwide support, including volunteers, relief funds and materials. For instance, QQ, a multifunctional chatting program, provided people with a new platform to circulate the news, share the stories, and call for more volunteers. Youku, a video-sharing website, offered updated video clips of the earthquake relief progress. Given that those videos were shot by amateur photographers or bloggers, most of them captured victims’ voices and the touching moment in details. Tianya Forum was another popular communication space online, in which netizens actively commented on the government’s relief efforts, and exchanged information regarding the earthquake relief progress. This forum was used by the Chinese

Government to obtain public opinions.

Nevertheless, social media presented challenges to the government. The open communication platforms pressured the government to be transparent and accurate with the information it released.

The web activists who had been investigating the causes of collapsing school buildings began to attack the government on the Internet. Some of them even posted and circulated videos of the peeved parents’ demonstration on the Internet, which snowballed into more netizens protesting the government. The impact of social media extended to the world. For instance, Ai Weiwei, who had been

56 advocating human rights and an in-depth investigation to the collapsing buildings, was arrested by the Chinese Government. Other web activists and reporters around the world formed an alliance to protest the government, besieging it to release the activists and clarify the responsibilities for the collapsing buildings and dead school children. Under the pressure of reporters and web activists, the Chinese

Government held a press conference to address the problem of corruption and embezzlement, and guaranteed that the construction of new buildings would strictly conform to earthquake-proof construction standards.

At this point, social media acted as a critical mechanism, monitoring the operation of the government, and restraining its corrupt actions.

7.5 Progress made in Sichuan earthquake in comparison to SARS

The timely, comprehensive, and accurate disclosure of information proved that the Chinese Government was well aware of the importance of transparency for good governance, which contrasted vastly with the government’s handling in the

SARS crisis in 2002. Given that the government restrained the public and the news media from getting access to the situation of the SARS crisis, it was not only assailed severely by the external public, but also destitute of international assistance.

Different from its attitude toward the international aid and concern in the

SARS crisis, the government held an open and gratitude attitude in the earthquake.

This was showcased by its initially accepting and supporting more than 200 rescuers from Japan, Russia, the Republic of Korea and Singapore after the earthquake (Xinhua, 2008). The Foreign Ministry reported that 151 countries and

14 international and regional organizations had extended support in various forms

57 and the Chinese government and people were very grateful (Ching, 2008). This was also the first time that the Chinese Government received relief and rescue aid from the international community while coping with a crisis at home.

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this research is to give an overview of the Chinese

Government’s response to the devastating earthquake in 2008 in Sichuan province, which reflects its crisis communication strategies in managing this natural disaster in the context of a drastic socio-economic transition. The Chinese Government shifted its previous strategies of concealing all information by incorporating transparency and responsibility. It facilitated a swift and timely response to this crisis through carrying out the principle of people-oriented communication and advocating the spirit of nationalism, and compatriotism. Furthermore, the most notable progress the Chinese Government made in this crisis was demonstrated by its proficient use of social media tools. Through social media, the government was able to mobilize people around the nation, even around the world, to volunteer helping victims, or donate funds or materials to the quake-stricken areas.

This study provides three far-reaching findings. First and foremost, it shows that the crisis management strategies the Chinese Government employed during the earthquake relief produced visibly positive results, specifically in the areas of image and reputation restoration, as well as stakeholder relationship building. However, through examining the applicability of Coombs’s crisis response strategies in the context of China, this study finds that the defensive-accommodative continuum, stressed in Coombs’s crisis response strategies, was not applied in the

Chinese Government’s response to earthquake. Instead, the Chinese Government used the accommodative strategies initially, but returned to the defensive strategies at the end of the crisis. This could be accounted for by three reasons: In part because it was possible that the upcoming 2008 Beijing Olympic Games kept the government from further release of more accurate information pertaining to the earthquake, which, it believed might lead to social unrest. Furthermore, the inherent centralized political culture determined that the Chinese Central Government was the only critical government that supervised the whole process of relief works. But it was far from sufficient to prevent any embezzlement of the donations or other fraud, which eventually thwarted efficient crisis management. Lastly, a lack of developed crisis management mechanisms inhibited the Chinese Government from efficiently guiding through this disaster relief work.

Second, in a country like China, authoritarian political culture plays a critical role. That said, the centralized government is the only entity that controls the flow of information on which the news media and publics rely. Hence, the two- way asymmetrical model should be considered as the optimum model in such a hierarchical state.

Finally, compared to the handling of the SARS crisis, the Chinese

Government embraced an unprecedented open and transparent policy in working with the media following the earthquake. It also presented a positive attitude to the assistance from international community. All of which not only suggest that the government had advanced significant progress in managing crises, but also enhanced its reputation, image and credibility.

CHAPTER 9

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

Like other research, this study has limitations. The primary limitation lies in the objectivity, reliability and accuracy of the news articles published in Chinese- language news publications, such as Xinhua News, Beijing Review and China Daily.

Through this case study and content analysis, it was found that the tones of all articles published in these Chinese language media was unanimously positive. It’s possible that these media outlets were controlled by the government to a larger extent. In contrast, the negative news about the Chinese Government, such as the issues of corruption, shoddy construction of buildings and the arrest of internet activists were only uncovered and investigated by the international media, such as

CNN, The Washington Post and The New York Times.

Another limitation of the study was that it only gathered and analyzed

English-language news articles, except for 40 Chinese-language blogs. Hence, future studies should extend to Chinese-language news articles to increase the accuracy of the data. The categories of keywords selected to code news articles were not completely inclusive. In addition, two coders were Chinese native speakers. Perhaps one more English-speaking coder would have provided additionally interpretative insight in the future.

Last but not the least, the researched articles were singled out and selected based on pre-determined keywords, such as the Chinese Government,

Sichuan earthquake, Chinese Communist Party and 2008 earthquake. Therefore, other relevant articles might have been missed.

This research paves the way for the further development of Coombs’s crisis response strategy continuum, which should continuously be expanded and modified to increase its applicability, especially in the developing countries and top- down political cultures.

Grunig’s model of excellence - two way symmetrical communication – is challenged in this research. It is apparent that the application of communication models depends on the political and social cultures, and social structure of different countries. In a hierarchical country like China, in which its citizen behaviors are influenced by the central control of the government, the two-way asymmetrical communication may be considered to be the model of excellence. Future studies may further examine why the Chinese Government applies two-way asymmetrical communication rather than two-way symmetrical communication. At this point, more cases and countries should be studied to examine the application and accuracy of Grunig’s model of excellence.

In addition, the impact of social media on crisis management and communication should be further researched. Social media reduce the possibilities of media control and censorship, and hence facilitate the opportunities of two-way symmetrical communication.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Publication: BBC Headline Date Forearmed by Sichuan, military response swift 04/16/2010 China admits "quality problems" in quake-collapsed schools 09/04/2008 China sends 5,000 troops, armed police to quake-hit county 05/12/2008 China allocates another 35.7m US dollars to quake relief fund 05/14/2008 British PM highly values China's "rapid, effective reaction" to 05/14/2008 quake - Xinhua China accepts quake rescue teams from Russia, South Korea, 05/16/2008 Singapore Chinese president flies to Sichuan disaster region 05/16/2008 Chinese state TV reports on earthquake aftermath 15 May 05/15/2008 Foreign political parties, social groups extend condolences to 05/15/2008 China for quake Foreign media at site for China quake coverage - agency 05/15/2008 Chinese premier chairs disaster relief headquarters meeting 05/14/2008 Deadly quake strikes China; Collapse traps 900 students 05/13/2008 China welcomes earthquake aid from international community - 05/13/2008 spokesman China's Li Changchun urges media to do good job reporting 05/13/2008 quake relief China's Jia Qinglin thanks Croatian leaders for quake sympathy 05/14/2008 Chinese official accuses foreign reporters of "sedition" in quake 05/08/2008 zone EU official Solana hails China's response to Sichuan earthquake 01/20/2009 China's Jia Qinglin urges more reconstruction works in quake-hit 08/19/2009 area Chinese premier visits students resuming classes in earthquake 05/27/2008 zone 23 May Chinese premier makes second trip to earthquake-hit zone 05/22/2008 Chinese president urges rescuers to reach every earthquake-hit 05/18/2008 village Latvian paper says "dictatorship" partly to blame for disasters in 05/21/2008 China, Burma Chinese premier consoles child earthquake survivor in Beichuan 05/14/2008

Chinese Vice-Premier Zhang Dejiang inspects quake relief work 06/03/2008 in Sichuan Hong Kong protest calls for release of Sichuan quake activist 06/09/2010 EU official praises China for handling quake situation, to meet FM 06/07/2008 9 June China's Hu Jintao conveys condolences to quake victims 05/12/2009 China says 11 May quake damaged 14,000 schools in Sichuan 12/25/2008 More countries offer condolences over Chinese quake 05/13/2008 Britain expresses condolences over deadly earthquake in China 05/13/2008 Chinese agency hails "international humanitarianism" in quake 05/24/2008 rescue effort Pakistani president visits Chinese embassy to expresses 05/14/2008 condolences over quake Chinese Vice-Premier Li Keqiang says quake relief "top priority" 05/14/2008 for government China's Wen Jiabao answers reporters' questions in quake zone 05/25/2008 (Government document) Chinese premier thanks Cuban, Japanese medical teams in quake 05/25/2008 relief China's Yang Jiechi meets Burma's Thein Sein at relief pledging 05/26/2008 conference US welcomes dialogue between Taiwan, China commander 05/29/2008 China penalizes nearly 200 for quake discipline violations 09/10/2008 China: First half year crises "contained by controls on media" - 10/06/2008 propaganda chief Chinese government blames quake strength for school collapses 11/22/2008 China celebrates Lunar New Year; President Hu Jintao's Jiangxi 01/26/2006 visit cited China's Zhou Yongkang urges political-legal personnel contribute 06/01/2008 for relief Chinese consultative body chief inspects quake-hit Beichuan, 06/02/2008 Wenchuan 31 May Chinese official accuses foreign reporters of "sedition" in quake 05/08/2009 zone Quake provides new window for West to observe China - HK 05/17/2008 agency Article says earthquake reorients China's relations with the 05/21/2008 world Chinese embassies worldwide mourn quake victims 05/20/2008 Chinese president thanks foreign envoys at quake anniversary 05/12/2009 event More world leaders, officials mourn China quake victims 05/22/2008 Foreign leaders mourn China quake victims 03/20/2008

Chinese president issues "important instruction" on Sichuan 05/13/2008 earthquake Official in China's Sichuan puts quake death toll at over 12,000 05/13/2008 China's He Guoqiang hurries to Chongqing to provide rescue 05/21/2008 guidance 19 May Forearmed by Sichuan, military response swift 04/16/2010 China's discipline watchdog tightens supervision of quake relief 06/03/2008 fund, goods China erects 26,730 temporary houses in quake zone - official 06/05/2008 China's Sichuan plans to put limits on journalists in quake zone 06/06/2008 China's quake-ravaged areas remain open to overseas journalists 06/11/2008 official Reform, opening up enabled China to cope with quake - 06/19/2008 legislative chief Chinese officials deny responsibility for school collapse in 06/27/2008 Sichuan quake Chinese official vows to punish misuse of quake relief funds 06/20/2008 Chinese vice-premier outlines eight-year plan for reconstruction 06/24/2008 of quake zone China's Xi Jinping thanks Hong Kong, Macao delegations for 06/30/2008 quake relief (Government Document) Rice concludes visit to China's quake-hit Sichuan 29 June 06/30/2008 Chinese official says reconstruction in quake-hit Sichuan nearly 03/08/2011 finished China's Xi Jinping conducts inspection tour of quake-hit Sichuan 06/01/2008 27-29 June (Government Document) Philippine president to visit Chinese quake victims during 08/05/2008 Olympic trip Chinese premier inspects Wenchuan, answers questions on 09/06/2008 quake relief 2 Sep (Government Document) China penalizes nearly 200 for quake discipline violations 09/10/2008

Beijing Review Headline Date Wen, in Quake Visits, Highlights Chinese Style of Premiership 05/23/2008 President Hu Says Quake Relief Government's Top Priority 05/13/2008 Chinese Premier Orders to Open up Roads to Epicenter Before 12 05/13/2008 p.m. Premier Wen Reemphasizes Saving Lives in Quake Relief 05/14/2008 Chinese Premier Tells Quake Victims Rescue, Relief on the Way 05/13/2008 Premier Oversees Quake Rescue in SW China's Beichuan 05/14/2008

Chinese Politburo Stresses Saving Lives First in Quake Relief 05/15/2008 Chinese Politburo Stresses Saving Lives First in Quake Relief 05/15/2008 Chinese Premier Orders Deployment of 90 More HeliCopters for 05/15/2008 Quake Relief Transparency Works 05/15/2008 Premier Moves Chinese Amid Quake Effort 05/16/2008 FM Spokesman: China Grateful for Int'l Quake Aid 05/16/2008 Central Government Departments Actively Engaged in Quake 05/16/2008 Relief Chinese President Flies to Quake-hit Sichuan 05/16/2008 Premier Wen Calls for Nationwide Efforts in Rescue, Relief After 05/16/2008 'Most Destructive' Quake Since 1949 Officials: China Orders Probe of School Collapses in Quake 05/16/2008 (Government Document) Chinese President Encourages Quake Victims to Overcome 05/17/2008 Difficulties President Hu Visits Quake Victims, Saving Lives Top Priority 05/17/2008 After Four Days China's Top Political Advisor Urges Whole Society to Help in 05/17/2008 Quake Relief Central Gov't Departments Continue Efforts in Quake Relief 05/17/2008 Chinese Premier Stresses All-out Efforts to Rescue Quake Victims 05/18/2008 Six Days After Quake, China Still Goes all-out to Search for 05/18/2008 Survivors Senior Chinese Military Officials Call for All-out Army Efforts for 05/18/2008 Quake Rescue Chinese Premier Stresses All-out Efforts to Rescue Quake Victims 05/18/2008 Senior Official Appreciates Relief Work in Chongqing 05/20/2008 Municipality Vice Premier: China Appreciates, Welcomes World's Quake Aid 05/20/2008 Chinese Embassies Worldwide Mourn Quake Victims, Some 05/20/2008 Foreign Leaders Join Official: Donations to China Quake Zones 'Moving Quickly' 05/20/2008 (Government Document) Vice President Urges Local Gov'ts to 'Offer Whatever' to Help 05/21/2008 Quake Victims Vice Premier Li Keqiang Stresses Sheltering of Quake Victims 05/21/2008 CPC Anti-graft Chief: Ensure Quality in New Schools 05/21/2008 Quake Rebuilding Effort Allocated 70 Bln Yuan 05/21/2008 Vice Premier: Quake Relief Still at Critical Point 05/22/2008 China Sets up Expert Panel for Quake Relief, Reconstruction 05/22/2008 Senior Officials Call for More Support, Aid to Quake-hit Area 05/22/2008 Chinese Vice President: Quake Relief Top Priority for Gov't 05/22/2008

China Party Leadership: Prevent Epidemics, Minimize Quake 05/23/2008 Losses Premier Encourages Surviving Students in Quake Disaster Zone 05/24/2008 Premier Lauds UN Support for China's Quake Relief 05/25/2008 Chinese Premier Visits Zipingpu Dam in Quake-hit Sichuan 05/25/2008 Chinese Premier Thanks Cuban, Japanese Medical Teams in 05/25/2008 Quake Relief Chinese Premier Says Quake Relief Shifting to Resettlement, 05/25/2008 Reconstruction Authorities Study Supervision of Billions Relief Funds 05/26/2008 Chinese President: Keep Development Trends, Guard Social 05/26/2008 Stability Chinese Party Leadership Underscores Post-quake 05/27/2008 Reconstruction in Quake Areas China Issues Statute on Fraud Involving Quake Relief 05/29/2008 Top China Legislator Stresses Epidemic Prevention in Quake 05/30/2008 Zone China's Top Political Advisor Condoles Quake Victims, Relief 05/31/2008 Workers in Epicenter Town, Shelter Camps Chinese Vice Premier Stresses Relief, Rehabilitation to Follow 05/31/2008 Expertise China Tightens Management on Quake Donation, Asking 06/01/2008 Auditors, Supervision Departments, Media to Watch Over Happy Children's Day, Chinese President Says to Quake-affected 06/01/2008 Kids Chinese Vice President Urges Stepped-up Efforts in Post-quake 06/02/2008 Reconstruction China Open to Foreign Assistance in Disaster Relief 06/05/2008 Chinese Premier Vows 'No Casualty' During Tangjiashan Quake 06/06/2008 Lake Inspection Chinese Premier Rrges No Relaxation in Epidemic Prevention in 06/10/2008 Quake Areas Premier Wen's Dialogue Touches Quake-affected People 06/10/2008 Chinese President Hails Young People's Work in Quake Fight 06/16/2008 China's Cabinet: Rebuilding Homes is Top priority for Quake 06/17/2008 Relief Cash CPC Emphasizes Party Members' Role in Reconstruction After 06/18/2008 Major Quake Central Gov't Requires Transparency in Use of Quake Relief 06/17/2008 Funds China's Anti-graft Chief Urges to Tighten Supervision Over Use of 06/18/2008 Quake Relief Resources Hu Calls for Enhanced Disaster Monitoring, Early-warning 06/24/2008 Capacity

China Approves Reports on Quake Relief Work, Reconstruction 06/27/2008 Plan 43 Punished for Quake Relief Frauds 06/24/2008 Chinese FM Thanks U.S. Government, People for Quake Relief Aid 06/30/2008 VP: Earthquake Relief Shows Party's Strength 06/30/2008 President Hu: Supervision Over Use of Quake Relief Fund, 07/01/2008 Materials to be Intensified China Commends Media for Timely, Transparent Quake Coverage 07/02/2008 China Expresses Appreciation for Int'l Quake-relief Aid 07/02/2008 Senior Political Advisors Informed of Economic Situation, 07/03/2008 Earthquake Relief Chinese Premier: Days Since May 12 Quake Shocking and 09/03/2008 Touching Wen Speaks on Relief, Rehabilitation in China's Quake-hit Areas 09/17/2008 Vice Premier Urges Safe Winter for Quake-hit Residents 10/29/2008

China Daily Headline Date World leaders send their condolences 05/13/2008 Quake Snippets 05/14/2008 Letters and Blogs 05/14/2008 Information is power indeed 05/14/2008 Soldiers begin daunting task at epicenter 05/15/2008 Nation comes together 05/14/2008 Toll estimate 50,000 05/16/2008 Premier's hands-on approach an inspiration 05/15/2008 Deja vu near epicenter 05/17/2008 Love and help across borders 05/19/2008 Foreigners pay respects 05/20/2008 Companies' donations win high praise from netizens 05/20/2008 Crisis management ideas come of age 05/20/2008 Ambassadors express support, sympath 05/20/2008 Challenges hereafter 05/20/2008 Heroes in history will henceforth look like them 05/21/2008 Tents needed as life peg 05/21/2008 Fukuda, Brown express sorrow 05/22/2008 China welcomes help from foreign militaries 05/22/2008 Keeping love alive for a very, very long haul 05/27/2008 Into a brave news world 05/26/2008 What's new 05/27/2008 Quake Snippets 05/29/2008 UN a sincere partner in China's quake task 05/28/2008 Show of public spirit a good omen for China 05/28/2008

Even CNN can see the truth 05/28/2008 'Strong' girl in recovery 05/29/2008 Xi praises Chinese people's courage 05/29/2008 Sustainable development now a required task of all countries 05/30/2008 Come, see the spirit of modern China 06/02/2008 Words of wisdom from distant past 06/02/2008 Serving people core of human rights practic 06/05/2008 Wen: Resuming production a priority 06/04/2008 Human rights hoax from lord of serfdom 06/04/2008 American students feel Sichuan pain, offer support 06/04/2008 Let right ideas be picked 06/06/2008 Special team to help school kids' parents 06/05/2008 Groundless accusation 06/07/2008 Quake zone open to overseas media 06/12/2008 School building check 06/14/2008 Misuse of relief funds disclosed 06/13/2008 Don't turn national pain into farce 06/21/2008 43 punished for quake relief frauds 06/24/2008 Hu makes history with online chat 06/24/2008 Northwest back on track soon: Premier 06/23/2008 People's roles key to rebuilding 06/25/2008 Relief plan focuses on rural homes 06/25/2008 Real China a far cry from media images 06/24/2008 China encouraged to play global role 07/01/2008 Rice impressed with quake relief work 06/30/2008 Quake response offers friendship and $3.7 million 07/04/2008 It's time to take an objective view of China 08/09/2008

CNN Headline Date U.S. offers quake aid to China 05/12/2008 Silent suffering of quake victims 05/14/2008 China's government gives rare transparent look at disaster 05/15/2008 In Chinese town, quake shakes faith in school construction 05/18/2008 China mourns as quake death toll climbs 05/19/2008 Wave of unity and patriotism sweeps China 05/20/2008 China quake death toll soars past 50,000 05/22/2008 Chinese premier debuts on Facebook 05/28/2008 Report: China intimidated parents of quake victims 05/04/2009 China blogger who helped quake victims jailed 11/23/2009 China marks earthquake anniversary 05/12/2009 China: 5,335 students killed or missing after 2008 quake 05/07/2009 Activist: China trying to silence critics 03/16/2010

Sizing up China's premier 03/02/2011

Chinese-language blogs (Sina blog) Headline Date 从汶川大地震看中国政府的危机公关能力 07/03/2010 日本关注中国四川地震 05/15/2008 关注四川地震 05/13/2008 关于汶川地震重建房屋产权的建议 06/17/2008 地震，留给我们的不仅仅只是伤痛 06/12/2008 总理累了 05/20/2008 四川汶川 5.12 地震一周祭：我们能做什么? 05/20/2008 四川地震所引发的思考 03/22/2011 联合早报：这是中国政府最成功的一次危机管理 05/20/2008 韩寒：诸恶与众善 06/22/2010 迎接信息公开时代接信我们怎样走过《政府信息公开条例》施 01/05/2011 行一周年政府处理公共危机能力研究 06/02/2011 中国显示出的惊天战斗力震惊世界！ 06/19/2011 弘扬抗震救灾精神，加快灾区重建步伐 11/06/2011 开幕式改变了中国和世界的关系 08/14/2008 四川地震后让世界见证到中国惊人的能力 10/29/2008 中央政治局九常委的“汶川足迹 05/11/2011 纪念 5 念/1 汶川地震全过程 05/11/2011 我拿什么挺你 4 10/07/2010

Chinese-language blogs (Tencent QQ) Headline Date 汶川地震与国际社会 07/28/2010 目前中国危机管理存在的问题与解决方法 05/09/2010 四川大地震将是中国社会的转折点 05/22/2010 法国总统到中国驻法使馆悼念四川地震遇难者 05/20/2010 《中国经济分析》政府对地震反应迅速且态度开放，有助增强 05/15/2008 外资信心

《中国震区特写》地震死难儿童父母悲愤不已,冀望政府主持公 05/21/2008 道美国驻上海总领事致词——四川地震周年纪念 11/16/2010 为四川地震写的朗诵稿 03/17/2010

Chinese-language blogs (163 blog) Headline Date 论四川地震与国家危机公关 05/13/2008 四川日报：万众一心众志成城战胜特大地震灾害‐‐‐转载 05/13/2008 四川地震!为受灾群众祈福!为祖国祈福![祖国有难,中华儿女,责无 05/15/2008 旁贷!] B.B.C 网站上，英国人对四川地震的评论 05/20/2008 四川汶川地震死亡人数逾万军方出动 5 万多人救灾 05/14/2008 从汶川玉树的抗震救灾和灾后重建看共产党的领导能力 05/14/2008

四川汶川地震有感 05/25/2008 四川地震遇难学生家长考虑采取法律行动 06/01/2008 海外网友：中国四川的地震救援行动感动世界 05/17/2008 地震中，温总理与孩子的六个感人镜头_网易新闻中心 06/11/2008 四川汶川受灾和抗震救灾情况数字，大地震让奥运负面消息消 05/20/2008 失地震让中国如此团结 05/28/2008

South China Morning Post Headline Date Open official response to disaster welcomed; Disclosure boosts 05/14/2008 Beijing's image, say analysts We are ready to help in wake of disaster 05/13/2008 Thousands perish in quake; Sichuan hit by China's worst 05/13/2008 earthquake in over 30 years; 8,500 confirmed dead The five Ws; Your primer to an issue in the news 05/14/2008 Survival hopes prevail amid the rubble; PLA troops pour into 05/15/2008 stricken county as Wen says the injured must be saved Swift action a step forward for Beijing 05/15/2008 Premier Wen, you moved China and the world 05/16/2008 Quake tragedy must not be compounded 05/16/2008 Olympic bosses must get in sync with nation 05/19/2008 Openness as a form of damage control 05/20/2008 Charges of warning failures dismissed 05/14/2008 Shattering disaster binds millions in silent solidarity; 05/20/2008 Mourning gives way to shouts of ‘Long live China’ A whole new game 05/21/2008 Letters 05/22/2008 Our role is to give 05/22/2008 Beijing pledges 95b yuan for quake zone relief 05/22/2008 Why aren’t China’s schools as strong as Japan’s, critics ask 05/23/2008

Rising student toll raises alarm over rural facilities (Government 05/14/2008 Document) Valid questions about school building safety 05/15/2008 Casualties exceed the worst forecasts; 80,000 dead or missing; 05/23/2008 Wen on second trip to quake area; Hu oversees tents supply China is reclaiming its share of the world 05/23/2008 Beijing's openness has raised expectations 05/23/2008 Letters 05/23/2008 Bright future awaits, says Premier Wen 05/24/2008 Letters 05/24/2008 Scholar claims Beijing ignored quake warning 05/25/2008 Wen's goal: normal life in 3 months; Premier, UN chief meet at 05/25/2008 quake epicenter Torch relay 'boosted backing for Beijing' 05/26/2008 China's swift response wins praise; 05/26/2008 Mainland officials' reaction to the Sichuan quake offers stark contrast to the cyclone aftermath in Myanmar Bereaved parents ignore party chief's plea 05/27/2008 More effort must go into providing shelter, Politburo decrees 05/27/2008 Pledge to act on shoddy schools; Education ministry refuses to 05/27/2008 give toll Quake aid must be seen to be dispersed fairly 05/27/2008 Elderly now victims of a 'mismatch' in relief work 05/28/2008 Letters 05/28/2008 Letters 05/29/2008 Facebook page about premier draws a crowd 05/29/2008 You are my best buddy, I won't let you die' 05/29/2008 All schools in quake zone to be inspected 05/31/2008 Letters 06/01/2008 Involve public in managing aid, council orders 06/01/2008 Wen's quake efforts get strong approval 06/02/2008 Cab Chat; While So Wai-kin, 39, fears corrupt officials take a cut 06/02/2008 of earthquake relief donations, he says it is still worth giving because some will get to the needy Quake probe will be true test of openness 06/03/2008 Torch relay's rocky road to Olympics fails to extinguish a nation's 06/04/2008 pride Sichuan plans to put limits on journalists 06/06/2008 Relief effort gives Beijing a better image among ethnic minorities 06/10/2008 Transparency must not be a post-quake victim 06/12/2008 Disaster diplomacy' helps polish mainland's image; 06/12/2008 World welcomes post-quake openness, but it may not last Letters 06/18/2008

Wen promises safer schools and hospitals on quake visit; 06/23/2008 Premier vows strict design standards for rebuilding Uncovering the truth 06/23/2008 Quake rattles foundations of authority; Spontaneous 06/12/2008 volunteering and loosened media reins could test the leadership Forearmed by Sichuan, military response swift 04/16/2010

The New York Times Headline Date Quake in China kills thousands; 05/13/2008 900 students trapped under school; Hu orders 'all out' relief effort to devastated region Myanmar Camps for Survivors Seem to Be for Headlines Only 05/23/2008 More Pressure on Beijing 07/31/2008 Quake Revealed Deficiencies of China's Military 07/02/2008 Powerful Quake Ravages China, Killing Thousands 05/13/2008 Quake toll rises; China struggles to reach victims wide 05/14/200 Devastation Superstitions About Quake Meet the Web, Irritating the Chinese 05/16/2008 Authorities In Departure, China Invites Outside Help 05/16/2008 QUAKE TOLL RISES; CHINA STRUGGLES TO REACH VICTIMS To 05/14/2008 the Rescue, Uncensored Shame on the Junta 05/14/2008 Earthquake Opens a Crack In Chinese Censorship 05/18/2008 Chinese Flee Flood Threat From Quake 05/18/2008 'Who's going to help them now?'; Rescuers in China hampered by 05/14/2008 damage and debris; toll hits 12,000 and likely to rise In China quake, a manmade or natural disaster?; Scientists look 02/06/2009 at dam in Sichuan disaster U.N. Leader Praises China's Response to Quake 05/25/2008 Chinese Are Left to Ask Why Schools Crumbled 05/25/2008 One-Child Policy Lifted for Parents of China Quake Victims 05/27/2008 China Pleads for Aid to Help Millions Made Homeless by 05/26/2008 Earthquake Garbled Quake Toll Revives China's Pain 11/22/2008 China Details Flaws in Schools 12/08/2009 Peril for Chinese schools (folo); In rare foray, China sends force 12/27/2008 out of Asian waters Demanding answers in China; Parents of children killed in school 12/23/2008 collapse file a lawsuit Parents of Schoolchildren Killed in China Quake Confirm Lawsuit 12/23/2008

China activist faces 'secrets' trial; He aided with pleas after 02/03/2009 Sichuan quake Prominent artist pushes for candor on Sichuan earthquake 03/20/2009 Scientists Point to Possible Link Between Dam and China Quake 02/06/2009 Warnings on quakes in China unheeded; Scientists express 05/31/2008 frustration and guilt on lack of prevention Grieving parents in China hauled off during protest 06/04/2008 China Lets Town's Ruins Wash Away, in Effort to Avert Disaster 06/11/2008 Downriver How Angel of Sichuan Saved School in Quake 06/16/2008 Chinese Quake Toll, 69,172, Is Just a Guess 06/18/2008 Penalty for China Quake Photos Reported 06/31/2008 China Urged To Cancel Quake Trials 08/06/2008

The Washington Times Headline Date China wins world praise for quick quake response; 05/14/2008 Shows contrast with Burmese disaster Reconciliation after disasters 05/23/2008 Quake shakes Beijing's grip on media; Information flow likely 05/23/2008 fleeting New China syndrome; A metaphor for competence 05/28/2008 Deadly quake strikes China; Collapse traps 900 students 05/13/2008

Disasters and development 05/29/2008 Where do we go from here? 08/03/2008 Ai Weiwei and China's assault on truth; Beijing voices support for 05/13/2011 human rights while kidnapping dissidents

The Washington Post Headline Date China Expedites Vast Rescue Operation; 'We Must Race Against 05/14/2008 Time,' Premier Says in Televised Visit to Quake Scene Chinese Open Wallets for Quake Aid; 05/16/2008 Individual Giving Blooms in a Society Long Under Sole Care of the State Opening China 05/17/2008 Crises Cloud China's Olympic Mood as Quake Tests Party's Mettle 05/17/2008 Chinese Media Take Firm Stand On Openness About Earthquake 05/18/2008 Response to Quake Prompts Burst of Acclaim for Leaders 05/24/2008 Chinese Officials Shift Focus to Relief Efforts 05/24/2008

China's Rulers Win Praise; 05/25/2008 Quake Response Leads to Surge In Popularity The Whole World Stands Behind You'; 05/25/2008 Outpouring of Help Shifts Mood in China 05/27/2008 Talk! Talk! All the Time Talk!'; Angry, Grieving Parents Press 05/29/2008 Officials for Action, Not Words, on Crushed Schools Tangled Blame in Quake Deaths; 06/02/2008 Chinese Parents Facing Uphill Battle for Redress Over Collapsed Schools Chinese Parents Organize, Seeking Justice; 06/06/2008 Many Ignore Pressure From Government to Move On After Quake Outpouring of Help Shifts Mood in China 05/27/2008 Return to Repression; China muzzles journalists who asked too 06/23/2008 many questions after the recent earthquake. In China's Quake Zone, Aftershocks of the Spirit; Hardy Optimism 06/25/2008 Likely to Mask Despair China's Silencing Season; 07/10/2008 Activist Journalists and Lawyers Jailed, Harassed in Far-Reaching Pre-Olympic Operation Rhymes Against the State 07/27/2008 No Permits, No Protests In Beijing's Special 'Pens' 08/15/2008

Xinhua Net Headline Date Asian security summit focuses on int'l co-op in disaster relief 06/01/2008 Olympic Family grants strong support for China's quake relief 06/02/2008 New Zealand helps China's earthquake relief efforts 06/03/2008 Online profile gives China's Premier Wen "face" with world 06/03/2008 public Looking for a new nation in the ruins of the old 06/04/2008 China passes regulation on post-quake restoration and 06/04/2008 reconstruction Half of quake-ravaged enterprises to resume production by end 06/05/2008 of June Indian FM: India opposes any political anti-China activities in 06/05/2008 Indian territory More relief aid offered to China for earthquake victims 06/06/2008 Chinese ambassador presents credentials to Prince Albert II of 06/06/2008 Monaco EU official praises China for handling earthquake situation 06/06/2008 Bush impressed by China's earthquake relief efforts 06/07/2008 American Red Cross pledges more fund for China's earthquake 06/07/2008 relief efforts

Democratic parties advise on rebuilding quake-hit areas 06/07/2008 DPRK newspaper: China makes united efforts to rebuild quake- 06/07/2008 hit areas Mozambican PM: Chinese gov't, people well respond to 06/07/2008 earthquake Vice premier urges post-quake reconstruction 06/07/2008 Senior official urges stability in quake regions 06/09/2008 Sichuan deposes 15 officials for malpractice in quake relief 06/09/2008 Charity holds photo show on China quake rescue in Bangkok 06/11/2008 Official: China's quake-ravaged areas remain open to overseas 06/11/2008 journalists (Government Document) Interpreting Sichuan earthquake - A different picture from what 06/12/2008 we used to see China's anti-graft chief urges tight supervision of quake relief 06/12/2008 Int'l community continues sending condolences, aid to quake-hit China 06/12/2008 Most China quake survivors confident of post-disaster life 06/12/2008 The "ten firsts" that follow China's massive quake 06/13/2008 WTO: China, UAE make rapid progress in safe blood donation 06/13/2008 Top Chinese official stresses supervision in reconstruction after 06/15/2008 quake From Tangshan to Wenchuan: a fault line through modern China 06/16/2008 Chinese state councilor pledges to enhance cooperation with 06/17/2008 Equatorial Guinea China praised for swift response in disaster relief efforts 06/17/2008 Tanzanian media lauds China's quake-relief efforts 06/18/2008 Kim Jong Il meets Chinese vice president 06/18/2008 Top legislator: Decades of reform, opening up better equip China 06/19/2008 to cope with quake disaster Ethiopia president hails China's earthquake relief efforts 06/20/2008 WHO hails government, medical response following China quake 06/20/2008 Hu calls for enhanced disaster monitoring, early-warning 06/23/2008 capacity Chinese vice premier outlines eight-year plan for quake zone 06/24/2008 Chinese auditors find defects with quake donations management, 06/24/2008 no major abuses found Chinese Vice Premier says quake relief work in new phase 06/26/2008 Interview: UN chief hopes for strengthened partnership with 06/29/2008 China Rice visits quake-hit China region 06/29/2008 Positive Appreciation of relief efforts 06/30/2008

Chinese premier: days since May 12 quake "shocking and 09/30/2008 touching Chinese premier, U.N. chief meet on international issues 09/24/2008 Wen speaks on relief, rehabilitation in China's quake-hit areas 09/16/2008 Chinese Vice Premier vows to improve disaster response, relief 09/26/2008 UN-HABITAT chief says past 30 years witness China's great 09/12/2008 progress in human settlements President Hu raises "quake relief spirit" banner for nation 10/08/2008

English-language media Numbers of Articles

The Washington Post 19

CNN 15

South China Morning Post 55

New York Times 33

China Daily 52

BBC 69

Beijing Review 72

Xinhua Net 50

The Washington Times 8

Chinese-language media

Chinese blogs 40

Total number of articles 414

Appendix B

8 0 3 5 3 1 7 13 24 94 Effective/ Efficient

6 2 9 11 14 33 73 23 12 16 Timely/swift/rapid/ speed/immediately/ quickly/Prompt

6 2 0 4 1 6 15 13 20 21 Leadership

4 8 6 9 9 1 16 33 57 1 10 102 ness Open Open /transparen

7 6 25 91 35 153 249 127 237 132 Relief

95 11 77 46 75 49 12 64 157 155 Rescue

Publications

Keyword Frequency BBC Beijing Review China Daily CNN Chinese Blogs New York Times South China Morning Post The Washington Post The Washington Times Xinhua Net

6 0 0 1 2 1 8 4 0 12 Substandard/shoddy construction

2 0 0 1 8 2 4 9 0 19 Corrupt/ corruption

1 0 1 2 66 47 57 21 49 120 Reconstruction

6 88 44 43 13 27 50 17 27 12 Victim

4 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 oriented 11 35 - centered - People /people

5 1 0 0 2 1 0 26 21 49 Instruction

Publications

China Morning Post

Keyword Frequency BBC Beijing Review China Daily CNN Chinese Blogs New York Times South The Washington Post The Washington Times Xinhua Net

Appendix C

3 1 2 0 53 2 1 0 1 0 Effective/ Efficient

Timely/swift/rapid/ speed/immediately/ quickly/Prompt 3 0 6 0 31 1 1 5 7 1

Leadership 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0

/ ness

Open Open /Transparen 10 0 4 3 57 6 9 7 8 0

Relief 8 16 14 0 47 4 2 12 4 5

Rescue 12 13 23 2 5 12 5 10 6 7

Publications

Washington Times

Keyword Frequency BBC Beijing Review China Daily CNN Chinese Blogs New York Times South China Morning Post The Washington Post The Xinhua Net

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Substandard/shoddy construction

1 0 0 0 1 0 7 0 0 0 Corrupt/ corruption

1 0 0 2 0 0 0 7 14 11 Reconstruction

9 1 4 5 5 1 1 1 1 11 Victim

oriented 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 - centered - People /people

1 1 1 0 6 0 0 1 0 0 Instruction

Publications

Keyword Frequency BBC Beijing Review China Daily CNN Chinese Blogs New York Times South China Morning Post The Washington Post The Washington Times Xinhua Net