U.S. Department of Justice Revised 10/3/2000, th Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report

December 1999, NCJ 175688 Women Offenders Lawrence A. Greenfeld and Tracy L. Snell Highlights BJS Statisticians Violent All Convicted felony Correctional Population estimates from the Census Women offenders offenders arrestees defendants populations Number 2,135,000 3,171,000 160,500 951,900 Bureau for July 1, 1998, indicate that As a percent 14% 22% 16% 16% women account for more than half the of each category population age 10 or older: ù Based on the self-reports of victims of arrest among juvenile females was Both genders 230,861,000 100.0% of violence, women account for about nearly twice the adult female rate. Females 119,010,000 51.6 14% of violent offenders & an annual ù Since 1990 the number of female Males 111,851,000 48.4 average of about 2.1 million violent defendants convicted of felonies in Table 1 female offenders. State courts has grown at more than The racial and ethnic composition of ù Male offending equals about 1 2 times the rate of increase in male the general population age 10 or older violent offender for every 9 males age defendants. varies slightly when males and females 10 or older, a per capita rate 6 times are compared. Non-Hispanic black ù In 1998 an estimated 950,000 that of women. females outnumber non-Hispanic black women were under the care, custody, males by nearly 1.9 million, accounting ù Three out of four violent female or control of correctional agencies & for more than a quarter of the total offenders committed simple assault. probation or parole agencies super- difference in the number of males and vising 85% of these offenders in the ù An estimated 28% of violent female females in the general population. community. The total equals a rate offenders are juveniles. Minorities compose a slightly higher of about 1 woman involved with the percentage of the female population ù Three out of four victims of violent criminal justice system for every 109 (26.2%) than of the male population female offenders were women. adult women in the U.S. population. (25.9%). Nearly a third of the disparity ù Nearly 2 out of 3 victims had a prior ù Women under supervision by in the number of females versus males relationship with the female offender. justice system agencies were in the general population is accounted mothers of an estimated 1.3 million for by the larger number of minority ù An estimated 4 in 10 women minor children. females. committing violence were perceived by the victim as being under the influ- ù Nearly 6 in 10 women in State The average age of females in the ence of alcohol and/or drugs at the prisons had experienced physical or general population is about 2½ years time of the crime. sexual abuse in the past; just over a older than that of males. The largest third of imprisoned women had been ù The per capita rate of murder age disparity, about 3 years, is found abused by an intimate in the past; offending by women in 1998 was the among black non-Hispanic females and just under a quarter reported lowest recorded since 1976; the rate compared to black non-Hispanic prior abuse by a family member. at which women commit murder has males. Among females, Hispanic been declining since 1980. ù About 84,000 women were women have the lowest average age, confined in prisons in 1998. In 1996 29.6 years, while white non-Hispanic ù In 1998 there were an estimated the average sentence and time women have the highest, 39.6 years. 3.2 million arrests of women & served for women were shorter than accounting for about 22% of all for males with equivalent offenses. arrests that year. The per capita rate Gender, race, and Hispanic origin Number of violent offenders per 1,000 residents in the U.S. population 160 Percent of U.S. population Women (rate times 7) age 10 or older, 1998 Females Males White 120 Hispanic 8.8% 9.5% Men Non-Hispanic 73.8 74.1 Black Hispanic 0.6% 0.6% 80 Non-Hispanic 12.1 11.2 Asian/Pacific Islander Hispanic 0.2% 0.2% Non-Hispanic 3.6 3.5 American Indian/Alaska Native 40 Hispanic 0.1% 0.1% Non-Hispanic 0.7 0.7

Total population 119,010,000 111,851,000 0 Table 2 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Fig. 2 Violent crimes committed by females and males Nearly 3 in 4 violent More than half of female violent Average annual number Women as victimizations committed offenders were described by victims of offenders reported a percent by female offenders were as white, and just over a third were by victims, 1993-97 of violent simple assaults; just over described as black. About 1 in 10 were Offense Female Male offenders All 2,135,000 13,098,000 14% half the violence of male described as belonging to another race Sexual assault 10,000 442,000 2 offenders is described as (Asian, Pacific Islander, Native Hawai- Robbery 157,000 2,051,000 7 simple assault. ian, American Indian, Aleut, or Aggravated assault 435,000 3,419,000 11 Simple assault 1,533,000 7,187,000 18 Eskimo). The rate of male violent Table 3 Violent victimizers offending translated into Black and white offenders accounted about 1 violent offender for every 9 for nearly equal proportions of women During an average year, based on the males age 10 or older in the general committing robbery and aggravated period 1993-97, victims of violence population; the rate of female violent assault; however, simple assault attributed the crimes they experienced offending was equal to about 1 violent offenders were more likely to be to an estimated 2.1 million female offender for every 56 females age 10 described as white. violent offenders and 13.1 million male or older. violent offenders. Among violent female offenders, 53% Per capita rates of offending among committed the offense while alone, and Offending rates: Ratio of both males and females decreased 40% were with others, all of whom Number of offenders offending from the peak rates recorded in 1994. were female. Among male offenders, per 1,000 residents rates, Male Female male:female Rates of committing violent crime in 47% were alone, and 51% were with 1997 were 29% lower for males and other males when the offense 1993 135 19 7.1 1994 140 20 7.0 25% lower among females. occurred. About 8% of violent female 1995 124 19 6.4 offenders committed their offense 1996 107 19 5.7 Characteristics of violent female together with at least one male 1997 99 15 6.5 offenders offender; by contrast, about 1% of male Table 4 Violent violent offenders committed the offense About 1 out of 7 violent offenders offenses in the company of a female offender. described by victims was a female. Women accounted for 1 in 50 offend- Age of offender ers committing a violent sex offense Under 12 including rape and sexual assault, 1 in White 14 robbers, 1 in 9 offenders committing Robbery Black 12-14 aggravated assault, and more than Other 15-17 Aggravated 18-20 1 in 6 offenders described as having assault committed a simple assault. 21-29 Simple 30 or older assault 0% 20% 40% Percent of violent female offenders 0% 20% 40% 60% Percent of female offenders Fig. 3 Fig. 1 2 Women Offenders Victims of violence provided very of male violent offenders were to account for about 1 in 8 violent similar descriptions of their perceptions estimated to have known the victim. offenders in the workplace and 1 in 6 of the ages of both female and male violent offenders committing the violent offenders. For each age group Victims who were intimates accounted offense in the victim’s home. & juveniles, young adults, and those for an identical percentage of both 30 or older & victims reported little male and female violent offenders. Offender's use of alcohol or drugs at the time of the violence variation in offender age between the Victim-offender relationship two genders. Neither Intimate Any Juveniles accounted for about 28% of Female victim female violent offenders, nearly identi- Relative Both Male victim cal to the juvenile percentage (26%) Alcohol only found among violent male offenders. Acquaintance Female offenders Drugs only Male offenders Characteristics of victims Stranger 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% of female violent offenders 0% 20% 40% 60% Percent of violent offenders Percent of female Fig. 7 Overall, female-to-female violence violent offenders accounted for 11% of all violent offend- Fig. 5 There were few differences between ers described by victims. An additional When women committed their violent male and female violent offenders in 3% of violent offenders were women offense against men, 35% of the victim perceptions of drug or alcohol who attacked males. offenders attacked an intimate or use at the time of the offense. About 4 in 10 male and female violent offenders Percentage of all violent victimizations relative. By contrast, 8% of victimiza- reported by victims tions of other females involved were reported by victims to have been intimates or family members. For both using alcohol, drugs, or both at the time Gender of violent offender of the offense. Gender of victim Female Male Total male and female victims, the proportion of female offenders attacking strangers Total 14% 86% 100% Consequences of female violence Female 11 26 37 was the same. Male 3 60 63 Offenders Table 5 Where offenders committed Female Male violence and use of drugs or alcohol Use of a firearm, knife, Violent offenders most often victimized blunt object 15% 28% persons of the same gender. More Location of violent offense Victim seriously injured 5% 8% than 3 out of 4 female offenders had a Hospital treatment for victim 5% 6% At/near victim's home female victim; about 7 out of 10 males Average loss to victim $595 $943 had a male victim. About 29% of vio- School Table 6 lent offenders had a victim of a different The consequences of male violence gender; 9 out of 10 of these offenders Open area were generally more serious for the were males with female victims. victim in terms of weapon use, injury, Victim-offender relationship Work and out-of-pocket losses to the victim.

Intimate Female offenders Commercial area Male offenders Male offenders were more likely than Female Other female offenders (28% to 15%) to have Other relative Male used a weapon such as a blunt object, 0% 10% 20% 30% knife, or firearm in the commission of Acquaintance Percent of violent offenders the violent offense. Fig. 6 Stranger For nearly half of female offenders, Serious injuries, such as broken bones, 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% the violent offense took place either being knocked unconscious, concus- Percent of violent offenders at or near the victim’s home or at sions, knife wounds, or gunshot Fig. 4 school. Less than a third of male wounds, were slightly more associated Male and female violent offenders offenders carried out their crimes with male offenders; however, the likeli- differed substantially in their relation- in these locations. hood of hospital treatment for the ship to those they victimized. An victims of male and female offenders estimated 62% of female violent According to victim self-reports, female was about the same. An estimated offenders had a prior relationship with offenders account for about 1 in 4 865,000 violent offenders were respon- the victim as an intimate, relative, or offenders committing violence at a sible for crimes against victims whose acquaintance. By contrast, about 36% school. Women were also estimated injuries resulted in hospital treatment;

Women Offenders 3 women accounted for about 12% of against an intimate or family member; Nearly 6 in 10 female murderers are these offenders. among the 400,000 murders committed black. The age distribution of white by men over the same period, 20% and black female murderers is quite The largest out-of-pocket cost item for were against family members or similar, though among older offenders victims of female violence was medical intimates. (50 or older) black females account for expenses which averaged $1,127, less than half of female murderers. nearly $550 less than victims of male An estimated 1 in 14 murders by a Murderers violence experienced. Lost pay due to female offender and 1 in 4 murders by Female Male injury to victims of female violence a male offender was committed against Handgun 42% 51% averaged $311 and lost pay for court a victim who was a stranger to the Other firearm 11 16 appearances and other reasons cost Knife 31 18 offender. Blunt object 4 6 victims an average of $513 when the Female murderers All other weapons 12 9 offender was a female & both of these Victim White Black Table 9 were less than half the losses victims 13 or younger 0.6% 0.6% Just over half of women committing experienced when the offender was a 14-17 6.4 5.3 18-24 23.9 26.9 murder and two-thirds of males male. 25-34 31.0 36.5 committing murder used a firearm. 35-49 27.2 23.1 Female offenders were substantially Women who murder 50-64 8.8 6.3 65 or older 2.2 1.4 more likely than male murderers to have used a knife or other sharp object Since 1993 both male and female rates Number, 1976-97 26,485 35,357 to commit the crime. of committing murder have declined. Rates of committing murder in 1998 Table 8 Between 1976 and 1997, juveniles Parents who kill were the lowest since statistics were accounted for just over 6% of the first collected in 1976. The estimated murders committed by female offend- Between 1976 and 1997 parents rate for murder offending by women in ers, or approximately 4,000 murders. and stepparents murdered nearly 1998 was 1.3 per 100,000 & about 1 In 1976 there were an estimated 226 11,000 children. Mothers and murderer for every 77,000 women. juvenile female murderers compared to stepmothers committed about half The male rate of murder offending in an estimated 153 in 1997. The only of these child murders. Sons and 1998 was 11.5 per 100,000, about 1 group of women for whom the rate of stepsons accounted for 52% of murderer for every 8,700 males. murder offending has not continued to those killed by mothers and 57% decrease are those age 18-24. The of those killed by fathers. Mothers The 1998 rate of committing murder by per capita rate of committing murder were responsible for a higher share women was just over 40% of the rate in for women of this age reached its of children killed during infancy 1976. Since 1980 rates for women lowest point in 1995, and by 1997 had while fathers were more likely to have been steadily declining. For male climbed 25%. have been responsible for the offending, the peak rate occurred in murders of children age 8 or older. 1991, with 20.7 murderers per 100,000 males (about 1 murderer for every 4,800 males); the rate in 1998 was just Number of murderers per 100,000 residents over half of what it had been in 1991. 25

Murderers Victim Female Male 20 Men Spouse 28.3% 6.8% Ex-spouse 1.5 0.5 Child/stepchild 10.4 2.2 15 Other family 6.7 6.9 Women (rate times 5) Boyfriend/girlfriend 14.0 3.9 Acquaintance 31.9 54.6 10 Stranger 7.2 25.1 Number, 1976-97 59,996 395,446 5 Table 7 The victim-offender relationship differed substantially between female 0 and male murderers. Of the 60,000 1976 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 murders committed by women between Fig. 8 1976 and 1997 just over 60% were

4 Women Offenders Arrests Arrests of females, 1998 Female arrest rate per In 1998 there were an estimated 3.2 Arrests of females 100,000 female residents million arrests of women, accounting 1998 Percent of all arrests Juvenile Adult for about a fifth of all arrests by law Total arrests 3,170,520 22% 4,630 2,377 enforcement agencies. Women were Violent offenses 113,877 17% 126 91 about 17% of those arrested for the Murder 1,959 11 1 2 Part I violent crimes (murder, rape, Robbery 12,130 10 19 9 robbery, and aggravated assault) and Aggravated assault 99,490 20 106 80 29% of those arrested for Part I Property offenses 521,894 29% 1,109 341 property crimes (burglary, larceny, and Burglary 41,177 13 85 27 motor-vehicle theft). An estimated Larceny 453,277 35 953 297 Motor vehicle theft 23,585 16 61 14 22% of all female arrests (Part I and Part II) were of juveniles & about Drug offenses 272,073 18% 186 235 700,000 juvenile female arrests in Driving under the influence 219,514 16% 24 208 1998. Juvenile female arrestees Note: Violent offenses, which include rape, and property offenses are the Part I offenses accounted for a higher percentage of In the FBI Uniform Crime Reports. Total arrests includes Part I and Part II offenses. women arrested for motor vehicle theft, Table 10 liquor law violations, and vandalism. Felony convictions of women in State courts, 1990-96 The numbers of arrests in 1998 trans- Estimated number of women convicted of felonies in State courts late into about 1 arrest for every 22 Percent change, female juveniles (age 10-17) and 1 1990 1992 1994 1996 1990-96 arrest for every 42 adult women (age Total 112,800 120,550 131,404 160,470 42% 18 or older). For Part I violent Violent felonies 10,428 12,313 13,936 13,509 30% crimes, there was 1 arrest of a female Murder 1,051 1,205 1,289 1,005 -4 juvenile for every 794 girls in the Rape/sexual assault 202 375 630 442 119 general population and 1 arrest of an Robbery 3,047 3,142 2,854 2,920 -4 Aggravated assault 5,043 6,152 6,906 7,786 54 adult female for every 1,099 adult Other violent 1,085 1,440 2,256 1,356 25 women residents. Larceny, the offense category with the most arrests, equaled Property felonies 48,206 52,230 53,649 69,536 44% Burglary 5,593 5,830 6,603 6,847 22 about 1 arrest for every 105 girls Larceny 20,728 22,179 22,136 28,786 39 under age 18 and 1 arrest for every Fraud 21,885 24,221 24,910 33,902 55 337 women age 18 or older. Drug felonies 43,000 42,047 46,468 59,027 37% Trafficking 24,562 23,529 25,561 33,005 34 In 1998 there were more than a quarter Possession 18,438 18,518 20,907 26,022 41 million female drug arrests, accounting Other felonies 11,166 13,959 17,351 18,399 65% for about 18% of all arrests for drug law Note: Murder includes nonnegligent manslaughter; larceny includes motor vehicle theft; violations. Drug arrest rates in 1998 and fraud include forgery and embezzlement. Details may not equal totals because of rounding. were 1 for every 538 juvenile females Table 11 in the resident population and 1 for Female defendants in State courts had not been charged with a violent every 426 adult women residents. offense. Women accounted for about 16% of all Per capita arrest rates for Part I violent felons convicted in State courts in State courts have recorded substantial crimes among juvenile females (17 and 1996. Women were 8% of convicted growth in the number of female defen- younger) and among young adult violent felons, 23% of property felons, dants convicted of felonies. Between females (18-24) have risen substan- and 17% of drug felons. Women 1990 and 1996, the number of con- tially from the early 1980's. The defendants accounted for 41% of all victed female defendants grew at 2ë juvenile arrest rate for violent offenses felons convicted of forgery, fraud, and times the rate of increase among male in 1995 was about 2ë times the rate embezzlement. The majority of male defendants. in 1985. However, juvenile rates have and female felony defendants in the 75 declined in each year since 1995. largest counties in the United States For women defendants convicted in By contrast, young adult female rates were either charged with violence or State courts, nearly 90% of the of arrest for violence continue to climb were recidivists. An estimated 27% of increase in the number of violent felons with the 1997 rate about 80% above male and 42% of female felony defen- was accounted for by aggravated the rate 10 years earlier and at the dants in State courts in large counties assault, perhaps reflecting increased highest level recorded. had no history of prior convictions and

Women Offenders 5 Revised 10/3/2000, th

For every Trends in felony convictions Offenses of women on probation or in jail or prison of women and men, 1990-96 category of major crime Most Percent of women offenders Percent change in the number for the period serious offense* Probation Local jails State prisons Federal prisons of felony convictions, 1990-96 1990-96 & Felonies Total Females Males Violent offenses 9% 12% 28% 7% violent, Homicide 1 1 11 1 All 20% 42% 17% property, drugs, Property offenses 44% 34% 27% 12% Violent 14 30 12 and other Property 6 44 -2 Larceny 11 15 9 1 Drug 27 37 25 felonies & the Fraud 26 12 10 10 Other 46 65 44 rate of increase Drug offenses 19% 30% 34% 72% Table 12 in the number Public-order offenses 27% 24% 11% 8% prosecution of women for domestic of convicted Driving while violence. More than half of the female defen- intoxicated 18 7 2 0 dants has increase in the number of female Number of women defendants convicted of property outpaced the offenders 721,400 27,900 75,200 9,200 felonies was attributable to rising changes in the *Based on the offenders’ most serious offense. Overall offense categories numbers of those convicted of forgery, number of are shown with selected detail categories containing larger percentages fraud, or embezzlement. convicted male of women offenders.

defendants. Table 15 Thirty-seven percent of women Property felon- convicted of a felony in State courts ies, in particular, have evidenced a 6% of those in prisons, and 12% of in 1996 had been charged with a drug very large disparity in rates of change; those on parole. offense, about the same proportion of from 1990 to 1996, the number of all convicted felons as in 1990. Over males convicted of property felonies Population growth has occurred in the period 1990-96, the number of drug dropped about -2% while convicted each component of corrections. The trafficking convictions grew by 34% female defendants increased 44%. number of women per capita involved and the number of convictions for drug in corrections overall has grown 48% possession increased 41%. Female corrections populations since 1990, compared to a 27% increase in the number of men per Adjudication outcomes In 1998 there were an estimated capita. Between 1990 and 1998 the 951,900 women under the care, per capita number of women under About two-thirds of both female and custody, or control of adult criminal probation supervision climbed 40%; the male defendants pleaded guilty. justice authorities. This translates into Small percentages of both were jail rate grew 60%; the imprisonment found guilty after a bench or jury a rate of about 1 out of every 109 adult rate increased 88%; and the per capita trial. About 3 in 10 of both were women in the United States & nearly number of offenders under parole acquitted or were dismissed. The 1% of adult women & having some supervision was up 80%. apparently larger share of women kind of correctional status on any given than men charged with a violent day. About 85% of the female correc- Offense composition among women felony and gaining an acquittal or tions population were being supervised with a corrections status varies with dismissal merits further study. in the community, and 15% were the type of status. Violence and drug Percent of Adjudication outcomes defendants confined in prisons and jails. trafficking, for example, account for for felony defendants Female Male 17% of women on probation, 24% of Women offenders account for about Total, all felonies 100% 100% those sentenced to local jails, 46% of Pleaded guilty 66 66 16% of the total corrections population those incarcerated in State prisons, Found guilty 2 5 in 1998 (5,890,300). Women represent and 65% of those confined in Federal Dismissed/acquitted 31 30 about 21% of those on probation, prisons. By contrast, DWI offenses Violent felonies 100% 100% 11% of those in local jails, just under account for 18% of women on proba- Pleaded guilty 45 55 Found guilty 3 7 tion, 7% of those Dismissed/acquitted 52 38 1 woman in ____ adult women in the United States sentenced to local had this correctional status: jails, and 2% of Property felonies 100% 100% Pleaded guilty 73 67 Any correctional those held in State Found guilty 2 4 status Probation Jail Prison Parole prisons. Dismissed/acquitted 25 28 1985 227 267 4,762 4,167 4,762 Drug felonies 100% 100% 1990 161 202 2,632 2,326 2,273 Most violent female Pleaded guilty 70 70 offenders are not Found guilty 2 4 1995 124 159 1,961 1,587 1,493 Dismissed/acquitted 28 26 1996 120 157 1,852 1,471 1,316 confined: there are 1997 115 151 1,754 1,408 1,333 nearly 65,000 Table 13 1998 109 144 1,628 1,230 1,262

Table 14 6 Women Offenders Trends in most serious offenses The offense composition Children of women under correctional among women in State supervision, 1998 prison has been changing. Violent The proportion who had Estimated number Women Women offenders Minor been convicted of violent offenders with minor children children and property crimes has Total 869,600 615,500 1,300,800 been decreasing while the Probation 721,400 516,200 1,067,200 Property proportion of drug and Jail 63,800 44,700 105,300 State prisons 75,200 49,200 117,100 public-order offenders has Federal prisons 9,200 5,400 11,200 been growing. Note: Only children under age 18 are counted. Drug Characteristics of women serving a sentence Table 17 on probation or in local jails are under 1979 Race and Hispanic origin age 25, 1 in 8 State prisoners and 1986 Public-order 1 in 11 Federal prisoners are of this 1991 1997 While nearly two-thirds of women age. Nearly a quarter of Federal prison under probation supervision are white, inmates are at least 45 years old. 0% 25% 50% nearly two-thirds of those confined in Percent of female State prison inmates local jails and State and Federal Marital status Fig. 9 prisons are minority & black, Hispanic women convicted of violence under and other races. Hispanics account Adult women under correctional care, supervision by probation authorities for about 1 in 7 women in State prisons custody, or control are substantially compared to about 3,300 convicted but nearly 1 in 3 female prisoners in more likely than the equivalent general violent offenders in local jails, 21,000 Federal custody. population to have never been married. in State prisons, and fewer than 1,000 Nearly half of women in both State in Federal prison. Similarly, among Age prisons and local jails have never been convicted female drug traffickers, an married. estimated 58,000 are on probation, Women in prison, both State and 5,300 are held in local jails, 13,500 in Federal, are older than their counter- Education State prisons, and about 5,300 in parts in local jails or under probation Federal prison. supervision. While about 1 in 5 women The majority of women involved with the justice system are at least high Characteristics of adult women on probation, in jail, and in prison school graduates. An estimated 60% of those on probation, 55% of those Characteristics Local State Federal in local jails, 56% of those in State of women Probation jails prisons prisons prisons, and 73% of those in Federal Race/Hispanic origin prison have completed high school, White 62% 36% 33% 29% Black 27 44 48 35 and 30% - 40% of high school gradu- Hispanic 10 15 15 32 ates have attended some college or Other 1 5 4 4 more. Age 24 or younger 20% 21% 12% 9% Inmates’ children 25-34 39 46 43 35 35-44 30 27 34 32 45-54 10 5 9 18 Approximately 7 in 10 women under 55 or older 1 1 2 6 correctional sanction have minor Median age 32 years 31 years 33 years 36 years children & children under the age of 18. An estimated 72% of women on Marital status Married 26% 15% 17% 29% probation, 70% of women held in local Widowed 2 4 6 6 jails, 65% of women in State prisons, Separated 10 13 10 21 and 59% of women in Federal prisons Divorced 20 20 20 10 Never married 42 48 47 34 have young children.

Education Women under correctional care, 8th grade or less 5% 12% 7% 8% Some high school 35 33 37 19 custody, or supervision with minor High school graduate/GED 39 39 39 44 children reported an average of 2.11 Some college or more 21 16 17 29 children of this age. Those on proba- Table 16 tion reported the fewest, 2.07 young Women Offenders 7 HIV-positive, about 3.5% of the female In 1997 an estimated 2.8% of all children under age 18 have at least one parent inmate population. An estimated in a local jail or a State or Federal prison. About 1 in 40 children have 20,200 male inmates, about 2.2% of an incarcerated father, and 1 in 359 children have an incarcerated mother. the male population, was HIV-positive. Children with an incarcerated parent The percentage of the female inmate Total Mothers Fathers population that was HIV-positive Estimated number of peaked in 1993 at 4.2%. children under age 18 Jails 620,539 84,240 536,299 State prisons 1,199,277 102,448 1,096,829 Alcohol and drug use Federal prisons 121,980 7,816 114,164 Total 1,941,796 194,504 1,747,292 About half of women offenders Percent of all children confined in State prisons had been under age 18 using alcohol, drugs, or both at the time Jails 0.89% 0.12% 0.77% State prisons 1.72 0.15 1.57 of the offense for which they had been Federal prisons 0.17 0.01 0.16 incarcerated. Among these women Total 2.78 0.28 2.50 offenders, drug use at the time of the Note: In 1997 69,898,000 children under age 18 were in the resident population. offense was reported more often than alcohol use, a different pattern from Table 18 that found among male offenders in children per woman with children while reported that they had been employed State prisons. On every measure of those in State prison reported an full-time prior to their arrest. By drug use (ever used, using regularly, average of 2.38 children under age 18. contrast, nearly 6 in 10 male inmates using in month before the offense, and had been working full-time prior to using at time of offense), women These estimates translate into more arrest. About 37% of women and 28% offenders in State prisons reported than 1.3 million minor children who are of men had incomes of less than $600 higher usage & 40% of women inmates the offspring of women under correc- per month prior to arrest. While just compared to 32% of male inmates had tional sanction; more than a quarter under 8% of male inmates had been been under the influence of drugs million of these children have mothers receiving welfare assistance prior to when the crime occurred. By contrast, who are serving time in prison or jail. arrest, nearly 30% of female inmates every measure of alcohol use was About two-thirds of women in State reported receiving welfare assistance higher for male inmates than for female prisons and half of women in Federal at the time just before the arrest which inmates. An estimated 25% of women prisons who had young children had brought them to prison. on probation, 29% of women in local lived with those children prior to enter- jails, 29% of women in State prisons, ing prison. Health issues and 15% of women in Federal prisons Local State had been consuming alcohol at the Male inmates in State prisons are jails prisons Gynecological exam time of the offense. estimated to have been fathers to since admission? 22% 90% about 1.1 million children under age 18, Pregnant when admitted? 6% 5% Just over half of women confined in about 11 times the number of minor Prenatal care since admission? 3% 4% State prisons reported drinking alcohol children attributable to female inmates. Receiving medication in the year before the current offense About 64% of women inmates with for emotional disorder? 17% 23% compared to two-thirds of male offend- minor children had lived with those Table 19 ers in State prisons. Daily drinkers children prior to admission to prison; accounted for about 25% of female among men, 44% had resided with In 1997 an estimated 2,200 women inmates and 29% of male inmates. their minor children before imprison- serving time in State prisons were ment. Males in Federal prisons had nearly 15 times as many minor children History of physical or sexual abuse Forty-four percent of in total as female Federal inmates; women under correctional 8 in 10 of these men and just under 6 Women authority reported that in 10 women resided with the children Probation Local jails State prisons they were physically or prior to entering prison. Ever physically or sexually assaulted at sexually abused 41% 48% 57% some time during their Economic circumstances Before age 18 16 21 12 lives. Sixty-nine percent After age 18 13 11 20 of women reporting an Female prisoners generally had more Both periods 13 16 25 assault said that it had difficult economic circumstances than Ever abused occurred before age 18. male inmates prior to entering prison. Physically 15% 10% 18% Table 20 About 4 in 10 women in State prison Sexually 7 10 11 8 Women Offenders Both 18 27 28 treatment; 20% of About 40% of female first-timers and Alcohol and drug use by female inmates women and 14% of 65% of male first-timers serving a Percent of female State prison inmates men had received prison sentence had been convicted of using at the time of the offense & such treatment since a violent offense. This translates into Both alcohol prison admission. about 20% of all women inmates and Total None and drugs Alcohol Drugs All 100% 48% 16% 13% 24% Nearly a third of 8% of all male inmates incarcerated in both men and State prisons nationwide as offenders Violent 100 51 17 20 11 women inmates with serving their first sentence after convic- Property 100 53 15 7 25 substance abuse tion for a nonviolent crime. Drug 100 43 18 7 32 Public-order 100 41 10 24 25 problems indicated that they had partici- State and Federal prisoners Table 21 pated in some other At the time of the offense, 29% type of voluntary program, such as At the end of 1998, 84,427 women of women offenders and 38% of male Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics were under the jurisdiction of State and inmates had been under the influence Anonymous, since entering prison. Federal correctional authorities. Of of alcohol. these, 75,241 were held by the States Criminal history and 9,186 were held by the Federal About 6 in 10 women in State prison Bureau of Prisons. Between 1990 and described themselves as using drugs About 65% of women confined in State 1998 the number of women confined in in the month before the offense, 5 in 10 prisons had a history of prior convic- described themselves as a daily user tions; about 77% of men serving time Female prison populations, 1998 of drugs, and 4 in 10 were under the in State prisons had a prior conviction influence of drugs at the time of the record. Male inmates were twice as Number of female inmates offense. Nearly 1 in 3 women serving likely as female inmates to have had a Per time in State prisons said they had juvenile history (38% versus 19%); 100,000 committed the offense which brought 7 out of 10 male inmates and 6 out of Yearend women Jurisdictions 1998 residents them to prison in order to obtain money 10 female inmates had an adult history Total, all jurisdictions 84,427 57 to support their need for drugs. of convictions. About 1 in 6 women inmates and nearly 1 in 3 male inmates States, total 75,241 51 Federal 9,186 5 Substance abusing women inmates had criminal records spanning both were more likely than drug/alcohol- their juvenile and adult years. States with at least 1,000 women prisoners involved male inmates to report having Alabama 1,525 64 received treatment. Nearly 56% of Male inmates had also acquired more Arizona 1,780 66 women substance abusers in State convictions than women. While about California 11,694 67 Colorado 1,070 53 prisons compared to 41% of males had a third of women prisoners had 3 or Connecticut 1,357 43 ever been in substance abuse more prior convictions, about 43% of Florida 3,526 45 male inmates had records containing at Georgia 2,474 61 Illinois 2,646 43 Criminal history of prison inmates least 3 prior convictions. Indiana 1,198 39 Kentucky 1,046 51 Percent of Women in prison were substantially Louisiana 2,126 94 State prison Maryland 1,140 39 inmates more likely than male inmates to have Michigan 2,052 41 Criminal history Female Male had a correctional status at the time Mississippi 1,213 77 Past convictions of the offense which brought them to Missouri 1,880 67 None 35% 23% prison. About 1 in 3 women inmates New Jersey 1,653 39 Juvenile only 3 7 New York 3,631 38 Adult only 46 39 had been on probation when their North Carolina 1,932 35 Both adult and juvenile 16 31 offense occurred compared to 1 in 5 Ohio 2,912 50 male inmates. Oklahoma 2,091 122 Number of prior convictions Pennsylvania 1,517 24 0 35% 23% South Carolina 1,412 63 1 17 17 Texas 10,343 102 2 16 16 Virginia 1,806 47 3-5 19 25 Washington 1,018 35 6-10 8 12 Wisconsin 1,169 42 11 or more 5 6 Table 23 Status at arrest None 47% 53% Probation 34 21 Parole 18 25 Escapee 1 1

Table 22

Women Offenders 9 prisons grew by an annual average of Trends in the number of sentenced Women accounted for more than 10% 8.5%; over the same years, prison female prisoners per 100,000 female of those admitted to State prisons for populations nationwide increased an residents, by race: negligent manslaughter (13% were average 6.7% annually. In 1990 State Year All women White Black women), larceny (18%), arson (12%), and Federal prisons housed 44,065 1990 31 19 117 fraud (31%), drug possession (14%), female prisoners, just over half the 1991 33 19 129 and drug trafficking (11%). Women 1992 35 20 136 number held in 1998. 1993 40 23 155 accounted for about 1% of those admit- 1994 45 26 169 ted for rape and sexual assault. Among State prisoners in 1998, 44% 1995 47 27 176 1996 51 30 185 (33,345) were held by States in the 1997 53 32 192 About 26% of women admitted to South. The incarceration rate in the 1998 57 34* 212* prison following a court sentence had South was the highest of any region & *Based on projected estimate. been convicted of larceny or fraud 65 female prisoners per 100,000 Table 24 (including forgery and embezzlement) residents. The West accounted for & offenses accounting for about 10% 25% (18,845) of the total State prison Sentences to prison of male admissions. population and had a per capita rate of imprisonment of 58 per 100,000. Prison admissions Prison releases Midwestern States, with about 18% of female State prisoners (13,684), had In 1996 women accounted for about Women accounted for just over 9% of a rate of 42 prisoners per 100,000 9% of all State prison admissions, 10% those discharged from State prisons in residents. The Northeast accounted for of those admitted from courts, and 8% 1996. 12% of women held by States (9,367) of revoked violator admissions. and had an incarceration rate of 31. Among those released, the median For all types of offenses except time served for murder was 80 months In 1998 the highest per capita rate of property offenses, the sentences for men and 60 months for women. confinement among the States was in received by women were shorter than Oklahoma (122), and the lowest was in those received by men; the average As found for sentencing, the median Maine and Vermont (9 in each). The sentences for property offenses were length of stay for women was less than District of Columbia had a rate equal to the same. Short sentences on average that for men for every type of offense. 173 per 100,000 female residents. may reflect overall differences in crimi- This may be a reflection of the more nal background, particularly the preva- extensive criminal histories of men and lence of violence in the backgrounds of the higher prevalence of convictions for males sentenced to prison. violence in their backgrounds.

New court commitments to State prison in 1996 First releases from State prison in 1996

Women Men Women Men Percent of Median Percent of Median Percent of Median Percent of Median time admissions sentence admissions sentence releases time served releases served Total 100% 36 mo 100% 48 mo Total 100% 12 mo 100% 16 mo Violent 17 60 31 72 Violent 14 20 26 28 Property 36 36 28 36 Property 38 11 31 15 Drugs 39 36 29 42 Drugs 41 12 32 14 All other 8 24 12 36 All other 8 10 11 12

Table 25 Table 26

10 Women Offenders Death sentences Number of women under sentence of death At the end of 1997, 44 inmates, or 50 1.3% of the death row population, were women. During the year, two women 40 were sentenced to death and five had their death sentences removed. States Total holding women under sentence of 30 death were &

Alabama - 3 Missouri - 1 20 Arizona - 1 Nevada - 1 White women California - 8 New Jersey - 1 10 Florida - 6 North Carolina - 3 Idaho - 1 Oklahoma - 3 Black women Illinois - 2 Pennsylvania - 4 0 Mississippi - 1 Tennessee - 2 1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1997 Texas - 7 December 31

Table 27 Fig. 10 Of the 44 women under sentence supervision had spent an average of of death, 30 were white and 14 were 15 months in prison on their sentence The prevalence of imprisonment black. One white inmate and one black and 20 months under supervision in among women inmate were Hispanic. the community. Unsuccessful female parole discharges had spent an The most recent BJS estimate of the For women under sentence of death, average of 17 months in prison and 18 lifetime chance of being sent to an average of 78 months had elapsed months under community supervision Federal or State prison at least once since sentencing, about 8 months less prior to termination. indicates that overall about 11 than for males. women out of 1,000 will be incarcer- A 3-year followup of a sample repre- ated at some time in their lives. The Between January 1, 1977, and Decem- senting 109,000 persons (6,400 estimates further show that about 5 ber 31, 1997, a total of 432 persons females among them) discharged from out of 1,000 white women, 36 out of were executed including 1 white, prisons in 11 States in 1983 found that 1,000 black women, and 15 out of non-Hispanic female in North Carolina 52% of women were rearrested. An 1,000 Hispanic women will be in 1984. During 1998, 2 women were estimated 39% of women discharged subjected to imprisonment during executed (1 each in Texas and from prisons were reconvicted within 3 their lifetime. Florida). years and 33% were returned to prison. Prior arrest history was an For males, BJS estimates indicate Recidivism important predictor of post-prison that about 90 out of 1,000 males will recidivism: among women with only the be incarcerated during their lives; 44 In 1996, women accounted for about one arrest for which they had been white males, 285 black males, and 11% of successful discharges from imprisoned, 21% were rearrested 160 Hispanic males for every 1,000 parole and 8% of unsuccessful parole within 3 years. Among women with 2-3 in the general population will serve terminations. Overall, about 45% of prior arrests, 33% were rearrested; time in a Federal or State prison. women for whom parole supervision those with 4-6 prior arrests had a 47% was ended in 1996 were returned to rearrest rate; among those with 7-10 By 1,000 women prison or had absconded. Women priors, 69% were rearrested; and, age & White Black Hispanic nearly 8 out of 10 women with 11 or 20 -- 3 1 successfully discharged from parole 25 2 11 4 more priors were rearrested. 30 3 20 7 35 4 27 9 40 4 31 12 45 5 33 13 50 5 34 14 55 5 35 15 65 5 36 15 Lifetime 5 36 15

Table 28

Women Offenders 11 Basic sources for statistics Criminal Victimization 1998: Changes for 425,012 of the estimated 464,590 describing women offenders 1997-98 with Trends 1993-98, BJS, murders. Supplemental data were also July 1999, NCJ 176353. reported for 469,220 of the estimated The information in this report was 513,051 offenders. derived from the following data Uniform Crime Reporting program sources. Detailed descriptions of the FBI, National Archive of Criminal methodology can be found in recent The UCR program of the FBI provides Justice Data, accessible through  publications and can be obtained by another opportunity to examine the http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/ requesting them from the BJS Clear- issue of crime and violence committed home.html search for data (DA): 6754 inghouse, Box 179, Annapolis by women offenders through the Junction, MD 20701-0179, or by incident-based Supplementary State Court Processing Statistics calling 1-800-732-3277. Homicide Report program and the summary compilation of national arrest State Court Processing Statistics Most reports are also available at the data. The summary-based arrest (SCPS) (formerly, through 1994, BJS World Wide Web site  component of the UCR provides data National Pretrial Reporting Program http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ by gender of arrestees for both Part I (NPRP)) provides data on the criminal crimes and the less serious Part II justice processing of persons charged National Crime Victimization Survey crimes. with felonies in 40 jurisdictions repre- sentative of the 75 largest counties, The National Crime Victimization In 1997, data by gender and offense which account for about half the Survey (NCVS) is one of two statistical were available for about 2 out of 3 serious crime nationwide. The program series maintained by the Department of arrests nationwide (about 10.5 million prospectively tracks felony defendants Justice to learn about the extent to of the estimated 15.3 million arrests from charging by the prosecutor until which crime is occurring. The NCVS, that year). Females are estimated to disposition of their cases or for a which gathers data on criminal victimi- account for about 16% of those maximum of 12 months. Data are zation from a national sample of arrested for Part I violent crimes. obtained on demographic characteris- household respondents, provides tics, arrest offense, criminal justice annual estimates of crimes experi- The 1997 UCR does indicate reduced status at time of arrest, prior arrests enced by the public without regard to reporting of arrests by gender (table and convictions, bail and pretrial whether a law enforcement agency 42) and that a number of jurisdictions release, court appearance record, was called about the crime. Initiated in (Kentucky, Illinois, Montana, District rearrests while on pretrial release, type 1972, the NCVS was designed to of Columbia, Florida, and New and outcome of adjudication, and type complement what is known about Hampshire) supplied either limited or and length of sentence. This biennial crimes reported to local law enforce- no arrest data. Some of these incom- data collection originated in 1988. ment agencies under the FBI's annual plete or missing States, notably Illinois compilation known as the Uniform and Florida, may affect the national Felony Defendants in Large Urban Crime Reports (UCR). estimates for females. Counties, 1996, BJS, October 1999, NCJ 176981. The NCVS gathers information about FBI, Crime in the United States, crime and its consequences from a selected years. National Judicial Reporting Program nationally representative sample of U.S. residents age 12 or older about Supplementary Homicide Reports The National Judicial Reporting any crimes they may have Program (NJRP) is a sample survey experienced. For personal contact FBI's Supplementary Homicide of court records on convicted felons. crimes the survey asks about the Reports (SHR) is a part of the UCR Using a nationally representative perpetrator, including gender. program. Supplemental data about sample of counties, NJRP compiles homicide incidents are submitted individual-level data on felons One of the important contributions of monthly with detail on location, victim, convicted in State courts. Data the NCVS is that it permits multiple and offender characteristics. These elements include conviction offense, years of responses to the same reports include information on the sentence received, case-processing, questions to be analyzed, facilitating month and year of an offense, on the methods of conviction, and a variety research on small subgroups of the reporting agency and its residential of other defendant characteristics. The population. For this study 5 years of population, on the age, race, and sex NJRP first reported felony sentencing NCVS data (1993-97) were combined, of victims and offenders, and on the data for 1986 and has provided resulting in more than 1 million inter- victim/offender relationship, weapon national estimates at 2-year intervals. views, just over 40,000 of which were use, and circumstance of the crime. conducted among persons experienc- For the years 1976-97, contributing Felony Sentences in State Courts, ing violent victimizations. agencies provided supplemental data 1996, BJS, May 1999, NCJ 173939. 12 Women Offenders National Prisoner Statistics and those confined in local jails and Figure 3, page 2 State and Federal prisons. These The National Prisoner Statistics (NPS) nationally representative surveys are Age of Percent of violent data series produces annual and semi- the principal source of information on offenders female offenders annual national and State-level data on those serving time following a convic- Under 12 2% the numbers of prisoners in State and tion: their backgrounds, their prior 12-14 14 15-17 12 Federal prison facilities (NPS-1). Since criminal histories, and the circum- 18-20 10 1926 the Federal government has stances surrounding the offense for 21-29 25 published data annually on the prisoner which they had been incarcerated. 30 or older 38 count in each State, the District of Both jail and prison surveys obtain Columbia, and the Federal prison from violent offenders details about the system. offender's relationship to the victim. Figure 4, page 3

Prisoners in 1998, BJS, August 1999, Substance Abuse and Treatment of Victim-offender Female Male relationship offenders offenders NCJ 175687. Adults on Probation, 1995, BJS, March Intimate 6% 7% 1998, NCJ 166611. Relative 7 3 A second data collection in the NPS Profile of Jail Inmates, 1996, BJS, April Acquaintance 49 27 series yields annual national and State- 1998, NCJ 164629. Stranger 38 64 level data on persons sentenced to Substance Abuse and Treatment of death and those executed (NPS-8). State and Federal Prisoners, 1997, Data collected include offender BJS, January 1999, NCJ 172871. Figure 5, page 3 demographic characteristics, prior Female offenders criminal histories, and criminal justice Lifetime Likelihood of Going to Victim-offender Female Male system status at the time of the capital State or Federal Prison relationship victims victims offense, and time spent on death row. Intimate 1% 29% Relative 7 7 Data are available on executions since This BJS Special Report estimates Acquaintance 55 26 1930 and sentencing since 1973. lifetime chances of going to State or Stranger 37 39 Federal prison using standard Capital Punishment 1997, BJS, demographic lifetable techniques and December 1998, NCJ 172881. assuming that recent incarceration Figure 6, page 3 rates remain unchanged. It describes National Corrections Reporting characteristics of persons admitted to Female Male Program prison for the first time, compares Location of violence offenders offenders lifetime and 1-day prevalence rates, At/near victim's home 26% 21% School 20 10 The National Corrections Reporting and considers changes in admission Open area 18 26 Program (NCRP) has collected data rates since 1991. March 1997, NCJ Work 12 15 annually since 1983 on prison admis- 160092. Commercial area 12 13 Other 12 15 sions and releases and on parole entries and discharges in participating Data points for the graphical figures jurisdictions. Demographic informa- tion, conviction offenses, sentence Figure 7, page 3 length, minimum time to be served, Figure 1, page 2 credited jail time, type of admission, Victim’s perception Race of female offender of offender’s use of type of release, and time served are Offense White Black Other alcohol or drugs at the Female Male collected from individual prisoner Violent offenses 55% 35% 11% time of the violence offenders offenders records. Robbery 43 43 14 Neither 61% 60% Assault Any 39 40 Aggravated 45 46 10 Both 8 10 BJS spreadsheets for selected years Simple 58 31 10 Alcohol only 19 25 accessible through  Drugs only 11 6 http://ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ dtdata.htm#time

Surveys of probationers and jail and prison inmates

BJS also conducts national surveys of persons under probation supervision

Women Offenders 13 Figure 8, page 4 Figure 10, page 11 The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency of the Murderers per 100,000 residents Women under sentence of death U.S. Department of Justice. Male Female Female White Black Total rate rate rate x 5 1971 3 0 3 Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D., is director. 1976 16.3 3.1 15.5 4 0 4 16.2 3.0 15.0 1 1 2 BJS Special Reports address a 16.8 2.8 14.0 0 1 2 18.6 2.9 14.5 1975 4 3 8 specific topic from one or more 1980 20.6 3.1 15.5 4 1 5 datasets that cover many topics. 18.9 2.9 14.5 4 2 6 17.4 2.8 14.0 5 0 5 15.8 2.6 13.0 6 2 8 Lawrence A. Greenfeld and Tracy 15.2 2.3 11.5 1980 7 2 9 L. Snell wrote this report. James 1985 15.2 2.2 11.0 8 3 11 A. Fox, Ph.D., the Lipman Family 16.5 2.3 11.5 11 3 14 16.0 2.2 11.0 9 4 13 Professor of Criminal Justice at 16.8 2.2 11.0 12 5 18 Northeastern University, contributed 17.4 2.1 10.5 1985 12 6 19 data on homicides. Devon Adams, 1990 19.6 2.2 11.0 12 7 20 20.7 2.2 11.0 16 7 23 Maureen A. Henneberg, and Steven 19.3 1.9 9.5 16 9 25 Smith of BJS provided review assis- 19.9 2.0 10.0 20 11 31 tance and comments. Tom Hester 18.8 1.9 9.5 1990 23 12 35 1995 17.2 1.6 8.0 24 12 36 produced the report, and Jayne 15.5 1.7 8.5 24 13 37 Robinson prepared it for final publi- 14.2 1.5 7.5 26 12 38 cation. Priscilla Middleton and 1998 11.5 1.3 6.5 28 15 43 1995 31 15 46 Marianne Zawitz managed the The number of female murderers per 32 15 47 dissemination of the report and the 100,000 females in the population was 1997 30 14 44 production of the Internet version. multiplied by 5 so that year-to-year differ- ences could be seen. December 1999, NCJ 175688

Figure 9, page 7 This report and others from the Percent of female State prison inmates 1979 1986 1991 1997 Bureau of Justice Statistics are avail- Violent 47.9% 40.7% 32.2% 28.2% able through the Internet & Property 36.1 41.2 28.7 26.6 Drug 12.3 12.0 32.8 34.4 http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs Public-order 2.8 5.1 5.7 10.5 The data from the statistical series analyzed in this report are available from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, maintained by the Inter- university Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. The archive may also be accessed through BJS Internet site.

14 Women Offenders