Idaho Department of Lands Cubic Scaling Handbook Introduction

IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF LANDS CUBIC SCALING HANDBOOK INTRODUCTION

SCOPE OF THE HANDBOOK Timber products include a broad array of commodities derived from trees. To carry out the harvesting and marketing of these products in a satisfactory manner, there must be some degree of standardization as to quantity and quality. To this end, various experts have developed generally accepted methods and units of measurement over the years. It is with these methods and these units that this handbook is concerned, with major emphasis on the measurement of sawlogs, pulp, cedar products, and poles. An appendix, glossary and index are included at the back of the book for convenience in locating material on specific subjects and referenced tables.

DEFINITION OF LOG SCALING USING CUBIC SCALING RULES Cubic foot log scaling is the determination of the quantity of gross and net cubic foot volume of forest products manufactured from trees and expressed in cubic foot volume. These various forest products could include logs, pieces of logs (slabs), pulp, sawn and split cedar products, poles, decks or piles of logs, chips, firewood, fiber, or sawdust. Scaling does not consider the quality of the produces being produced. Log grading addresses product quality. Scaling is not guessing: it is an art founded on the application of specific rules in a consistent manner, based on experienced judgment as to how serious are certain external and internal indicators of defect in a specific locality.

DEFINITION OF CUBIC FOOT The dimensions of a cubic foot are 12inches high by 12 inches wide by 12 inches long. Cubic foot volume is determined by using the Smalian formula as the standard.

Frustum of a Paraboloid

(A + B) = V V = x L 2 3.1416 D2 3.1416 d 2 + = V = 4 x 144 4 x 144 x L 2 ( 0.002727 = V = 0.002727 ( D2 + d 2 ) L

Where: V = Volume in cubic feet (ft3)

A = Large end cross-section area (ft2)

B = Small end cross-section area (ft2)

D = Large end diameter (inches)

d = Small end diameter (inches)

L = Length (feet)

Figure 1-1

REASONS FOR LOG SCALING 1. Scaling serves as a measure of timber products bought or sold. Almost without exception, final settlement of timber sales is based on log scale volume. 2. Scaling serves as a measure of work accomplished in each phase of the operation. 3. Scaling serves as a check on the accuracy of a cruise. If a tract of timber has been appraised and sold on the basis of values and volumes derived from cruise information, the log scale is used to determine the accuracy of the cruise and the consequent profit or loss on the transaction after the timber is cut. 4. Scaling serves as a measure of inventory. Log scale is the basis of log inventory and aid in planning operations and calculation risks. 5. Scaling serves as a means of identifying logs. Accepted scaling practice includes the proper identification of each log and its assigned classification. These identifying marks assist in routing logs to the proper destination and, in some instances, determining ownership.

HISTORY OF LOG SCALING The Scaler No history of log scaling would be complete without some recognition of the scaler himself. The early-day scaler was the “aristocrat”-the “professor” of the logging camp. He was a man in whom the lumbermen placed their special trust. Lumberjacks and others relied on him to protect their interests and arbitrate and settle disputes. His character and honesty were above question. The scaler was first, last and always a woodsman. He was recognized throughout the industry as a specialist, skilled through many years of experience and association with the logging industry. At the business of log scale and defect deduction, he was an expert who prided himself on the accuracy of his work. The legislative act of 1968, The Standard Scaling Law, made it mandatory that all persons practicing scaling in Idaho must pass an examination and be licensed in order to maintain this high level of accuracy. Specific standards are available regarding the licensing for log scalers in Idaho.

CHAPTER I GENERAL SCALING REQUIREMENTS

SAFETY PRACTICES Log scaling has long been considered a hazardous occupation. In recent years, however, accident frequency and severity have been greatly reduced. Through an awareness of existing dangers and a careful observance of safe practices, we may reduce the hazards even further. Management has helped to establish safety-conscious attitudes among workers by providing adequate training, and by encouraging all scalers to participate in safety meetings. In the end, however, each scaler is accountable for his own safety, and should accept the responsibility of observing safety practices. The rules and regulations included in the Occupational Safety and Health Act that cover safety practices should supplement the information in this handbook. In some instances, it may supersede certain recommended safety procedures. Because of the variations in equipment and locations where the actual scaling is performed, no one set of safety rules will apply to all scaling operations. Nevertheless, some general rules for promoting safe practices and some specific rules for certain situations are listed below.

General Rules for Safe Practices in Scaling The log scaler should: 1. Be aware of job hazards before starting work. 2. Report to the proper person all potentially hazardous equipment and/or unsafe practices. 3. Wear a hard hat (where required). 4. Wear clothing suited to the job and the location. 5. Inform all workers in the vicinity as to where he will be working, but do not depend on them for safety. 6. Stay clear of logs until all equipment is out of the way and the logs have stopped rolling and sliding. 7. Stay clear of running lines, moving chokers, swinging logs and rigging, jammers and cranes, rubber-tired log loaders and other pieces of equipment in operation. 8. Refrain from engaging in horseplay on the job.

General Safety Rules for Truck Scaling The truck scaler should: 1. Under no circumstances scale or measure a load without binders securely in place. 2. Watch for slivers on all logs. 3. Stay clear of moving trucks.

METHODS OF PRESENTING LOGS FOR SCALING A suitable place to scale logs is one that: 1. Enables the scaler to safely, accurately, and efficiently measure gross and net volumes; check ends and sides for defects; and determine species. 2. Provides opportunities for check scaling without the scaler's knowledge.

These conditions can best be met by employing the following methods: A. The log yard landing method offers adequate room to allow suitable spreading of logs. One disadvantage of yard scaling is that the scaler must often evaluate a long multiple segment log before it is bucked, based on inspection of the sides and exposed ends only. B. The mill deck method offers an opportunity to measure for accurate diameters and to see the exposed ends when a multiple segment log is cut into its separate lengths, although it does not generally provide for check scaling without the scaler's knowledge. C. Scaling logs onboard trucks may be necessary in rare instances. Truck scaling is less safe and provides less accuracy and less efficiency than scaling using the methods listed above.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SCALER According to the scaler’s employer’s situation, requirements, and methods of operation, the responsibilities of the scaler will vary to some extent. Essentially, the scaler’s job is to provide the most accurate and unbiased scale possible. Generally, the scaler is responsible for: 1. Identifying log by species. 2. Identifying log defects. 3. Accurately determine log gross and net scale. 4. Classifying forest products such as: Sawlog, Pulp, Pole, Cedar Products, and Useable Fiber. 5. Recording and reporting as required. 6. Notifying the supervisor of poor bucking habits, felling, or other operations that may affect the quantity and/or quality of harvested forest products. 7. Scaling each log on its own merits regardless of stumpage value, mill overrun or underrun, previous log scale, or any factors that might possibly influence the scaler’s judgment. 8. Differentiating between dead and green logs and between logs that were harvested green and have seasoned checked after having been felled.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SCALER The scaler makes the final determination of volume, which is the basis of payment for commercial purposes. The success or failure of a sawmill or logging operation may depend upon the scaler. Therefore, it is mandatory in the state of Idaho that when scaling for commercial purposes, a scaler be licensed by the Idaho Board of Scaling Practices. The scaler’s work is checked periodically by an experienced scaler known as a “check scaler.” If possible, these checks are made after the totals have been completed so that the scaler did not have previous knowledge of the impending check scale. This is referred to as a “blind” or “remote” check scale. The check scaler’s volume is the standard of accuracy and a scaler must be within the specified limits of this volume as defined my Idaho state law. The preceding information explains the importance of well-trained scalers. Each individual scaler must also: 1. Be honest and unbiased. 2. Understand and follow the laws and rules of log scaling. 3. Be physically fit. 4. Be punctual and dependable. 5. Be able to work and get along with people. 6. Have good vision. 7. Possess an aptitude for arithmetic. 8. Be able to write legibly in the English language. 9. Be of good moral character. 10. Have good communication skills. A competent scaler should also acquire the following qualifications through on-the-job experience and self-study: 1. The ability to work rapidly and accurately. 2. A complete understanding of the reasons for check scaling. 3. The ability to exercise independent judgment while maintaining an open mind. 4. The ability to be systematic and analytical. 5. A thorough understanding of the variables of scaling and the reasons for using specific rules. 6. The ability to make reasonable decisions with available information.

SCALING EQUIPMENT

Figure 1-2 Common working tools of the log scaler.

1. Scale stick (Coconino type). This is a measuring tool for obtaining log diameters, slab sizes, and defect dimensions. Since the advent of the Coconino type scalestick, the process of measuring diameters has been greatly simplified. The diameter inch mark is at half inch rather than the full inch. For example a 16” diameter represents the diameter of any log that falls between 15½ and 16½”. In the following example measurement “A” is read as 24” and measurement “B” as 25”. The average: (A+B) divided by 2 is 24½”. The ½ is dropped to a scaling diameter of 24”. Note, however, had the measurement “A” and\or measurement “B” coincided with the ½” mark, the measurement would have resulted in a final scaling diameter 1” larger, or 25”.

Figure 1-3. Diameter measurements (Coconino scalestick).

2. Calipers. This tool is employed where necessary to determine the diameters of logs. 3. Hatchet. The belt-type hatchet is one of the most important tools in the scaler's equipment collection. He uses this tool to determine the nature and extent of defects by sounding the defect and/or chopping into the defect. Most scalers use a single bitted, tempered hatchet with a durable belt scabbard that allows for easy removal of the hatchet. 4. Tape Measure. Scalers generally use 50', 75’ or 100’ self-winding steel tapes for measuring log or defect lengths. 5. Scale Sheets and Data Recorders. The log scale and other required information are recorded on scale sheets or input into handheld data recorders to create permanent records. Many types of books, forms, or handheld data recorders are used in Idaho. 6. Hard Hat and Safety Glasses. The hard hat, safety glasses, and ice cleats can be used as needed. 7. Safety Vest. A bright-colored vest or other bright clothing should be worn at all times on the landings.

Scaling equipment should receive the care and maintenance necessary to keep it in good working order.

REPORTS AND RECORDS Idaho Department of Lands (IDL) scalers record measurements of forest products on handheld data recorders. The data-entry program included with these handhelds enables the scaler to record species, length, diameters, defect, gross and net volumes, region, load ticket number, sale name, purchaser, frequency, location or landing, contractor, date and scaler identification. As soon as practicable after scaling, the scaler shall tally scale loads, print out scale sheets for each scaled load, and transfer electronically all collected scale data. If the handheld data recorder should ever fail during the scaling process, the scaler shall complete the load or loads using paper scale sheets. Scale data collected on paper shall be entered electronically into the scale program as soon as possible.

CHAPTER III IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF LANDS TIMBER PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION REQUIREMENTS AND MERCHANTABILITY STANDARDS

Purchasers of Idaho Department of Lands timber sales agree upon signature of the STATE OF IDAHO TIMBER SALE CONTRACT that, “Manufactured logs containing cull material or more than one type of forest product (sawlogs, pulp, cedar products, poles and usable fiber presented for adjustment) may be scaled to maximize the volume of the highest value product or products”. Minimum merchantability specifications are listed below. All logs are compared to these specifications in order of descending value to determine the final product classification. All species of IDL logs described in the timber sale contract presented for scaling will be scaled for sawlog classification first. Any logs which fail to meet the sawlog requirements will be rescaled in the pulp product classification, except cedar species, which will first be scaled for cedar product classification. Cedar material which does not meet the cedar product standards will be rescaled and recorded in the pulp classification. Each log segment is considered on its individual merits. Multi-segment logs containing more than one product class (combination logs) will be scaled as such.

I. SAWLOGS & TOPWOOD are the primary log classifications for the Idaho Department of Lands. Sawlogs are generally presented for scaling in round form, but fractional form logs and slabs will also be scaled by the methods described below. 1. Logs will be measured and recorded in 1’ multiples. 2. The minimum merchantability of net cubic scale in relation to gross cubic scale is one third (33⅓ %) for sawlogs. 3. The maximum trim allowance for sawlogs is 6”. 4. The maximum single segment log length is 20’ plus the 6” trim allowance. 5. The minimum single segment log length will generally be 8’1” for sawlogs. Merchantable pieces that were purposely cut shorter than 8’1” can be assessed a value by either the cubic scale method, the stacked cubic scale method, or by a piece count. 6. The minimum diameter is 2” actual measure, inside the bark for all species. The computer will determine at what point on the log the diameter will measure 5.51”. From this point, the computer will determine the length of the sawlog in 2’ multiples plus trim. This will be the sawlog portion of the log. The portion between the 2” diameter and the 5.51” diameter is topwood and will be assigned to the pulp classification. 7. The minimum lumber recovery length is 6’ for sawlogs.

8. The application of any defect deduction must always allow for net lumber recovery that is a multiple of 2’. 9. Log defects will be separated into two categories. Foreign objects in the wood and soft rot or voids and char (burned wood or charcoal) will be the only deductible defects (cull material). All other defects are reassigned to the pulp classification. 10. Forked tops logs generally will be scaled as two logs. The fork which is the most parallel to the rest of the log will be included with the long portion of the log. The fork which is the least parallel to the rest of the log will be scaled as a separate log if it is longer than 1’. This extra log will be scaled as a sawlog if it is 8’1” or longer, or as a pulp log if it is shorter than 8’1”. a. If neither fork is parallel to the long portion of the log, record each fork and the long portion separately. (Need picture??)

INSERT 21.22 – need to edit picture first

Figure 3-1 Forked Log With One Fork

The sawlog portion of this log would be 12’2” plus 36’8” for a total overall length of 48’10”. The scaling length would be 48’. The offset 5’8” fork would be scaled as a separate pulp log with a scaling length of 6’.

Figure 3-2 Forked Log With a Fork at the Butt End

This 35 log would have a 34’ scaling length sawlog and the 7’8” fork would be scaled as a separate 8’ pulp log. Figure 3-3 Forked Log With a Fork at the Top End

This log is 41’ plus 5’ for a total length of 46’. This log would be scaled as one log with a scaling length of 45’.

II. POLES will be scaled as sawlogs. Use the same merchantability specifications for poles as you would for sawlogs. III. FRACTIONAL FORM - SAWLOG, PULP AND CEDAR PRODUCTS are those logs that are missing ½ or less of the log’s original round form diameter for a portion or the entirety of the log’s length. This definition is necessary because scaling a fractional form log as a whole log and then also scaling the missing portion would overstate the gross cubic volume for that log. 1. Logs will be measured and recorded in 1’ multiples. 2. The minimum single segment log length will generally be 8’1” for sawlogs. Merchantable pieces that were intentionally cut shorter than 8’1” can be assessed a value by either the cubic scale method, the stacked volume method, or by a piece count. 3. The maximum trim allowance for sawlogs is 6”. 4. The maximum single segment log length is 20’ plus the 6” trim allowance. 5. The minimum top diameter for fractional form cedar species logs is 15”. For all other species of fractional form logs, the minimum top diameter is 21”. These

diameter-size requirements are necessary to ensure that the missing portion will be a merchantable slab size. 6. Cedar species logs smaller than 15” top diameter and species other than cedar logs with a top diameter smaller than 21” are treated as regular “logs in round form.” 7. Estimates for logs fractional form logs can be determined by equating the missing void in the circle of the diameter to a pie cut (½, ⅓, ¼, , ⅛) for the length affected. Reduce the gross cubic volume by the estimated fractional portion by selecting a ⅙ diameter which provides the volume closest to the estimated revised gross volume. 8. The minimum lumber recovery length is 6’ for sawlogs. 9. The application of any defect deduction must always allow for net lumber recovery that is a multiple of 2’. 10. Log defects will be separated into two categories. Foreign objects in the wood and soft rot or voids and char (burned wood or charcoal) will be the only deductible defects (cull material). All other defects are reassigned to the pulp classification.

Figure 3-4. Fractional form.

IV. SLAB FORM - SAWLOG, PULP, AND CEDAR PRODUCTS are those portions of logs estimated to be less than ½ the original diameter of the log in round form. 1. Logs will be measured and recorded in 1’ multiples. 2. Slabs and chunks are log portions that have been broken or slabbed from a whole log. Slabs are defined as being less than one half of the original diameter of the log. 3. All cedar slabs will be classified as cedar products unless cedar logs were intentionally split. The IDL forester in charge (FIC) will determine if intentional splitting has occurred. The FIC can provide written instructions to scale the slabs as sawlogs. These written instructions would need to be approved by the appropriate scaling representative and a copy to be available at the log yard where the slabs were delivered. 4. All log species slabs, other than cedar, will be scaled as pulp unless the FIC determines the logs were intentionally split. The FIC can provide instructions for scaling these slabs as sawlogs if approved by the appropriate scaling representative and a copy to be available at the log yard where the slabs were delivered. 5. The minimum single segment slab length will be 8’1”, unless the merchantable pieces were intentionally cut shorter than 8’1”. Slabs that were intentionally cut

less than 8’1” can be assessed a value by either the cubic scale method, the stacked volume method, or by a piece count. 6. The maximum trim allowance for sawlogs, cedar products and pulp is 6”. 7. The maximum single segment log length is 20’ plus the 6” trim allowance. 8. Take measurements dropping all fractions. 9. Measurements shall not be taken at points less than 5” thick. 10. Average the width and height measurements to determine the circular equivalent. 11. Do not include rot, excessive weather checking, or splitting when determining the slab dimensions. 12. Minimum slab size for cedar products in 3.5” by 6”.

Figure 3-5

Measuring Slabs and Chunks for log species other than cedar

The shaded areas are less than 5 inches thick and are not included in the measurement.

1 Example a: Gross measurements: 5" + 6" + 5" = 16" ÷ 3 = 5 3 " or 5" average height, 12" width

1 5" + 12" = 17" ÷ 2 = 8 2 " or 8" gross scaling diameter

1 Example b: Gross measurements: 5" + 8" = 13" ÷ 2 = 6 2 "or 6" average height, 10" width

6" + 10" = 16" ÷ 2 = 8" gross scaling diameter

Example c: Gross measurements: 5" height, 5" width

5" + 5" = 10" ÷ 2 = 5" gross scaling diameter

V. CEDAR PRODUCTS are defined as those cedar species segments which fail to meet the one third (33 ⅓ %) merchantability standard of a sawlog but are suitable for the manufacture of split/sawn cedar end-products rather than lumber. 1. Logs will be measured and recorded in 1’ multiples. 2. The minimum merchantable log length is generally 8’1” for cedar products. Merchantable cedar product pieces that were intentionally cut shorter than 8’1” can be assessed a value by either the cubic scale method, the stacked volume method, or by a piece count. 3. The minimum diameter is 5.51” inside the bark. 4. The minimum product recovery length is generally 6’ unless the logs were intentionally cut shorter than 8’1” to produce a specific product. 5. The maximum trim allowance is 6”. 6. The maximum single segment log length is 20’ plus 6” of trim. 7. The minimum log merchantability of net cubic scale in relation to gross cubic scale for cedar products is 20%. 8. A 3.5” or greater shell thickness is required for the outer shell and for suitable material in between rings of rot. 9. A minimum replaceable core of 8” is required. 10. The “give and take” procedure can be used when determining the defect dimensions. 11. The Smalian formula must be used to calculate defect volume. 12. For defecting cedar product rots use the circular defect method as opposed to the squared area method. 13. For ring rot defect, the defect volume is the difference between the volume of the outer core defect and the volume of the inner sound core. 14. Record any single occurring defect only when that defect meets a minimum volume of 0.5 cubic feet. 15. Deductible defects in cedar include voids, rot, crook, shatter, excessive flare, burls, large knots, and knot clusters. Voids and soft rot would be cull defects. All other defects would be reassigned to the pulp classification. 16. Do not deduct for heart checks, straight splits, and minor surface checking.

Figure 3-6 Calculating Circular Defect

Given:

D = Defect diameter large end = 20 inches d = Defect diameter small end = 15 inches L = Defect length

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = 0.002727 (D2 + d2) L = 0.002727 (202 + 152) 16 = 0.002727 (400 + 225) 16 = 0.002727 x 625 x 16 = 0.002727 x 10000 = 27.3 ft3 Figure 3-6 illustrates how to calculate circular defect in cedar product logs. Note that the log in Figure 3-6 has an outer shell thickness of sound wood that is greater than the minimum 3.5”.

38.32 - Exhibit 02 Calculating Multiple Ring Rot Defect

Given:

Recorded length = 18 feet

Rot diameters:

Outer:

Large end = 26 inches Small end = 20 inches

Inner:

Large end = 15 inches Small end = 11 inches

Defect and core volumes:

Outer (20" with 6" taper, 18' long) = 52.8 ft3 Inner (11" with 4" taper, 18' long) = 17.0 ft3

Defect volume( ft3 )= outer core volume - inner core volume = 52.8 - 17.0 = 35.8 ft3

Exhibit 02 illustrates how to calculate a log that has multiple rings. A log that has multiple rings must have 3.5 inches of sound wood between the rings, in order for the material between the rings to be considered usable. For multiple ring rot defects, the defect volume is the difference between the volume of the outer ring defect and the volume of the inner sound core, when there is less than 3.5 inches of sound wood between the rings. If there is 3.5 inches or more of sound wood between the rings, then each ring rot defect is treated as a single ring of rot. For single ring rot defects, the defect volume is the difference between the volume of the outer ring defect and the volume of the inner sound core. Exhibit 02 illustrates how to calculate multiple ring rot defects. In the exhibit, the sound wood between the rings is less than 3.5 inches on each side.

37.32 - Exhibit 01 Calculating Circular Defect

Given:

D = Defect diameter large end = 14 inches d = Defect diameter small end = 10 inches L = Defect length

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = 0.002727 (D2 + d2) L = 0.002727 (142 + 102) 13 = 0.002727 (196 + 100) 13 = 0.002727 x 296 x 13 = 0.002727 x 3848 = 10.5 ft3

37.32 - Exhibit 02 Calculating Circular Defect

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = 0.002727 (D2 + d2) L = 0.002727 (82 + 82) 9 = 0.002727 (64 + 64) 9 = 0.002727 x 128 x 9 = 0.002727 x 1152 = 3.1 ft3

For ring rot defect, the defect volume is the difference between the volume of the outer core defect and the volume of the inner chipable core.

37.32 - Exhibit 03 Calculating Ring Rot Defect

Given:

Recorded length = 14 feet

Rot diameters:

Outer:

Large end = 15 inches

Small end = 13 inches

Inner:

Large end = 9 inches Small end = 7 inches

Defect and core volumes:

Outer (13" with 2" taper, 14' long) = 15.0 ft3

Inner (7" with 2" taper, 14' long) = 5.0 ft3

Defect volume( ft3 ) = outer core volume - inner core volume = 15.0 - 5.0 = 10.0 ft3

VI. PULP is defined as any log material that can be chipped for paper products or burned as fuel. Any log species other than cedar, which do not meet the one third (33 ⅓ %) merchantability standard of a sawlog will be classified as pulp. Cedar species logs which do not meet the one third (33⅓ %) merchantability standard of a saw log will be scaled as a cedar product log under the cedar product rules. Log defects in sawlogs such as crook, sweep, checks, firm rots, shatter, breaks, pitch or shake rings, massed pitch, knots, or spangle will be recorded as pulp in all log species. 1. Logs will be measured and recorded in 1’ multiples. 2. There is no minimum merchantability amount for cubic scaled pulp. 3. Minimum length for pulp is 1’. 4. Minimum top diameter for pulp is 2”. 5. For pulp delivered in log form, the maximum trim allowance will be 6” and the maximum single segment log length is 20’ plus the 6” trim allowance. 6. Foreign objects in the wood and soft rot or voids, and char (burned wood or charcoal) will be the only defects deductions in whole pulp logs and in those portions of a sawlog that have been reassigned to the pulp classification. 7. Pulp can be scaled by the stacked cubic volume method. See the instructions for this method in section VII. VII. STACKED CUBIC VOLUME is a measurement technique used for timber products that are in a stack. Firewood or cedar products are sometimes measured stacked or in log form on a truck or trailer because of their low value. 1. Obtain a length, height, and width measurement in feet and inches with the inch measurements converted to tenths of a foot.

2. When the height, width or length sides are uneven, measure both ends then average the two for the final number. 3. Mentally “fill in the holes” to square up the stack when varying lengths are involved. 4. Convert all inch measurements to tenths of a foot. 1” = .083 4” = .333 7” = .583 10” = .833 2” = .167 5” = .417 8” = .667 11” = .917 3” = .250 6” = .500 9” = .750

5. Cubic foot calculation: ft³ = L x H x W L = length of stack in feet and tenths of a foot H = height of stack in feet and tenths of a foot W = width of stack in feet and tenths of a foot 6. Defect is not considered when accessing stacked cubic volume material. 7. Solid wood content is calculated by use of conversion factors. Such conversion factors vary depending on length, diameter class, bark thickness, piling standards, settling and other factors. Use the table in appendix ? for estimates of solid wood for some types of products. Conversion factors could be derived for specific products if local factors would better reflect wood content.

32' 7.5'

Figure 3-5 8'

Figure 3-6

Example: Using the load dimensions in Figure 3-5 and 3-6 and the above formula illustrates how to determine the cubic foot volume of the truck load of pulp or firewood, where the average height is 8', the average width is 7.5' and the average length is 32'. When inserted into the formula: (8.0 x 7.5 x 32) = 1920 ft3. Using the appropriate conversion factor, this load would = approximately 1125 ft3 of solid wood.

Example: Figures 4-30 and 4-31 illustrate a truckload of firewood or cedar shake bolts. Using the load dimensions shown and the conversion formula above where the average height is 4', the average width is 6' and the average length is 8', then (4.0 x 6.0 x 8.0) = 192 ft3.

CHAPTER IV IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF LANDS LOG MEASUREMENTS AND CUBIC FOOT GROSS SCALE DETERMINATION I. Log Measurements. Measurement is basic to scaling. The scaler must determine two measurements. The scaling length and the scaling diameter are both necessary to arrive at the gross volume of a log. Once these measurements have been accurately determined, the scale is computed by using the appropriate log rule.

II. Measuring and Recording Log Length. 1. Logs will be measured and recorded in 1’ multiples. 2. Logs will be measured from short side to short side of saw cut logs.

3. Measure logs with partial saw cut and breakage at the saw cut point.

4. For broken ends, measure from the point where the remaining wood fiber balances the voids and record to the nearest lower 2’ multiple plus full (6”) trim.

III. Segmenting Logs. See Table I, Appendix 1. Logs longer than the 20’ maximum will be segmented into two or more segments as close to the same length as practicable while allowing for the maximum trim allowance of 6” per segment. Actual length = 39' 0" – Scaling length = 38'

18' + 6" trim 20' + 6" trim 16" 19" 18'scaling length 20' scaling length

Shorter segment in small end Longer segment in large end

2. Multiple segment logs are generally divided into lengths that are in multiples of 2’. 3. When a log is divided into unequal lengths, the shorter segment should be assumed to be the small end of the log, and the longer segment to be the large end of the log. 4. The resulting length after correctly segmenting is referred to as the “scaling length” for each individual segment. 5. Each segment will be considered on its individual merits.

IV. Measuring log diameters. 1. The difference between the small end diameter and the large end diameter (or butt diameter) of a multi-segment log is referred as the log taper. 2. Measure log diameters inside the bark at the both the small end and large end of saw cut logs. 3. Measure through the true center of the log, not the center as shown by growth rings and pith. 4. Avoid abnormal bumps, breakage, brooming, burls, and knots as much as possible. Treat these conditions as nonexistent. 5. Reconstruct minor missing pieces and depressions. If the missing portion would meet the slab form specifications, deduct the percent missing from the cubic gross scale and record as fractional form log. 6. For catfaced log ends, when less than ⅓ of the diameter is missing, mentally project the diameter through the void to reconstruct the diameter. When ⅓ or more of the circumference is affected, take a diameter inside the affected area as in examples below.

Figure 4-10. Figure 4-11. Figure 4-12.

7. For log ends with portions of missing sapwood measure as for a green log and deduct the estimated void amount from the gross scale as defect. When all of the sapwood has sloughed away, determine the scaling diameter by measuring the remaining wood by the appropriate method. 8. When diameters cannot be measured accurately on log ends due to abnormalities such as broken ends, crotched ends or logs bucked through branch whorls, measure the smallest average diameter above or below the abnormality. Whether using calipers or measuring across the log with a scale stick, measure the diameter inside the bark.

Figure 4-13. Points of measurement for log with crotch.

Figure 4-14. Forked log with one fork broken or sawed off.

9. Where possible, read the scale stick directly from the end of the log; not obliquely from the side. 10. Take a pair of measurements with the short diameter axis being the first measurement. Measure the second diameter axis exactly at a right angle to the first measurement. The average of these two measurements will be the “scaling diameter”.

Example 1: 16” 18" Each measurement is rounded to the nearest inch and the average of the two measurements is the scaling diameter. (16” + 18”) ÷ 2 = 17”, which is the scaling diameter.

16" Example 2: 17" (16" + 17") ÷ 2 = 16½". Drop the ½"; 16" is the scaling diameter.

11. If one diameter measurement coincides with the ½ mark, round the diameter up to the next diameter.

16"

Example 3: 17 1/2" 17½" is raised to 18". (16” + 18”) ÷ 2 = 17”, which is the scaling diameter.

12. If both diameter measurements coincides with the ½ mark, round one up and one down.

Example 4: 16½" is raised to 17"; 17½" drops to 17". (17" + 17") ÷ 2 = 17", which is the 16 1/2" 17 1/2" scaling diameter.

V. Measuring of Log Butts. 1. Determine if the log end is a butt. Physical characteristics of a butt include, flare, flutes, paint marks, absence of limbs, thicker bark, undercuts, hinges, stump pull, expanded wood grain, and breakage, shear or circular saw marks left by mechanical fellers. 2. Measure the butt in the same manner as measuring a top diameter or a second cut diameter. Measure inside the bark through the true center of the log, not the center as shown by growth rings and pith.

3. Avoid abnormal bumps, breakage, brooming, burls, and knots as much as possible. Treat these conditions as nonexistent.

Scaling diameter illustrated by dotted lines

4. Reconstruct minor missing pieces and depressions. 5. Determine the scaling diameter from these measurements using the same rules given for a top or second cut diameter. 6. The computer will use a predetermined factor to determine the log diameter 4’ up from the end of the butt. This factor may vary by log specie.

VI. Determining Log Volume by Table Look-up. The Cubic Foot Log Volume Appendix is used to determine the gross log volume. Instructions for using the table are included.

CHAPTER V IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF LANDS NET CUBIC FOOT DETERMINATION

I. Net Cubic Scale. Net cubic scale is defined as the cubic foot volume remaining after deductions for defects have been made from the cubic gross volume. Net cubic scale includes that volume that is usable for products such as lumber, poles, veneer, split cedar produces, and pulp. Scaling addressed the quantity of usable product that may be produced from a log. The quality of the product is address by lumber graders and is not to be taken into consideration when scaling logs.

II. Log Defect and Log Defect Categories Defined.

1. The reduction of the amount of volume for the manufacture of lumber, veneer, or split cedar products because unsound wood or an abnormal shape, is referred to as defect. 2. Log defects are divided into two categories. a. Defects which result in a loss to the volume of lumber, veneer, or split cedar products which can be produced but remain sound enough for a secondary products such as chips or fuel are classified as pulp. b. Defects such as soft rots or voids, foreign material in a log, and char (burned wood or charcoal) will be deducted from the gross cubic scale and not re-appropriated to the pulp classification. 3. The IDL does not deduct for mechanical damage when caused by negligence or mishandling by the purchaser or their contractors. 4. Natural defects can include those caused by fungus, worms, wind, heavy snow, ice, fire, and some unavoidable logging damage. Logging defects generally occur during or after the logging process. Some unavoidable logging defects will be deducted by the IDL. 5. Unforeseen conditions may cause purchasers of IDL timber sales abnormal delays in removing log products from the sale area. These logs may remain in the woods long enough to cause sap rot or weather checks, or to allow invasion by wood- boring insects. The IDL scaler may be directed in writing from the Forester-in- Charge (FIC) of the timber sale and approved by the Senior Scaler to disregard this delayed defect and not deduct for it. These written instructions from the timber sale FIC not to deduct for defect caused by abnormal delay will serve as written agreement to differ from IBSP and IDL net scale rules. These written scaling instructions must be available on the landing where the subject logs are to be scaled.

6. Defects such as checks, breaks, pitch or shake rings, spangle, firm rot, large or closely spaced knots, grain distortion, massed pitch, sweep, and crook will be reclassified as pulp.

III. Basic Defect Deduction Rules.

1. Record defect volume to the nearest 0.5 cubic foot. 2. Record any single occurring defect only when that defect meets a minimum volume of 0.5 cubic feet before rounding. 3. Actual defect dimensions will be used to determine defect volume. 4. Maintain even 2 foot multiples in the unaffected log portion, when considering the defect’s extent. 5. Use the following guidelines when assessing defect. a. A minimum board size is approximately 1” x 4” x 6’. b. The maximum scaling length for one segment is 20’. c. Compensate for the part of a cylinder or cone shaped rot by adjusting the length of the defect. d. The minimum defect length is 4’. e. When computing average defect dimensions, round average defect dimensions ending in 0.5 to the nearest even whole number. For example, 6.5” would be 6” and 9.5” would be 10” of defect. 6. No deduction is made for discoloration of firm stain; however discoloration or stain may indicate there is a deductible defect somewhere in the log and closer inspection is necessary. a. Blue stain may be accompanied by worm holes or sap rot. b. Black stain may indicate there is metal in the log. c. Red or orange iron stain may indicate Indian Paint or a scar. d. Chocolate colored brown stain may indicate there is pini or quinine rot in the log. e. Green stain found in Douglas fir is common and does not indicate the presence of deductible fungus rot. 7. More than one defect deduction method may be applicable when assessing a single defect. The scaler must evaluate the methods in order to determine which method is the most appropriate to use. Check one method of deduction against another and use the method that deducts the least volume. Do not use rules of thumb. 8. No deduction should be made for unseen defects that cannot be determined by good scaling practices. 9. More than one defect deduction method may be used to deduct for multiple defects in a log. Accurate scaling includes selecting the most appropriate scaling

method to apply to the defect being considered. Accurate scaling also includes applying the appropriate defect method or methods in the correct order to prevent deducting for a defect more than once. 10. Use four decimal places for unrounded figures when calculating manually.

IV. Determining the Extent of Defect in Logs.

1. Locating the surface indicators of defect and making reasonable decisions concerning those indicators is one of the scaler’s primary tasks after the log’s specie and the correct gross cubic scale have been determined. 2. Apprenticeship with experienced scalers, mill studies, and check scales are the means by which scalers gain efficiency in this area of scaling. Experience in identifying log defect and the ability to make reasonable decisions with the available information is a primary qualification of a competent scaler and is highly regarded. 3. Surface indicators include rotten knots, scars, cat faces, seams, swells, depressions, crooks, breakage, stains, abnormal textures of the wood or the tree bark, abnormal water content, abnormal dryness, and abnormal textures. These indicators may help the scaler find hidden defect and determine the extent of that defect.

V. Methods of Defect Deduction.

1. There are six defecting methods. Use of these methods requires skill and judgment developed through training, experience, periodic mill visits, and check scales. a. Length-cut method b. Diameter-reduction method c. Squared area defect method d. Rings e. Pie- or percentage-cut method f. Circular Area deduction method a. This deduction method is used exclusively for pulp round wood and cedar products. 2. When more than one defect method could be applied, use the defect method which takes the least volume. 3. A defect deduction, excepting voids, char and foreign objects, results in reassignment of that defective portion of the log to the pulp classification for payment and inventory purposes.

a. LENGTH CUT METHOD 1. Length cut is a defect method that reduces the length of the log segment. 2. The length cut method can be used in deductions for sweep, crook, fire scar, knot clusters, large burls, pitch spangles, crotched ends, massed pitch, breakage, foreign objects, char, and fungus rots. 3. When the defect affects a large portion of the end area of a log, a length deduction, rather than squared area, may be the applicable defect deduction method. Use the length deduction method when the measured defect diameter is equal to or exceeds the diameter shown in Appendix ? – Length Cut Table. 4. When the defect is cone shaped, adjust the defect length to allow for recoverable products along the sides of the rot.

Figure 5-1 Length Deduction Applies

Given:

Small end diameter = 17 inches Large end defect diameter = 12 inches Defect length = 8 feet Adjusted defect length = 4 feet

Defect is cone-shaped rot. The defect length is adjusted to allow for recoverable products along the sides of the cone.

Referring to Appendix ? - Length Cut Table, a 17-inch diameter segment with a measured defect diameter of 12 inches is equal to the defect diameter listed in the table; therefore, a 4-foot length deduction is made.

Figure 5-2 Squared Area Deduction Applies

Given:

Small end diameter = 26 inches Large end defect diameter = 18 inches

Referring to Appendix 4 - Length Cut Table for a 26-inch diameter segment with an 18-inch defect diameter, the measured defect diameter of 18 inches does not equal or exceed the table value of 21 inches; therefore, the squared area method is used to make the deduction.

5. Use the length cut method to deduct for defects that affect a portion of the log length. Determine the defect percent by dividing the defect length by segment length. Determine defect volume by multiplying the defect percent by the gross volume. Figure 5-3 Defect in Single Segment Log

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Gross volume = 31.6 ft3 Defect length = 8 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = segment length

8 = 100x 50%= 16

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent 0.5 x 31.6 = = 31.6 x 0.5 15.8 = 15.8 ft3

Figure 5-4 Example of Defect In Two-Segment Log

Given:

Recorded log length = 32 feet Segment lengths = 16 feet Small end segment gross volume = 39.8 ft3 Small end segment defect length = 2 feet Large end segment gross volume = 47.7 ft3 Large end segment defect length = 4 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = 100x segment length 2 Small end segment = x100 = 12.5% 16 4 Large end segment = =x100 %52 16

Determine defect volume:

3 Defect volume ( ft ) = gross volume x defect percent Small end segment = 39.8 x 0.125 = 4.98 = 5.0 ft3 Large end segment = 47.7 x 0.25 = 11.93 = 11.9 ft3 Total defect volume ( ft3 ) = 5.0 + 11.9 = 16.9 ft3

6. Use the length deduction method combined with percent when only a portion of the end area is affected. Estimate the percent of the log end area affected in whole percents and the length affected in feet.

Figure 5-5 Example Length With Percent Deduction

Given:

Gross volume = 65.0 ft3 Defect affects 25 percent of the end area for the full length.

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent 3 = 65.0 x 0.25 = =16.25 16.3 ft

Figure 5-6 Example Length With Percent Deduction

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Gross volume = 32.6 ft3 Defect affects 50 percent of 8 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = x percent end area affected segment length 8 = x 5. = .25x100 = 25% 16

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent 3 8.2 = 0.25 x 32.6 = 32.6 x 0.25 = 8.2 ft

b. DIAMETER REDUCTION METHOD 1. The diameter reduction method reduces the diameter of the log segment. 2. The diameter reduction method can be used in deductions for sap rot, weather checks, shallow catfaces, perimeter rings (i.e. a ring within 2.5” from the outside of the diameter), char, and knots that cause a loss of merchantable material. Use the diameter deduction method for perimeter rings, which are rings that are 2.5 inches or less from the perimeter of the log. If multiple perimeter rings are less than 2.5 inches apart, use the diameter deduction method to eliminate all perimeter rings.

Figure 5-7 Perimeter Ring

Given:

Recorded log length = 14 feet Small end diameter = 25 inches Large end diameter = 27 inches Small end ring diameter = 20 inches Large end ring diameter = 22 inches Gross volume = 51.7 ft3

Determine net volume and defect volume:

Reduced small end diameter = 25 - 5 = 20 Reduced large end diameter = 27 - 5 = 22 Net volume (20 inches x 22 inches x 14 feet) = 33.7 ft3 Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume - net volume

18.0 = 33.7 - 51.7 = 51.7 - 33.7 = 18.0 ft3

Use the diameter deduction method combined with percent when only a portion of the circumference is affected.

Figure 5-8 Example Diameter With Percent Deduction

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume - net volume x percent circumference affected 3 9.0 = .33 x 46.2) - (73.5 = (73.5 - 46.2) x .33 = 9.0 ft

Sap rot affects one-third of the circumference. Determine a total sap rot deduction as in exhibit 01, and deduct one-third of the total defect volume.

c. SQUARED AREA DEDUCTION METHOD 1. The squared area deduction method removes a square or rectangular volume for an interior defect. 2. When multiple squared area defects occur in the same end of a log, they must be measured at right angles to one another. 3. The squared area defect can be used for heart checks, frost cracks and seams, pitch checks, partial rings, stump pull, seams caused by insect damage, pecky rot and fungus rots. 4. Squared defect is calculated by the following formula: Defect volume (ft³) = W x H x L 144 Where: ft³ = cubic feet W = width of defect (inches) H = height of defect (inches) L = length of defect (feet)

Figure 5-9 Defect Showing in One End of Log

Given:

W = 14 inches H = 22 inches L = 6 feet

Determine defect volume:

L x H x W x H x L 14 x 22 x 6 1848 Defect volume ( ft3 ) = = = = 12.8 ft3 144 144 144

When the same defect appears on both ends of a single segment log, determine the average defect width and height. When computing average defect dimensions, round calculations ending in 0.5 to the nearest even whole number. For example, round 6.5 to 6 and 9.5 to 10.

Figure 5-10 Defect Showing in Both Ends of Single Segment Log

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Small end defect W = 5 inches Large end defect W = 10 inches Small end defect H = 10 inches Large end defect H = 20 inches Defect length = 16 feet

Average defect dimensions:

5) + (10 + 5) 15 = W W = = = 7.5 (round to nearest even whole number) = 8 inches 2 2 10) + (20 + 10) 30 H = = = 15 inches 2 2

Determine defect volume:

L x H x W x H x L 8 x 15 x 16 1920 Defect volume ( ft 3 =) = = = 13.3 ft3 144 144 144

When defect appears on both ends of a multi-segment log, defect taper must be calculated prior to determining the average defect dimensions for each segment. The procedure is the same as taper distribution of log diameters on multi-segment logs, (sec. 21.44a - Distribution of Even

Taper, and sec. 21.44b - Distribution of Uneven Taper). Taper for width and height dimensions are calculated separately. Figure 5-11 Defect Showing in Both Ends of a Two-Segment Log

Given:

Recorded log length = 24 feet Segment lengths = 12 feet Small end defect W = 2 inches Large end defect W = 5 inches Small end defect H = 5 inches Large end defect H = 8 inches Defect length = 24 feet

Determine defect dimensions and defect volume:

Use defect taper to determine the defect dimensions at the segment break. Subtract small end defect dimensions from large end defect dimensions. The result is the total taper for both width and height dimensions. If necessary, raise total taper to make it evenly divisible by the number of segments. Divide the total taper by the number of segments and the result is the amount of taper assigned to the top segment. If the log contains more than two segments, subtract the taper assigned to the top segment from the total taper, and then distribute the remaining taper to the other segments following the same procedure.

Width dimensions:

4 1 3 2)-(5 W 2)-(5 3 1 =+== 4 inches 4 = 2 + 2 (small end dim ension ) = 4 inch width at segment break 2

Height dimensions:

4 1 3 5)-(8 H 5)-(8 3 1 =+== 4 inches 4 = 2 + 5 (small end dim ension ) = 7 inch height at segment break 2

Small End Segment:

Average defect dimensions: Determine defect volume:

+ 2)(4 W= = 3 inches 2 L x H x W x H x L Defect volume ( ft 3 ) = 144 + 5)(7 H= = 6 inches 2 12 x 6 x 3 x 6 x 12 216 = == 1.5 ft 3 144 144 Large End Segment:

Average defect dimensions: Determine defect volume:

L x H x W x H x L Defect volume ( ft 3 ) = 144 + 4)(5 W= = 4.5 * or 4 inches 2 12 x 8 x 4 x 8 x 12 384 = == 2.7 ft 3 144 144 + 7)(8 H= = 7.5 * or 8 inches 2

*Round to nearest even whole number.

Figure 5-12 Example Pecky Rot Squared Area Method

Peck closer than 2.0” apart, squared area deduction. Peck 2.0” or more apart, no deduction.

Squared area deduction for large peck, when calculations equal 0.2 cubic feet or more.

1. Defect Deduction Methods.

2. Calculate largest squared area first; take each subsequent squared area at right angles.

When edges of squares result in squared areas closer than 2.0" use the give and take method to obtain squared area dimensions for the entire area affected by pecky rot.

d. RING DEDUCTION METHOD 1. The ring deduction method is used for rings that are 6” or more in diameter and those that are 2.5” or more from the perimeter of the log diameter. 2. Use actual ring dimensions. 3. When the ring extends through the full length of the log measured the ring on both ends. Subtract the small end ring diameter from the large end ring diameter and round this number up to the next number that can be evenly divisible by the number of segments in the log. This is the total ring taper. Divide total ring taper by the number of log segments. This result when added to the small end ring diameter will be the large end ring diameter of the log first log segment and small end ring diameter of the second log segment. For three segment logs, add the derived amount to the second small end ring diameter. This will be the large end ring diameter of the second segment and small end ring diameter of the third segment, and so on for each log segment. 4. When a ring is visible only on one end of the log, use taper of the log to estimate the ring’s hidden diameter and estimate the distance the ring extends into the log. 5. Ring defect is calculated using the following formula:

Defect volume (feet cubed) = core volume x 0.273 (27.3%) area of square – area of circle Factor = area of circle

= D² - 0.7854 D² = 0.273 or 27.3% .7854 D²

Where: D = Side of the square and the diameter of the inscribed circle (diameter of the ring.)

Figure 5-5 Volume Loss Due to Ring Defect

6. The ring diameter of the top of the log segment and the ring diameter of the large end segment are both multiplied by this 0.273 factor. The two resulting figures are then added together. This is the total defect for a single ring.

Figure 5-6 Ring Defect

Given: Core dimensions = 8 inches x 10 inches x 17 feet Core volume unrounded = 7.602873 ft3

Determine defect volume: Defect volume ( ft3 ) = core volume unrounded x 0.273

2.1 = 0.273 x = 7.602873 x 0.273 = 2.1 ft3

Figure 5-7 Pitch Ring 6.0 Inches or Greater

Given:

Recorded log length = 32 feet Segment lengths = 16 feet Small end ring diameter = 7 inches Large end ring diameter = 11 inches

Determine defect dimensions:

Use defect taper to determine the defect dimensions at the segment break. Subtract small end defect dimensions from large end defect dimensions. Subtract small end ring diameter from large end ring diameter. The result is the total ring taper. If necessary, raise total taper to make it evenly divisible by the number of segments. Divide the total taper by the number of segments and the result is the amount of taper assigned to the top segment.

4 7 - 11 11 - 7 = 4 inches total ring taper 4 = 2 + 7 (small end ring diam eter ) = 9 inch ring at segment break 2

Determine core dimensions and core volume:

Small end segment = 7 inches x 9 inches x 16 feet = 5.67216 ft3 core volume unrounded Large end segment = 9 inches x 11 inches x 16 feet = 8.813664 ft3 core volume unrounded

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = core volume unrounded x 0.273 Small end segment = 5.67216 x .273 = 1.5 ft3 Large end segment = 8.813664 x .273 = 2.4 ft3 Total defect volume ( ft3) = 1.5 + 2.4 = 3.9 ft3

Use the squared area method to determine defect volume when the ring diameter is less than 6.0 inches.

7. When two rings are 2.5” or less apart, multiply the unrounded outer ring by 1.273, then subtract the volume of the inner core.

Figure 5-8 Example of Multiple Rings: 2.5 Inches or Less Apart

Given: Recorded log length = 14 feet Outer ring diameters Small end = 11 inches Large end = 13 inches Inner ring diameters Small end = 7 inches Large end = 9 inches

Determine core dimensions and core volume: Outer core = 11 inches x 13 inches x 14 feet = 11.07162 ft3 Inner core = 7 inches x 9 inches x 14 feet = 5.0 ft3

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = coreouter volume unrounded x 1.273 - coreinner volume

= 5.0 - 1.273 x 1.071621 = 1.071621 x 1.273 - 5.0 = 14.1 - 5.0 = 9.1 ft3

8. Multiple rings that more than 2.5” apart are calculated using the same method as single rings. Compute each ring separately and add the deductions together.

Figure 5-9 Example of Multiple Rings: Over 2.5 Inches Apart

When two full rings are over 2.5 inches apart, measure diameters of both rings. Compute separately and add deductions together.

Given:

Recorded log length = 14 feet Outer ring diameters Small end = 13 inches Large end = 15 inches Inner ring diameters Small end = 7 inches Large end = 9 inches

Determine core dimensions and core volume:

Outer core = 13 inches x 15 inches x 14 feet = 15.042132 ft3 Inner core = 7 inches x 9 inches x 14 feet = 4.96314 ft3

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = core volume unrounded x 0.273 Outer ring = 15.042132 x .273 = 4.1 Inner ring = 4.96314 x .273 = 1.4 Total defect volume ( ft3) = 4.1 + 1.4 = 5.5 ft3

e. PIE OR PERCENTAGE CUT METHOD 1. The pie or percentage cut method removes a percentage of the log’s volume when the defect can be enclosed in a sector of a circle. This method is also used in combination with the other defect methods when only a portion of the area is effective. One half of a 2’ length cut or one quarter of a 2” diameter reduction are two examples. 2. Scars, catfaces, worm holes, rotten knots, and weather checks can be deducted using the percentage cut method. 3. Extend the percentage cut for the length of the defect keeping in mind the required 6’ minimum merchantable lumber length.

Figure 5-10 Example Length With Percent Deduction

Given:

Gross volume = 65.0 ft3 Defect affects 25 percent of the end area for the full length.

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent

16.3 =16.25 = 0.25 x 65.0 = 65.0 x 0.25 = =16.25 16.3 ft3

Figure 5-11 Example Length With Percent Deduction

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Gross volume = 32.6 ft3 Defect affects 50 percent of 8 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = x percent end area affected segment length

8 = x 5. = .25x100 = 25% 16

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent

8.2 = 0.25 x 32.6 = 32.6 x 0.25 = 8.2 ft3

22.41f - Exhibit 04 Pecky Rot Percent Deduction Method

Peck less than 2.0” apart, 25% deduction for the length affected.

Peck 2.0” or more apart, no deduction.

3. Extent of Pecky Rot. In the absence of other indicators, use the following rules to determine extent of pecky rot. a. Single Segment Logs. (1) When only one end contains pecky rot, calculate and extend the actual dimensions of any deductible peck through one-half of the segment length in even, two foot multiples.

COMBINING DEDUCTION METHODS FOR MULTIPLE DEFECTS 1. Generally the correct order of application proceeds in the following sequence to insure that defects reductions are not duplicated. a. Length-cut method b. Diameter-reduction method c. Squared area defect method d. Rings e. Pie- or percentage-cut method 2. Use a “give and take” method when sizing up defects. 3. When butt rot is extensive enough to require a length cut and there is a stem rot continuing through the length of the log, apply the actual log taper to the rot’s top diameter for the rot’s butt diameter for the portion that remains. The squared area method, ring method, or multiple ring method would be used on this length that remains.

VI. DEDUCTION METHODS FOR COMMON TYPES OF DEFECT

BREAKAGE 1. To determine the gross cubic scale of a broken ended log, locate the point where the wood fiber balances the voids and record to the nearest lower, even, two-foot multiple 21.2 - Exhibit 02 Length Measurement of Log With an Angled Break at One End

When both log ends are broken, locate the measurement point at one end where wood fiber balances the voids (ex. 03). Measure to the other end where wood fiber balances the voids and record to the nearest lower, even, two-foot multiple.

2. Defects determined to be caused by mechanical damage will not result in a deduction by IDL scalers. 3. For splits caused from falling damage, use a length cut, diameter reduction, percentage deduction, or squared area deduction and reassign that volume to the pulp classification. Exhibit 01 illustrates how to calculate defect volume for shatter defects. Due to presence of shatter, 7 feet of the large end segment would fall apart, and may be a safety hazard when subjected to the debarking process. Use the length deduction method to determine the defect volume.

37.46a - Exhibit 01 Log With Shatter

Given:

Large end segment gross volume = 48.4 ft3

Defect length = 8 feet

defect length Defect volume ( ft3 ) = x gross segment volume segment length 8 = x 48.4 16 48.4 x 0. = 0. 5. x 48.4 .22 = = 4.22 ft3

4. Generally a split through the center of a log will be reduced by one-half the distance of the split using the length cut method. Assess multiple splits or off center splits using this method as a guideline. 5. For voids caused from falling damage use the percentage of a length cut method, a percentage of a diameter deduction, or the squared area deduction method and deduct that volume from the total gross cubic volume of the log as cull product. 22.32a - Exhibit 02 Example Length With Percent Deduction

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Gross volume = 32.6 ft3 Defect affects 50 percent of 8 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = x percent end area affected segment length

8 = x 5. = .25x100 = 25% 16

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent

8.2 = 0.25 x 32.6 = 32.6 x 0.25 = 8.2 ft3

BURLS, CANKERS, SINGLE KNOT CLUSTERS, and MISTLETOE GALLS 1. Burls, knot clusters and mistletoe galls can be deducted for using the pie cut method or a percentage of a length cut. The amount of the percentage would be determined by the size of the log. 2. A burl usually penetrates a log to approximately the same depth as the burl protrudes above the surface of the log. 3. The following example shows a 3’ long burl, 8” wide, 8’ up from the end of the log on one end of its ends, and 5’ up from the end of the log on the other end. Since there would not be 6’ lumber recovery the deduction would be a percentage of an 8’ length cut. In this case the deduction would be one-half of an 8’ length cut. 4. This deduction amount would be reassigned to the pulp classification.

16' 3' 5'

8" 16"

Figure 5-12. Log with a burl.

CHAR AND BURNED WOOD 1. Char and burned wood are deducted as voids. The affected area is deducted as cull material from the gross scale of all log classifications. 2. Deduct for burned wood using the length cut method. Apply the length cut in 2’ multiples to the affected area. The remaining portion must meet minimum sawlog specifications for length. 3. If the remaining unaffected portion does not meet minimum length specifications for a sawlog, then that portion will be recorded as pulp. 4. Burned wood (char) in sawlogs will be deducted using a diameter cut, pie cut, or length cut for the portion of the log affected.

**Insert new example for log w/ char

CROOK AND SWEEP

1. An abrupt curve or bend in a log is called crook. A gradual curve is referred to as sweep. Crook in the butt end of a log is called a pistol butt. Severe crook where the grain exceeds 3 inches per foot from straight is defined as cross grain material and would be deducted in its entirety. Measure for grain deviation by projecting a straight line down the center of the segment starting from the longest straight portion.

Figure 5-13 Crook: Length Deduction for Cross Grain

4’

RL 14’

20”

In Figure 5-13, 4 feet of length is affected by crook. Grain deviation measures 20 inches in 4 feet, or 5 inches in 1 foot, which exceeds 3 inches per foot. Due to cross grain, the length deduction is the full 4 feet.

Given:

Recorded log length = 14 feet Gross volume = 19.6 ft3 Grain deviation exceeds 3 inches per foot Defect length = 4 feet

Determine defect volume:

defect length Defect volume ( ft3 ) = x gross volume segment length

4 = x 19.6 = .2857 x 19.6 = 5.6 ft3 14

2. For sweep where cross grain is not present, determine the percentage loss for void while including in the deduction that portion of the log that will not produce the 6’ lumber minimum lumber length

Figure 5-14 Sweep: Length With Percent Deduction

In Figure 5-14, 4 feet of length is affected by sweep. A length cut of 20% of 4’ is taken for the loss to lumber merchantability. In this case the equivalent of the loss for manufacturing is still present, so the 20% of 4’ is reassigned to the pulp classification.

Given:

Recorded log length = 12 feet Gross volume = 19.0 ft3 Defect length = 20 percent of 4 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = x percent end area affected segment length

4 = x 20 = 06666x100. = 6.66% 12

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent

= 19.0 x .06666 = 1.3 ft3 3. Use the length cut method of deduction or a percentage of the length cut method for crook, sweep pistol butt, and cross grain.

Figure 5-15 Crook: Length Deduction for Cross Grain

In figure 5-15, 2 feet of length is affected by crook. Grain deviation for the affected 2 feet measures 12 inches, or 6 inches in 1 foot, which exceeds 3 inches per foot. A 6-foot portion and an 8-foot portion remain on either side of the crook and are parallel to, or on the same plane, as each other. The length deduction is the full 2-foot portion containing cross grain. If the remaining portions on either side of the defect would not produce 6-foot lumber recovery or were not parallel and on the same plane, the deduction would include those portions. This defect would be reassigned to the pulp classification.

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Gross volume = 25.3 ft3 Grain deviation exceeds 3 inches per foot Defect length = 2 feet

Determine defect volume:

defect length Defect volume ( ft3 ) = x gross volume segment length

2 = x 25.3 = .125 x 25.3 = 3.2 ft3 16

4. Sweep, crook, and cross grain affect the manufactures ability to produce lumber but these defects do not result in an actual loss of material. Therefore, reassign the deductions for sweep, crook, and cross grain to the pulp classification as long as an equivalent of material from the void being deducted for is present on the opposing side of the log.

FUNGUS DEFECTS - OVERVIEW

1. Fungi, which cause decay, create a major volume loss in the Idaho tree species that are used for production of lumber, wood chips, and cedar products. The fungi organisms consist of microscopic filaments that are able to penetrate, break down and use the wood cells for food. After this feeding activity and the resulting decay of wood have progressed enough, reproductive structures, commonly known as “conks,” develop on the decaying wood. In both scaling and cruising, these conks are helpful as indicators of decay. When fungi have invaded the tree, the log ends often are discolored and softer in texture than a healthy tree. The log ends may also be dryer than normal or wetter than

normal. Because the actual conk is often scraped off during the logging process the scaler needs to examine the logs thoroughly by chopping the log knots, protrusions, and indentations in order to locate any evidence of fungus conks. 2. The exact number of wood-rotting fungi in Idaho is not known, but an estimate of 1,000 species would be a conservative estimate. These fungi can be divided in to groups such as those that feed on live wood and those that feed on dead wood. Some fungi invade the sapwood of the tree and others invade the heartwood. Another separation would be those are rots that are generally found in the butt of the tree and those that affect the tree trunk. The color and consistency of the decayed wood also serves as a basis for classifying the rots into two groups: white rots and brown rots. 3. In this manual, 21 rots have been selected as the ones of major importance in Idaho. The suggested methods of deduction were developed over time, based on mill studies and experience. The recommended deductions are the result of averages based on those studies. The extent of damage to individual trees will vary with the age of the tree, the length of time that the fungus has been active in the tree, and the region in which the tree grew. It cannot be over- emphasized that the scaler, regardless of species being scaled or defects being considered, must consistently scale each log upon its own individual merits. A prime requisite for any scaler is good judgment based upon experience and the observation of defective logs opened up in a saw mill. The scaler must use sound judgment and reasoning based on experience when deviating from these prescribed guidelines. 4. A “rot indicator” is defined as a knot or a scar on the log that has that particular rot affecting it. The appropriate deduction would be applied from this point. For rot on the log face use scaler judgement to determine whether to use the length cut method or the squared area method. Estimate the length to extend the deduction by considering the severity of the rot and the deduction amount recommended for that particular rot indicator. 5. Many of the deductions for rot can be reclassified as pulp. Soft rots and voids will be culled. Some rots may include both a cull portion and a pulp portion. Use scaler judgment to determine the appropriate percentage to assign to each classification.

FUNGUS DEFECTS – INDIVIDUAL 1. Big Pocket Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Fomes nigrolimitatus, also known as Phillinus nigrolimitatus. a. Species Affected: Western larch, Engelmann spruce, western white pine, ponderosa pine, western hemlock, lodgepole pine, western red cedar, and Douglas-fir are all affected by this rot. b.Rot Description: Big pocket rot is common in fallen trees and cull logs and is occasionally found as heart rot in the butt of living western red cedar. A reddish-brown discoloration develops in the early stages of decay. Later on, large irregularly shaped pockets appear in the discolored wood. These pockets are parallel to the grain and are usually filled with white, fibrous, decayed wood. On the ends of the log, the large white pockets are conspicuous. c. Indicators of Decay: Conks of this rot are perennial and generally not noticeable. They develop as crust-like patches on the underside of fallen trees. The conks are dark reddish-brown colored, soft, and spongy. They have fine blackish lines running through their interior tissue. d.Extent of Decay: Use the squared area defect deduction method or a length cut for this rot. This is a butt rot and will generally extend 2’ to 6’.

Figures 5-64 and 5-65. Big pocket rot.

2. Brown Crumbly Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Fomitopsis pinicola.

a. Species Affected: This rot is common on virtually all conifers and occasionally decays birch, aspen, and cottonwood.

b. Rot Description This rot is probably the most important slash rot of conifers in Idaho. It occurs on dead standing trees, fallen trees, sawlogs, and pulpwood in storage. The rot usually develops in the sapwood, which is decayed rapidly, and then progresses into the heartwood. It has been reported as an occasional heart rot in living trees, entering through basal scars; its major role is in decay of slash and stored logs.

The early stage of decay is marked by a faint brownish discoloration. In the later stages, the wood is reduced to a yellowish-brown to reddish-brown mass of cubical chunks with white mats of fungus tissue developing in the cracks in the decayed wood. The sapwood of dead spruce and pine is destroyed quite rapidly. Where logs of these species are kept in decks for long periods, the losses in higher grades of lumber or pulp yields may be considerable.

c. Indicators of Decay: Conks of Fomitopsis pinicola develop readily on dead standing and fallen trees and on stored logs. They are perennial, woody, and hoof-shaped to rather thin and bracket-like. The upper surface is crusted, gray to blackish, and often has a distinct reddish band around the margin. The under surface is smooth and cream-colored with very small, circular pores. Small, whitish, crust- like conks often develop extensively over the sapwood on ends of decaying stored logs.

d. Extent of Decay: Because this rot vigorously attacks sapwood, scaling is generally accomplished by scaling inside the affected sapwood.

Figure 5-83. Fomitopsis pinicola in ponderosa pine.

3. Brown Cubical Sap Rot: This rot is caused by most commonly caused by Lenzites saepiaria, Trametes Americana, and Trametes serialis. Numerous other fungus will also cause brown cubical sap rot.

a. Species Affected: All commercial conifers in Idaho. Occasionally found on living trees, on dead sapwood under fire scars, and on other wounds.

Rot Description: Advanced decay is characterized by a mass of crumbly, brown cubical wood that may or may not have thin mats of fungus tissue in the cracks of the wood. Decay on fallen trees, stumps, snags, and smaller material on the ground usually begins in the sapwood, which is rapidly destroyed and progresses into the heartwood, which is also eventually decayed.

Indicators of Decay: Conks of these fungi are annual, tough, and persistent. Lenzites saepiaria conks are brownish, thin, and bracket-like, and have radial gills on the under surface. Trametes americana, which are similar, have large circular pores on the under surface. Trametes serialis conks are white, flat, and crust-like with large circular pores.

Extent of Decay: Brown sap rot indicates that the entire sapwood is unusable for lumber or pulp and that the log should be scaled inside the defective sapwood. See Figure 5-72 or 5-73, whichever is applicable.

Figures 5-81 and 5-82. Brown cubical sap rot.

4. Brown Cubical Trunk and Slash Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Laetiporus sulphureus. The fruiting body is known as sulfur fungus. a. Species Affected: Western white pine, grand fir western larch, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and Engelmann spruce are affected by this fungus. b. Rot Description: This rot decays the heartwood of living conifers and usually causes a butt rot. In the early stages, a brownish discoloration is observed. The advanced stage is very similar to that of brown trunk rot. The wood becomes a brown crumbly mass of cubical chunks with conspicuous mats of white fungus tissue appearing in the cracks. The rot mass is generally circular in outline and in advanced stages the butt will become hollow. c. Indicators of Decay: Conks of Faetiporus sulphureus are annual, thin, bracket-like, and will often spread profusely over a large area on the base of living trees, stumps, and fallen trees. They are bright orange on the under-surface, which has small circular pores. Fading out as the conk dries, the bright tones eventually become straw-colored or almost white. The conks deteriorate rapidly in the late fall. Living trees are infected through basal wounds and dead branch stumps. d. Extent of Decay: This rot is generally confined to the butt log and is one of the more common butt rots. Deductions are usually made by the length cut deduction method.

Figure 5-69. Laetiporus sulphureus in larch.

5. Brown Root and Butt Rot: This rot is cause by the fungus Heterobasidion annosum or fomes annosus. This rot is also called spongy sap rot or white pocket rot. a. Species Affected: All conifers are susceptible to this rot as well as some hardwood species. b. Rot Description: This fungus causes decay in the roots and butts of living trees and is a common rot found in slashed conifers. In the early stages of decay, the wood is firm but turns a pinkish to reddish-brown color. White elongated pockets of decay develop parallel to the grain as the rot progresses. The pockets enlarge and run together so that the wood tends to separate at the annual rings. A soft spongy mass of fibrous rotten wood with black flecks eventually results and will, in older infections, produce a hollow area. c. Indicators of Decay: The conks of this rot are perennial and inconspicuous. The develop und logs, on roots, or in root crotches of living trees. Their upper surface is gray to black with a hard, smooth crust. The under surface is cream-colored with small circular pores. Resin flow may occur at the base of infected trees. d. Extent of Decay: This rot is generally confined to the butt of the log. Use the squared area deduction method or the length cut to deduct for this rot. As with any butt rot, it generally extends into the butt 2’ to 6’.

Figures 5-62 & 5-63. Heterobasidion root and butt rot.

6. Brown Top Rot: This rot is caused by Fomitopsis cajanderi, formerly known as Fomitopsis roseus. a. Species Affected: This rot can be found in all of Idaho’s conifers. b. Rot Description: This is a heart rot that enters the tree through broken tops. A yellowish-brown discoloration develops in the early stages. Advanced decay is characterized by irregular, crumbly, brown cubes. Thin white, pale, or rose- colored fungal tissue develops in the cracks between the cubes of decayed wood. Even though it is generally a top rot, it can be found in stumps, dead trees and stored logs. c. Indicators of Decay: The conks of Fomitopsis roseus are perennial, woody, and bracket-like to hoof-shaped. The upper surface is black or brown and rough. The under surface is rose colored and has small circular pores. Extent of Decay: This rot can be extensive especially in lodgepole pine where it may necessitate culling the whole tree. The method of deduction would generally be the length cut.

Figures 5-43 and 5-44. Yellow brown top rot.

7. Cedar Brown Pocket Rot: This rot is caused by Polyporus sericeomollis (Poria asiatica). a. Species Affected: This rot affects living red cedar and other conifers after they have died. b. Rot Description: A light brown or yellow discoloration appears and the wood becomes soft in the early stages of this rot. In its advanced stage, the wood cracks extensively and breaks down into a fragile, crumbly mass of brown cubes with whitish or cream-colored fungus tissue developing in the cracks. The rot often appears in small scattered pockets in concentric ring shaped patterns. Large hollows often develop in the butt of older trees and may extend through the length of a log segment. c. Indicators of Decay: The conks are indistinct, thin, and with white porous layers. They are rare and are found on the bark of dead trees. d. Extent of Decay: The squared area defection method is generally used for this rot. Advanced stages in the butt may be deducted by using a length cut above the point of the swell. Because the rot generally tapers down, use “give and take” to arrive at the extent of the length cut. Some scalers use the length in feet that equals the diameter of the rot in inches. For example they extend a 6” rot, 6’ up the log. When the rot is extensive enough in the butt to make a length cut necessary and continues on through the length of the log, apply actual log taper to the rot’s top diameter for the rot’s butt diameter for the portion that remains after the length cut has been taken.

Figure 5-16 & 5-17. Cedar brown pocket rot occurs in isolated large pockets of brown

cubical decay. Seen in longitudinal (a) and cross section (b).

8. Cedar Laminated Butt Rot: This rot is caused by Phellinus weirii. This rot is also called yellow ring rot. a. Species Affected: Western red cedar is the most common species affected, but it occasionally occurs in western hemlock, Douglas fir, and grand fir. b. Rot Description: Originates in the butt and can extend upward through the entire length of the tree. The wood shows a yellowish discoloration in the early stages as the wood separates along the annual rings. As the rot advances, concentric rings of decayed wood form. The thin sheets of decayed wood can be easily pulled out. The decaying wood has small elliptical holes that are parallel to the grain and brown stands of fungus tissue are found between the layers. c. Indicators of Decay: The conks of this rot are only found on the roots or on hollow butts. They are soft, perennial, dark brown, and flat. d. Extent of Decay: For rings of this rot use the multiple ring deduction method for rings that are 2.5” or less apart. Use the square area defect method for masses of rot or partial rings. Because this rot tapers down, use the “give and take” method to determine how far to extend pockets of rot. Some scalers use the length in feet that equals the diameter of the rot in inches. For example they extend a 6” rot, 6’ up the log. A length cut can be used when the rot is extensive, as is often the case in the butt of the log. When the rot is extensive enough in the butt to make a length cut necessary and continues on through the length of the log, apply actual log taper to the rot’s top diameter for the rot’s butt diameter for the portion that remains after the length cut has been taken.

Figure 5-18. Laminated butt rot in Figure 5-19. Examined longitudinally, western red cedar log forms wood decayed by Phellinus weirii concentric rings of decay. separates easily into thin concentric sheets.

9. Feather Rot: This rot is caused by Perenniporia subacida. It is also known as spongy root rot, stringy butt rot, and white stringy rot. a. Species Affected: This rot affects all of Idaho’s conifer species. It is also found in hardwoods. b. Rot Description: Feather rot is a common slash rot on conifer wood. It is found in dead standing timber, stumps, fallen trees, and stored logs. It also occurs frequently as a butt and root rot in living trees. It is most common in western white pine. Faint pink to brownish discolorations of the wood mark the early stages. As the decay progresses, elongated white streaks appear. Black or golden brown flecks then often develop in these white streaks. The wood eventually breaks down into a whitish stringy, spongy, water soaked mass. c. Indicators of Decay: Conks of feather rot are cream to yellow colored, flat, crusted with circular pores. They develop on the roots of living trees and on the undersurfaces of dead material on the ground. d. Extent of Decay: In old-growth timber, the rot characteristically hollows out the center section and leaves a clear shell. The rot is generally confined to the butt and rarely extends beyond 16’ in length. Cull the voided area using the squared area defect method. If the squared area method leaves less than 33⅓ minimum net required for a sawlog then use the length cut method. Record the clear shell as pulp and cull the void area.

Figure 5-20. Feather rot caused by Perenniporia subacida in grand fir.

Figure 5-21 and 5-22. Feather rot in white pine and western hemlock. Notice the stringy nature of the decayed wood and the white mats of fungus tissue.

10. Gray Sap Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Cryptoporus volvatus. It is also called pouch fungus.

a. Species Affected: This rot affects grand fir, Engelmann spruce, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western larch.

Rot Description: Gray sap rot develops very rapidly in dead standing trees that have been attacked by bark beetles, and is common in recently cut stored logs, particularly grand fir logs and pulpwood. The rot is generally superficial, being limited to the outer ¼" of sapwood. Dark gray streaks and flecks appear in the wood, which remains quite firm.

Indicators of Decay: Conks of Cryptoporus volvatus usually appear on trees the year after death occurs, often developing by the thousands over the entire trunk surface as well as on the larger branches. These conks indicate the rapid and extensive development of the decay in the newly dead sapwood. Apparently conks develop during one season, are quickly deteriorated by insects, and do not occur again on a particular tree. They are cream-colored and often resemble small eggs attached to the bark of a tree. Larger conks, up to 2" in diameter, are more or less hoof- shaped. The underside of the conk has a small circular hole near the base, opening into a cavity, which frequently contains insects that spread the spores of the fungus.

Extent of Decay: Because of the superficial nature of this rot, no deduction is made unless the sapwood is broken down. If the sapwood is broken down, deduction should be made by scaling inside the affected area.

Figures 5-78, 5-79, and 5-80. Gray sap rot.

11. Indian Paint: This rot is caused by Echinodontium tinctorium and is commonly called red paint or Stringy Brown Rot. a. Species Affected: Grand fir and western hemlock are the primary hosts of this fungus, but it can be found occasionally in any of Idaho’s tree species. b. Rot Description: The first indication of this rot in firs is a faint yellow or orange red discoloration of the heart wood. Sometimes tiny orange streaks may be found. Western red cedar may only have tiny orange streaks. Separation along annual rings may develop and as the decay continues the color darkens. Eventually, the wood will break down into a red or brown stringy mass. c. Indicators of Decay: Conks of stringy brown rot are perennial, woody, hoof-shaped, and toothed on the underside, and generally develop under branch stubs. The brick red interior of the punk knots are surrounded by a dark brown or black exterior. The punks can be a foot in diameter but they have usually been scraped off the log by the logging process. Chopping the log knots will reveal soft yellow, red or orange centers. A small probe can be pushed into these affected knots. The butts of logs affected with stringy brown rot are often water cored and have an iron colored stain. Frost checks or seams that were caused by insect invasion may be present. The fungus invades the tree through frost seams, insect seams, damaged roots, scars or through broken limbs. d. Extent of Decay: The recommended deduction for all species with stingy brown rot is a length cut of 4’ up the log and 6’ down the log from the indicator.

(a) (b)

Figure 5-41. Indian paint Figure 5-42. Indian paint fungus decay is yellow to brown and slightly stringy in the fungus conks have an early stages. Concentric rings of lighter and darker heartwood are seen in cross orange-red context and section (a). In late stages the decay is somewhat laminate and distinctly stringy (b). gray teeth projecting down. They form beneath

branches. 69

12. Pini or Red Ring Rot: This rot is caused by Phellinus pini (Trametes pini and Fomes pini.) This rot is also called conk rot, red rot, ring scale, red heart, honey comb rot, and white pocket rot. a. Species Affected: Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, western larch and pines are the most common hosts, although it is found in all conifers in Idaho. b. Rot Description: Pini rot is primarily a heart rot which affects the stem of a tree. In the early stages the wood has a red or brown discoloration. The stain usually forms concentric rings or crescents in cross section. Advanced pini is reddish brown with small white lens-shaped pockets that are parallel to the grain. This are call “white spec.” c. Indicators of Decay: Pini conks are tan or brown, and may vary from thin and bracket shaped to thick and hoof-shaped. Conks can be appressed on the bark with little or no raised appearance or they may develop at branch stubs or on basal scars and cause a conspicuous swelling. When the pini conks have been scrapped off the tree during the logging process, a depressed area on the stem may be a clue that a conk was present. d. Extent of Decay: The length cut for pini rot is generally 4’ up the log and 6’ down the log from the rot indicator for all species except western white pine. For western white pine length cut the log 2’ up the stem and 4’ down the stem for ½ the cylinder from the rot indicator. Conks found on both sides of western white pine would thus be length cut by the full 2’ up and 4’ back rule. The squared area defection method can be used for small pockets of pini rot when no conks can be found. Square the area using the 2’ up and 4’ back rule for the rot length.

Figure 5-23. Fomes punk knot Figure 5-24. Phellinus pini in ponderosa pine.

Figure 5-25. Phellinus pini in western larch. Figure 5-26. Phellinus pini in larch.

Figure 5-27. Phellinus pini in lodge pole Figure 5-28. Phellinus pini in Douglas fir.

2’ 6’

¼ Good 25” ¼ Good ¼ Good

16’ Figure 5-30. White pine with a single Phellinus pini punk.

4’ 4’

Figure 5-29. Pini conks are woody and shelving or nearly resupinate with a tan 25” to cinnamon colored pore layer.

16’

Figure 5-31. Ponderosa pine with a single Phellinus pini punk.

Figure 5-32. White pine log with two Phellinus pini punks.

13. Pitted Sap Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Trichaptum abietinum. It is also called hollow pocket rot.

a. Species Affected: Pitted Sap rot affects virtually all conifers in Idaho with the possible exception of junipers and pacific yew.

Rot Description: Pitted sap rot attacks only dead material and is one of the most common decay fungi on stumps, logs, and slash in the woods. It also develops on decked sawlogs and pulpwood. Occasionally, it decays dead sapwood on catfaces on living trees. It does not cause heart rot of living trees, although heartwood on dead material may be decayed. The first evidence of decay is a yellowing and softening of the wood. Tiny empty pockets appear that are elongated and parallel to the grain. As decay progresses, these pockets become larger and more numerous until the wood has a fragile, lace-like appearance. Pitted sap rot develops rapidly in wood that still has bark on it.

Indicators of Decay: Conks of Trichaptum abietinum usually develop abundantly on decaying material. They are flat and crust-like on the under surface of logs and slash; thin and bracket- shaped on dead standing trees, stumps, and the upper surfaces of down material. The conks are gray with faint radial zones on the upper surface, and purplish with large irregular pores on the under surface. As the conks age, the purple color fades to a pale brown. On the sapwood on the ends of logs, the conks commonly appear in large numbers, sometimes completely covering it.

Extent of Decay: As conks develop readily on the bark over the entire surface area of the decaying sapwood, the distribution of the conks usually indicates the extent of decay. Sapwood of logs on which conks of Trichaptum abietinum appear is considered unsound and should be deducted accordingly. Such logs are scaled inside the affected sapwood. See Figure 5-72 or 5-73, whichever is applicable.

Figures 5-76 and 5-77. Pitted sap rot.

14. Quinine: This rot is caused by Fomitopsis officinalis. It is also known as dry rot, brown trunk rot, and red-brown heart rot. a. Species Affected: This rot is found mainly in western larch, ponderosa pine, and Douglas fir, but can be found occasionally in any of Idaho’s tree species. b. Rot Description: This heart rot is brown, cubically cracked, and chalky in texture with thick white felts in the large cracks. c. Indicators of Decay: The rot will extend into the log knots so chopping the knots and scarred areas will be necessary to determine the extent of the decay. The hoof-shaped or columnar quinine conks are generally dislodged by the logging process. They are soft and yellow-white and were once harvested for medicinal quinine. d. Extent of Decay: The quinine conks only develop after the decay is extensive so one single conk may indicate that the tree is a cull. A length cut of 4’ up the log and 6’ down the log is recommended from knots that have quinine rot showing in them. The squared area deduction method can be used when there are no conks. Square the area using the 4’ up the log and 6’ down for the length measurement.

Figure 5-33. Officinalis in ponderosa pine.

15. Red-Brown Butt Rot: This rot is caused by Phaeolus schweinitzii. It is also called stump rot, cubical butt rot, and brown butt rot. a. Species Affected: This is a common rot in all conifers in Idaho except junipers. b. Rot Description: A pale yellow or reddish brown discoloration is the first indication of this rot. Advanced decay reduces the wood to a pocket of reddish-brown mass that cracks into cubes and may extend a few inches or several feet. A very thin layer of cream-colored fungus tissue develops in the cracks between the cubes. The decay can usually be traced to a catface that was at the base of the tree. c. Indicators of Decay: A scaler would generally never see the annual conks of this rot because they develop on the duff around the base of decayed trees, and only occasionally do they develop on the butt of the tree. Basil scars are so generally invaded by this fungus that they are reliable indicators of decay. d. Extent of Decay: This rot can extend from 2’-24’ up the trunk from the butt and is usually confined to the heartwood. Extensive rot is generally long-butted previous to being hauled but the length cut method would be used on extensive rot. The squared area defect method would be used on pockets rot. Since this rot does not tend to taper down to a point, sounding the log with a hatchet may help the scaler determine how far to run the rot up the trunk of the tree. Butt swelling and basal scars can also be helpful in determining how far to extent this rot.

Figure 5-38. Larch. Figure 5-36. White pine. Figure 5-37. Ponderosa pine.

Figures 5 -36 through 5-38: Red-brown butt rot, caused by Phaeolus schweinitzii. Notice the crumbly cubical nature of the decayed wood.

16. Red Ray Rot: This rot is caused by Dichomitus squalens. This rot is also known as wagon wheel rot, and red rot. a. Species Affected: Ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine are the most commonly affected species in Idaho but the rot is occasionally found in all of Idaho’s tree species. b. Rot Description: Early stages of the rot are pink. This color darkens when water is applied. As the rot progresses the color darkens to red or reddish-brown and often extends from the center with spikes of red color. In the later stages of the rot, white pockets develop parallel to the grain. In advanced stages, the wood becomes softer until it is a white spongy mass. There is some evidence that Dichomitus squalens is still active in lumber even after the dry kiln process. c. Indicators of Decay: Conks do not usually develop on living trees, but can be found on stumps and decaying logs. d. Extent of Decay: The extent of decay varies greatly from one locality to another. For red ray rot that is light pink in color, is affecting the entire cylinder, and is only evident on one end of the log, length cut the defect 4’ up when the defect is in the butt end of the log and length cut 6’ down the log from the top end of the log. Use the length cut method when the entire cylinder is affected with advanced red ray rot but only evident on one end of the log by reducing that log segment by ½ of its original length. Use the squared area deduction method for smaller areas of defect. Decide on the distance to extend the rot: 4’ up and 6’ back for pink early stages or ½ the log segment for red advanced stages.

Figure 5-39. Early stages of red ray rot in lodgepole pine.

Figure 5-40. Advanced stages of rot in ponderosa pine.

17. Red Root and Butt Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Polyporus tomentosus. a. Species Affected: Western white pine and ponderosa pine are the major hosts or this rot. Engelmann spruce, western larch, lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, and western hemlock are also decayed by this rot. b. Rot Description: Red root and butt rot are generally confined to the lower portion of the butt log. The fungus enters the tree through basal scars or injured roots. In the early stages of decay the wood turn dark reddish brown but is still firm. As the rot progresses, narrow, lens- shaped pockets develop parallel to the grain. These pockets are filled with white decayed wood. c. Indicators of Decay: Conks of Polyporus tomentosus develop on the ground near the base of the tree or on the butt of the tree. The conks are yellowish-brown with a velvety or plush like upper surface. d. Extent of Decay: This rot is generally confined to the basal portion of the first log and rarely extends beyond 6-8’. Use the squared area defect method or the length cut to deduct for this rot.

Figures 5-60. Red root and butt rot.

18. Shoestring Root Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Armillara mellea which includes several closely related species of fungi. a. Species Affected: Most conifers and hardwoods in Idaho are susceptible to shoestring root rot. It is particularly common in western white pine, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and grand fir. b. Rot Description: Armillaria causes the decay and death of sapwood in the roots and butts of living trees. Entering the tree through the roots and growing upward past the root collar, it often girdles the tree completely. In the early stages of decay, the wood appears water-soaked and shows a pale brownish discoloration. Eventually it becomes whitish, soft, and spongy or stringy with conspicuous narrow black zone lines running through the decayed wood. A white butt rot in the heartwood of older trees is also reported to be caused by Armillaria. c. Indicators of Decay: Abundant resin flow on the bark of the butt portion of the tree may indicate the presence of shoestring root rot. Removing the bark from the root collar of infected trees reveals the presence of white fans of fungus tissue in the cambium region between bark and wood. Long, narrow, whitish-to-black strands of fungus tissue may be present under the bark and in the duff around the base of infected trees. These strands, called “rhizomorphs,” have given rise to the common name of shoestring root rot. In the fall, conks of Armillaria may develop at the base of infected trees and stumps, or they may develop on the ground from infected roots. The conks that often grow in dense clusters are honey-colored mushrooms with circular caps; the under-surfaces of the caps have radial gills. d. Extent of Decay: Shoestring root rot usually extends up the trunk foronly a few feet. When the defect affects only a portion of the scaling cylinder, make the deduction by using the squared-defect, short-cut, or length-cut method.

Figures 5-66, 5-67, and 5-68. Shoestring root rot.

19. White Trunk Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus Phellinus igniarius. e. Species Affected: This rot is not found in conifers. It appears in quaking aspen, paper birch, alders, and other hardwoods. f. Rot Description: This rot is generally located in the middle trunk of the tree. It is found associated with the stem canker disease called “black canker of aspen.” Pale yellowish discolored areas first appear in the early stages of this rot. These discolored areas are commonly enclosed on broad, brownish-black or greenish-brown zones. Narrow black zone lines develop in the decayed wood, which becomes uniformly softer than sound wood. In the advances stages of decay, abundant yellowish-brown fungus tissue may develop in the decayed wood. g. Indicators of Decay: The conks of white trunk rot are perennial, hoof-shaped, hard, and woody. The upper surface is blackish and extensively cracked while the under surface is dark brown with very small circular pores. The inner tissue of the conk is dark reddish- brown. h. Extent of the Rot: In the advanced stages of decay, the center of the heartwood of the entire log is affected making a length cut necessary. In the early stages, the rot may appear as a cylinder or hole and the squared area defect method would be used to deduct for this rot.

Figures 5-37 & 5-38. Fomitopsis officinalis in birch.

20. Yellow Brown Top Rot: This rot is caused by Fomitopsis cajanderi, formerly known as Fomitopsis roseus. d. Species Affected: This rot can be found in all of Idaho’s conifers. e. Rot Description: This is a heart rot that enters the tree through broken tops. A yellowish-brown discoloration develops in the early stages. Advanced decay is characterized by irregular, crumbly, brown cubes. Thin white, pale, or rose- colored fungal tissue develops in the cracks between the cubes of decayed wood. Even though it is generally a top rot it can be found in stumps, dead trees and stored logs. f. Indicators of Decay: The conks of Fomitopsis roseus are perennial, woody, and bracket-like to hoof-shaped. The upper surface is black or brown and rough. The under surface is rose colored and has small circular pores. g. Extent of Decay: This rot can be extensive especially in lodgepole pine where it may necessitate culling the whole tree. The method of deduction would generally be the length cut method.

Figures 5-43 and 5-44. Yellow brown top rot.

21. Yellow Pitted Trunk Rot: This rot is caused by the fungus hericium abietis. It is also known as long pitted rot and long pocket rot. a. Species Affected: This rot affects western hemlock, grand fir, subalpine fir, and Engelmann spruce. b. Rot Description: Yellow pitted trunk rot is generally confined to the bottom portion of the tree. It is generally found in the heartwood but can occur in stumps, snags, fallen trees, and stored logs. In the early stages of decay, the wood remains firm but develops a yellow or pale brownish discoloration. The wood appears mottled with dark spots. As the decay progresses, elongated pockets develop parallel to the grain. These pockets may be empty or partially filled with whitish or yellowish fibers of decayed wood. The wood between the pockets is discolored but firm. c. Indicators of Decay: The white coral-like annual conks develop on living trees, stumps, slash, on the ends of recently cut logs. They are soft, extensively branched, and bear large numbers of pendant spines or teeth. Because of their soft, fragile consistency, these conks deteriorate very rapidly and are present as indicators for a relatively short period of time. d. Extent of Decay: Yellow pitted trunk rot is generally confined to the bottom portion of the tree. This rot is not common and little is known regarding the extent of decay by this fungus. Use the length cut method for this rot and use scaler judgment as to how far to extend the length cut.

Figures 5-35 & 5-36. Fomitopsis officinalis in a western larch

Frost Check or Frost Crack Frost checks are similar to heart checks except they are usually visible in the bark and extend from the outside of the log to the heart. Frost checks are common in the butt logs of grand fir, hemlock and the “true firs” because of their high water content and subsequent freezing to the heart and may extend up from the butt end of the log 8' – 10'. The frost check can be traced on the surface of the log by a ridge of bark extending the length of the frost seam; or, if the log is debarked, by the outside irregularities of the sapwood. Judge the length of the defect by the length of the bark ridge or the irregularities of the sapwood. Deductions for frost checks are usually made by the squared-defect (for straight frost checks) or the combination pie-cut/length-cut method for spiraling frost checks. Frost checks may “heal over” in time and the frost check will no longer extend outwardly through the bark, but may leave a light scar in the bark. Chopping into the scar often reveals the frost check that has healed over. Close inspection of the log end nearest the scar may also reveal the healed-over frost check. In addition to butt logs, look for this type of healed-over check in logs above the butt. Multiple frost checks in butt logs are often accompanied by partial or full shake rings. When the squared-defect method exceeds the gross scale of the log portion affected, use the length-cut method for deductions. Douglas-fir logs will occasionally show signs of pitch seams that are similar in appearance to frost checks. Evaluate these pitch seams by the same procedures used for frost checks.

Figure 5-108. Grand fir butt log with rot and frost checks.

HEARTCHECKS and PITCH SEAMS 1. A heart check is an opening or separation across the log heart at right angles to the annual rings. Heart checks extend into the log as opposed to checking caused by weather which has a depth of only a few inches. Use a thin blade or small wire to probe an opening to determine if it is a true heart check. Also, look to see if there is sawdust inside the check. This would indicate the check was present when the log was bucked. Checks often have branching checks

call breakouts. Examine these also to determine if they are heart checks or weather checks. 2. Heart checks are a common defect in grand fir and most openings are heart checks. Spruce and cedar have both heart checks and weather check in relatively fresh cut timber so extra care in examining them is prudent. Heart checking is not a common defect in white pine and ponderosa pine. 3. In resinous species like Douglas-fir and larch, the heart checks fill with pitch and are referred to as pitch seams.

Figure 5-45. Douglas-fir log with pitch seam.

4. Consider heart checks to run straight through the log without twisting. Use actual defect dimensions when a heart check appears on only one end of a log. When the check or seam is only found in one end of a log, the scaler must determine how far to extend the check or seam into the log. Use the length of the check as well as the width of the cracking to estimate how far to extend the check or seam. Some studies have indicated that a 5” check will run 8’ into a log.

5. When heart checks appear on both ends of a multi-segment log, taper must be calculated prior to averaging defect dimensions for the segment (Figure 5-46 & 5- 47). Taper for the width and height measurements are calculated separately.

6. The squared area method is used to deducting for heart checks and pitch seams.

Figure 5-100. Heart check in grand fir log.

Figure 5-46 Log With Heart Check

Given:

Recorded log length = 32 feet Segment lengths = 16 feet Small end segment W = 1 inch Large end segment W= 1 inch Small end segment H = 7 inches Large end segment H= 10 inches Defect length = 32 feet Determine defect dimensions and defect volume:

Use defect taper to determine the defect dimensions at the segment break. Subtract small end defect dimensions from large end defect dimensions. The result is the total taper for the width and height dimensions. If necessary, raise total taper to make it evenly divisible by the number of segments. Divide the total taper by the number of segments and the result is the amount of taper assigned to the top segment. If the log contains more than two segments, subtract the taper assigned to the top segment from the total taper, then distribute the remaining taper to the other segments following the same procedure.

Width dimensions:

1 W = 1 inch width at segment break

Height dimensions:

4 1 3 7)-(10 H 7)-(10 3 1 =+== 4 inches 4 = 2 + 7 (small end dim ension ) = 9 inch height at segment break 2

Small End Segment:

Average defect dimensions: Determine defect volume:

+ 1(1 ) W= = 1 inch 2 L x H x W x H x L Defect volume ( ft 3 ) = +7)(9 144 H= = 8 inches 2 16 x 8 x 1 x 8 x 16 128 = == .9 tf 3 144 144 Large End Segment:

Average defect dimensions: Determine defect volume:

+ 1)(1 W= = 1 inch 2 L x H x W x H x L Defect volume ( ft 3 ) = + 9)(10 144 H= = 9.5 * or 10 inches 2 16 x 10 x 1 x 10 x 16 160 = == 1.1 ft 3 144 144

*Round to nearest even whole number.

7. Determine check dimensions and defect volume for each check within the segment. When determining defect dimensions, measure each check at right angles to each other. The "give and take" procedure may also be used when determining the defect dimension. Avoid deducting for the same area twice by subtracting the width of one check from the height of the other.

Figure 5-47 Determine Defect Dimensions

Figure 5-48 Cross-Checks

Given:

Small End Segment Break Large End

Check 1: W=2" H=18" Check 1: W=2" H=20" Check 1: W=2" H=21" Check 2: W=2" H=19" Check 2: W=2" H=22" Check 2: W=2" H=25"

Recorded log length: 34 feet

Figure 5-48--Continued

Small End Segment Large End Segment

Check 1 average dimensions: Check 1 average dimensions: W = (2 + 2)/2 = 2 inches W = (2 + 2)/2 = 2 inches H = (18 + 20)/2 = 19 inches H = (20 + 21)/2 = 20 inches

Check 2 average dimensions: Check 2 average dimensions: W = (2 + 2)/2 = 2 inches W = (2 + 2)/2 = 2 inches H = (19 + 22)/2 = 20 inches H = (22 + 25)/2 = 24 inches *H = 20 - 2 = 18 inches *H = 24 - 2 = 22 inches

*Avoid deducting for the same area twice by subtracting the width of check 1 from the height of check 2.

Length = 16 feet Length = 18 feet

Defect deduction Defect deduction (W x H x L)/144 (W x H x L)/144

Check 1 Check 1 16) x 19 x (2 x 19 x 16) 608 (2 x 20 x 18) 720 = = = = 4.2 ft3 = = = 5.0 ft3 144 144 144 144

Check 2 Check 2 16) x 18 x (2 x 18 x 16) 576 (2 x 22 x 18) 792 = = = = 4.0 ft3 = = = 5.5 ft3 144 144 144 144

Total = 4.2 + 4.0 = 8.2 ft3 Total = 5.0 + 5.5 = 10.5 ft3

Total log defect = 8.2 + 10.5 = 18.7 ft3

8. When more than two heart checks occur in the end of a log, the defect is referred to as “spangle”. Deductions for spangle are usually made using the squared area deduction method unless the defect is extensive which may result in a length deduction (reference length cut App. 4 and 5 in Ch. 60). Use the "give and take" procedure when measuring this type of defect. In exhibit 01, note that areas of recovery appear inside the rectangle. This is offset by the areas of loss from the ends of the checks that are outside the rectangle.

Figure 5-49 Spangle: Using "Give and Take" Procedure to Measure

Figure 5-50 Spangle: Squared Area Deduction

Given:

W = 8 inches H = 12 inches L = 10 feet

Determine defect volume:

x H x (W x H x L) (12 x 8 x 10) 960 3 Defect volume ( ft 3 =) = = = 6.7 ft 144 144 144

INSECT DAMAGE 1. Insect damage is a sawlog, pole, or cedar product defect. No reduction for insect damage is made for pulp unless the infestation is so server that it results in a void. 2. Wood borers cause worm holes. The worm holes that are large enough to require a deduction must be over ¼” in diameter. They must also be 4” or less apart in any direction when found on the end of a log or 6” or less in any direction when found on the log surface. Use appropriate deduction methods which will best apply to the affected areas. Figure 5-51 Length With Percent Deduction for Massed Wormholes

In Figure 5-51, wormholes are 4 inches or less apart on the log end and 6 inches or less apart on the log surface. About 25 percent of the end area is estimated to be affected with massed wormholes. Length deduction of 25 percent of 20 feet is taken for massed wormholes.

Given:

Recorded log length = 20 feet Gross volume = 50.7 ft 3 Defect affects 25 percent of the end area for 20 feet

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft 3 ) = gross volume x defect percent

= 50.7 x 0. 12.67525 == 12.7 ft 3

3. Numerous types of bark beetles cause deductible damage to downed and live timber. The most common damage to live timber is caused by the fir engraver (Scolytus ventralis) to grand fir and subalpine fir. 4. The damage bark beetles cause includes seams, ring and partial ring separations, scars. Use the deduction methods which best apply to the affected areas.

Figure 5-125. Defect caused by scolytus in a grand fir.

KNOT CLUSTERS and OVERSIZED KNOTS 1. A few scattered oversized knots will not result in a volume loss. 2. For multiple oversized knots or knot clusters, first determine if they are large enough to require a deduction. Average the narrow and wide measurements of the hardened area of the knot while excluding the collar wood. The hardened area shows growth rings. Multiple knots or clusters over 4” average or more would require a deduction. Use the diameter reduction method or a percentage of a diameter reduction. A 1” diameter reduction should be sufficient in most cases.

Figure 5-86. Measurement of knots

Figure 5-87. Measurement of knot clusters.

MASSED PITCH 1. Massed pitch is deducted for as a void. The affected area is deducted as cull material. 2. For smaller areas, use the squared area defect method for the length of the affected area. 3. For large areas of massed pitch, the length cut method can be used to cull the affected area. A butt with extensive mass pitch will generally be swelled for the length that is affected.

Figure 5-98. Massed pitch in ponderosa pine butt log.

METAL AND FOREIGN OBJECTS 1. Deduct for metal and foreign objects as voids. The affected area is deducted as cull material. 2. Use the length cut method in 2’ multiples. The remaining portion must meet minimum sawlog specifications for length. 3. If the remaining unaffected portion does not meet minimum length specifications for length, then that portion will be recorded as pulp.

Figure 5-144. Ponderosa Pine with fence wire ingrown.

SAP ROT 1. Use the diameter reduction method for sap rot. Average the depth of the rot and reduce the log diameter by that amount. 2. When only portion of the diameter is affected, use a percent of a diameter reduction based on the percent or the diameter that is affected.

22.41c - Exhibit 01

Sap Rot: Diameter Deduction

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Small end diameter = 28 inches Large end diameter = 30 inches Gross volume = 73.5 ft3 Sap rot = 3 inch average depth

Determine net volume and defect volume:

3" (sap rot) x 2 = 6 inch diameter deduction Reduced small end diameter = 28" - 6" = 22 inches Reduced large end diameter = 30" - 6" = 24 inches Net volume (22 inches x 24 inches x 16 feet) = 46.2 ft3

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume - net volume

27.3 = 46.2 - 73.5 = 73.5 - 46.2 = 27.3 ft3

SCARS 1. Use the squared area, percentage cut, or length cut deduction methods to determine the defect volume for bark seams, flutes, crotches, or cankers. A loss of wood fiber occurs from a bark seam. Bark seams typically occur on logs having flutes, crotch, overgrown scars, or cankers as shown below. Use the squared area deduction method to determine the defect volume.

22.42a - Exhibit 01 Logs With Flutes, Crotch, And Overgrown Scars

22.42a - Exhibit 02 Bark Seam Associated With an Overgrown Scar Example

Given:

W = 2 inches H = 20 inches L = 6 feet

Determine defect volume:

x H x (W x H x L) (2 x 20 x 6) 240 Defect volume ( ft3 ) = = = = 1.7 ft3 144 144 144

Note: When multiple bark seams are present, determine defect dimensions by squaring at right angles to each other.

2. Cat face and fire scars are usually found in the lower portion of butt logs. This defect may be accompanied by rot, char and/or wormholes. Make deductions by using the length with percent deduction method.

22.42b - Exhibit 01 Fire Scar

Determine the length of log affected by the scar and the percent of end area affected. If char is present, include it in the deduction for void.

Given:

Recorded log length = 16 feet Gross volume = 78.9 ft3 Void and char affects 50 percent of 4 feet

Determine defect percent:

defect length Defect percent = x percent end area affected segment length

4 = x .5 = 25x1001. = 12.5% 16

Determine defect volume:

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume x defect percent

9.9 = .125 x 78.9 = 78.9 x .125 = 9.9 ft3

3. Exhibit 01 shows a lightning scar affecting two faces, or 50 percent of the circumference of the log. Determine the depth of defect and full log diameter deduction. Deduct one-half of the total defect volume for the percentage of log affected. Consider additional recoverable volume included in the defective area that is capable of producing 6-foot length lumber and adjust the defect volume by a percent for that area.

22.42c - Exhibit 01 Lightning Scar

Given:

Recorded log length = 20 feet

Small end diameter = 20 inches Large end diameter = 22 inches Gross volume = 48.2 ft3 Lightening scar = 3 inch depth, affects 50 percent of the surface of the log

Determine net volume and defect volume:

3" (scar) x 2 = 6 inch diameter deduction Reduced small end diameter = 20 - 6 = 14 inches Reduced large end diameter = 22 - 6 = 16 inches Net volume (14 inches x 16 inches x 20 feet) = 24.7 ft3

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume - net volume x percent of surface affected

11.8 = 0.5 x 24.7) - (48.2 = (48.2 - 24.7) x 0.5 = 11.8 ft3

It is estimated that an additional 50 percent of the affected area will produce 6-foot length lumber. Adjust the defect volume by 50 percent.

Adjusted defect volume (ft3) = defect volume x percent product recovery = 11.8 x 0.50 = 5.9 ft3

RINGS See ring deduction method on page 63

Figure 5-89. Western Larch log. Figure 5-90. Douglas-fir log with pitch ring. Figure 5-92. Douglas-fir log with pitch ring.

WEATHER CHECKS 1. Weather checks on green cut timber: a. Weather checks on green cut timber will not be deducted for when the Forester in Charge (FIC) determines that the purchaser did not remove fallen timber from the sale area in a timely manner. The IDL scaler may be directed by instructions not to deduct for weather checking. These instructions shall be in writing from the FIC of the timber sale and approved by the appropriate scaling supervisor prior to scaling. Written instructions from the timber sale FIC instructing the scaler not to deduct for defect caused by abnormal delay in hauling will serve as written agreement to differ from IBSP and IDL net scale rules. These written scaling instructions must be available on the landing where the subject logs are to be scaled. b. Deduct for weather check that penetrate 1” or greater. c. Weather checking is twice as deep on ends then on the sides. Average the depth showing on the log ends and use one-half of that depth for the deduction. d. Use the diameter reduction method or the squared area deduction method for one-half of the depth that is shown on the ends of the log. If the checks spiral to the degree that there is no 6’ recovery between the checks, do not reduce the volume by 50 percent. e. Use a percentage of a diameter reduction when only a percentage of the surface is affected. Again reduce this reduction amount by 50 percent. If the checks spiral to the degree that there is no 6’ recovery between the checks, do not reduce the volume of the deduction by 50 percent.

16’

22”

18” 14”

Figure 5-112. Season or weather check.

2. Weather checks on dead timber: a. Deduct for weather checks that penetrate 1” or greater. Average the depth in the small end and the large end. b. Use the diameter cut method for the full depth of the checking as shown on the end of the log. c. Use a percentage of a diameter reduction when only a percentage of the surface is affected.

22.33a - Exhibit 01 Example Diameter With Percent Deduction

Defect volume ( ft3 ) = gross volume - net volume x percent circumference affected

9.0 = .33 x 46.2) - (73.5 = (73.5 - 46.2) x .33 = 9.0 ft3

Sap rot affects one-third of the circumference. Determine a total sap rot deduction as in exhibit 01, and deduct one-third of the total defect volume.

22.44d - Exhibit 01 Weather Checks

Given:

Log is from a dead tree. Recorded log length = 32 feet Small end diameter = 24 inches Large end diameter = 28 inches Small end segment gross volume = 54.6 ft3 Large end segment gross volume = 63.7 ft3 Average depth of checks at both ends = 3 inches Determine defect volume and segment merchantability: Weather checks 3-inch depth x 2 = 6 inch diameter deduction Reduced small end diameter 24 - 6 = 18 inches Reduced large end diameter 28 - 6 = 22 inches Small end segment net volume (18 inches x 20 inches x 16 feet) = 31.6 ft3

Large end segment net volume (20 inches x 22 inches x 16 feet) = 38.6 ft3

Defect volume = gross volume - net volume Small end segment = 54.6 - 31.6 = 23.0 ft3 Large end segment = 63.7 - 38.6 = 25.1 ft3

Small end defect factor = 7.60 Large end defect factor = 7.04 Contract merchantable factor = 10.67 Segment defect factors do not exceed the contract merchantable factor. Both segments are merchantable.

Determine adjusted volume:

Adjusted defect volume = defect volume x .5 (50 percent adjustment based on recovery studies) Small end segment = 23.0 x .5 = 11.5 ft3 Large end segment = 25.1 x .5 = 12.6 ft3

If the weather checks affect only a portion of the perimeter, 75 percent for example, reduce the defect volume accordingly.

Small end 11.5 ft3 x .75 = 8.6 ft3 Large end 12.6 ft3 x .75 = 9.5 ft3

d. If weather checks are isolated to a small portion of the perimeter of the log, the defect volume can best be determined by the squared area deduction method.

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CHAPTER VI CHECK SCALING PRACTICES & PROCEDURES INTRODUCTION TO BE UPDATED AFTER DISCUSSION/APPROVAL/ETC. FROM IBSP Check scaling is the rescaling of all or a part of the materials that have previously been scaled in order to a) determine the accuracy of the original scale and b) identify sources of variance in the original scale. Systematic check scaling is an essential operation for any organization that sells, purchases, stores, or manufactures logs. A check scale can provide information on: . The progress of the training of a new scaler. . The habits and practices of scalers that need correcting to attain a more consistent and accurate scale. . The quality and quantity of a scaler's work. . Accuracy of reports. . A scaler's accuracy under varying working conditions. The need and frequency of check scales is dependent upon the experience of the scaler, results of the last check, changes in defect and species being scaled, and changes in method of log presentation for scaling. A check scale may be made with or without the knowledge of the scaler. If at all possible, it's preferable to check scale without the scaler’s knowledge—known as a “blind” or “remote” check. This is usually conducted in a log yard and should be done as soon as possible after the scaler has completed his scaling. Logs should be spread one deep with room on each side to walk between them. Logs laid out in this manner enable each scaler to observe both ends and sides of every log for defect, and assures a better job of scaling. A blind check gives results more indicative of the kind of job a scaler is doing day after day. It also enables the check scaler and scaler to go back over the logs and talk about defect and diameters, providing additional scaler training.

CHECK SCALING PROCEDURES (From IDAPA 20.06.01-Rules of the Idaho Board of Scaling Practices)

01. Valid Check Scale (4-15-98) a. Check scaling shall require a minimum of fifty (50) logs containing a decimal “C” gross scale of at least ten thousand (10,000) board feet. When other methods of measurement are used, the check scaler will investigate the situation and determine the most logical method of check scaling. (4-15-98) b. Check scaling will be performed without scaler’s knowledge, when possible. (4-15-98) c. Check scales shall be performed only on logs that are in the same position as presented to the scaler. (4-15-98) d. Check scales shall not be performed if the logs are not spread adequately enough, in the check scaler’s discretion, to allow for accurate scaling. If these conditions arise, the check scaler shall make a written report describing the conditions and surrounding circumstances. The Board shall make a decision as to the disposition of these conditions and direct the check scaler accordingly. (4-15-98) e. The check scaler shall use the written scaling specifications that have been provided to the scaler. In the absence or omission of written scaling specifications, logs shall be

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check scaled according to scaling methodology stated within the “Idaho Log Scaling Manual." (5-08-09)

02. Cooperative Scaling Cooperative scaling involves two (2) scalers, using different scaling specifications, working together to determine the log scale volume. In these instances, each scaler shall be individually responsible for the scale recorded. (4-15-98)

03. Team Scaling Team scaling is two (2) scalers, using the same scaling specifications, working together to determine the log scale volume. In these instances, both scalers shall be responsible for the scale recorded, unless one (1) of the individuals is an apprentice scaler. In that case, the licensed scaler shall be responsible for the scale recorded. (4-15-98)

04. Holding Check Scale Log Loads All log loads involved in an unacceptable check scale will be held at the point of the check scale until such time as the logs have been reviewed with the scaler, or for a period up to forty-eight (48) hours. (4-15-98) a. During this period the load(s) shall not be moved or tampered with in any way. (4- 15-98) b. The Board’s check scaler shall affix a tag to all loads that must be held, and notify the scaler and landing supervisors respectively. (4-15-98)

CHECK SCALING STANDARDS OF VARIATION

01. Allowable Limits of Variation To determine a check scale as acceptable or unacceptable for Board consideration, and when the method of measurement is the Coconino Scribner decimal C log rule, a scaler must be within allowable limits of variation in the following categories:

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Table I: Check Scale Standards Category Allowable Variation Gross Volume For logs in round form +/- 2.0 percent For logs in fractional or +/- 5.0 percent slab form Net Saw Logs Check scale percent of Volume defect on logs checked. Up to 10 +/- 2.0 percent 10.1 to 15 +/- 3.0 percent 15.1 to 20 +/- 0.2 percent for each percent Over 20 of defect +/- 5.0 percent Pulp +/- 5.0 percent Logs Cedar +/- 8.0 percent Product Logs Species Identification Errors 3.0 percent Product Classification Errors 3.0 percent

02. Combination Logs For purposes of determining product classification errors, combination logs shall be counted as one-half (1/2), one-third (1/3), and one-fourth (1/4)—depending on the number of scaling segments—to arrive at a piece or log count variation. Combination logs shall be considered only when provided for in a contractual scaling agreement or written scaling specifications. (4-15-98)

03. Check Scales Involving Multiple Variations Some check scales will involve more than one (1) parameter of variation. The overall allowable limit of variation to determine acceptability or unacceptability of the total gross or net scales shall be determined by the following formula: (4-15-98)

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Table II: Limit of Variation OAV = (axD) + (b x E) + (c x F) (D + E + F) OAV = Overall allowable percentage variation a = Allowable percentage variation for gross/net sawlog scale b = Allowable percentage variation for gross/net pulp log scale c = Allowable percentage variation for gross/net cedar products scale D = Check scaler’s gross/net sawlog scale E = Check scaler’s gross/net pulp log scale F = Check scaler’s gross/net cedar products log scale

IDAPA 20.06.01 states in section 820 that a check scale may be performed upon request of any individual, company, or corporation. Section 830.02 defines persons entitled to a copy of the check scale report as follows: in 830.02a. for temporary permits and relicense check scales, as the scaler and the scaler’s employer, and in 830.02b for routine and requested check scales, those persons entitled to a copy of the report include the scaler, the scaler’s employer, the scaler’s supervisor, the logging contractor, or other persons directly affected by the check scale report as determined by the executive director of the Idaho Board of Scaling Practices.