Doctor of Philosophy in Geography

IMPACT OF CARPET INDUSTRY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF ITS WORKERS: A CASE STUDY OF SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR (BHADOHI)DISTRICT (U.P.)

THESIS

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy In Geography

BY RAZIA BANO

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PROF. SAYEED AHMAD KHAN

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2018

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I bow in adoration to Almighty Allah, the cherisher and strength giver. I meticulously organized this research work by bestowing before the Almighty, whose grace and mercy keeps the world alive. First of all, I would like to pay gratitude to my esteemed teacher and supervisor Prof. Sayeed Ahmad Khan, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, for his guidance and generous attitude during the completion of this research work. I am also grateful to Prof. Ateeque Ahmad, Chairman, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for his support and help during the research work. I am deeply indebted to Prof. Hifzur Rahman, ex-Chairman, Department of Geography, for his relentless guidance in the completion of work are estimable and thankworthy. I also express my gratitude to my teacher Dr. Fatima Mehar Sultana, Associate Professor at the Women’s Collage, Aligarh Muslim University for her motivational support which gave me strength and aspiration to continue the journey of learning. I also extend my thanks to Prof. Abdul Munir, ex-Dean, Faculty of Science, and Chairman, Department of Geography for his valuable suggestions which, I received occasionally from him during the completion of the research work. I would like to express my deep gratitudes to my beloved mother Mrs. Anwari Begum and father Haji Habibullah Ansari for their blissful and heartfelt support in during the completion of this research work. I am also thankful to my brothers Mr. Salman Ahmad and Dr. Meraj Ahmad, sister Mrs. Nazia Aftab, and niece Ms. Firdaus for their endless support till the end of this work. Many thanks are due my friend Ms. Faiza Nafees, Department of Political Science, Aligarh Muslim University for her constant support to overcome the stress of work. I would like to express my sincere thanks to all seniors in the Department of Geography, Dr. Zeba Nisar, Dr. Suman Lata, Dr. Kamal Asif, and Dr. Adnan Shakeel, Mujahid ul Islam and Umar Habib for their constant help and generous guidance during my stay in the department. I am highly thankful to all my friends Ms. Nazneen Akhtar, Nida Fatima, Sufia Azim, Swati Gupta, Mahtab Alam, Daud Khan, Sadhna Singh, Naushaba Naseem, Nitin Kumar, Shabina Hussain and Abida Khan for their affectionate behavior.

(Razia Bano)

i ABSTRACT

Different ‘crafts’ have been an integral part of the Indian culture since the time immemorial. A wide range of handicrafts are produced almost in each state of the country. The crafts made in different states are well known for their unique quality i.e., silk sarees of Varanasi, brass made items of Moradabad, Chicken work of Lucknow, and carpets of Bhadohi. The handicrafts industry provides employment to thousands of artisans, including men, women, and children living in rural and urban areas

Of different states of all crafts, carpet weaving is considered an important and more popular activity and has contributed immensely to country’s development. Rapid technological advancements in carpet weaving have introduced magical designs, unmatched colour combinations leading to products of aesthetic beauty coveted within the country and even in the world market.

Carpet industry in India is a labour intensive handicraft and decentralized in nature as it spreads in rural and urban areas. Carpet weaving states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. These states specialize in carpet weaving with their own style and exhibits specialties.

A labour intensive carpet weaving industry sustains thousands of artisans and contributes much to improve their life style and living conditions directly or indirectly, because it is a basic source of income and livelihood. In addition to high potential of employment generation, it is also a source of foreign exchange earnings.

Carpet weaving has been unique and divergent work for carpet production on small and household levels to a mass level production in big units. A weaving unit can run at the personnel house of a artisan, but the supply of material will be met out by the entrepreneur himself or it has to be arranged by a middle-man outside. Workers involved in this industry can be divided on the basis of work performed into four categories. Their involvement ranges for a variety of works as for: i) weaving, ii) pre- weaving work, iii) finishing, and iv) non-making work. Carpet making work can involve number of workers from skilled to unskilled, full time to part time workers, house-based to outside workers, literates to illiterates, children to old aged persons,

1 and males to females. Carpet designing and finishing are very appropriate works for women. Carpet industry enables the illiterate women to earn money for their daily needs, and thus they can be capable to raise their socio-economic status in the society. Carpet weaving has different modes of carpet making such as, machines used and handmade; weaving styles, such as, knotted and tufted etc.

Among the areas of carpet weaving in the country, the district of Sant Ravidas Nagar (formerly known as Bhadohi) is one of the major carpet producing area in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The Bhadohi-Mirzapur belt is well known as a carpet producing region. Carpet industry in SR Nagar provides a source of income and livelihood to thousands of persons, and even to a large number of migrants settled here, who have come from outside the district.

Workers of carpet industry spread in the entire district, but a major part of weaving work is mainly confined to urban areas due to procurement of raw materials which come from outside, and accessibility to the market for the supply of finished products.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the present study are as follows:

1. To study the process of carpet making, its growth and development as a industry. 2. To study the contribution of carpet industry in the socio-economic life of the workers in the SR Nagar district. 3. To study the working conditions of workers in carpet industry in the SR Nagar district. 4. To analyse the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic life of workers in the SR Nagar district.

Present study is empirical in nature but for achieving set of objectives, it needed both primary and secondary data. To obtain primary data, field surveys were conducted to know the socio-economic conditions of carpet weaving workers in the district. Intensive field work was carried out for obtaining information through surveys, and numbers of workers were selected based on ‘cluster sampling’ design. Information pertaining to weaving work in carpet units were obtained by way of

2 contacting workers and personnel interviews with them. Secondary data were obtained from the published and unpublished sources, official records of the district’s industries office. Census of India 2011, District Census Handbook, Sankhykiya Patrika (in Hindi) 2011, and District Statistical Bulletin 2011 of the district were of great help.

Based on cluster sampling from a total of 995 industrial units, 100 units were selected in the district. These selected units are distributed all over in 6 blocks of the district. A proper care was done that, at least 10 units of carpet weaving should come in each cluster and from each unit at least 10 per cent of workers which constitutes 550 respondents were randomly selected for taking interview.

Data pertaining to basic information about carpet weaving were collected by interview method with the workers, and personnel observations within the units. Through interview, it was attempted to obtain necessary information through personal interviews with the respondents. Discussions with the respondents were helpful in getting valuable insight, attitudes, aspirations and options of respondents on many relevant issues. Personnel observations within the carpet weaving units during the field work were helpful to concentrate on confined elements essential for in-depth understanding.

A well structured questionnaire was prepared well before going for field work for the purpose of data collection and obtaining basic information. The questionnaire was structured in such a form that, it contained questions pertaining to the work of weavers. Many questions and responses of the workers were confined to demographic characteristics, socio-economic aspects, working conditions, health and other problems pertaining to weaving work. Primarily the questionnaire was prepared in English language, later it was translated into Hindi language for convenience for both the interviewer and interviewee.

After the completion of field work, many information obtained in the form of data were processed by incorporating necessary checking and editions. With the processing of information, great attention was given to data accuracy and its completeness. Computation and tabulating work was carried out both manually and with the help of statistical package SPSS. For the process of computation and tabulation of data, certain statistical methods were also used to quantify the data.

3 Computed values thus helped to describe precisely the differences and relationships in the results. Finally, the computed values of results were used to describe in relevant chapters of the thesis. Data were used and analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. In analyzing the data, statistical techniques such as: simple percentages, Karl Pearson’s ‘Coefficient of Correlation’, ‘Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Test’, and ‘Five Point Likert Scale’, were applied to deduce certain associations within the variables to reach at conclusions. For showing a clear picture, the percentage values of all the relevant variables were presented and used to show on maps, and preparation of bar-diagrammes. Maps and diagrammes accompanying the thesis were prepared by following GIS Arch View (3.2) technique.

The whole thesis consists of 6 chapters excluding introduction and conclusion. The first chapter entitled ‘The Sant Ravidas Nagar District: In Geographical and Socio-Economic Perspectives’ examines the physical and cultural settings of the district of Sant Ravidas Nagar. The climatic conditions, soil conditions, demographic and socio economic conditions were also discussed in this chapter.

The second chapter entitled ‘Art and Designing of Carpet Weaving: An Overview of Growth and Development’ is describes art of carpet weaving and asserted that, carpet industry is one of the most important handicraft industry in India. It has contributed much in the economic growth and development of the country, as it has an export oriented nature and employment generation capacity. The third chapter entitled ‘Carpet Industry: A Review of Literature’ deals with a review of literature highlighting previous work which has been carried out by a number of authors who were interested to know various aspects of this industry.

In the fourth chapter entitled ‘A Socio-Economic Profile of Carpet Industry Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar District, U.P’ an attempt has been made to discuss the socio-economic conditions of workers engaged in this industry. The workers were grouped into four categories on the basis of work they performance in carpet industry. Analysis of data was related with socio-economic conditions of workers, and highlights some relevant aspects such as: economic conditions, demographic aspects, educational conditions, housing conditions, health conditions and other related problems. Other characteristics related to workers have been

4 discussed as: monthly family income of workers, age group of workers, sex composition, religion and caste composition under demographic characteristics.

The fifth chapter entitled ‘Working Conditions in Carpet Industry’ deals blockwise working conditions of workers and according to work categories such as the nature of work, joining the work in industry from previous number of years, type of work, use of technology, working hours, distance of work place from house of residence, pollution measures adopted at work place, and other problems faced at work place.

The sixth chapter entitled ‘Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar Districts’ attempts to analyse the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions of workers. To show the association among selected variables Karl Pearson’s Correlation of Coefficient method was used. Positive value of correlation shows strong associations between X and Y variables. To assess the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions of workers, the responses of workers were analyzed by applying on 5 point Likert Scale to assess the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions of workers.

In a nutshell, the analysis shows that, if more family members are got involved for work in carpet industry, they will be more improved socio-economic conditions of workers.

On the basis of analysis of data, following critical points may be taken into account as suggestions for improving socio-economic conditions of carpet industry workers.

1. Most workers complained about the inequality in wage structure from one unit to another for same category of work. If a person working as a weaver in the block of Bhadohi gets more remuneration than a weaver working in the block of Suriyawan. This disparity in payment of wages need due consideration and necessary corrections.

2. The workers of carpet industry also suffer from low wages problems. Low wage payment by the owner of the unit is a very common problem. So, the wage structure of workers should be fixed.

5 3. The workers of carpet industry in the district always face insecurity in jobs. As the business of carpets goes slow, the workers are forced to quit the unit, after got engaged and go in other work. Therefore, most workers remain jobless for long months due to shortage of work in the units. So, a job security should be provided to them.

4. Carpet industry is an unorganized in nature that makes workers more sufferers. As their existence in the industry is not kept on records. Therefore, there should be a provision for unorganized workers to record their names in the unit where they have worked. In this way they can get benefit from government schemes which benefits for them.

5. Technological advancements have been well taken in all industries, but carpet is still deprived. Though hand-knotted carpets prepared at Bhadohi in SR Nagar district are marvelous in weaved quality and design but, incapable to compete with the carpets weaved with the use of technology. Use of new technology in making carpets, finishing equipments for designing should be introduced.

6. Formation and effective functioning of Self Help Group (SHG) workers in carpet industry will certainly benefit them, particularly at a time of uncertainty.

7. Formation of workers’ union should be allowed and supported by the owners that will certainly help them to forward their grievances and problems to the local authorities and the government.

8. Ignorance and reluctance among the workers were seen during interaction with them. Most of them were found unaware about the labour rights, labour beneficiary schemes launched by the state and central governments. All of these should be addressed to them.

9. Health care and accessibility to health care should be provided to workers. Many of the poor workers complained that, they cannot get advance payments for emergency needs (during their illness). Workers want to get help from owners, if they become ill during working period.

6 10. Many respondent women complained about the biased payment for the same work. They get less payment as compared with men for the same kind of work. Gender discrimination in wage payments should be avoided.

11. Women workers also desire to participate in work like weaving, washing, clipping etc. so, that a separate working space should be arranged for women.

7 CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgements i Preface ii List of Tables iii - vii List of Figures viii - xiii Introduction 1 - 4

CHAPTER 1 The Sant Ravidas Nagar District: In Geographical and Socio-Economic Perspectives 5 - 25 A. Historical Perspectives B. Geographical Setting C. Socio-Economic Perspectives

CHAPTER 2 Art and Designing of Carpet Weaving: An Overview of Growth and Development 26 - 50 A. Handicrafts B. Processes of Carpet Making C. Growth and Development of Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District D. Carpet Industry Regions in India E. Export Potentials of Indian Carpets F. Global Share in the Trade of Indian Carpets G. Role of Different in Development of Carpet Industry in India

CHAPTER 3 Carpet Industry and Workers : A Review of Literature 51 - 65

CHAPTER 4 A Socio-Economic Profile of Carpet Industry Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar District 66 - 112 A. Category of Workers in Carpet Industry B. Workers by Age Group in Carpet Industry C. Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry D. Religious Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry E. Caste Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry F. Educational Levels of Workers in Carpet Industry G. Monthly Income of Workers in Carpet Industry H. Monthly Family Income of Workers in Carpet Industry I. Average Monthly Expenditures of Workers in Carpet Industry J. Health Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry K. Family Size of Workers in Carpet Industry L. Educational Level of Family Members of Workers in Carpet Industry M. Housing Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry N. Sanitation Conditions of Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry

CHAPTER 5 Woking Conditions in Carpet Industry 113 - 155 A. Nature of Work in Carpet Industry B. Joining of Workers in Carpet Industry C. Type of Workers in Carpet Industry D. Use of Technology in Carpet Industry E. Working Hours of Workers in Carpet Industry F. Work Place and its Distance from Native Home G. Proper Ventilation Facilities at Work Place in Carpet Industry H. Pollution Measures at Work Place in Carpet Industry I. Problems at Work Place in Carpet Industry

CHAPTER 6 Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar District 156 - 202 A. Correlation Analysis B. Impact Analysis: Based on Likert Scale C. Scale Reliability Test: Cronbach’s Alpha D. Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers

Conclusion and Suggestions 203 - 208 Glossary 209 - 210 Bibliography 211 - 220 Appendix 221 - 225 Plates 226 - 235 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page No. No. 1 Blockwise Total Numbers of Carpet Weaving Units and 3 Numbers of Workers Selected from Each Unit in SR Nagar 2015 1.1 Maximum and Minimum Temperatures of SR Nagar 10 1.2 Blockwise Population in SR Nagar 2011 12 1.3 Blockwise Population Density in SR Nagar 2011 14 1.4 Blockwise Sex Ratio in SR Nagar 2011 16 1.5 Blockwise Distribution of Scheduled Casts and Scheduled 16 Tribes in SR Nagar 2011 1.6 Blockwise Literacy in SR Nagar 2011 17 1.7 Blockwise Classification of Workers: Based on Economic 18 Activities in SR Nagar 2011 1.8 Blockwise Land Use Pattern ( in ha.) in SR Nagar 2011 20 1.9 Micro and Small Enterprises and Artisan Units in SR Nagar 21 2011 1.10 Blockwise Length of Metalled Roads in SR Nagar 2011 22 1.11 Blockwise Communication Facilities in SR Nagar 2011 22 1.12 Activity-wise Electricity Consumption in SR Nagar 2011 23 1.13 Blockwise Medical Service Facilities in SR Nagar 2011 23 1.14 Blockwise Number of Commercial and Rural Banks in SR 24 Nagar 2011 2.1 Decadal Export Performance of Carpets of India in Terms of 40 Value 1961-2012 2.2 Export of Carpets from India 2000-1 to 2015-16 42 2.3 Export of Handmade Carpets from India to other Countries of 44 the World, 2012-13 4.1 Different Categories of Workers Engaged in Carpet Industry in 67 SR Nagar 2015 4.2 Blockwise Workers According to Work Categories in Carpet 67 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.3 Blockwise Workers According to Age Group in SR Nagar 2015 71 4.4 Age Group of Workers According to Category of Workers in 72 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

iii 4.5 Blockwise Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry in 74 SR Nagar 2015 4.6 Sex Composition of Workers According to Work Category in 76 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.7 Blockwise Workers According to Religion in Carpet Industry in 76 SR Nagar 2015 4.8 Category of Workers According to Religion in Carpet Industry 78 in SR Nagar 2015 4.9 Blockwise Caste Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry in 80 SR Nagar 2015 4.10 Caste Composition of Workers According to Work Category in 81 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.11 Blockwise Literacy Among Workers in Carpet industry in SR 84 Nagar 2015 4.12 Blockwise Educational Levels among Workers in Carpet 85 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.13 Blockwise Monthly Income of Workers in Carpet Industry in 88 SR Nagar 2015 4.14 Category of Workers According to Income Group in Carpet 89 India in SR Nagar 2015 4.15 Blockwise Family Income of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR 90 Nagar 2015 4.16 Blockwise Monthly Expenditures of Workers on Family in 93 Carpet industry SR Nagar 2015 4.17 Blockwise Percentage of Workers Suffering from Different 95 Diseases in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.18 Blockwise Family Size of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR 97 Nagar 2015 4.19 Family Size of Workers According to Categories of Work in 99 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.20 Blockwise Educational Levels of Family Members of Workers 100 in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.21 Blockwise Percentage of Housing Conditions of Workers in 101 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.22 Housing Conditions of Workers According to Categories of 104 Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.23 Blockwise Sanitation Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry 105 in SR Nagar 2015 4.24 Sanitation Conditions in Houses of Workers According to 106 Categories of work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

iv 4.25 Blockwise Bathroom Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry 107 in SR Nagar 2015 4.26 Bathroom Conditions According to Categories of Work in 108 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.27 Blockwise Availability of Drinking Water in Houses of 109 Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.28 Blockwise Sources of Drinking Water in Houses of Workers in 110 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.29 Availability of Drinking Water According to Categories of 111 Work In Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 4.30 Sources of Drinking Water in Houses of Workers According to 111 Work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.1 Category of Workers According to Nature of Work in Carpet 116 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.2 Blockwise Workers According to Nature of Work in Carpet 117 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.3 Category wise Workers According to Year of Joining in Carpet 120 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.4 Blockwise Type of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 122 2015 5.5 Category of Workers According to Work Skill in Carpet 124 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.6 Workers Using New Technology in Carpet Industry in SR 125 Nagar 2015 5.7 Blockwise Working Hours in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 127 5.8 Category of Workers According to Working Hours in Carpet 130 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.9 Blockwise Workers According to Distance of Workplace from 131 Home in SR Nagar 2015 5.10 Category of Workers According to Distance of Workplace from 132 Home in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.11 Blockwise Proper Ventilation at Workplace in Carpet industry 135 in SR Nagar 2015 5.12 Category of Workers Working Under Proper Ventilated at 136 Workplace in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.13 Blockwise Pollution Measures Adopted in Carpet Industry in 138 SR Nagar 2015 5.14 Category of workers Adopted Pollution Measures at Work 140 Place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

v 5.15 Blockwise Power Cut Problems at Work Place in Carpet 142 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.16 Blockwise Problem of Misbehaviour with Workers by Owners 144 of the Units in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.17 Blockwise Problem of Retaining Workers for Long Working in 146 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.18 Blockwise Problem of Insecurity among Workers at Work 148 Place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.19 Blockwise Problem of Low Wages of Workers in Carpet 151 Industry in SR Nagar 2015 5.20 Blockwise Problem of Irregular Nature of Work Availability in 153 Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 6.1 Variables Selected to Examine the Impact of Carpet Industry on 158 Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers Engaged in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 6.2 Correlation Matrix of Selected Variables 159 6.3 Application of Likert Scale Technique to Analyze the Impact of 163 Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers 6.4 Case Processing Summary of Cronbach’s Alpha 164 6.5 Reliability Statistics 164 6.6 Blockwise Impact of carpet Industry on Monthly Income of 165 Workers in SR Nagar 2015 6.7 Blockwise impact of Carpet Industry on Debt Levels of 167 Workers in SR Nagar 2015 6.8 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Education of the 170 Family Members in SR Nagar 2015 6.9 Blockwise impact of Income of Workers on Housing Status in 173 SR Nagar 2015 6.10 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Housing 175 Conditions in SR Nagar 2015 6.11 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Facilities in 178 Houses in SR Nagar 2015 6.12 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Conditions 180 in SR Nagar 2015 6.13 Blockwise Impact of Income of Carpet Workers on Bathroom 183 Conditions in Houses in SR Nagar 2015 6.14 Blockwise Impact of Income of Carpet Workers on LPG 185 Cooking Fuel in SR Nagar 2015

vi 6.15 Blockwise Impact of Carpet Industry on Deterioration of Health 188 of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 6.16 Blockwise Impact of Carpet Industry on Frequency of Disease 190 Occurrence in SR Nagar 2015 6.17 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in Availing Drinking 192 Water Facilities in SR Nagar 2015 6.18 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in owning of Two- 194 Wheelers in SR Nagar 2015 6.19 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in owning of Mobiles 197 in SR Nagar 2015 6.20 Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in subscribing news 199 paper in SR Nagar 2015

vii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page No. No. 1.1 Locational map of Sant Ravidas Nagar district (Bhadohi) 6 Uttar Pradesh 1.2 Study Area Map of Sant Ravidas Nagar district 7 1.3 Maximum and Minimum Monthly Temperature of Sant 11 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 1.4 Annual Precipitation of Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 11 1.5 River Map of Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 13 1.6 Blockwise Population of Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2011 14 1.7 Blockwise Population Density of Sant Ravidas Nagar 15 District 2011 1.8 Blockwise Literacy of Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2011 18 1.9 Blockwise Distribution of Workers in Sant Ravidas Nagar 19 district 2011 2.1 Carpet Manufacturing Sates in India, 2015 38 2.2 Dacadal Export Performance of Carpet in India 1961-2012 41 2.3 Carpets Export from India ( in crores of Rs.), 2001 -2015 43 2.4 Export Share of Carpets from India to the World Market, 43 2015 2.5 Export Share of Indian Carpets to the World Market in 45 terms of Value 2012-13 4.1 Map of Blockwise Workers According to Working 68 Categories in Sant Ravidas Nagar, 2015 4.2 Blockwise Number of Workers According to Working 69 Categories in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar, 2015 4.3 Work Categories in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar, 70 2015 4.4 Workers According to Age group in Carpet Industry in Sant 72 Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.5 Blockwise Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry 74 in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.6 Map of Blockwise Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet 75 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015

viii 4.7 Map of Workers According to Religion in Carpet Industry 77 in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.8 Workers According to Religion in Carpet Industry in Sant 78 Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.9 Blockwise Workers According to Caste in Carpet Industry 80 in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.10 Caste Composition of Workers in Carpe Industry in Sant 81 Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.11 Map of Blockwise Castes Composition of Workers in Sant 82 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 4.12 Literacy among Workers in Carpet Industry Workers in 84 Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.13 Blockwise Educational Levels of Workers in Carpet 86 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.14 Blockwise Monthly Income of Workers in Carpet Industry 89 in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.15 Blockwise Family Income of Workers in Carpet Industry in 91 Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.16 Monthly Expenditure of Workers on Family in Carpet 92 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.17 Blockwise Monthly Expenditures of Workers on Family in 94 Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.18 Blockwise Workers Suffering from Diseases in Carpet 95 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.19 Blockwise Size of Family of Workers in Carpet Industry in 98 Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.20 Family Size of Workers in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas 99 Nagar 2015 4.21 Blockwise Educational Levels of Workers in Carpet 100 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.22 Housing Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry Sant 102 Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.23 Type of Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry in Sant 102 Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.24 Map of Blockwise Housing Status of Workers in Carpet 103 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.25 Housing Conditions of Workers According to Work 104 Categories in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015

ix 4.26 Toilet Facilities in Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry in 106 Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.27 Type of Toilets in Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry in 107 Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.28 Bathroom Conditions in Houses of Workers in Carpet 108 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.29 Bathroom Facilities in Houses of Workers in Carpet 109 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 4.30 Blockwise Sources of Drinking Water in Houses of 110 Workers in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.1 Nature of Work in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 117 District2015 5.2 Map of Blockwise Distribution of Workers According to 118 Nature of Work in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.3 Blockwise Workers According to Nature of Work in Carpet 119 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.4 Category of Workers According to Joining Years in Sant 121 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.5 Blockwise Types of Workers in Carpet Industry in Sant 122 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.6 Map of Types of Workers According to Working Category 123 in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.7 Blockwise Workers Using New Technology in Carpet 125 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.8 Map of Blockwise Workers Using New Technology in 126 Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.9 Working Hours in Carpet Industry Workers in Sant Ravidas 128 Nagar District 2015 5.10 Blockwise Working Hours in Carpet Industry in Sant 129 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.11 Working Hours According to Working Category in Carpet 130 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.12 Blockwise Workers According to Distance of Workplace 132 from Home in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.13 Category of Workers According to the Distance from 133 Workplace in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015

x 5.14 Map of Blockwise Distribution of Workers According to 134 Distance of Workplace From Home in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.15 Blockwise Ventilation Facilities for Workers in Carpet 135 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.16 Ventilation Condition According to Category of Work at 136 Working Place in carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.17 Map of Blockwise Ventilation facilities for workers in 137 Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.18 Map of Blockwise Pollution Measures Adopted at Work 139 Place in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.19 Blockwise Pollution Measures Adopted at Work Place by 140 Workers in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.20 Pollution Measures at Workplace According to Work 141 Categories in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.21 Problem of Power Cut at Work Place in Carpet Industry in 142 Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.22 Map of Problems of Power Cut at Workplace in Carpet 144 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.23 Problem of Misbehaviour with Workers by Owners at Work 145 place in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.24 Map of Misbehavior by Owners Faced by Workers at 146 Workplace in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.25 Problem of Retaining Workers for Long Working Hours of 147 Workers at Work Place in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.26 Map of Problems of Retaining of Long Working Hours of 149 Workers at Work Place in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 5.27 Map of Insecurity Problem Among Carpet Workers at 150 Workplace in Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.28 Insecurity Problem among Workers at Working Place in 151 Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015

xi 5.29 Problem of Low Wages Among Workers at Workplace in 152 Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar 2015 5.30 Map of Problem of Low Wages among Workers in Carpet 154 Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.1 Impact of Carpet Industry on Income of Workers in Sant 165 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.2 Map of Impact of Carpet Industry on Income of Workers in 166 Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.3 Impact of Carpet Industry on Debt Level in Sant Ravidas 168 Nagar District 2015 6.4 Map of Impact of Carpet Industry on Debt Level in Sant 169 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.5 Impact of Income of Workers on Education of Family 171 Members in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.6 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Education of 172 Family Members in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.7 Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Status in Sant 173 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.8 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Status in 174 Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.9 Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Conditions in 176 Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.10 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Housing 177 Conditions in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.11 Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Facilities in Sant 179 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.12 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Facilities in 180 Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.13 Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Conditions in Sant 181 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.14 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Conditions 182 in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.15 Impact of Income of Workers on Bathroom Conditions in 183 Houses in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.16 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Bathroom 184 Conditions in Houses in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.17 Impact of Income of Workers on LPG Cooking Fuel in Sant 186 Ravidas Nagar District 2015

xii 6.18 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on LPG Cooking 187 Fuel in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.19 Impact of Carpet Industry on Deterioration of Health of 189 Worker in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.20 Map of Impact of Carpet Industry on Deterioration of 190 Health of Workers in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.21 Impact of Carpet Industry on Frequency of Disease 191 Occurrence in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.22 Impact of Income of Workers on Drinking Water Facilities 193 in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.23 Map of Impact of Income of Workers on Drinking Water 194 Facilities in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.24 Impact of Income of Carpet Workers in Owning of Two 195 Wheelers in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.25 Map of Impact of Income of Carpet Workers in Owning of 196 Two Wheelers in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.26 Map of Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Mobiles 198 in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.27 Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Mobiles in Sant 199 Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.28 Map of Impact of Workers on Subscribing News Papers in 200 Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015 6.29 Impact of Income of Workers on Subscribing News Papers 201 in Sant Ravidas Nagar District 2015

xiii Introduction INTRODUCTION

Of all the crafts, carpet weaving is considered an important and more popular activity and has contributed immensely to country’s development. Rapid technological advancements in carpet weaving have introduced magical designs, unmatched colour combinations leading to products of aesthetic beauty coveted within the country and even in the world market.

Carpet industry in India is a labour intensive handicraft and a decentralised industry as it spreads in rural and urban areas. Carpet weaving states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. These states specialize in carpet weaving with their own style and exhibit speciality.

Carpet weaving has been an unique and divergent work for carpet production on small and household levels to a mass level production in big units. A weaving unit can runs at personnel house of an artisan, but the supply of material will be met out by the entrepreneur himself or it has to be arranged by the middle-man outside. Workers involved in the industry can be divided on the basis of work performed into four categories. Their involvement ranges for a variety of works as for: i) weaving, ii) pre-

1 carpet making, iii) finishing, and iv) packaging. Carpet making work can involve number of workers from skilled to unskilled, full time to part time workers, house- based to outside workers, literates to illiterates, children to old aged persons, and males to females. Carpet designing and finishing are very appropriate works for women. Carpet industry enables the rural and urban illiterate women to earn money for their daily needs, and thus they can be capable to raise their socio-economic status in the society. Carpet weaving has different modes of carpet making such as, machines used and handmade; weaving styles, such as knotted and tufted etc.

Among the areas of carpet weaving in the country, the district of Sant Ravidas Nagar (formerly known as Bhadohi) is one of the major carpet producing area of the state of Uttar Pradesh. The Bhadohi-Mirzapur belt is well known as a carpet producing region. Carpet industry in SR Nagar provides a source of income and livelihood to thousands of persons, and even to a large number of migrants settled here, who have come from outside the district. Workers of carpet industry spread in both rural and urban areas, but a major part of weaving work is mainly confined to urban areas due to procurement of raw materials in carpet making which come from outside and accessibility to the market for the supply of finished products.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the present study are as follows:

1. To study the process of carpet making, its growth and development as a industry.

2. To study the contribution of carpet industry in the socio-economic life of the workers in the SR Nagar district.

3. To study the working conditions of workers in carpet industry in the SR Nagar district.

4. To analyse the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic life of workers in the SR Nagar district.

Database and Methodology Present study is empirical in nature but for achieving set of objectives, it needed both primary and secondary data. To obtain primary data, field surveys were conducted to know the socio-economic conditions of carpet weaving workers in the

2 district. Intensive field work was carried out for obtaining information through surveys, and numbers of workers were selected based on ‘cluster sampling’ design. Information pertaining to weaving work in carpet units were obtained by way of contacting workers and personnel interviews with them. Secondary data were obtained from the published and unpublished sources, official records of the district’s industries office. Census of India 2011, District Census Handbook, Sankhykiya Patrika (in Hindi) 2011, and District Statistical Bulletin 2011 of the district were of great help. The Sampling Design

Based on cluster sampling from a total of 995 industrial units, 100 units were selected in the district. These selected units are distributed all over in six blocks of the district.

Table 1: Blockwise Total Numbers of Carpet Weaving Units and Numbers of Workers Selected from each Unit in SR Nagar 2015

Name of Total number Number of block of units workers selected Abholi 14 70 Aurai 20 125 Bhadohi 20 125 Digh 13 70 Gyanpur 18 80 Suriyawan 15 80 Total 100 550

A proper care was done that, at least 10 units of carpet weaving should come in each cluster and from each unit at least 10 per cent of workers were randomly selected for taking interview.

Methods of Data Collection

Data pertaining to basic information about carpet weaving were collected through interview method with the workers, and personal observations within the units. Discussions with the respondents were helpful in getting valuable insights, attitudes, aspirations and options of respondents on many relevant issues. Personnel

3 observations within the carpet weaving units during the field work were helpful to concentrate on confined elements essential for in-depth understanding.

A well structured questionnaire was prepared well before going to field work for the purpose of data collection and obtaining basic information. The questionnaire was structured in such a form that, it contained questions pertaining to the work of weavers. Many questions and responses of the workers were confined to demographic characteristics, socio-economic aspects, working conditions, health and other problems pertaining to weaving work. Primarily the questionnaire was prepared in English language, later it was translated into Hindi language for convenience for both the interviewer and interviewee.

Data Processing and Analysis

After the completion of field work, many information obtained in the form of data were processed by incorporating necessary checking and editing. With the processing of information, great attention was given to data accuracy and its completeness. Computation and tabulating work was carried out both manually and with the help of statistical package SPSS. For the process of computation and tabulation of data, certain statistical methods were also used to quantify the data. Computed values thus helped to describe precisely the differences and relationships in the results. Finally, the computed values of results were used to describe in relevant chapters of the thesis. Data were used and analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. In analysing the data, statistical techniques such as: simple percentages, Karl Pearson’s ‘Coefficient of Correlation’, ‘Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Test’, and ‘Five Point Likert Scale’, were applied to deduce certain associations within the variables to reach at conclusions. For showing a clear picture, the percentage values of all the relevant variables were presented and used to show on maps, and preparation of bar-diagrammes. Maps and diagrammes accompanying the thesis were prepared by following GIS Arch View (3.2) technique.

4 Chapter 1

The Sant Ravidas Nagar District: In Geographical and Socio- Economic Perspectives CHAPTER 1

THE SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT: IN GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES

The district of Sant Ravidas Nagar is the 65th district of the state of Uttar Pradesh. It was carved out as a separate entity from the district of Varanasi of the state in 1995. It is located between 25° 12´ and 25° 32´ north latitudes and 82° 12´ and 82° 42´east longitudes in south-eastern part of the state. It is bounded in four sides by the districts of Jaunpur, Allahabad, Mirzapur and Varanasi. The district of Jaunpur makes its northern boundary, Varanasi embraces in the east. The district of Mirzapur makes its southern boundary and Allahabad in the boundary. Total area of the district accounts for spreads over 1015 km2.

For administrative purposes, the district has been divided into three tehsils (a sub- division of the district) namely, Aurai, Bhadohi and Gyanpur. It consists of six development blocks namely, Suriyawan, Digh, Abholi, Bhadohi, Aurai and Gyanpur. The Gyanpur is the district’s headquarters. There are 1075 populated and 179 non- populated villages in the district along with 79 Nyay Panchayats together with 489 Gram Panchayats in the district. It consists of nine Police Stations. The district consists 10 towns namely, Suriyawan, Nai Bazar, Bhadohi, Hariyawar, Gyanpur, Gopiganj, Jakhaon, Lachiman Ptti, Khamariya, and Ghosiyan (Census, 2011).

A. Historical Perspectives

The SR Nagar is a new name given officially to the district, formerly it was known as the district of Bhadohi. Previously it formed a part of Varanasi district, prior to become an independent district named as Sant Ravidas Nagar in 1994. The history of the district can be traced back to the medieval period. The presence of an old tank and ruined mounds excavated at different places provide enough evidences to speak on the origin of the settlement. The excavated evidences have encrypted the name of Bhar Rulers, which suggest the origin and naming of the district. The name of Bhadohi has been derived from the Bhar Raj. It was a part of Kannauj Kingdom and formed a part of the Jaunpur during the medieval period.

5 LOCATION MAP SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR (BHADOHI) DISTRICT UTTAR PRADESH

Fig. 1.1

6 Fig. 1.2

7 During the Medieval period Bhadohi was made a dastur,and included in the sarkar of Allahabad during the period of rule of Mughal Emperor AkbarBhar rulers were overpowered by the Maunas Rajputs during the 15th century. Sagar Rai, a Bhar ruler and his grandson Jodh Rai received Bhadohi as a Zameendari Sanad (Deed) from the Shah Jahan in 1750 AD. After this, it came under the hands of Varanasi’s ruler when Raja Pratap Sigh of Pratapgarh handed over the entire pargana to Balwant Singh in lieu of paying his arrears. Balawant Singh received it directly under a sanad from the Nawab Shuja-u-Daula of the Awadh under the British influence in 1770 AD (Bayly and Allen, 1988). After this it remained a part and parcel of the Varanasi. The Varanasi inculcated culture and traditions into Bhadohi until year 1994. Mayawati then being the chief Minister of the state of U.P, Government decided to change its name in 2011 to be known as the district of Sant Ravidas Nagar afterwards.

B. Geographical Setting

a. Structure and Relief

The district of SR Nagar forms the southern Ganga Plain. The river Ganga passes through its south-western border. The Morwa and the Varuna are two important rivers to pass through this fertile land. The Morva river flows from west north to east north side and the Varuna passes to form the east-north boundary. The Ganga plain is a unique geographical unit. It presents homogeneity in its natural and physical features unequal anywhere on the world map. (Martin,1932). The Ganga plains has been built up and consists of layers of sands, clays and occasional organic debris formed very recently and (Pleistocene and Recent) filled up a deep depression between two other units (Krishna, 1956). Average elevation of the surface is 85 meters from mean sea level. The entire area of the district is almost a plain, with gentle slope towards-south- east except the river banks.

b. Climate

Climate is an important physical characteristic which controls daily activies and influences the socio-economic characteristics in any region. From the climatic point of view the state bears the tropical monsoon climate. The climate is characterised with humid subtropical dry winter (C Wa) type. As the district SR Nagar is situated in the eastern part of state, so bears Semi Arid (BS) type of climate. The climate of SR Nagar is typical humid subtropical as experienced by the north and central India. The

8 district experiences distinct climatic seasons varying from extreme hot to extreme cold. It has three distinct seasons: hot dry summer, warm humid monsoon and cool dry winter. The winter usually extends from the month of mid-November to February and is followed by the summer, which continues till about the middle of June. SR Nagar experiences severe fog in the month of January. The summer season is long and hot with the maximum temperatures ranging from 40 °C to 45 °C accompanied by hot local winds called as ‘loo’. The south-west monsoon then ushers in the rainy season providing relief to the hot summer climate which lasts till the end of September. The months of October and the first half of November constitute the post monsoon season. Rainfall in SR Nagar district generally decreases from the south-east to the north-west. The monsoon season starts from mid-June and lost by the month of mid September. About 88 per cent of annual rainfall is received during the months July and August being the months of maximum rainfall. Normal rainfall in the district is accounts about 975 mm, but there are variations from year to year. On an average there are about 48 rain days in a year. From middle of the month of November, the temperatures begin to fall rapidly and in the month of January (the coldest month) the mean daily maximum is 23.7 °C. In association with cold waves in the wake of western disturbances passing eastwards, the minimum temperature may go down further to a degree or two above the freezing point of water and slight frost may occur. Temperatures begin to rise slowly to end of the month of February. The heat in the summer season, particularly in the month of May and in the early parts of June becomes intense. The month of May usually is the hottest month with the mean daily maximum temperature at 41.8 °C. and the mean minimum at 26.8 °C. Hot dry and often dusty westerly winds (locally known as loo, which blows during day time) make the heat more intense. The hot wind usually cease by the mid of the June, when with the advent of south-west monsoon. Day temperatures may drop rapidly but the night temperatures remain little higher in the month of May. In October, day temperature begin to drop gradually and night temperatures rapidly.

The climate is marked by high relative humidity to the 70 to 80 per cent during the monsoon seasons and progressive decrease (during the summers season as low as 15 to 20 per cent). During the monsoon season the skies generally remain clouded but during the rest of the year they are clear or lightly clouded except for short spells of a day or two during the cold season in association with the passing of the western

9 disturbances, they again become cloudy. Winds are generally light throughout the year with some increase in their speed in summer (particularly in the afternoon), and during the south west monsoon season. From the month of November to April they blow predominantly following the direction from west or north-west.

Table 1.1: Maximum and Minimum Temperatures of SR Nagar 2012

Month Maximum Minimum temperature temperature (°C) (°C) January 19 8 February 24 12 March 31 17 April 37 22 May 38 25 June 46 27 July 32 26 August 31 26 September 31 24 October 31 21 November 27 15 December 22 19 Source: Meteorological Department, New Delhi, 2012

By the month of May, easterlies and north-easterlies also appear. During the monsoon season, the directions of the winds remain either south-west to west or north-east to east. By the month of October, the north easterlies and easterlies become less frequent. The mean wind speed for the district is 4 kms./hr. in the month of January and 5.0 kms./hr. in the month of February, 6.0 km./hr. in the month of March, 6.6 kms./hr. in the month of April, 7.7 kms./hr. in the month of July, 6.9 kms/hr. in the month of August, 6.0 kms/hr. in the month of September, 3.7 kms./hr. In the month of October, 2.7 km./hr. in the month of November, and 3.2 km./hr. in the month of December. The mean annual speed of wind is 5.7 km./hr. in year. c. Soils

Soil is the important among all the natural resources for agrarian economy more specifically for India. Agriculture is highly dependent on soil productivity and fertility of soil.

10 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Maximum and Minimum MonthlyTemperatures 2015

37 38 31 32 31 31 31 27 26 26 27 24 25 24 22 21 22 19 19 17 15 12 8

Max. Temp. (°C) Min. Temp. (°C) Fig. 1.3

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Annual Precipitation(mm.) 2015

320.6 331.6

260.4

100 38.3 19.3 13.5 10.4 5.4 13 9 4

Annual Precipitation(mm.)

Fig. 1.4

11 Soil constitutes a thin layer of earth’s surface which comprises minerals and other particles formed by the breaking of rocks and decaying of the organic matter, dead organisms mixed with water and air (Bryant, 2010). The Ganga plain comprises the khadar soils enriched by the newer alluvium, which form the flood plains along the river banks. Soils formed over the district are basically alluvial in nature. The constituents of alluvial soil are essentially the sandy loamy and silty in nature.

d. Drainage i) The Ganga: The Ganga river passes along the south-western boundary of the district of S.R.Nagar. ii) The Morwa: The Morwa river enters the district from north-west and flows along the northern boundary. iii) The Varuna: The Varuna river flows north-eastern direction in the district (Fig. 1.5) C. Socio-Economic Perspectives a. Population

According to the Census of 2011, the total population of district accounted for 1.57 million persons. Out of which, the participation of males population was 0.80 million persons and females 0.77 million persons. The total scheduled caste population was 0.35 million persons and scheduled tribes constituted a population of 986 persons. Among the six development blocks, Aurai recorded the highest population of 0.32 million, followed by Bhadohi 0.29 million persons, Digh 0.62 million persons, Gyanpur 0.26 million persons, Suriyawan 0.14 million persons and the Abholi block recorded the lowest population of 0.126 million persons.

Table 1.2: Blockwise Population in SR Nagar 2011 Name of Males Females block per cent per cent Abholi 49.16 50.84 Aurai 51.08 48.39 Bhadohi 51.18 48.82 Digh 51.5 48.5 Gyanpur 50.84 49.16 Suriyawan 49.32 50.68 Total 50.9 49.1 Source: Census of India, District Census Handbook 2011

12 Fig. 1.5

13 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Population 2011

49 Percentage 48

46 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Males Females Fig. 1.6 b. Population Density

Density of population is enumerated as the number of persons per km. The district of SR Nagar may be considered as the densest populated in the state. The average density of population in the district was 13,734 persons / sq.km.

Table 1.3: Blockwise Population Density in SR Nagar 2011

Name of Density block (persons/sq.km.) Abholi 1357 Aurai 1660 Bhadohi 1253 Digh 1229 Gyanpur 1553 Suriyawan 1221 Total 1375 Source: Census of India, District Census Handbook 2011

14 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Population Density 2011

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800 Percentage 600

400

200

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Density (Persons/Sq.Km.)

Fig. 1.7

The block of Gyanpur recorded the highest density of 15,553 persons /sq.km, followed by the Suriyawan (12,260), Abholi (1,357), Bhadohi (1253), Digh (1,229) and Aurai (167) persons/sq.km (Fig. 1.7) c. Sex Ratio

Sex Ratio is a biological factor, its determination is an attempt examine to the participation of number of males and female in a population group which offers an insight into the process and pattern of natural increase in population. Table 1.3 shows that, the sex ratio in the district of S.R.Nagar was 955, that is higher than the national average of 940. Sex ratio in entire district for rural and urban population was 964 and 904 persons respectively. The Abholi block has recorded the highest sex ratio being 1034, followed by the blocks of Suriyawan (1027), Gyanpur (967), Bhadohi (954), Digh (941) and Aurai (938).

15 Table 1.4: Blockwise Sex Ratio in SR Nagar 2011

Name of Sex Ratio Block Abholi 1034 Aurai 938 Bhadohi 954 Digh 942 Gyanpur 967 Suriyawan 1027 Total 965 Source: Census of India, District Census Handbook 2011 d. Scheduled Cast and Scheduled Tribe Population

Scheduled caste population in an area is considered to be a marginalized section of the society. The size of scheduled cast population shows the concentration of marginalized population in the society. There were 353103 million persons (23.93per cent) recorded as scheduled caste in the entire district. Table 1.5: Blockwise Distribution of Scheduled Cast and Scheduled Tribe Population in S.R. Nagar 2011

Share of scheduled Share of scheduled Name of cast population tribes population block Per cent Per cent Abholi 22.16 0.09 Aurai 25.7 0 Bhadohi 24.67 0.12 Digh 21.42 0.24 Gyanpur 22.34 0.08 Suriyawan 27.1 0.13 Total 23.93 0.13 Source: Census of India, District Census Handbook 2011

Table 1.5 shows that Suriyawan block recorded the highest percentage of scheduled castes (27.01in per cent), followed by the Aurai block (25.70 in per cent), Bhadohi (24.67 per cent), Gyanpur (22.34 per cent), Abholi (22.16 per cent) and Digh (21 per cent) recorded the lowest percentage. Scheduled tribe also inhabits in parts of the district. Concentration of scheduled tribe is seen in 5 blocks of the district. A total of 1758 persons (0.13 per cent) of population belong to the district. The block of Digh

16 recorded the highest percentage (0.24 per cent) of scheduled tribes, which is followed by the block of Suriyawan (0.13 per cent), Bhadohi (0.12 per cent), Abholi (0.09 per cent), and the lowest share of scheduled tribes population was recorded in the block of Gyanpur (0.08 per cent). e. Literacy

Literacy is one of the most important indicator of social development. It is as a result of better facilities and better quality of life to the people in the society. Any person who has attained the aged of 7 years or above who can both read and write with proper understanding in any language is considered to be as literate. Table 1.5 shows that, literacy in the district is 68.97 per cent out of which females are 56.03 per cent and 81.47 per cent are male literates. The highest literacy in individual is found in Bhadohi accounts for 69.73 per cent, which is followed by the block of Digh (69.42 per cent), Gyanpur (68.10 per cent), Aurai (68.10 per cent), Abholi (67.04 per cent), and a low literacy is found in Suriyawan (65.71 per cent). The male literacy is highest in the block of Digh (83.07 per cent), followed by the block of Bhadohi (82.29 per cent), Abholi (81.52 per cent), Gyanpur (81.39 per cent), Aurai (80.34 per cent) and Suriyawan (80.9 per cent).

Table 1.6: Blockwise Literacy in SR Nagar 2011 Male Female Total Name of literacy literacy literacy block (in per cent) (in per cent) per cent Abholi 81.52 53.40 67.04 Aurai 80.34 54.14 67.61 Bhadohi 82.29 56.69 69.73 Digh 83.07 54.07 69.42 Gyanpur 81.39 54.61 68.10 Suriyawan 80.90 51.92 65.71 Total 81.47 56.03 68.97 Source: Census of India, District Census Handbook 2011 The block of Bhadohi shows the highest literacy rate in the entire district. One of the main reason behind literacy in this block is the presence of number of schools and colleges and easily accessibility. This block has town with the same name, this is an important reason for high literacy i.e. the presence of urban infrastructure. The Bhadohi is known for carpet manufacturing adequately organised in the district.

17 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Litearcy 2011

90 80 70 60 50 40 Percentage 30 20 10 0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Male Literacy Female Literacy

Fig. 1.8 f. Occupational Structure

Occupational structure of a population is one of the important indicators for the measurement of employment status in the society.

Table 1.7: Blockwise Classification of Workers: Based on Economic Activities in SR Nagar 2011

Agricultural Other Farmers Households Name of labourers workers block per cent per cent per cent per cent Abholi 37.46 16.92 12.53 33.09 Aurai 14.66 12.11 13.32 55.31 Bhadohi 16.61 13.73 12.73 47.47 Digh 32.8 18.52 10.92 37.76 Gyanpur 29.59 12.16 12.12 46.12 Suriyawan 33.59 17.82 12.7 35.9 Total 33.59 14.63 12.41 45.1 Source: Census of India, District Census Handbook 2011

18 It is also considered as one of the indicators of socio-economic development. Table 1.6 shows, that significantly a large number of persons 67232 persons are engaged in agriculture. Household workers accounted for 38963 persons and other workers enumerated as 1, 44,667 persons. Total number of main workers in the district were enumerated as 2, 86,978 persons an marginal workers as 1, 83,630 persons.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Distribution of Workers 2011

30 Percentage 20

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Farmers Agriculture Labour

Fig. 1.9 g. Land Use Pattern Bringing all the lands possibly under cultivation and account for land use pattern have been very important aspects to ascertain the agricultural development in an area. While ascertaining the land use pattern it will help to accentuate the process to increase cultivable lands, to utilize cultivable waste lands and increasing cropping intensity.

19 Table 1.8: Blockwise Land Use Pattern in SR Nagar 2011 (Area in ha.) Name of block Use of Lands Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan Forests 16 20 18 17 19 16 Barren and cultivated 47 112 73 63 93 30 lands Fallow lands 1431 2400 1587 1178 2088 1242 Other fallow 476 828 742 412 796 365 lands Barren & uncultivated 126 400 296 218 353 81 Lands Non- agricultural 1829 41740 3384 2606 3687 1661 lands Pastures 27 77 56 42 68 298 Natural 92 157 123 89 144 638 vegetation Total 12095 24174 19549 14348 22155 9840 Source: Economic and Statistical Department, SR Nagar District, 2011 h. Agriculture

The Ganga plain with fertile soils and hospitable climate has provided a base for the people to settle, thus has led to emergence of large number of human settlements since the evolution of human civilization. Fertile soil is fundamental to agricultural productivity (Singh, 2012). Favourable climatic and fertile soils have made land in the area very suitable for raising a quit large number of crops. Suitable farming conditions have made farming especially for grains production in the district. Intensity of land use can be seen with reference to the net sown area which accounted for 69,000 ha. and area sown more than once to the tune of 29000 ha. Further the intensity of irrigation with the net irrigated area as 55,000 ha. and 79,000 ha. as gross irrigate. i. Industries

The district of SR Nagar is best known for its surrogate as ‘Carpet City’ as it is the centre of largest hand-knotted carpet weaving industry in the entire South Asia. There are 2194 carpet wearing units are engaged in for making a woollen, silk and artificial thread-based carpets in the district. In addition to carpet manufacturing, the district also has an agrarian base economy. Thus, there are several food processing and agro-

20 based industries in the district. Beside these, the district of SR Nagar has a number of micro and small scale industries, such as leather goods industry, soda water, tobacco industry, rubber plastic and petroleum based industry, engineering units, repairing and servicing, etc. There are 3,696 registered small scale manufacturing units to employee 15810 persons as daily workers in the district.

Table 1.9: Micro and Small Enterprises and Artisan Units in SR Nagar 2011 Investment No. of No. of Type of industry (in crors of Persons units Rs.) employed Agro-based industries 122 2.87 523 Soda water and tobacco 37 0.38 132 Cotton textile 24 1.22 128 Woollen, silk & artificial threads 2194 40.34 10291 Jute and jute-based industries - - - Readymade garments and embroidery 84 0.45 249 Wooden based furniture 48 0.21 136 Paper and paper products 33 0.61 133 Leather-based industries 3 0.04 12 Chemicals/Chemical based industries 3 0.06 17 Rubber plastics and petro-based industries 29 0.91 107 Mineral based industries - - - Metal based industries - - - Engineering units 5 1.07 266 Electrical machinery and transport 7 0.85 84 equipments Repairing and servicing 534 5.98 1818 Others 513 2.45 1918 Total 3696 57.44 15814 Source: Office of the District Industrial Centre, SR Nagar District, 2011

j. Road Transportation

Exchange of goods and services are a nodal feature of economic activity. Naturalresources, manufacturing capacity and markets for products cannot be located at one same place, this exchange involves movement of goods through different mode of transport. Movements of goods and communication have always been important components of human societies. Contemporary economic processes have been accompanied by a significant increase in mobility and higher level of accessibility. Societies have become increasingly dependent upon transport system to support a wide range of activities, ranging from commuting supplying energy needs to

21 distributing parts between manufacturing facilities and distribution centres (Jean Paul, 2013).

Table 1.10: Blockwise Length of Metalled Roads in SR Nagar 2011 No. of Villages Joined by Roads Length (in all seasons) of pakka Name of P.W.D Population roads Population Population block Roads less (in Km.) less less than 1000- than 1000 than 1500 1499 Abholi 139 128 49 14 29 Aurai 280 263 125 36 60 Bhadohi 287 264 136 36 1 Digh 289 255 83 30 54 Gyanpur 286 263 101 42 38 Suriyawan 182 174 101 16 27 Total 1443 1347 595 174 259 Source: Office of the Executive Engineer, P.W.D. SR Nagar District, 2011

Table 1.9 shows that SR Nagar district has 1524 km a length of metalled roads and rural areas 1443 km. unmetalled roads. The district is well connected well connected with states highway and the national highway (NH2) passes from the district from north of the district and that runs from the district of Varanasi to Allahabad. Table 1.11 shows that, there are total in total 11 railway stations which exist in the district. Moving population in the district is also benefitted with a large of bus stoppages. There are in total 6 bus stoppages in the district. The district has a notable number of 95 post offices the district. District has 2 telegraph offices. P.C.Os and Telephone offices are in sizeable numbers 347 and 5399 respectively.

Table 1.11: Blockwise Communication Facilities in SR Nagar 2011 Number of Communication Facilities Name of Post Telephon Telegraph P.C. Railway Bus block office e offices Os stations stops s Offices Abholi 10 0 25 189 1 5 Aurai 17 0 49 674 5 7 Bhadohi 23 1 69 2454 1 12 Digh 21 0 27 485 2 9 Gyanpur 13 1 57 1188 1 15 Suriyawan 11 0 20 409 1 12 Total 95 2 247 5399 11 60 Source: Office of Post and Telegraph, SR Nagar District, 2011

22 k. Electricity Electricity is one of the most important attribute of socio economic life of people living in any area. The consumption and distribution of electricity reflects the prosperity of the area. Electricity consumption is very high in the district. Table 1.12 shows that, the residents of the district consumed 2, 25,936 kilowatts of energy during the 2012-13. It further shows that, the maximum amount of electricity was consumed in domestic and in small electric operated units. This sector consumed 125,556 kilowatts of energy. The next has been the agricultural sector, which consumed the notable amount of 61,594 kilowatts. There are large numbers of small scale and micro enterprises in the district consumed 8975 kilowatts of energy. Table 1.12: Activity-wise Electricity Consumption in SR Nagar 2011 Items K.w./ hours Domestic light & small electric power 125556 Commercial light & small electric power 24339 Industrial electric power 8975 Public light system 876 Rail/Traction - Agricultural electric power 61594 Public water supply 4596 Total 225936 Source: Office of the Electricity, SR Nagar District, 2011 l. Medical Services Medical services available in the district are another important indicator of development. Table 1.13 shows, that the district has 2 dispensaries and 3 public health centres. It further shows, that there are 18 primary health centres in the district. There have been 62 doctors in 16 primary health centres. Table 1.13: Blockwise Medical Services in SR Nagar 2011 No. of No. of No. of No. of Name of public primary No. of hospitals beds block health health doctors /dispensaries available centers centers Abholi 0 0 1 2 1 Aurai 0 0 4 10 12 Bhadohi 0 0 4 6 17 Digh 0 0 4 10 6 Gyanpur 0 0 2 4 12 Suriyawan 0 1 3 36 14 Total 0 1 18 68 62 Source: Office of the Chief Medical Officer, SR Nagar District, 2011

23 There are only 68 beds in the all the blocks of the district. The medical facilities in the district are very pathetic. There are merely 62 registered practitioners for the entire population of 1378911 in the entire district. m. Banking Facilities

The Commercial Banks play most important role in economic development of a country. The effectiveness of banking system ultimately depends on the provision of efficient services as well as the safety of depositor’s invested amount and above all effective role remove poverty, unemployment and inequality. Since last two decades, nationalized commercial banks have started to provide loans both in industrial and agricultural sectors for balanced economic growth in the country (Jha, 2013). The district of SR Nagar District a greater amount has been allocated with the nationalized banks. Table 1.14 shows the block of Bhadohi consists of 12 banks, among them 6 are nationalized 4 rural banks and 2 classed as non-commercialized banks. The block of Aurai stands at second position in banking facilities. There are 6 nationalized banks, 4 rural and 1 non-commercialized banks. In the block of Digh, there are 7 nationalized banks, 2 rural and 1 non-commercial banks.

Table 1.14: Blockwise Number of Commercial and Rural Banks in SR Nagar 2011

Number of Commercial Banks Other non- Name of Nationalized Rural commercial block banks banks nationalised banks Abholi 1 3 0 Aurai 6 4 1 Bhadohi 6 4 2 Digh 7 2 1 Gyanpur 5 2 1 Suriyawan 4 2 1 Total 29 17 6 Source: Office of Lead Bank, SR Nagar District, 2011

The block of Suriyawan has registered 4 nationalized banks, 2 rural and 1 non- commercialized banks. The block of Abholi possesses lowest number of banks, 1 nationalized, 3 rural banks.

24 References

Allen, B.C. (1988) Rulers Townsmen and Bazars: North India Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770-1870, British Academy, London.

Bryant, R.H (2010) Physical Geography: Made Simple, Rupa Publication, New Delhi.

Census of India. (2011) Administrative Atlas of Uttar Pradesh, Vol.2.

District Profile of Sant Ravidas Nagar, 2012 Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise MSME, Government of India.

District Industrial Centre. (2010) Report on Small Scale Industry, Sant Ravidas Nagar. . Jha, S. K. (2013) Role of commercial banks in the industrial dvelopment of Muzaffarnagar district, International Journal of Scientific Research, Vol.2, No.11, pp. 93.

Kashyap, S.S (1975) Declining Sex Value in Demographic Trends in India, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.

Krishna, M.S (1956) Geology of India and Burma, Madras University Press, Madras.

Khullar, D.R. (2005). India: A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani Publications, New Delhi.

Martin, J. (1932) Geography of Asia, Mac. Million and Co. Ltd., London, pp. 97-8.

Planning Department (2011) Sankhiki Patrika: District of Sant Ravidas Nagar, Economic and Statistics Division, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.

Paul, J. and Rodrigue (2013) The Geography of Transport System, Rutledge Publication, New York.

Singh, A.K. (2012) Probable agriculture, bio diversity, heritage sites in India: The upper Gangetic plain region, Asian Agricultural History, Vol.16, No.1, pp.120-129.

25 Chapter 2

Art and Designing of Carpet Weaving: An Overview of Growth and Development CHAPTER 2

ART AND DESIGNING OF CARPET WEAVING: AN OVERVIEW OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

A. The Handicrafts

The term ‘handicraft’ encompasses a wide range of artefacts. Handicrafts has been described by the International Labour Organization (ILO) as a part of economic activity characterized by a certain features like reliance on local available resources and skills, family ownership, labour intensity, small scale operation, traditional technology, skills generally acquired outside the formal school system, unregulated and competitive market (U.P. Development Report, 2005)

Indian handicraft constitutes a significant segment of decentralized economic sector, because its export has reached at an admirable height. Indian handicrafts form an essential part of art and culture, they always have remained in high demand in western countries, they used to borrow a great deal from Indian appliquéd motifs, sari designs, and ethnic wears (Jena, 2010).

An acceptable definition of handicraft adopted by the NUESCO/UNCTAO/WTO (ITC), a symposium on handicrafts held at, Manila 6-8 October 1997 during, that is ‘the artisanal products are those produced by artisans either completely by hands or with the help of hand tool or even mechanical means of direct manual contribution of the artisans remain the most substantial component of the finished products. The special nature of artisanal products is derived from their distinctive features, which can be utilitarian, aesthetic, creative, functional, traditional, religiously and socially symbolic and significant.’

A simple nomenclature of handicrafts was given by Development Commission Handicraft in 1989, it states that, ‘item is made by hand, often with the use of simple tools and generally artistic and or traditional in nature. They include objects of utility and objects of decoration’. A World Bank Report classifies products as crafts with the following considerations of:

 Manual labour with minimal or no input from machine  A substantial level of skills or expertise  A significant element of tradition (U.P. Development Report, 2005)

26 India has a long history of diverse and rich cultural traditions and among all its diversities. India’s ancient craft culture always occupied a unique place mainly owing to its style, beauty, dignity, form and aesthetics. About Indian handicrafts it is said, that to write about Indian handicrafts is almost like writing about the nation itself, and so enormous, complex, charm and difficult to attain under comparable conditions (Upadhyay, 1976). In fact Indian handicrafts have their origin from the ancient period. Indian handicrafts have routinely received royal and aristocratic patronage and handicrafts men were honoured by other communities. The incredible handicrafts of the country got much glory because of the materials used in them as stones, woods, metals, clays, terracotta and ceramics help to make them truly unique. Emphasizing on greater value of art, Abraham 1964, wrote that ‘the world of art and craft is valuable as the world of science, philosophy or ethics. Like art craft reflects the state of human society through the individuals. Craft treasure, like art gives us a glimpse into the core and kernel of the collective mind of the societies through the mind of individuals who created them. Sarraf (1991) described that, the workmanship of India handicrafts is so exquisite, that it has been known throughout the 18th century. They were known to other countries on the trade routes more by art, religion and philosophy.

Carpet is a type of thick fabric, equipped with extra yarns on its surface fabric is termed as ‘pile’. This pile is produced by the support of a warp yarn or of weft yarn. Woven carpets are known as ‘Axminster Carpets’ and ‘Wilton Carpets’, while pre- manufactured woven or bonded cloth in case of Tufted Carpets or Bonded Carpets, etc.

Basically carpets are classified in three different categories:

i. The cloth that supports the pile with the inserting process. It may take the form as woven or bonded. ii. During the continuous weaving, yarn forms a pile like towel cloth. iii. To secure the pile in straight position with the help of a Latin chemical fabric termed as secondary backing which provides long life and stability to pile.

Carpets are termed as textiles, and textiles have been recognised as the most important traded commodities in the world, despite differences in fibres used. This craft has prospered in a variety of social settings, including isolated commodities of pastoral

27 nomads, in small village oases, agricultural commodities in hinterlands of urban market centres, and urban workshops. Central Asian carpet production was benefitted from the early availability of wool from domesticated sheep. There are various types of rugs, including exquisite large carpets often with figurative designs for use in palace like those on permanent display at the Philadelphia museum of art as well as humble prayer rugs with geometrical designs indicating the direction of prayer. Typical designs include gardens, hunting scenes, animals, jeweller rugs an Islamic prayer niche or mehrab. In modern form, these carpets represent the continuation of sophisticated pre-industrial technology (Afganwars, 2012). In India, carpet weaving has been a home based small scale industry and a secondary occupation. Production capacities are mostly fragmented and difficult to manage with very low output per person. Knowledge transfer is limited within families. This has been the reason for least technological expansions.

a. Carpet Weaving in India

Handmade carpets in India are woven in different varieties, which are inspired by cultures, lifestyle and creativity of various countries in different eras and civilizations. They enjoy an increasing demand of high quality weaved carpets among shrewd buyers from across the world. These varieties are discussed below: i. Indo-Persian

Originated in Iran, Persian rugs and carpets are woven in India since 16th century. These types of carpet are generally hand knotted with motifs in their design structure. Weaving of this type of carpet is a laborious task. A single carpet can take from a few weeks to a year to complete, depending on the design, fineness of knots, size and quality. Bhadohi-Mirzapur- Gopiganj belt is considerably most important hub for this kind of carpet weaving. Other centres include Shahjahanpur, Jaipur and Agra.

ii. Silk carpets

The most valued Indian carpet prepared is silk carpet. It is highly in demand carpet among the world discerning buyers. They are very oftenly to referred as Kashmiri carpets, have their own original style in respect of colour, quality, design and durability. These exquisite creations are hand knotted on warp threads, one at a time, in accordance to a strict code of colour. Silk carpets are very rich traditionally

28 and highly refined in terms of designs. As the number of knots are more per square inch, greater is the value and durability. They are unique weaved carpets in Kashmir.

iii. Woolen and silk carpets

In its magnificent designed weave of carpet is made of wool and silk. In this type of carpet silk is used to accentuate the floral design and its base is woven with woolen yarn. It is considered to be the modern version of Persian carpets as a combination of affordability and aesthetic appeal. The main areas known for making this kind of carpets are Jaipur and Agra.

iv. Hand tufted carpets

Hand tufting is the most common method of carpet weaving for the reason of design, speed and cost. It is making by the hand held tufting tools, hand tufted carpets have reputation for being sturdy and wearing well over period of time. Base material is pre-woven cloth, usually canvas that gives a strong base and makes them much more economical than hand knotted carpets. Major centers for tufted carpet production in India are Panipat and Bhadohi. v. Ziegler carpets It is an exceptional variety of carpet with historic North West Frontier influence. These unique hand-knotted rugs and carpets are woven from hand spun most often in traditional floral designs. Weaved in a way that low pile nearing zero and uneven surface are unique design characteristics of these carpets. They are blended with contemporary décor of designs. These carpets are mostly beige, red, rust and brown in colour. In India these carpets are exclusively produced in Agra. vi. Contemporary carpet

The constantly evolving designs and weaving skills to suit the taste and lifestyle have generated the new carpets called contemporary style of carpet. It weaved into the variety of abstract designs, graffiti, geometric designs inspired from information technology, contemporary fashion statements like washed denim, silk, coir etc. vii. Kilim carpets

The origin of this type of carpet has been traced back from fourth millennium B.C. The Kilims are produced by tightly interweaving the warp and weft strands of the

29 weave to create a flat surface with no pile. Most kilim weaves are ‘weft-facing’, that is the horizontal weft strands are pulled tightly downward, so that they hide the vertical warp strands. Kilims have become progressively more popular in recent years, with quality pieces. These rugs are mostly used for home décor or as prayer rugs. In India they are prominently produced in Mirzapur, Jaipur and Panipat. viii. Recycled made carpets

These rugs are produced by discarded carpet products. These carpets are made by recycling of raw materials, waste, and waste of textile, used garments, worn out tyres and tubes. These items are used in India in a highly creative manner to produce carpets, durries and floor coverings. The rugs called ‘chindi’ rugs in India of this category have been world famous throughout decades.

b. A Historical Perspective of Carpet Manufacturing

Carpet weaving has been fascinated to the world through centuries. The invention of twisted woollen threads and vertical loom by Egyptians largely contributed towards carpet weaving (Sapru, 1985). The history of hand knotted carpet is much old as human civilization. Carpet has shown as much precision in its evolution as not any one can (Calatchi, 1967). The hand knotted carpets are variably known as oriental carpets and Persian carpets were of very ancient origin and tradition. Archaeological excavations have shown that pharos of ancient Egypt have used them in their palaces. A 2500 years old rug was excavated on the Altai Mountain near the Mongolian border. There are other well known old rugs, which have been placed now for exhibit in different museums in the world for example, the Ming and Marby rugs belonging to 15th century which are now for display at State’s Historical Museum in Skotholm (Harsen, 1966). The Russian archaeologist Rudenka discovered the earliest carpet in 1949 in a royal tomb at Pasyryk in Altai Mountain on the border of Siberia and Mongolia. The International Wool Secretariat has been established, that the rug of pasyryk could have come from Susa in Persia in the 6th century B.C (Calatchi, 1967). Researches shows that smooth surfaced carpets and tapestry were used as far back as 1300 years B.C in Egypt and other parts of the near east ( Kuckiloo,1980). Egyptian civilization learned the art of carpet weaving such as in Mesopotamians, ancient Iraqis, called Sumerian. The art of weaving then travelled to the Persia proved to be the real natives for the oriental hand knotted carpets. The journey of carpet weaving

30 reached to Turkey by the seljukes, a Turkish nomadic people lived in Persia. The seljukes seem to have been sensitive to all arts and the Turkish influence was strong and long lasting (IDS, 1982). The Safavid dynasty in Persia brought the new advancement in design and techniques of carpet weaving. They were directly encouraged the establishment of carpet weaving centres. The guidance from court miniaturists and craftsman has made the villagers crafts man more skilled. During the period between 1550 and 1629, ruler Shah Abbas took special measures to promote the production of magnificent Persian carpets. He established carpet weaving units all over the Persia to meet the increasing demand of carpets in Western Europe (Haack, 1960). The carpet weaving received a tremendous boost during 7th century with the spread of Islam. The Muslim missionaries while carrying the massage of Islam to the far off areas and also carried the art of carpet weaving to Central Asia and India. The art reached to China through silk route. The powerful wave of Islamic current took the art to Spain and France in the west. Such was the impact of Islam on the art of carpet weaving that has been regarded as the gift of Islam to the mankind (Haack, 1960)

The nomads and gypsies have contributed tremendously in spreading the art and skill of weaving and knotting carpets. As they move from one camp to another, they bring with themselves woollen carpets, which they needed to protect themselves from wind, cold and to beautify their movable homes or their shelter tents. Although the Iran, then known as Persian, is till recognized as the primary source of finest carpets. Countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, India, and Morocco have their own traditions of carpet making and participate in the carpet trade in the world.

The ancient historical evidence offers an influential proof that oriental carpet is a product of the cultural interface and mixture of some of the world. However Asia, has remained the ‘melting pot’ of civilisations and religions of the world, and carpet weaving has flourished in this part (Calatchi, 1967).

About the origin of carpet making in India is known very little but it is commonly believed that, it’s making was introduced in India in 1580 AD by Emperor Akbar during the Mughal period of rule. The pile carpet weaving was not started until the period of Akbar’s rule (1542-65). He brought Persian weavers and designers to Indian sub-continent and established weaving centres at Agra, Delhi, Lahore and Murshidabad (IDS, 1998). Emperor Akbar brought some Persian weavers to India

31 and set up a weaving workshop in his own palace. The succeeding rules of Jahangir and Shajahan maintained the traditions of carpet making and this tradition still persists. They are known for their strong passion and love for arts and crafts, patronise the carpet weaving. Their continuous efforts contributed that, many centres of carpet weaving emerged in India. The Indian weavers worked shoulder to shoulder with their counterparts comes from Persia and Turkistan. Carpet weaving in India has assimilated the Persian design and techniques to create a new breed of carpets to be known as Indo-Persian or Indo- Isfahan. Carpet weavers were drawn from Persian who mainly adopted the Persian design. Many looms were installed during 16th and 17th century exhibited the finest example of carpet of superb colour, design and workmanship of India (IDS, 1998). The Indian pile carpet reached toward the west in 17th century when the considerable trade between Paris and west was also established. Carpet weaving and trade attracted many of the European and American firms and established their own factories at Amritsar and Mirzapur in India (Sapru, 1985).

An interesting and intriguing question often arises in minds why did the Bhadohi- Mirzapur area emerged as the major carpet making centre in north India. There is a legend that, a Persian weaver and trader travelled through the main highway, and near the highway he was waylaid by some bandits. He was rescued by the villagers and who sheltered him also for some-time. As a sign of gratitude, he trained the villagers for making of hand knotted carpets. The art came and stayed in the area and it became more widespread. The important industry was restrained and developed during the 18th century by the British businessmen. A British company dealt the carpet business was known as E. Hill & Co. (then later as Henderson Hill. Co. (Hang, 2001)

B. Processes of Carpet Making

A well made carpet is a piece of art and beauty, that gives everyone a tremendous pleasure to look at it, one’s appreciation is even greater if reaches a higher degree of knowledge and understanding about what goes into the making of carpets .It is indeed a very elaborate and intricate process, yet it appears simple in the hand of experienced weavers.

There is a step by step process of carpet making. These steps are:

32 a. Designing of Carpets

Preparation of carpet design or ‘Naksha’ as it is called by the carpet weavers, similar to an continuing activity undertaken by the carpet people as a continuing activity undertaken by the artists employed by the manufacturers. The design of carpet or map is prepared on a graph paper in which each squire represents a knot. The design carries colour and this colour is a guide for weavers. No patenting design exists, therefore, a particular design can be followed by several manufacturers. In some factories in the Kashmir area, no graphic design is adopted for the carpets. A design is written on so called, ‘Taleem Paper’ and designs ‘sung’ the taleem that contains the instructions (for example, five knots blue, three knots red, etc.) for the carpet, but no picture of the design itself is given. Experimented taleem singers memories have contain instructions, and it is seldom that, there is no written taleem at all.

b. Dying of Wool

A basic raw material for making carpet is wool, mainly the sheep wool, which is processed and shrouded out in wool mills. This type of wool to be used in carpet preparations is made by various manufacturers. A fine quality wool suited for carpet making should be strong, pliable and adaptable to dyeing. Dyeing of wool is done by the manufacturers in their own factories. There are some manufacturers who dye more quantity of wool to meet out their own requirements, and the rest is sold to small manufacturing units. Traditionally, copper vats are used for dyeing, but other manufacturers opt stainless steel chambers, heated by steam boilers, as this enable them to dye a bigger quantity of wool in a relatively short time. Furthermore, the use of stainless steel chambers assures an uniformity in colours. For economic reasons, manufacturers use chemical dye, for example, chrome dyes as they are cheaper and more readily available than the vegetable dyes. With the adoption of chemical dyes it is possible to produce a wide variety of colours.

c. Weaving Work

Carpet weaving is a common practice in countries like Iran, China, Turkey, India, Pakistan, Russia, Egypt, Nepal and Afghanistan (Choobineh, 2007). The core function in carpet making is its weaving. It is a most intricate and most time taking process in carpet making. This activity is carried out by a weaver at his own home, a system,

33 which also has its advantages and disadvantages. The weavers belong from the farming community who engage themselves in weaving with the end of planting or harvesting of crops and take this engagement they treat it as supplement source of income. The loom is basic a basic device used in carpet making and most weavers have their own looms, which they keep at their homes. The most common is the vertical roller type loom. It consists of two horizontal bases or beam, which are supported by two vertical structures, and they are buried in the ground to make the loom firm and steady. The use of roller type of looms enables the weavers to increase the length of carpet, if required. Specified length of warp threads (the vertical cotton yarns on which knots are made) are wound on upper looms, and this end is wound on lower beams is then rolled to create the right extension of wrap threads .Threads have to be pulled uniformly and properly, in order to avoid a sagging look in the finished carpet, which greatly affect the appearance and value of the finished carpets.

Number of warp threads used depends on the width and density required in the finished carpet. A simple mechanism separates the alternating warp threads into two sets creating a gap through which the weft is woven after every row of knot is completed. After passing of weft, the position of two sets is reserved. It is a normal practice which is adopted well before the actual weaving starts, a border of the carpet is woven. If this is not done, the border will be sewed later on at the factory. In knotting, the weavers take two warp threads, tie a knot around them, pull the yarn downwards and then cut the yarn using a small, sharp hooked knife, leaning short pile, which will be trimmed uniformly at a later stage. When a row of knot is finished, a weft thread is passed between the two sets of warps and the weft and knots are beaten together, and pushed down using an iron comb. This process is repeated after when each row of knot is completed. The finished part of the carpet is rolled on to the lower beam of the loom.

There are two basic knots namely, the gird knots (a Turkish name) and the shene knots (a Persian name). The main difference between these two knots is that, in the Girds knot, the yarn encircles both the wrap threads whereas, in the shene knots, the yarn encircles one warp thread and is loosely wound on the other. d. Washing

When the carpet is finished, it is brought to the factory where it is subjected to other processes. With this the job of weaver is finished. When the carpet reaches to

34 the factory, it is closely inspected to detect mistakes and defects. Some of the defects may bear wrong colours used, changes in the design, loose knots etc. Whatever the mistakes and defects are removed, the carpets are ready for sale. The carpets are then washed with caustic soda and soap using a long wooden cleaner. Washing is necessary not only to clean the carpet and get rid of the accommodated dust, but also, as it is important to bring out the sheen of the colours and to taste colour fastness. Washing is done in the open air and drying under the sunshine. e. Sheering or Clipping

Washing and drying of carpet are followed by process of sheering or clipping. This process is done manually using a long thin scissors. Being made by hand, it is expected that carpet coming directly from the weavers will bear an uneven length of piles. With clipping the pile is cut into a uniform length or depth which increases a good appearance of carpet. As this process is completed, the separation of colours follows. f. Separation of Colours

During the weaving process and washing, different colours merge with themselves giving an unclear picture of different designs. To avoid this, the colours are separated by using a small pointed stick. A finished touch is to given in carpets, and when no edges were woven earlier, the edges are made bound. Apart from straightening, the edges bindings give a neater appearance to carpets.

C. Growth and Development of Carpet Industry in Sant Ravidas Nagar District

Carpet weaving continued to spread and survived in India under the patronage of the Indian nobility. At the great London Exhibition in 1851, the Indian carpets in acceptable quality and known for oriental pattern, fine weaving and rich colour attracted the world attention and appreciations for the first time. Beginning as the prototype of the Persian carpets, the pile carpet industry was gradually Indianized and continued to thrive until commercial production was initiated in the Bhadohi- Mirzapur Carpet belt in late 19th and early 20th century when all India Handicraft Board was setup in 1952, The carpet industry received its due recognition and attention for the developmental and promotional efforts enable the carpet industry to experience rapid growth from the 1970’s and take advantage of the carpet boom in the major carpet importing countries of Europe and in America (Sahoo, 2002).

35 The carpet boom in the country not only stimulated carpet production and export but generated employment to a vast multitude of carpet weavers belonging to the weaker sections of the society in rural and semi-urban areas. During the last two decades and more the carpet industry has grown in both size and importance predominantly at the cottage sector. The industry is highly oriented towards the export and employment, and has led significantly poverty alleviation. One notable feature of industry is its weavers who are commercially so flexible, skilled and versatile that they are capable of weaving carpets in any size and in knots , quality design and colour combinations. The growth and development of Bhadohi carpet is an evolutionary process that a long history is behind. After 1857A.D war of freedom named by Britishers as Mutiny, Agra, Delhi and other places were full of turmoil and subsequently a number of carpet weavers fled from Agra and got shelter in the village of Madhosingh on the G.T. Road located between Bhadohi and Mirzapur. They started weaving and spreading their art to native villagers. The art was inculcating into the nerves of villagers and carpet industry was evolving in small scale. Perhaps it was during the late 19th century that Mr. Brownford noticed those making carpets and realized its economic viability and decided to establish a company under the name and style of M/s. E. Hill & Co. in a small village of Khamaria. It was followed by Mr. A. Tellery who got his factory established at Bhadohi. His eldest son Mr. Brownford noticed those making carpets and realized its economic viability and decided to establish a company under the name and style of M/s. E. Hill & Co. in a small village of Khamaria. It was followed by Mr. A. Tellery who got his factory established in Bhadohi. His eldest son Mr. Otto Tellery was one of the founder members of the All India Carpet Manufacturers Association and was the first president of the organization and proved pay stepping stone for the future prospect of carpet in Bhadohi. Next to these two gentlemen, a group of three Europeans formed a company with the name of M/s Obeettee. The group comprised of Messers. Oklay, Bowden and Tallor the abbreviation of these three is Obeettee (Waziri, 1998). The industries have established and build up the road for the grooming of carpet industry in this particular place. In the long journey of many decades carpet industry have gone through several ups and downs but survives with its own dignity and character. With the gradual growth in the manufacturing unit it attracted lacks of workers from outside the main land. The workers were came to Bhadohi for their livelihood and settled here. The migrated

36 workers have got more and more learned persons in art of weaving than Bhadohi people.

The industry saw its bad days during the Second World War. The reason was shortage of raw material as well as exchange of finished products due to the shipping facilities. With the end of war, it regained its position in 1951 and the export of carpets from Bhadohi touched the figure of 60 billion of rupees approximately because of the demand for woollen carpets from the United Kingdom, The United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and other countries. There was a recession in business after 1951 due to the general crash and increasing rivalry from machine-made carpets manufactured in foreign countries (Joshi, 1965).

D. Carpet Industry Regions in India

A variety of carpet is weaved in the different region of the country. Different types of carpets are closed as: hand-knotted, tufted woollen carpets, pure silk carpets, Persian carpets, Iranian carpets. Carpet Industry has spread in some states in India as in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh,Himanchal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. a. Carpet Industry in Uttar Pradesh

Carpet weaving is primarily is confined mainly in cities of Shahjahanpur, Mirzapur, Bhadohi, Khamaria and Agra and these centres are considered as the main hubs for carpet weaving in Uttar Pradesh. During British rule growing demand outside the country encouraged this carpet manufacturing activity at these centres. Carpets made of these centres are of medium quality and on an average about 60 knots per square inch is applied. The centre of Shahjahanpur is also well known for making of luxurious carpets. The designs are beautiful, with geometrical patterns generally in black on a maroon colour background. Agra is the traditional centre of carpet weaving since the Mughals period. At Agra carpets weaving is specialized in the use of silk mixed with woollen yarn. Designs resemble with that of Persian style. The weavers of the Mirzapur-Bhadohi region are renowned for their versatility by weaving carpets of any design, including the old Persian ones, that are in great demand.

37 Fig. 2.1 b. Carpet Industry in the State of Jammu and Kashmir

Kashmir is famous for its fine quality hand knotted carpets, which are expensive and considered as a lifelong investment. An average piece of carpet is made with about 324 knots per square inch. Persian culture influenced the Kashmiri carpet for quite a long time, but gradually the Kashmiri carpet industry has acquired an indigenous character. The Kashmir has developed its own designs based on the traditional paisley, shawl patterns, leaves and flowers. In Kashmir, Talim method is used to train craftsmen. Wool and silk is used for making carpets. The Number of knots on the back of the carpet indicates the quality. Bokhara hand knotted carpets are one of the finest with about 120- 500 knots in a square inch. The deep pile of Indian hand knotted carpets comes in magnificent colours, with designs which are oriental, exotic and uniquely modern. In Kashmir this trade has passed from one

38 generation to the next. During cold winter when tourism business ends, they market carpets personally by approaching dwellers of urban cities like Delhi and other towns on a door to door basis. c. Carpet Industry in The State of Rajasthan

Rajasthan is also known for making Namadha that is appliquéd, printed or embroidered. Rajasthan made carpets shows hunting patterns with trees and floral motifs. Jaipur and its adjacent districts are the major manufacturing centers in Rajasthan that share a substantial part (15 per cent) of total carpet manufacturing in India. The rulers of Jaipur took a keen interest in patronizing the carpet making activity. They were fond of collecting Persian and Mughal carpets. The carpet industry in Jaipur mainly flourished in mid 19th century. In that period, carpet making was introduced as a jail craft. Rajasthan carpet industry is more quality sensitive and designs are more emphasized. Results of technology implementation were remarkable in terms of revenue and other operational aspects. Centres like Bikaner, Jaipur and Ajmer are the main places in the state for making beautiful carpets. Hand knotted carpets are manufactured with floral or angular motifs. These carpets are known for their high quality of craftsmanship and colour-fastness. d. Carpet Industry in the State of Punjab

The state of Punjab has an ancient tradition of weaving cotton durries. Durries are made with the use of comb-like iron fork called ‘punja’ which means hand. It is used to heat the waft yarn to fix up in woven structure. Carpets in Punjab and Haryana states are woven in traditional stripes and with stylized birds, animals and human forms, usually used as motifs. Punjab also uses the talim method, which owes the development of the carpet industry to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who conquered the Kashmir. Most commonly mouri designs are used in Punjab. Traditionally, vegetable and mineral dyes like indigo, madder, turmeric, henna were used, however now chemical dyes are mainly used. Chemical bath treatment is applied on carpets for a high luster. e. Carpet Industry in the State of Andhra Pradesh

The Masulipatnam, Elluru and Warangal are the prominent centres for carpet manufacturing in the state of Andhra Pradesh. In Masulipatnam, patterns used are named after the fruits and flowers like babul, guava, ambarcha etc. Also the main

39 designs called by the name of famous patrons for example Nurjaha, Farsi, and Shah Navaz. More often, combination of blue and green with soft yellow and pastel shades is used. The carpets of Elluru and Warangal are the pride of in the state and have a strong local flavour. Carpet weaving at Warangal is done on a large scale because of ease to access cotton. Hand-spun wool and jute threads are used. The designs are of Indo-Persian origin. Images are in deep green and orange colours while off-white background. f. Carpet Industry in the State of Himachal Pradesh

Sheep and goat rearing is a very common occupation of many villagers in the state of Himachal Pradesh the native are also engaged in blanket weaving texturing. Carpets in the Himachal have magnificent designs and durable texture. Mainly carpets of these areas are made in pure wool and for durries cotton is used. Many Tibetan craftsmen are engaged in weaving woollen carpets, as a result the motifs are influenced by Tibetan traditions and culture. Designs of birds, dragon, lion and swastika are popular. Threads of ground colour are used.

E. Export Potentials of Indian Carpets

Indian Carpet Industry is vibrant and has a considerable potential for growth and development. It is a labour intensive industry and has potential to provide large scale employment to rural and unemployed youths, besides being an important source of foreign exchange earnings for the country. The Indian Carpet Industry is cottage and primarily a rural based industry but gradually it find place in the central part of the city. Indian handmade carpet has shown an ever increasing growth during the last since six decades from 1961-62 to 2011-12.

Table 2.1: The Decadal Export Performance of Carpets of India in Terms of Value (in Crores of Rs.) 1961-2012

Export Year (In Crores of Rs.) 1961-62 4.42 1971-72 13.69 1981-82 157.66 1991-92 992 2001-2002 1642.26 2011-2012 3853.54 Source: Ministry of Textiles, Government of India,2012-31

40 Dacadal Export Performance of Carpet in India 1961-2012 4500

4000 3853.54

3500

3000

2500

2000

(Rs. in crore) 1642.26 1500

1000 992

500 13.69 4.42 157.66 0 1961-62 1971-72 1981-82 1991-92 2001-2002 2011-2012 Year

Fig. 2.2

Table 2.1 shows, that the export of carpet in the year 1961-61 was recorded 4.42 (Rs. Crore). In 1971-72 this number increased to 13.69 (Rs. Crore). It further recorded the value of export as 157.66 (Rs. Crore) in the year 1981-82 .In 1991-92, the value of carpet export recorded 992 (Rs. Crore). This total value suddenly increased in 2001- 2002 to the tune of 1642.26 (Rs. Crore). The year of 2011-12 has shows the ever increasing value of export that is 3853.54 (Rs. Crore). This increase of value shows the continuous potential of export of carpet in the world market. The carpet industry has shown its resistance to compete the wool in the era of competition. This steep increase in export value has been possible due to the introduction of mechanized weaving and government’s concern to provide assistance to this industry. It is highly encouraging fact that it contributes the great value of export items. Carpet industry is the only industry that goes totally for export in spite of being in the category of cottage and handicraft industry. An ever increasing growth performance of this sector shows a high potential sustainability to the world competitive market. Carpet industry has proved its efficiency of sustenance in the globalization period where a number of Indian crafts have lost their ground. They keep remaining the aesthetic value of Indian art to the global market.

41 Table 2.2: Export of Carpets from India (in crores of Rs.) 2000-01 to 2015-16

Export of carpets Year (in Crores of Rs.) 2000-01 3791.27 2001-02 1642.26 2002-03 1917.39 2003-04 3559.65 2004-05 2727.64 2005-06 3546.38 2006-07 6274.02 2007-08 3766.67 2008-09 3506.37 2009-10 7273.04 2010-11 4777.64 2011-12 3853.54 2013-14 7110.42 2014-15 8441.95 2015-16 6641.23 Source: Ministry of Textile, Government of India,2012-13

F. The Global Share in the Trade of Indian Carpets

Indian carpets are famous in the world over with their magnificent designs and heart winning workmanship, thus they have been enable to capture the world export market. Handmade woollen carpets, tufted carpets, staple synthetic carpets handmade woollen durries are some of types for which there is a huge market demand in the European and American markets. Handmade carpets are an important foreign exchange earner in our country, besides providing employment to millions of workers. The current trend of handmade floor covering is estimated to be around US$ 2.56 billion (carpet Council Magazine, 2012). India ranks as number one country in terms of value and volume of export of handmade carpets.

42 INDIAN CARPETS Export Share of Carpets from India to the World Market 2015

35%

65%

India Other Fig. 2.3

INDIAN CARPETS Carpets Export from India ( in crores of Rs.) 2001 -2015

2015-16 6641.23 2014-15 8441.95 2013-14 7110.42 2011-12 3853.54 2010-11 4777.64 2009-10 7273.04 2008-09 3506.37 2007-08 3766.67 2006-07 6274.02 2005-06 3546.38 2004-05 2727.64 2003-04 3559.65 2002-03 1917.39 2001-02 1642.26 2000-01 3791.27

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 (in crores of Rs.) Fig. 2.4

43 Major competition to the export of handmade carpet is from Iran, Pakistan and Nepal. Carpet export increased from US$ 50 million in 2007-2008. During 2008-9 and 2009- 10 the export of handmade carpets and other floor covering declined by 23.15 per cent and 7.51 per cent respectively. The export of handmade carpets and other floor coverings have increased during the year 2011-12 by 23.61 per cent in US$. India shares about around 35 per cent of the world trade in handmade carpets and floor coverings out of which India’s export its carpet to U.S.A accounts 39.25 per cent of total exports. It is estimated that India’s export can be doubled if it increase it share in the world for floor covering 3.5 per cent India, Iran, China, Nepal play a key role in the global carpet trade. Important importers are including Turkey, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Europe and America account for 95 per cent of the total carpet imports. Germany alone accounts 40 per cent of global import. Indian weavers adopt their own specialized to make its carpet unique in all respects. The marvellous design and magical colour blend make it more precious. Table 2.3: Export of Handmade Carpets from India to other Countries of the World, 2012-13

Name of Export in terms of value country (in Crores of Rs.) Argentina 7.24 Australia 179.42 Austria 26.39 Belgium 72.07 Brazil 64.51 Canada 118.81 Denmark 56.53 Finland 13.96 France 96.34 Germany 656.76 Italy 83.99 Japan 70.12 Netherlands 96.65 Norway 28.46 Sweden 60.03 Switzerland 19.44 Total 1650.72 Source: Carpet Export Promotion Council, New Delhi, 2012-13 Table 2.3 shows export of handmade carpets is shown by the India to other countries. The largest share of carpet export among the country is Germany.

44 INDIAN CARPETS Export Share of Indian Carpets to the World Market in terms of Value (in Crores of Rs.) 2012-13 Switzerland 19.44 Sweden 60.03 Norway 28.46 Netherlands 96.65 Japan 70.12 Italy 83.99 Germany 656.76 France 96.34 Finland 13.96 Denmark 56.53 Canada 118.81 Brazil 64.51 Belgium 72.07 Austria 26.39 Austarlia 179.42 Argentina 7.24

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 ( in Crore of Rs.) Fig. 2.5

The value of export to the Germany stands for (Rupees in crore) in 2012-13, followed by the Australia (179.42 Rs. crore), Canada (118.81Rs. crore), Netherland (96.65 Rs. Crore), France (93.34 Rs. Crore), Italy (83.99 Rs. crore), Belgium (72.07 Rs. Crore), Japan (70.12 Rs. Crore), Brazil (64.51 Rs.crore), Sweden ( 60.03 Rs. Crore), Denmark (56.53 Rs. Crore), Norway ( 28.46 Rs. Crore), Austria (26.39 Rs. Crore), Switzerland (19.44), Finland (13.96 Rs. Crore) and Argentina (7.24 Rs. Crore). The total export of handmade carpet to the world in terms of value was 1650.72 (Rs.crore). India leads in the production of handmade carpet in the world. India is the largest exporter of handmade carpet to the world market (Carpet Export Promotion Council, 2012)

45 G. Role of Organisations in Development of Carpet Industry in India a. Carpet Export Promotion Council (CEPC)

Carpet Export Promotion Council (CEPC) is a non-profit organization. The working office of CEPC is located in the heart of Delhi, Registered Office at NOIDA, UP, and regional office at Bhadohi city of SR Nagar, U.P. was setup in 1982 under the Ministry of Textiles, Government of India to promote export of Carpets. It volunteers all types of handmade / handmade knotted carpets, rugs, floor coverings and other allied products from India. Since its setting, CEPC has been the voice of Indian carpets business community. It has more than 2500 members across the country. One of the interesting aspects of CEPC is the awe-inspiring variety of handmade carpet products it deals with. CEPC is an passionate advocate of exporters to the Government and the primary focus is to provide export assistance to its member exporters. CEPC sends trade delegation to all major and developing markets around the world, showcases Indian exports all over the world through exhibitions, fairs. CEPC can help the sourcing needs of an importer anywhere in the world, and also the selling needs of Indian exporters. b. All India Carpet Manufacturer Associations (AICMA)

Indian Handmade Carpet Industry commands a unique position in world market and has emerged as a strong player. The current prevailing situation in Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan and China who are the key competitors is in favour of Indian handmade carpet industry and full advantage of this situation to multiply the business. It needs full govt. support and the Association is working hard on this subject.

The Projects

i. To undertake welfare and education activities for the children. ii. To spread awareness regarding WTO standards and requirements. iii. To promote G.I. Certification granted to handmade carpet of Bhadohi. iv. To undertake training of women in carpet weaving. v. To encourage activities related to innovation, research and development. Best Practices Child Labour Free Carpet Production Avoidance of use of restricted dyes and chemicals.

46 The Project Area

We operate generally all over India and particularly in carpet producing districts of namely S.R. Nagar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Sonebhadra, Kaushambi, Allahabad, Jaunpur and Chandauli. All of the districts are registered under GI Act for Handmade Carpet of Bhadohi, which is now declared as an Intellectual Property of India (IPR).

The Network

We coordinate with Eastern U.P. Exporters Association, Varanasi, The Handicrafts Exporters Association, New Delhi, Mirzapur Carpet Manufacturers Association, Mirzapur, Delhi Exporters Association, New Delhi, Indo- American Chamber of Commerce, Varanasi, All India Carpet Yarn Spinners & Dealers Association, Bhadohi, Carpet Export Promotion Council (CEPC), New Delhi, Federation of Indian Export Organisations (FIEO), New Delhi, Federation of Association of Small Industries of India (FASII), New Delhi, Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry(FICCI), New Delhi, Indian Merchants Chamber, Mumbai, UNCTAD.

The Resources

We have fully equipped permanent office at “Kaleen Bhawan”, Maryadpatti, Bhadohi which is served by experienced personals to pursue the work of the association. c. Rugmarks

It is only recently that India in a process of liberalization, evolves a policy of promoting more export and import of consumer products. One of the main reasons is money, as it brings much foreign exchange and maximises the profit by the government and industrialists. Among many lucrative export products, one is the carpet. The carpet industry is spinning an annual foreign exchange of Rs. 1500 crores, which comes from the main carpet importing countries as the U.S.A, Germany, England and other European countries. The harsh truth why this is a profitable industry, however is because of its cheap labour force spinning the patterns namely, children under the age of 14 years being severely exploited in this industry. Instead of having a healthy joyous childhood with the basics of primary education, these children are lured into the darkness of the carpet loom units. Chained to the laws of

47 the employer the bonded child labour is too young and mute to raise his voice and just obeys his master. Separated from their parents, without nutritious food and breaks these children work for 14-16 hours in poorly ventilated workspaces, regularly beaten up because they work not hard enough or ask for their parents. The nimble fingers spin the carpets without seeing daylight without seeing any payment.

48 References

Abraham, T.M. (1964) Handicrafts in India. Graphics Columbia, New Delhi.

Annual Report (2012) Ministry of Textiles, Government of India

Bhattacharyya, B. and L. Sahoo (1996) The Indian Carpet Industry: Evolving Concerns, Prospects and Strategies, Global Business Press, Delhi.

Calatchi, R .(1967) Oriental Carpets, Charles E. Tuttle Componey Publishers, Rutland, Vermount, Japan.

Choobineh, A., Shahnavaz, H. and Lahmi, M. (2004) Major health risk factors in Iranian hand-woven carpet industry, International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 65-78.

Haack, H. (1960) Oriental Rugs, Feber and Feber, London.

Harsen, K. (1966) Rugs and Carpet of the Orient, Fredrick Warne. London,

IDS (1982) Contribution of Handicrafts and Handlooms to India Development, Product Series Paper 2, industrial Development Services, New Delhi.

Jena, K. (2010) Indian handicrafts in globalization times: An analysis of global-local dynamics, Interdisciplinary description of Complex systems, Vol. 8, No.2, pp. 119-137

Kuckiloo, R.A. (1980) Carpet industry in Kashmir, Kashmir Today, Vol. Jan-Feb., p. 3.

Joshi, E. B. (1965). Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers Varanasi. Allahabad, The Government of Uttar Pradesh

Kuckiloo, R.A. (1980) Carpet industry in Kashmir, Kashmir Today, Vol. 2., p. 3.

49 UNESCO-UNCTAD/WTO(ITC) at Manila: 6-8 October 1997.

Upadhyay, M.N.(1976) Handicrafts of India, Swarajya Printing Works, Sucunderabad.

Uttar Pradesh Human Development Report (2005) Planning Department , Government of U.P, Yojana Bhawan, Lucknow.

Saraf, D.N. (1991) In the journey of craft development 1941-1991, Sampark Publication Division, New Delhi.

Sapru, M. L. (1985) Carpet Weaving: A World .Perspective Craft, Srinagar Press, Srinagar.

Waziri, A. A. (2005) A Brief History of Carpet Weaving: In Bhadohi-Mirzapur Carpet Belt, Silver Jubilee Special, All India Carpet Manufacturers Association.

50 Chapter 3

Carpet Industry and Workers: A Review of Literature CHAPTER 3

CARPET INDUSTRY AND WORKERS: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of literature is described as a critical examination of the published body of knowledge. The analysis should have to be built on a comprehensive review of the relevance of the research work undertaken by others in respects of areas of study. A review of literature available on the carpet workers is well undertaken with a view to identify possible areas of enquiry. This attempt also provides necessary background for the present study. The survey of literature plays an important role in establishing the backdrop for any research work in social sciences. To analyze any field of study, it is vitally important to go through and discuss, various reviews and articles worked out by many eminent scholars and writers who have vividly and sagaciously studied and analyzed with their intellectual perception.

Singh (1979) in his study explains how the organizational structure is connected with entrepreneurial activity and what sort of actively determines entrepreneurial success and economic development. Carpet industry spreads over in many parts of India, but Bhadohi carpet industry is leading one, and that area is known as ‘Bhadohi- Mirzapur Belt’. The manufactured carpets of Bhadohi are luxuriant items to be sold in markets had played a big role in economic development of Bhadohi. His study is based on the field observations, which were carried out in the woollen carpet industry of Bhadohi with the help of entrepreneurs as the manufacturers of the town. He is of the opinion that, the organizational set up of the carpet industry has a peculiar nature because it comes in the category of cottage industry, but it bears many characteristics of medium scale industry when it is evaluated in terms of investment and number of employees associated with the firm.

Husain (1978) in his study has tried to present a scenario of carpet industry of Shahjahanpur. He has evaluated a historical development of carpet industry in Shahjahanpur and divided it into four phases of evolution in this district. According to the study, he is of opinion that, carpet manufacturing has become a community affair in the Shahjahanpur city, and nearly 75 per cent of the workers come from the manufacturer’s family, whereas only 25 per cent as casual labours. The study reveals that, in spite of very favorable and encouraging conditions the industry has not made

51 any progress. The general feeling among the workers and manufacturer is that, in spite of hard work they do not get an equitable return. He further emphasizes, that the living conditions of workers are very poor and the community suffers from backwardness.

Geissler et al. (1981) studied, the energy cost of individual activities and the daily energy expenditure of female carpet weavers and villagers were measured in Iranian villages and in the town of Isfahan as part of a series of studies to assess the validity for the population of past and present.

Mies (1982) has mentioned the craft production people in subsistence economies. Large scale mechanized farming displaces peasants with small landholdings lead to a need for a dependence on craft production. In his thesis he had find out the answer of these questions: (i) reasons behind the involvement of rural women to weave carpet. (ii) find out the influence of the global market on carpet design and (iii) Find out the government’s effort to help weaving industry. The main motive of this study is to analyze the factors affecting women weavers involved in carpet industry in Turkey. Women in rural Turkey usually weave carpets for the need of cash or need for dowry goods. When households better off are able to generate income and more goods they available to purchase.

Sinha (1982) in his study, has shown the importance of hand knotted carpets in the economic development. According to him carpet weaving as a major cottage industry in India which employs thousands of village artisans and its impact on Indian economy can be seen at two levels. Firstly, it makes the substantial contribution to the balance of payments. Secondly, 50-60 per cent labour in carpet production contributes to employments and exerts a pressure on wages in economically backward regions of the country. He has examined the recent trends in the international market and India’s performance relative to that of other major carpet suppliers such as Iran, Pakistan and China. According the study the industry has grown extremely fast over the past two decades, in recent years it has shown a tendency to slow down.

Das, et al. (1992) in his study entitled ‘The Indo-Dutch Environmental and Sanitary Engineering Project under Ganga action Plan in Kanpur and Mirzapur’ was conducted by the framework of Indo-Dutch bilateral development cooperation. The project aimed to integrate technological, social and health related improvements. The

52 project was a supplemented by a training and institutional strengthening programme, with a view to facilitate the transfer of new technologies and improvements in operation and maintenance of these new technologies. A socio-economic unit (SEU) in the project supports technical interventions by encouraging the community to participate in project activities. The Occupational Health Programme in Mirzapur was conceived by the SEU to improve the health and living conditions of child and adult weavers. At the start of the programme, 200 weavers and 60 non-weaver workers from Mirzapur city, matched for age and socio-economic status, were interviewed and underwent a physical examination.

Attfield (1994) study has accounts for the nature and characteristics of tufted carpets. He has dealt about tufted carpet of a Britain with a historical approach. The evaluated has evaluated the success story of a former luxury product, which made it into a mass production. The study has also looked upon the design, pattern and weaving style in carpets making in Britain.

Kay (1995) in his paper on hand-knotted carpet has attempted to evaluate the carpet growth in export. He highlights that the international competitiveness of the Indian hand-knotted carpet industry depends on an arrangement where raw material cost is down through an flawed market which prevents the raw wool producer from improving the cost of labour and where the social cost of depreciating grazing lands is not reflected in the cost structure. There is a well documented abuse of child labour by the industry. According to him, the most depriving factor of export of carpets are the uncontrolled rates of raw wool and child labour.

Ghvamshahdi (1995) has taken the problem of home based women carpet workers. Home-based carpet weaving is labour intensive work done mostly by women who belongs to low income class in rural and undeveloped urban areas in Iran. These women are dependent on income from weaving to support themselves and their families. Home-based work keeps women in their culturally defined place and upholds the requirement of gender ideology which advocates the traditional division of labor, requiring men to work outside the home to support families while women stay at home in order to take care of their family and home.

Pattoa (1997) in his study has focused on the carpet history of Dalton, North Georgia since 1960 to 1975. He is of the opinion that, after the World War II

53 mechanics and entrepreneurs were engaged in manufacturing of tufted carpet. That through a phase of revolution and revitalization in American carpet industry. Application of tufting process of carpet manufacture has given the birth of ‘second industrial revolution’ in the Dalton area. This transformation has also given birth to clashes between workers and owners over the benefits to be achieved from the industrialization.

Guckin (1997) has attempted to analyze the Tibetan refugees’ carpet industry and has demonstrating that the commoditization of handicrafts has had multiple and contradictory impacts on the culture, economy, and class structure of refugee society. Tibetan carpets remain functional objects for their community of origin while they simultaneously advertise Tibetan culture internationally, support refugee institutions, and cater to the tastes of outside consumers. Foreign consumers exert conflicting pressures for artistic and technical change as well as for the preservation of 'traditional' production and motifs. The 'auth enticity' of Tibetan carpets is thus called into question.

Rauf and Zutshi (1999) carried out the study that, health and its deterioration affected by the carpet weaving. Health deterioration was higher in industry workers in comparison to the school going children. Further the study considered the height and weight of school going children with carpet industry workers and concluded that carpet industry workers are shorter in height than the workers engaged in other industries. Most carpet weaver children suffered with respiratory tract infections, headache, backache, pain in the abdomen, injuries joint pain, and fever for unknown reason.

Seyf (1999) in his study on ‘carpet and shawl weavers in nineteenth century of Iran’ an attempts to show the weavers condition. The main objective of the study was to find out the living and working conditions of shawl and carpet weavers of Iran during the 19th century. According to study, the weavers were the most unknown artisans who produced the magical and splendid carpet. He was tried to present the whole picture of Iran’s weavers stated that, carpets have always been exclusively labour intensive and entirely made by Iran in 1850, in a Kerman district of Iran 4500 male weavers and most of them were with age group of 6-8 years. They made carpets for the family members and when needed money they sold products outside and earned money. The loss and profit was depends on the market conditions and

54 condition of household. His study also revealed that there was not significant regional disparity among the weavers. The structure of carpet weaving was not change during the passage of time. He said that handicraft industry relying on fine fingers of underage weavers to ensure ‘high quality weave’ but their conditions will depressingly remain the same.

Leon and Zuniga (2000) in his paper, ‘A case study of an emerging Mexican immigrant community in a small city of the U.S.A., A Historic South is an area in central and east central Georgia of United States’. The paper showed that how new destinations of immigration are established in the post- IRCA era. He has used ethnographic and census data in his study. The author has examined the immigrant community, its demographic and labour market characteristics. The results in the paper indicate that, there is a sizable growth in Mexican immigrant settlements and incorporation of members into local industrial labor market. Origins, trajectories, and timing of arrival have been differentiated for men and women immigrants. Males have arrived first, some of them as secondary migrants, leaving the traditional Mexican Southwestern homeland. Women and children came afterwards, some of them directly from Mexico and settled to weave the carpet.

Graner (2001) in a study entitled ‘Labour markets and migration in Nepal: The case of workers in Kathmandu Valley Carpet Manufacturers’ deals with the case of carpet workers in the valley of Kathmandu. Nepal is now witnessing a transition period from a predominantly agrarian economy to non-agricultural income opportunities are increasingly important. Within the Nepalese urban labour market, carpet production has evolved as the most well-known industry during the early 1990s, experiencing high annual growth rate. To analyse the process, the author conducted an empirical study during from 1996 to1999 by conducting interviews with business class people, workers, and officials working governmental and with non- governmental organizations.

Wani and Jaiswal (2001) has highlighted the role of carpet industry which occupies a pivotal position in economic dynamism of different countries. According to them carpet weaving is major source of earning. Basic infrastructural facilities available to weave carpets are loom, wool and weaving tools.

55 Graner (2002) in his study entitled ‘Labour migrants in the Kathmandu valley: A demographic analysis of carpet workers’ studied about the demographic characteristics of carpet workers. The study describes, that the Nepalese economy is primarily based on agriculture. Meanwhile, wage labour is of increasing importance to households not only in urban but also in rural areas of the country. Due to the lack of opportunities in many areas of Nepal labour migration has been a coping mechanism from long time. When carpet production evolved a labour market with a high demand for workers during the late 1980s, Kathmandu became a new destination, particularly for lowly educated rural migrants. On the other hand, during the mid 1990s a substantial recession severely curtailed employment and income opportunities for this labour force, lead to a loss in real wages from the labour market. In order to analyze these processes, an empirical study was carried out by the author during 1997 to 1999, interviewing carpet workers as well as businessmen and women, and conducting a village study on out‐migration in Jhapa district of eastern Nepal.

Shirma (2002) has taken a social labeling , which is an initiative introduced the nineties with a view to eliminate the exploitation of child labour in carpet industry in India. The four labeling programmes like RUGMARK,Kaleen,STEP and Care & Fare with a view to ascertain their effectiveness in 35 villages spreading over nine districts in 3 states in India. The study was undertaking samples from five villages belonging to core industrial areas in the Mirzapur-Bhadohi Belt and five villages from extension area of core belt located in Allahabad and Koshambi districts. This paper assess the effectiveness of different labeling programmes in terms of their set objectives ,examine the mode of operation and long term role of the labeling programmes under specific socio political and economic context .

O'Neill (2004) in his study which is based on the persistence of reports about child labor exploitation in the Nepalese carpet industry, particularly by adults who control their weaving wages, begs an account of how carpet weaving labour is recruited, remunerated, and reproduced. Salary advances (peskii) allowed weavers to compensate for cash shortfalls and meet unusual expenses, but some weavers have been able to remain in control of this salary advance system. Remittances to families have also been associated with weaving wage exploitation, as well as subsidies to the weaver’s parental household. Recently, the collapse of the Nepalese carpet industry in part due to persistent child labour reports has meant that wages do not keep up with

56 urban living costs, increasing weaving debt and undermining the ability to make remittances. Young Nepalese carpet weavers were victimized not so much by traditional labor practices as by the capricious cycles of global capitalism.

Caeron, Zaman and Khawaja (2006) have evaluated the beginning of carpet making industry in Pakistan. Use of ornamental (rugs) carpet weaving was a part of the Islamic culture and it achieved an unprecedented height in Baghdad, Damascus, Delhi and in some other cities of Central Asia.

Venkateshwarlu and Ramakrishna (2006) considered the workforce composition, working conditions and wages of workers engaged in carpet making industries. There has been a sharp decline of carpets productions after 2000’s and this decline in the industry exerted adverse effect on workers wages.

Cahakrabarty (2007) in his study entitled ‘Does the labeling of tradable products like carpets which have been produced without child labor contribute to decreased vulnerability of poor households and their children?’ has analyzed the factors which determine the probability of a child to work in the carpet industry, and examines the influence of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like Rugmark, which are engaged in the social labeling process. Data were generated with the help of 417 households in north India. Based on their calorie intake, the households were dissected into two groups, one very poor group and another above the subsistence level. The econometric analysis shows that, a child living in a very poor household is more likely to work when his/her calorie intake increases (nutritional efficiency wage argument), whereas the opposite is true for a child from the above-subsistence household group. It is shown by the results that social labeling has no significant influence on the very poor households. In contrast, at the above subsistence level, social labeling has a significant positive welfare influence on the households.

Goswami (2007) has highlighted the significance of handmade carpets for socio- economic development. Further the study deals the history of handmade carpets, growth of carpet industry and also shows the potential of carpet industry in socio economic development.

Isik and Damla (2007) in his study examine the politics of labour, gender, and heritage of carpet industry in Turkey. The study is based on months of comparative, multisided ethnographic field work by contacting workers classed as weavers,

57 manufacturers, exporter and designers who were associated with carpet industry. The study contributes to the debate on globalization of work and labours in particular, and focused on the significance of gendered and place specific analysis, practices and material flows. Further, has taken historically, genealogical understanding of agency and subject formation through the nature of relationships between the actors participating in the Turkish carpet industry and the ways in which both transparency and secrecy of products and strategies adopted for the survival within diverse situations production and sale of products culturally defined agents. The author has tried to present a detailed analysis of Turkish carpet industry in global economic competitions. Yet, as this study revealed, both men and women taking part in the Turkish carpet industry actively participate in several acts that traversed presupposed boundaries such as public and private, informal and formal.

Motamedzade, et al. (2007) deals with the occupational health of carpet workers and the study is based on the working conditions of workers in carpet industry in Gwalior, India on the basis of surveys undertaken by field work on sampling method. The result of the study shows that, various types of fungal species and yeast were present at the work place, may cause various types of diseases among the weavers. The study recommended that, clean of workplace design, that is necessary for control of fungal contamination at the work place. It will help reduce diseases in workers that will increase the productivity in the industry and efficiency of workers.

Aziz and Rakshanda (2008) in their study made an attempt to evaluate the socio- economic conditions of carpet weavers. The carpet tradition is the largest weavers concentration in this region is at least for the last 400 years old. Over 90,000 looms are engaged in this industry in India. The study further reveals that, about 80 per cent of the artisans employ their family members as labourers in this profession. Out of 20 households having 128 family members, 24 artisans are engaged in this profession. Irrespective of importance of this industry in district Bhadohi, it is found that the socio-economic conditions of the workers engaged in this sector are not good.

Mahendra et al. (2008) highlighted the role of two major institutional structures in handloom weaving namely, cooperatives and master weavers are closely inter related growth performance. A good performing cooperative functions as for the handloom sector as it protects the handloom weavers. This sector produces high

58 quality products, improve marketing through better design and product diversification.

Zhang (2009) in his dissertation investigated the politics of Tibetan carpets and the political economy of carpet production since early 20th century till the 2000. He he has explained that, how socio- historical practices in Tibet created the conditions under which Tibetan weavers invented their positions in socialist and post socialist Lhasa. By examining the Tibet carpet factory, he considered the role of patriarchy, ethnicity and capital accumulation that marginalized the women weavers in Lhasa. The first three chapters consist of historical analysis of representations of ‘Tibetan Carpets’. He initiated the study by investigating ‘Western’ ideas on Tibetan carpets and the establishment of carpet production centers in Nepal. Then it has been explored the making ‘Tibetan Carpets’ as commodities and as cultural symbols. The second part of the dissertation deals with a case study of the history of Tibet’s first carpet factory at Lhasa and then the production of carpets, from 1960s to 2000s. Finally, he explains the legacy of socialism and Tibetan Buddhist culture that given strength to women to confront against the local patriarchy and exploitative labour policies.

Rastogi, et al. (2009) by selecting a total of 274 male carpet workers engaged in various sub-occupations and a reference group of 54 subjects were studied by them to study for the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and lung function status. Respiratory symptoms were recorded on a modified British Medical Respiratory Questionnaire and respiratory functions were recorded by a portable electronic pyrometer. The study was taken on account of carpet workers that show among various sub-groups the prevalence of respiratory symptoms ranged from 20.0-41 per cent in comparison to 7.4 per cent in controlled population. Carpet industry workers were primarily affected by the bronchial obstruction. Duration of exposure had a direct relation with the prevalence of respiratory impairment. Impairment in the respiratory health of workers among various sub-occupations can be attributed to the exposure to fibres of cotton and wool as well as a variety of chemicals used in carpet industry.

Azad, et al. (2012) in their paper present an empirical study to know about challenges faced in carpet industry by using a statistical technique. The study is based on questionnaire, which consists of 51 questions in Likert scale, and distributed among experts workers of Carpet industry. The data was analyzed through factor

59 analysis. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated as 0.88 for the remaining questions, which was well above the minimum desirable limit. Six questions were removed by using principal axis factoring leaving 8 basic components including 35 different questions. The study categorized eight factors including specialized relationships, knowledge coordinator, knowledge tool, knowledge organization, knowledge processes, knowledge chain, and knowledge hardware and knowledge feasibility study.

Jain (2012) in a project entitled ‘A Research Project on Child Working in the Carpet Industry in India: Final Report 2012’ states that the base of the industry’s socio-economic structure consists of weavers and lower level employees, predominantly males. Carpet industry is a small cottage industry previously almost all the carpet production was confined to small workshops and in households that mostly engaged family worker.

Jaiswal (2012) in his study entitled ‘A Case Control study Among Carpet Thread Factory Workers in Uttar Pradesh, India: Occupational Injury and its Deteriorating Factors’ was about occupational injuries which pose a great impact on public health. The main aim of the study is to identify determinants of occupational injury among workers in carpet thread factory of Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh. The study also considered the protective measures which be used during a working day to prevent different hazards. The study was based on sample consisted 630 carpet thread factories of Uttar Pradesh included 310 (cases) workers and non-workers (controls. The controls were non-workers who had no injury in past. The analysis of data was done on the basis of a logistic model. The result of the study shows that, most injuries effected on hand/wrist, ankle/foot or head.

Khan and Mishra (2012) have evaluated the impact of economic slowdown on carpet weaving performance. Study reviewed that the carpet industry witnessed constant growth till 1994-95 and afterwards its shows a decline due to competition with other countries like China. The study highlights that, carpet industry in U.P has seen three significant periods when growth rate was drastic. The first was Opportunity Phase. In this phase the marketing for carpet industries moved upward after 1991-92 to 2006-07. In this period there was an overall increase in market size. The second was Decline Phase. This phase shows the decline of carpet industry during 1997 to 1998, 2004-2005 and a speedy decline in during 2007-10. Third phase was Market Recapturing Phase, during 1998. The state’s carpet industry realized the need to use

60 modern computerized tools for giving new designs and for enhancing the skill of the weavers, in order to enhance the productivity. These initiatives helped the industry to recapture its share in exports.

Johnson (2012) in his study entitled ‘Flying carpets from East to West: An examination on corporate social responsibility within the Indian carpet industry’ which was carried out with a view to examine the awareness of Indian carpet industry and use of international agenda of cooperate social responsibility by selecting Bhadohi district from the state of U.P. Another objective of the study is to find out how the carpet weavers are affected by the policies and action of the export houses. The methodology adopted to carry this study is an ethnographical approach. The interview and observation method were used to achieve the objectives. The respondents during the survey were selected from the two export houses, weavers at looms in villages and employees at the two export houses. Interview based data were used in an interpretative way to understand the narratives, behavior and opinions of respondents. After interviewing the weaver’s families working in carpet industry the respondents were described and analyzed through the framework of ‘Sustainable Livelihood Framework’.

Venkataswamy (2013) in his study of hand knotted carpet industry has described it significant, stable and growing export earning sector in India and has played a significant role in economic development, particularly in non-farm sector. According to their sector employs more than 15 lakh weavers, of them belongs to weaker section of the society. The Carpet manufacturers and exporters foster and promote our country’s age old and rich heritage in the arts and crafts, and have done a commendable job in keeping this magnificent traditional craft.

Fuellhart (2014) has attempted to scholars to investigate the use and qualitative assessment of information sources by the establishments in a highly localized industry (carpets in northern Georgia) and make some comparisons with several other industries in plastics and textile producers in other regions. He has contextualize the use of information sources in carpet industry by reviewing important industry trends and circumstances as well as the industry’s spatial organization. The results indicate that firms in carpet industry, perhaps are the most agglomerated industry in the United States, report relatively low overall use and availability of common sources of information compared with firms in other industries and regions. In his study, he has

61 concluded that carpet industry in the United States was highly concentrated. Carpet mills within a fifty-mile radius of Dalton, Georgia had distinct locational advantages over mills elsewhere. A secondary concentration of carpet mills in southern California owed its locational advantage to local-market demand. Mills located in the Dalton area placed greater emphasis than plants elsewhere on modernization as measured by research and development, capital investment, and new technology. Raw materials and business services increased, and the amount of plant expansion was further evidence of the locational vitality of the Dalton area. A continued concentration and expansion of carpet mills in the Dalton areas resulted largely from localization of economies that were both the cause and the effect of the initial growth of carpet manufacturer in the area. Localisation economies for carpet manufacture in the Dalton area resulted from the bulk purchase of raw materials by suppliers and their passing savings along to the manufacturers.

Farkhanda (2015) has worked on child labour is perceived to be severe problem as it is destructive not only for intellectuality and physical development of children but also for life as a whole or wellbeing especially that of young children. The danger is intensified for those children who work in hazardous industries like carpet industry. The prime objective of research was to identify the factors contributing to child labour and effects of work related issues on the wellbeing of carpet weavers. A cross sectional surveys were conducted in Punjab state. As many as 320 child workers engaged in carpet industry of the age group of 8-17 years were interviewed. Well- structured questionnaires consisting of both close ended and open ended questions were prepared to collect the data. The study found that the majority of respondents who belonged to poor families, so the main cause of carpet weaving was poverty. The significant relationship was observed between wok-related issues (long working hours, age at starting work and wage exploitation) and the personal wellbeing of carpet working children. It was strongly suggested that a comprehensive strategy consisting of macro and micro policies needed to commence to control, reduce and eradicate participation of children in carpet weaving industry.

62 References

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65 Chapter 4

A Socio-Economic Profile of Carpet Industry Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar District CHAPTER 4

A PROFILE OF CARPET INDUSTRY WORKERS IN SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT

Carpet workers are found in majority in the section of society of Sant Ravidas Nagar district. They are engaged to produce magical carpets that enhance the aesthetic beauty of life. Besides they play a pivotal role in economic development, carved out a special niche in both developed and developing countries by to producing beautiful and magnificent carpets. These workers are the backbone and prove most enigmatic character (Ansari, 2014) for development of carpet industry.

The study of socio-economic conditions of carpet workers becomes of immense importance because of their great contribution in the development of carpet industry as well as the society. A general profile of carpet industry workers is presented here. In the data pertaining to different aspects of workers like age-wise, sex-wise, religion, caste composition and educational levels, housing conditions and sanitation conditions were discussed according to blockwise and according to working category of workers.

A. Category of Workers in Carpet Industry

As individual, workers in carpet making process are involved to perform different works at different stages. To follow different processes, both skilled and unskilled workers participate in carpet weaving work. Therefore, it becomes necessary to treat them either ‘weavers or workers’. In the present research work, participation of individuals in carpet making process refers to as ‘workers’ for individuals who have taken part irrespective of nature and type of work, gender and age.

Workers engaged in carpet industry can broadly be categorised on the basis of nature of work they perform into four broad categories as: weavers, pre-weaving workers, finishing workers and non-making workers. Among all, weavers are in majority to constitute 33.20 per cent of the total carpet weaving workers, followed by non-making workers (26.30 per cent), pre-weaving workers (26.00 per cent) and finishing workers (14.50 per cent) (Fig.41).

Weavers are considered most important among all the categories of workers because they perform most skilled and tedious work. The pre-weaving workers are

66 engaged in designing of the carpets, wool binding, colouring of wools etc. They perform work well before weaving of the carpet. Workers categorised as non-carpet making workers are those who work as entrusted accountants, managers, etc. Workers engaged in finishing work are those involved in washing, clipping, packing etc. of carpets.

Table 4.1: Different Categories of Workers Engaged in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015 Category of Numbers Per cent Workers Weavers 182 33.2 Pre-weaving workers 143 26.0 Finishing workers 80 14.5 Non-making workers 145 26.3 Total 550 100 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.2 and Fig. 4.2 show that, 38.46 per cent are weavers, 26.920 per cent are pre-weaving workers, 3.85 per cent are finishing workers and 30.77 per cent are non- making workers in the block of Abholi. This has no carpet weaving large scale units, thus there were less number of workers engaged in pre-carpet making and in finishing works.

Table 4.2: Blockwise Workers According to Work Categories in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Pre- Non- Total Finishing Name of Weavers weaving making sampled workers block workers workers workers Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent

Abholi 70 38.46 26.92 3.85 30.77 Aurai 125 26.58 18.99 18.99 35.44 Bhadohi 125 36.36 12.99 24.68 25.97 Digh 70 24.39 39.02 7.32 29.27 Gyanpur 80 18.18 45.45 13.64 22.73 Suriyawan 80 47.46 35.59 5.08 11.86 Total 550 33.22 25.99 14.47 26.32 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Non-making workers were seen working as accountants and supervisors in weaving units. In the block of Aurai, highest share of workers (35.44 per cent) goes to non-making workers which is followed by weavers (26.58 per cent), pre-making

67 Fig. 4.1

68 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Bockwise Workers According to Working Categories in Carpet Industry 2015

25 Percentage 20

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

weavers pre-weaving workers Finishing workers Non-making workers

Fig.4.2 workers (18.99 per cent) and finishing (18.99 per cent). In the block of Bhadohi, highest share (36.36 per cent) of category of workers belonged to weavers which is followed by pre-weaving workers (12.99 per cent), finishing workers (24.68 per cent) and non-making (25.97 per cent). The block of Digh accounts highest percentage workers as weavers as 24.39 per cent followed by pre-weaving workers (39.2 per cent), finishing workers (7.32 per cent) and non-making workers (29.27 per cent). In

69 block of Gyanpur, there were 18.8 per cent of weavers, 35.59 per cent of pre-weaving workers, 5.08 per cent of finishing workers and 11.86 per cent of non-making workers. The block of Suriyawan also reported the highest percentage of workers as weavers (47.46 per cent) which is followed by pre-weaving workers (35.59 per cent), finishing workers (5.08 per cent) and non-making workers (2.32 per cent)

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Category of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

26.32% 33.22%

14.47%

25.99%

Weavers Pre-carpet making workers Finishing workers Non-making workers

Fig. 4.3

B. Carpet Industry Workers by Age Group Age is one of the most important demographic parameter which influences socio- economic characteristics. It is an achieved characteristic in life cycle of an individual. Social status of a family living in a society and performance of certain activities and also achieving other aspects of life cycle are determined by the age. Work ability in weaving, lifting of carpets, and washing of carpets and for pre weaving work are directly affected by the age of workers. Deterioration of work ability is a result of growing age (Lira, 2000).

70 Pertaining to young age workers (18-30 years and 41-50 years) tend to be more productive. There is clear segregation in occupations in older and for younger workers. Old workers tend to be clustered in a small set of industries and occupations than both newly hired young workers and old workers (Hutchens, 1988). Table 4.3 shows that, the age composition of sampled carpet workers in different blocks of the district. It is evident from table 4.3 that, 11.5 per cent of workers belong to the age group below 18 years. As much as 19.2 per cent of workers belong to age group which ranges from 18- 30 years. About 35 per cent of workers belong to age group of 31-40 years. About 23 per cent of workers fall within the age group of 41-50 years. Only 7.7 per cent and 3.8 per cent of workers represent to the age of 51-60 years and above 60 years respectively. In the block of Abholi, the highest age group of 31-40 years (35 per cent) was seen, followed by age group of 41-50 years (23 per cent), 18-30 years (19 per cent), below 18 years (12 per cent), 51-60 years (8 per cent) and above 60 years (4 per cent). The block of Aurai shows again the highest percentage of age group of 31-40 years (37 per cent), followed by the age group of 41-50 years (23 per cent), 18-30 years (22 per cent), 51-60 years (16.5 per cent) and below 18 years (2.5 per cent).

Table 4.3: Blockwise Workers in Carpet Industry According to Age Group in SR Nagar 2015

Below 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Above Total 18 Name of years years years years 60 sampled years Block workers Per Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent cent Abholi 70 11.5 19.2 34.6 23.1 7.7 Aurai 125 2.5 21.5 36.7 22.8 16.5 0.0 Bhadohi 125 0.0 29.9 41.6 19.5 9.1 0.0 Digh 70 14.6 29.3 34.1 17.1 2.4 2.4 Gyanpur 80 0.0 50.0 31.8 18.2 0.0 0.0 Suriyawan 80 8.5 40.7 22.0 27.1 1.7 0.0 Total 550 11.5 19.2 34.6 23.1 7.7 3.8 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

In the block of Bhadohi, the age group of 31-40 years remain highest (42 per cent) followed by 18-30 years (30 per cent), 41-50 years (19 per cent), 51-60 years (9 per cent). In this block, not single workers were reported in between the age group of below 18 and above 60. The Bhadohi block is most developed block among all blocks

71 and here the awareness among the employers for harm of child labour reached. Thus it shows that there was no child labour among sampled workers in this block. The age group of above 60 years was also not reported among the sampled workers (Fig.4.4)

Table 4.4: Age Group of Workers According to Category of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Below 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Above sampled 18 Category of years years years years 60 workers years workers Per Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent cent Weavers 182 1.98 32.67 41.58 16.83 6.93 0.00 Pre-weaving 7.59 21.52 34.18 26.58 8.86 workers 143 1.27 Finishing works 80 9.09 25.00 25.00 34.09 6.82 0.00 Non-making works 145 5.00 38.75 30.00 16.25 8.75 1.25 Total 550 5.26 30.26 34.21 21.71 7.89 0.66 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Workers According to Age Group in Carpt Industry 2015

30 Percentage 20

10 3.8 2.4 0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Below 18 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 above 60

Fig. 4.4

72 Table 4.4 show the category of workers according to age group as much as 5.26 per cent of workers in carpet industry belonged to the age group of below 18 years. In this age group, finishing workers were found in highest proportion (9.09 per cent), followed by pre-weaving workers (7.59 per cent), non-making workers (5.00 per cent) and weavers (1.98 per cent).

With the age group of 18-30 years (30.26 per cent), as much as 38.75 per cent of workers belonged to non-making workers, 32.67 per cent of weavers, 25.00 per cent of finishing workers and 21.52 per cent of pre-weaving workers. Within the age group of 31-40 years there were 34.21 per cent of workers in carpet industry. Out of which 41.58 per cent were weavers, followed by pre-weaving workers (34.18 per cent), non- making workers (30.21 per cent) and finishing workers (25 per cent). Within the age group of 41-50 years, there were 21.71 per cent workers in carpet industry. Within this age group, the highest percentage of 34.09 was for finishing workers, followed by pre-weaving workers (26.58 per cent), weavers (16.83 per cent) and non-making workers (16.25 per cent). Nearly 8.00 per cent of workers belonged to age group of 51-60 years. Out of which 8.86 per cent were pre-weaving workers, 8.75 per cent non- making workers, 6.93 per cent weavers and 66.82 per cent finishing workers. Workers with above 60 year of age were merely 0.66 per cent in workers.

C. Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry

Sex composition in population is also an important social aspect. Pattern of population distribution in between males and females affect relative and socio- economic relations. Table 4.4 shows that, as much as 79.28 per cent workers engaged in carpet industry were males and 20.72 per cent females. The block of Abholi has 84.62 per cent males and 15.38 per cent females working in carpet industry. The block of Aurai accounted for 68.35 per cent males and 31.65 per cent females workers. Among the six development blocks, Gyanpur recorded highest percentage of male workers (95.45 per cent) followed by Suriyawan (88.14 per cent) , Abholi (84.62 per cent), Digh ( 85.37 per cent), Bhadohi (74.03 per cent) and the block of Aurai recorded lowest percentage of male workers (68.35 per cent). The block of Aurai recorded the highest percentage of female workers (31.62 per cent) followed by Bhadohi (25.97 per cent), Suriyawan (15.38 per cent), Abholi (15.38 per cent), Digh (14.63 per cent), and a lowest percentage of female workers were recorded in the block of Gyanpur (4.55 per cent).

73 Table 4.5: Blockwise Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Name of Males Females Total sampled block workers Per cent Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 84.62 15.38 8.55 Aurai 125 68.35 31.65 25.99 Bhadohi 125 74.03 25.97 25.33 Digh 70 85.37 14.63 13.49 Gyanpur 80 95.45 4.55 7.24 Suriyawan 80 88.14 11.86 19.41 Total 550 79.28 20.72 100.00 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Sex Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015 120

100

Percentage 40

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Males Females

Fig. 4.5

Table 4.6 and Fig. 4.6 show that, among the weavers 95 per cent were males and 5 per cent females. The category of pre-weaving workers recorded as 73 per cent males and 27 per cent females working in carpet industry. Among all the categories of workers, finishing workers were dominated by females (82 per cent) followed by pre- weaving workers (27 per cent), weavers (5 per cent) and the lowest percentage of

74 Fig. 4.6

75 women workers to respect the category of non-making workers. The non-making work is mainly male oriented in carpet making units and women are not allowed to work with them in the units.

Table 4.6: Sex Composition of Workers According to Work Category in Carpet Industry 2015

Total Category Males Females sampled of work workers Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 95 5 Pre-weaving workers 143 73 27 Finishing workers 80 18 82 Non-making workers 145 99 1 Total 550 79 21 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

D. Religious Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry Religion serve as one the important parameter in Indian culture and it has an enormous number of effects on Indian society. It determines social and cultural behaviours of people in the society. Social life controlled by the faith of the people to a large extend is reflected by their attitudes. So, religion has been one of the most important factors in the socio economic study.

Table 4.7: Blockwise Workers According to Religion in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Name of Total sampled Muslims Hindus Block Workers Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 69.23 30.77 Aurai 125 86.08 13.92 Bhadohi 125 88.31 11.69 Digh 70 82.93 17.07 Gyanpur 80 81.82 18.18 Suriyawan 80 76.27 25.42 Total 550 82.57 17.43 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.7 shows that, 82.57 per cent of workers are Muslims and 17.43 per cent Hindus. The block of Bhadohi recorded the number of highest Muslim workers (88.31 per cent) in the sampled workers in all of six blocks which is followed by the blocks of Aurai (86.08 per cent), Digh (82.93 per cent), Gyanpur (81.82 per cent), Suriyawan and Abholi (69.23 per cent).

76 Fig. 4.7

77 The Hindu workers were also in involved carpet industry, as much as 17.43 per cent of sampled workers were Hindus. The highest percentage of Hindus workers is seems in the block of Abholi (30.77 per cent) which is followed by the blocks of Suriyawan (25.42 per cent), Gyanpur (18.18 per cent), Digh (17.07 per cent), Aurai (13.92 per cent), and Bhadohi (11.69 per cent).

Table 4.8: Category of Workers According to Religion in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Muslims Hindus Category of sampled workers workers Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 23.68 9.54 Pre-weaving workers 143 22.70 3.29 Finishing workers 80 12.83 1.64 Non-making workers 145 23.36 2.96 Total 550 82.57 17.43 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Workers According to Religion in Carpet Indutry 2015

17.43%

82.57%

Muslims Hindus

Fig.4.8

78 Table 4.8 and Fig. 4.7 show religious composition of works according to the working category. Among the sampled workers Muslims workers were dominant in all the categories in carpet industry. Among all categories of workers, highest percentage of Muslims was accounted for weavers (23.68 per cent) followed by non- making workers (23.68 per cent), pre-weaving workers (22.70 per cent), finishing workers (12.83 per cent). The Hindu workers were also accounted for highest proportion as weavers (9.54 per cent) followed by pre-weaving workers (3.29 per cent), non-making workers (2.96 per cent) and finishing workers (1.64 per cent).

E. Caste Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry

It is a characteristic of all countries of the world since the ages, that social status has been determined by the nature of occupation from which man derives his livelihood (Drinks, 2011). Caste plays a very important role in determining socio- economic conditions of life. It has been a significant determiner of process of social stratification in our country. Traditionally, in our country caste and class have been associated with the occupation of the people (Singh, 2005). Dhama (1976) has defined cast as ‘caste is a collection of families or a group of families bearing a common name, which usually denotes and is associated with a specific occupation, claiming common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine professing to follow the same calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community’. The Muslims weavers were the dominant community in this industry. The most common caste involved in this industry in all category of work is known as ‘Julaha’, a word derives from the Persian. It is said, that they worked 400 years before in Ranthambore during the rule of Raja Hamir but after his defeat from Alauddind Khilji they lost their jobs and forced to work as weavers (Adeeba and Khanam, 2008, Ahmad 1962).

Table 4.9 and Fig. 4.9 show blockwise distribution of castes of carpet industry workers in the district. Table 4.8 shows that, other backward class (OBC) accounted largest percentage (77.63 per cent) among all group of castes in the district followed by general caste (15.13 per cent) and scheduled castes (7.24 per cent). In the block of Abholi 73.08 per cent were other backward class (OBC) workers dominantly followed by general caste (19.23 per cent) and scheduled caste (7.69 per cent).

79 Table 4.9: Blockwise Caste Composition of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total General Other backward Scheduled Name of sampled Class Class caste blocks workers Per cent Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 19.23 73.08 7.69 Aurai 125 8.86 79.75 11.39 Bhadohi 125 9.09 90.91 0.00 Digh 70 17.07 68.29 14.63 Gyanpur 80 22.73 77.27 0.00 Suriyawan 80 25.42 66.10 8.47 Total 550 15.13 77.63 7.24 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Workers According to Caste Composition in Carpet Industry 2015

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Percentage 30 20 10 0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

General OBC SC

Fig.4.9

In the block of Aurai, other backward class recorded highest percentage (79.75 per cent) followed by general caste (8.86 per cent) and scheduled caste (11.39 per cent). In the block of Bhadohi, other backward class of workers were strikingly very high (90.91 per cent), followed by general caste of workers and no scheduled caste workers

80 were reported in this block. In the block of Digh, the other backward class of workers were reported with high proportion (68.29 per cent) in comparison of general caste (17.07 per cent) and schedule caste (14.63 per cent). In the block of Gyanpur, other backward class of workers reported high percentage (77.27 per cent) than general caste (22.73 per cent). In the block of Suriyawan, other backward class (66.10 per cent) workers were highest than the general caste (25.42 per cent), and scheduled caste (8.47 per cent).

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Caste Composition of Worker in Carpet Industry 2015

7.24% 15.13%

77.63%

General OBC SC

Fig.4.10

Table 4.10: Caste Composition of Workers According to Work Category in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total General Category of OBC SC sampled category workers workers Per cent Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 5.59 24.34 3.29 Pre-weaving Workers 143 3.29 21.71 0.99 Finishing Workers 80 0.00 12.83 1.64 Non-making Workers 145 6.25 18.75 1.32 Total 550 15.13 77.63 7.24 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

81 Fig. 4.11

82 Table 4.10 shows the category of workers according to thier cate in the district. It shows that, highest percentage of weavers (24.34 per cent) belonged to other backward class which is followed by pre-weaving workers (21.71), non-making workers (18.75) and finishing workers (12.83 per cent). Belonging to genral castes, the highest percentage of workers ( 6.25 per cent) were non-making workers. Other backward class constituted the highest percentage in the weaving category among all category of workers. The reason behind is that, the most of Julaha commonly known as ‘Momin Ansari’ belongs to the OBC caste category and they known by birth as weavers

The SR Nagar district is the hub of Julaha community therefore, they constitute majority as OBC’s in the carpet weaving workers. Beside the district of SR Nagar, this community is dominent and strong in the neighbouring belt consisting the district of Mirzapur, Azamgarh and Varanasi, beacause these are the centres of handloom inudstry.

F. Educational Levels of Workers in Carpet Industry

Education is broadly perceived as an endless continuance of life-long learning, essential for human development at every stage in life. It helps intellectual, social and emotional development of individuals. Education enables people to attain basic needs in life (Singhal 1995). Education is one of the significant necessity in human life essentially needed to develop human qualities in personality. It is considered a significant factors affecting positively on socio-economic development of any society (Das & et. al, 2011). It is an instrument through which a society can bring desirable changes in social life of its people (Mohammad, 1988). Educational level is one of the ideological means to improve the socio- economic conditions by the people of a society. Education is primary need of the socio-economic development because it directly governs the mind to change the way of life. Level of education has become an important factor to achieve occupational accomplishments and it occupies a central place in the analysis of stratification and of social mobility (Collins, 1971).

Sampled data collected through from field survey show that, there were 79.61 per cent literates whereas, 20.39 per cent were illiterate among the carpet industry workers. The block of Aurai recorded highest percentage of (93.67 per cent) literate

83 workers, followed by Gyanpur (81.82 per cent), Bhadohi (77.92 per cent), Abholi (76.92 per cent), Suriyawan (71.19 per cent), and Digh (68.29 per cent).

Table 4.11: Blockwise Literacy among Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Name of Total Literates Illiterates block sampled workers Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 76.92 23.08 Aurai 125 93.67 6.33 Bhadohi 125 77.92 22.08 Digh 70 68.29 31.71 Gyanpur 80 81.82 18.18 Suriyawan 80 71.19 28.81 Total 550 79.61 20.39 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Literacy Among Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

20.39%

79.61%

Literates Illiterates

Fig. 4.12

The Aurai block constitutes three urban centres all of these have adequate education facilities, and have a good means of transportation for school. Primary education at

84 institutions play is to play important role in this block. The next block of Gyanpur is also important in terms of literacy. It is an administrative centre of the district and therefore has good educational facilities. The third block is Bhadohi which in terms of literacy is significant. Here many of the workers equipped with primary and graduate level education.

Table 4.12: Blockwise Educational Levels among Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Middle High Inter- Post Primary high Graduates Name of school mediates graduates block school Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Abholi 25.00 40.00 10.00 5.00 15.00 5.00 Aurai 0.00 52.70 13.51 22.97 10.81 0.00 Bhadohi 26.67 41.67 6.67 1.67 16.67 6.67 Digh 10.71 25.00 17.86 28.57 17.86 0.00 Gyanpur 11.11 50.00 16.67 16.67 5.56 0.00 Suriyawan 26.19 40.48 14.29 11.90 7.14 0.00 Total 15.29 43.39 12.40 14.46 12.40 2.07 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.12 shows, educational levels among sampled workers in carpet industry. The highest percentage of workers (43.39 per cent) were educated upto high school followed by primary (15.29 per cent), high school (12.40), intermediates (14.46 per cent), Graduates (12.40), post graduates (2.07 per cent). In the block of Abholi, the highest per cent of workers were qualified upto the middle high school (40 per cent) which is followed by primary (25 per cent), graduates (15 per cent), high school (10 per cent), inter mediates (5 per cent), and post graduates (5 per cent). In the block of Aurai, highest percentage (52.70 per cent) of workers were educated up to middle high school, followed by intermediates (22.97 per cent), high school (13.51 per cent), graduates (10.81 per cent). In the block of Bhadohi, again the highest percentage of workers were predominantly of middle high school (41.67 per cent), followed by primary (26.67 per cent), graduates (16.67 per cent), high school (6.67 per cent), post graduates (6.67 per cent), inter mediates (1.67 per cent). The low educational level of workers belonged to this block because of a number of reasons. Firstly, migrant workers who are the initial migrants to this were less literate. The village to which they belong is still lacking in educational facilities.

85 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Educational Levels of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

30 Percentage

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Primary Middle high school High school Inter Mediate Graduate Post Graduate

Fig. 4.13

Most of the migrant workers were basically primarily farmers before taking carpet work in industry. Secondly, as narrated by the respondent is many that many of the migrant workers were very poor so that could not to continue study and thus found to join in their father’s occupation to earn the livelihood. Thirdly, the respondents belonging to weaving and pre-making works were less interested to continue education and proportion of these workers was also high in this block. The percentage of post-graduates is also relatively high in this block because of the better facilities of communication in this block of Bhadohi. There are two degree collages in this single block and roads are well connected with highways that makes convenient for students to go to college even if they come from far away villages from the district headquarters. In the block of Digh, the highest percentage of carpet workers have

86 inter-mediate level of education (28.57 per cent), followed by middle high school (25 per cent), high school (17.86 per cent), graduate (17.86 per cent), primary (10.71 per cent). This block is relatively backward in respect of socio-economic development and lacks in educational facilities. Not a single worker is seen who has attend education at post-graduates level.

The block of Gyanpur is headquarter of the district and relatively low number of migrant workers are seen here. Besides being the administrative seat head, this block shows a low literacy rate among the sampled workers, because of most people are involved in agricultural activities, and once the children of the farmers got involved in farming they do not intend to go to schools. The highest percentage of workers is who passed middle high school (50.50 per cent), followed by intermediates (16.67 per cent), high school (16.67 per cent), primary (11.11 per cent). The block of Suriyawan reported that highest percentage of workers found in middle high school (40.48 per cent) followed by primary (26.19 per cent), high school (14.29 per cent), inter mediate (11.90 per cent), graduate (7.14 per cent).

G. Monthly Income of Workers in Carpet Industry

The source of income of workers engaged in any occupation determines the standard of living and their financial status. Individuals with higher income naturally have the ability to spend more on purchase of goods and hire services to have a better life. Table 4.13 shows that the income group of Rs.1000-5000 recorded the highest share (5526 per cent) of workers which is followed by the income of group of Rs. 5001-10,000 (35.53 per cent), Above Rs. 15000 (4.28 per cent), Rs. 10,001-15000 (2.63 per cent) and less than Rs. 1000 (1.95 per cent). The blockwise study of monthly income of workers shows that, in the block Abholi 61.54 per cent of workers lies in the income group of Rs. 1001-5000 (61.54 per cent) which is followed by the group of Rs. 5001-10,000 (19.23 per cent), Rs. 10,001-15000 (7.69 per cent), less than Rs.1000 (7.69 per cent) and Above Rs. 15000 (3.85 per cent). The block of Aurai reported that highest percentage of workers lies in the income group of Rs. 1001-5000 (68.35 per cent), Rs. 5001-10,000 (25.32 per cent), Above Rs. 15000 (5.06 per cent), less than Rs.1000 (1.27 per cent) and no workers found in the group of Rs. 10005- 15000. The block of Bhadohi shows that highest share of workers reported in the income group of Rs.5001-10,000 (54.55 per cent) which is followed by the income

87 group of Rs.1001-5000 (27.27 per cent), above Rs.15000 (10.39 per cent), Rs 10,001- 15000 (6.49 per cent) and there were no workers in the group of Rs. 1000. The economic condition of the block of Bhadohi is shown high in comparison to the other blocks of the district. The Bhadohi district were reported more big units that gives regular work to the workers, thus the income level is much higher in this block comparatively to the others blocks. The block of Digh shows that workers were lies in only three income groups such as Rs.1001-5000 (48.78 per cent), Rs.5001-10,000 (43.90 per cent) and less than Rs.1000 (7. 32 per cent). The block of Gyanpur shows striking economic condition of workers that workers were reported in only two categories of income group such as Rs. 1001-5000 (74.58 per cent) and Rs.5001- 10,000 (40.91 per cent). The block of Suriyawan reported that the highest percentage of workers were again lies in the income group of Rs.1001-5000 (74.58 per cent), followed by the income groups of Rs. 5001-10,000 (23.73 per cent) and Rs. 10001- 15000 (1.69 per cent). It seems that quite variations were found in the income groups of the workers in all blocks of the district.

Table 4.13: Blockwise Monthly Income of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Monthly income (in Rs.) Less 5001- 10,001- Above Name of than 1001-5000 10,000 15000 15000 block 1000 Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent

Abholi 7.69 61.54 19.23 7.69 3.85 Aurai 1.27 68.35 25.32 0.00 5.06 Bhadohi 0.00 27.27 54.55 6.49 10.39 Digh 7.32 48.78 43.90 0.00 0.00 Gyanpur 0.00 59.09 40.91 0.00 0.00 Suriyawan 0.00 74.58 23.73 1.69 0.00 Total 1.97 55.26 35.53 2.63 4.28 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.14 shows the category of workers and their income groups. Many of the weavers were in high percentage within the income group of Rs. 1001-5000 (48.51 per cent), followed by the income group of Rs.5001-10,000 (47.52 per cent) and less than Rs. 1000 (3.96 per cent). The weavers were mostly confined between the income of Rs. 1001-5000 and Rs. 5001-10,000.

88 Table 4.14: Category of Workers According to Income Group in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Monthly Income (in Rs.) Category of less than 1001- 5001- 10001- Above workers 1000 5000 10000 15000 15000 Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Weavers 3.96 48.51 47.52 0.00 0.00 Pre-weaving workers 1.27 75.95 22.78 0.00 0.00 Finishing workers 2.27 63.64 34.09 0.00 0.00 Non-making workers 0.00 38.75 33.75 10.00 16.25 Total 1.97 55.26 35.53 2.63 4.28 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Monthly Income of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

Percentage 30

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Less than 1000 1001-5000 5001-10,000 10,001-15000 Above 15000

Fig. 4.14 In the category of pre-weaving workers, highest (75.95 per cent) income group of Rs.1001-5000 were recorded. Among the finishing workers, again the majority of

89 workers were confined in the income group of Rs. 1001-5000 (63.64 per cent) and among the category of non-making workers, there were 16.25 per cent of workers who earn Above Rs. 15000. The non-making workers includes as accountant, supervisors etc. who get more payment than the other workers in carpet industry.

H. Monthly Family Income of Workers in Carpet Industry

Family monthly income of workers is also one of the most important indicators to assess the socio-economic conditions of family members who on individual basis also work and receive remunerations of workers. The monthly income is important indicator to assess the socio-economic conditions. Thus, Table 4.14 shows the blockwise family monthly income of carpet workers of the district. The family monthly income is quite high than the monthly income of workers in carpet industry. The highest (61.18 per cent) share of workers whose family income is below Rs. 10,000, which is followed by the income group of Rs.10,000-20,000 (29.28 per cent) and above Rs. 20,000 (9.54 per cent). The blockwise assessment of family income shows that, in the block of Abholi 80.77 per cent of workers lies in income group of below Rs.10,000 which is followed by the income group of Above 20,000 (15.38 per cent) and Rs. 10,000-20,000 (3.85 per cent). The block of Aurai recorded the highest (60.76 per cent) share of workers were lies in the income group of below Rs.10,000. The block of Bhadohi again shows high family income group that about 41 per cent of workers have Rs. 10,000-20,000. The block of Digh, Gyanpur and Suriyawan reported the highest percentage of family income lies in the group of below Rs. 10,000.

Table 4.15: Blockwise Family Income of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Family income (in Rs.) Name of sampled Below 10000- Above block workers 10000 20000 20,000 Per cent Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 80.77 3.85 15.38 Aurai 125 60.76 31.65 7.59 Bhadohi 125 36.36 41.56 22.08 Digh 70 65.85 34.15 0.00 Gyanpur 80 86.36 13.64 0.00 Suriyawan 80 72.88 23.73 3.39 Total 550 61.18 29.28 9.54 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

90 A. Monthly Expenditures of Workers on Family in Carpet Industry

Average monthly expenditures of a family were calculated from by equating total family income and total expenditures. The expenditures were taken into consideration with reference to expenditures incurred on fooding, clothing, education and health. These four cover the basic necessities to be meet out in every family. The expenditures were considered in relative terms. Average monthly expenditures from the data were calculated as the average monthly income by subtracting the average expenditures on particular category of items made by the individual of the family.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Family Income of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

100

40 Percentagee 30

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Below Rs. 10,000 Rs. 10,000-20,000 Above 20,000

Fig. 4.15 Table 4.16 shows that, the average monthly income is highest in block of Bhadohi (Rs. 15443 per month), followed by the block of Aurai (Rs.11272 per month), Digh (Rs.10026 per month), Abholi (Rs.9573 per month), and Suriyawan (Rs.9356 per

91 month). Average monthly income of the district computed was Rs.11376 per month, out of which the expenditure incurred on food Rs. 47.77 per cent, clothing 5.40 per cent, education 10.92 per cent, health 8.36 per cent and on other expenditures 5.09 per cent (Fig.4.16)

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Monthly Expenditures of Workers on Family in Carpet Industry 2015

10.78% 6.57%

14.08% 61.61% 6.96%

Expenditure on fooding Expenditure on clothing Expenditure on Education Expenditure on Health Expenditure on Others

Fig. 4.16

In the block of Abholi, total average monthly income was Rs. 9573 per month out which 44.80 per cent spent on food, 5.99 per cent on clothing, 11.49 per cent education, 10.81 per cent on health and 4.62 per cent on other expenditures. In the block of Aurai, out of total monthly income, 45.02 per cent spent on food, 5.30 per cent on clothing, 11.37 per cent on education, 10.81 per cent health and 4.62 per cent on others. In the block of Bhadohi, out of total expenditures 57.25 per cent spent of food, 10.79 per cent on clothing, 23.55 per cent on education, 9.89 per cent on health and 6.32 per cent on other expenditures. In the block of Digh, out of total average

92 Table 4.16: Blockwise Monthly Expenditures of Workers on Family in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Average Family Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures Others Name of income/month on food on cloth on education on health expenditures Monthly block Per Per Per Per Per Savings in Rs. Rs./month Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. cent cent cent cent cent Abholi 9573 4288 44.80 573 5.99 1100 11.49 1035 10.81 442 4.62 182.56 Aurai 11272 4310 45.02 508 5.30 1089 11.37 818 8.54 427 4.46 1858.22 Bhadohi 15443 5481 57.25 1032 10.79 2255 23.55 947 9.89 605 6.32 2613.15 Digh 10026 4478 46.78 191 2.00 649 6.78 668 6.98 304 3.17 763.4 Gyanpur 7545 3271 34.17 167 1.74 252 2.63 633 6.62 288 3.00 363.98 Suriyawan 9356 4237 44.26 183 1.91 350 3.66 605 6.32 314 3.28 1122.73 Total 11376 4573 47.77 517 5.40 1045 10.92 800 8.36 488 5.09 1156.67 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

93 monthly income 46.78 per cent was spent on food, 2 per cent on clothing, 6.78 per cent on education, 6.98 per cent on health and 3.17 per cent on other expenditures. In the block of Gyanpur, out of total monthly income 34.17 per cent spent on food, 1.74 per cent on clothing, 2.63 per cent on education, 6.32 per cent on health and 328 per cent on others. In the block of Suriyawan, out of total monthly income, 44.26 per cent spent on food, 1.91 per cent on clothing, 3.66 per cent on education, 6.32 per cent on health and 3.28 per cent on others (Fig.4.17).

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Monthly Expenditures of Workers on Family in Carpet Industry 2015 70

30 Percentage

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Expenditure on fooding Expenditure on clothing Expenditure on eduction Expenditure on Health Expenditure on others onthly Savings

Fig. 4.17

B. Health Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry Table 4.17 shows blockwise health problems of carpet industry workers in the district of SR Nagar. It shows that 21.38 per cent of workers have not reported any kind of major diseases whereas the remaining of workers has complained suffering with one or more diseases. As much as 42.43 per cent of workers were suffering with joint pain, 22.04 per cent suffering with backbone problems, 12.50 per cent with

94 breathing problems and 1.64 per cent of workers reported skin problems. As shown by the table 4.17 that, 21.38 per cent of workers were not having any kind of disease and rest of them were having one or more diseases.

Table 4.17: Blockwise Percentage of Workers Suffering from Diseases in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

No Joint Backbone Breathing Skin Name of diseases pains problems problems problems block Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent Abholi 3.85 46.15 15.38 26.92 7.69 Aurai 15.19 54.43 30.38 0.00 0.00 Bhadohi 20.78 41.56 25.97 11.69 0.00 Digh 48.78 17.07 19.51 14.63 0.00 Gyanpur 4.55 68.18 27.27 0.00 0.00 Suriyawan 25.42 33.90 8.47 27.12 5.08 Total 21.38 42.43 22.04 12.50 1.64 Source : Data Collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Workers Suffering from Diseases in Carpet Industry 2015

Percentage 30

0 Abholi Aurai Suriyawan Gyanpur Digh Bhadohi

No Desease Joint Pain Backbone Problems Breathing Problems Skin Problems

Fig. 4.18

95 As much as 42.43 per cent of workers were suffering with joint pains, 22.04 per cent suffering with the backbone problems, 12.50 per cent suffering with breathing problem and 1.64 per cent with the skin problems. It is evident that, joint pain is more common among health problems in the workers (Fig.4.18)

It is highest in block of Gyanpur (68.18 per cent) out of the total, followed by the blocks of Aurai (54.43 per cent), Abholi (46.15 per cent), Bhadohi (41.56 per cent), Suriyawan (33.90 per cent) and Digh (17.07 per cent). The backbone problem is another major health problem seen in carpet workers. The block of Aurai shows highest (30.38 per cent) of the workers having backbone problems followed by blocks of Gyanpur (27.27 per cent), Bhadohi (25.97 per cent), Digh (19.51 per cent), Abholi (15.38 per cent) and Suriyawan (8.47 per cent). The third common health problems among the workers were breathing problem. It is highest in the block of Suriyawan (27.12 per cent), followed by Abholi (26.92 per cent), Digh (14.63 per cent), Bhadohi (11.69 per cent). The skin problem is also seen out among carpet workers, but it is confines in two blocks of namely, Abholi (7.69 percent) and Suriyawan (5.08 per cent).

C. Family Size of Workers in Carpet Industry

Family size is related to number of members in a household that is, governed by various factors such as demographic, socio- economic, cultural, and attitude towards the family planning (Pandey 2012). Occupation and education are negatively related with family size (Rehberg and Westby, 1967). There is strong relationship between parents education family size. Education determines the level of occupation which is negatively related with family size. Higher the level of education and occupation lower will be the family size. The size of family impacts greatly on the children’s wellness. A study by Downey (1995) shows that, it has a inverse relationship between number of siblings and children’s educational performance (Downey, 1995). Economic structure leads to a particular demographic behaviour patterns and differentials. It is demonstrated that work differentials have existed historically, and have remained throughout the modern era. It is argued that, these differentials can partly and even largely be explained by economic factors. The mortality, morbidity, and geographic mobility are associated with different occupational groups (Haines, 1979).

96 Table 4.18 shows the blockwise family size of carpet industry works in the district of Sant Ravidas Nagar. The family size of industry workers divided into 4 categories. The family size of 6-8 members recorded highest percentage (47.37 per cent) which is followed by 3-5 (44.74 per cent), 9 above (6.25 per cent) and 2 (1.64 per cent).

Table 4.18: Blockwise Family Size of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Name of Family Size (in per cent) block Below 2 3-5 6-8 9&Above Total Abholi 3.85 19.23 50.00 26.92 8.55 Aurai 3.80 70.89 22.78 2.53 25.99 Bhadohi 1.30 38.96 51.95 7.79 25.33 Digh 0.00 26.83 68.29 4.88 13.49 Gyanpur 0.00 72.73 27.27 0.00 7.24 Suriyawan 0.00 30.51 66.10 3.39 19.41 Total 1.64 44.74 47.37 6.25 100.00 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

In block of Abholi, 50 per cent of family size of workers consisted of 6-8 members, followed by 9 & above members (27 per cent), 3-5 members (19 per cent), 2 & below members (3.85 per cent). The block of Aurai shows the highest concentration (71 per cent) within the category of 3-5 members followed by 6-8 members (23 per cent), 2 & below members (4 per cent), 9 & above members (3 per cent). In the block of Bhadohi, highest concentration (52 per cent) of members lies in the category of 6-8 members 3-5 members (39 per cent), 9 & above members (8 per cent) and 2 & below members (1 per cent). In the block of Digh the highest percentage of family group consisted in the category of 6-8 members (68 per cent), followed by the category of 3- 5 members (27 per cent) and 9 & above members (5 per cent). In the block of Gyanpur again the highest percentage of family members concentrated in a group of 3-5 members (73 per cent). The percentage of a group of a 6-8 members was 27 percent. In the block of Suriyawan 66 per cent families consists a group of family size 6-8 members, 31 per cent in the size of 3-5 members and 3 per cent in the size of 9 & above members.

97 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Size of Family of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

Percentage 30

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Family Size 2 Family Size 3-5 Family Size 6-8 Family Size 9-Above

Fig. 4.19

Table.4.19 shows the size of family members according to the working categories in carpet industry in SR Nagar district. Among the sampled workers, the highest percentage lies in the category consisting of family size 6-8 persons (47 per cent), followed by 3-5 persons (45 per cent), 9 & above members (6 per cent) and below 2 persons (1.64 per cent). Among the workers categories within weavers reported the highest concentration within a group of 6-8 persons (51 per cent) followed by the family size of 3-5 persons (44 per cent), 9 & above persons (4 per cent) and 2 persons (2 per cent). Within the category belonging to the pre-making workers, the highest percentage of family size belonged to the category of 6-8 persons (52 per cent) followed by the category of 3-5 persons (34 per cent), 9 & above members (14 per cent). Within the finishing workers category the highest percentage of family size belongs to the category of 3-5 persons (59 per cent) followed by the category of 6-8 persons (27.27 per cent), 9 & above members (7 per cent) and 2 & below persons (7 per cent).

98 Table 4.19: Family Size of Workers According to Categories of Work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Below 2 3-5 6-8 Above 9 Category of sampled workers Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Workers Weavers 182 2 44 50 4 Pre-weaving workers 143 0 34 52 14 Finishing workers 80 7 59 27 7 Non-making workers 145 0 49 50 1 Total 550 2 45 47 6 Source: Data collected by field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Family Size of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

0.00% 1.52% 5.79%

92.68%

Below 2 members 3-5 members 6-8 members 9 &Above Fig. 4.20

The non-making workers were having the highest family size to the group of 6-8 persons (50 per cent) followed by the group of 3-5 persons (49 per cent), and above 9 (1 per cent). D. Educational Levels of Family Members of Workers in Carpet Industry Table 4.20 and Fig. 4.21 show blockwise family educational level of carpet industry workers. As much as 27.49 per cent of family members were illiterate, 20.70 per cent primary level, 17.81 per cent middle school, 20.16 per cent high

99 school, 9.61 per cent inter mediates and 4.03 per cent graduates. The family members of carpet industry workers were found less leaned toward the education. Since their childhood, they started learning the designing and weaving with their parents. Table 4.20: Blockwise Educational Levels of Family Members of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Name Total Education Levels of sampled Middle High Inter- block households Illiterates Primary Graduates school school mediates Per Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent cent Abholi 70 16.03 26.92 23.08 16.67 10.90 6.41 Aurai 125 14.24 20.00 22.37 22.71 16.27 4.41 Bhadohi 125 35.70 21.52 14.18 18.34 7.09 2.93 Digh 70 29.65 19.91 18.14 20.80 5.75 5.75 Gyanpur 80 29.03 30.11 17.20 17.20 6.45 0.00 Suriyawan 80 33.01 14.89 15.53 22.33 9.71 3 Total 550 27.49 20.70 17.81 20.16 9.61 4.03.88 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Educational Levels of Family Members of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015 40

Percentage 15

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Uneducated Primery Education Middle Class High school Inter Mediate Graduate Post Graduate

Fig.4.21

100 The large family size is also found the cause of break in the study. Highest number of illiterate were found in the block of Bhadohi (35.70 per cent) followed by the block of Suriyawan (33.01 per cent), Digh (29.65 per cent), Gyanpur (29.03), Abholi (16.03) and Aurai (14.24 per cent).

E. Housing Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry

Table 4.21 shows the blockwise housing conditions of workers in the district of SR Nagar. At least 77.96 per cent of workers live in their own houses whereas rest of 22.04 per cent live in rented houses. As much as 26.97 per cent live in kaccha houses, 29.61 per cent live in paccka houses whereas 43.42 per cent live in semi pakka houses.

Table 4.21: Blockwise Percentage of Housing Conditions of Workers in SR Nagar 2015

Pocession of Type of houses Sampled houses Name of households Semi- Owned Rented Kaccha Packka blocks packka Abholi 70 96.15 3.85 3.85 42.31 53.85 Aurai 125 73.42 26.58 31.65 22.78 45.57 Bhadohi 125 63.64 36.36 20.78 33.77 45.45 Digh 70 85.37 14.63 17.07 26.83 56.10 Gyanpur 80 95.45 4.55 50.00 18.18 31.82 Suriyawan 80 83.05 16.95 37.29 33.90 28.81 Total 550 77.96 22.04 26.97 29.61 43.42 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Housing conditions of carpet industry workers shows that, in the block of Abholi has highest (96.15 per cent) percentage of workers who have their own houses followed by the blocks of Gyanpur (95.45 per cent), Digh (85.37 per cent), Suriyawan (83.05 per cent), Aurai (73.42 per cent) and Bhadohi (63.64 per cent). The blockwise condition of houses show that the block of Abholi has highest percentage of (42.13 per cent) workers who live in pakka houses followed by the blocks of Suriyawan (33.90 per cent), Bhadohi (33.70 per cent), Digh (26.83 per cent), Aurai (22.78 per cent) and Gyanpur (18.18 per cent). The workers with their families who lives in semi-pakka houses were highest (56.30 per cent) in the block of Digh, followed by the blocks of Abholi (53.85 per cent), Aurai (45.57 per cent), Bhadohi (45.45 per cent),

101 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Housing Conditions of Workers in Carpet Indusry 2015

22.04%

77.96%

Owned Rented

Fig. 4.22

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Type of Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

26.97% 43.42%

29.61%

Kaccha Paccka Semi-pakka

Fig. 4.23

102 Fig. 4.24

103 Gyanpur (31.82 per cent) and Suriyawan (28.81 per cent). The workers living in kaccha houses are highest (50 per cent) in the block of Gyanpur, followed by Suriyawan(37.29 per cent), Aurai (31.65 per cent), Digh (17.07 per cent), Bhadohi (20.78 per cent) and Abholi (3.85 per cent).

Table 4.22: Housing Conditions of Workers According to Categories of Work in Carpet Industry SR Nagar 2015

Pocession Type of Total Category of of house House sampled workers Semi- households Owned Rented Kaccha Paccka pakka Weavers 182 57.43 42.57 13.86 16.83 69.31 Pre-weaving workers 143 91.57 8.43 36.14 36.14 27.71 Finishing workers 80 72.09 27.91 69.77 4.65 25.58 No-making workers 145 93.51 6.49 9.09 53.25 37.66 Total 550 77.96 22.04 26.64 29.61 43.75 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Housing Conditions of Workers According to Work Categories in Carpet Indusry 2015 100 90 80 70 60 50

Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 Weavers Pre-weaving Finishing workers No-making workers workers

Owned Rented Kaccha houses Pakka houses Semi-pakka houses

Fig. 4.25

104 F. Sanitation Conditions in Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry a. Toilet Conditions in Houses Table 4.23 shows the blockwise sanitation conditions in houses of carpet industry workers in the district. There are 78.30 per cent of workers who have toilet facilities in their houses, whereas, 21.70 per cent still have no facilities of toilets. Among individual blocks, Abholi, which has highest number of workers (88.5 per cent) have toilet facility in the houses which s followed by the blocks of Digh (85.4 per cent), Suriyawan (79.7 per cent), Bhadohi (79.2 per cent), Gyanpur (77.3 per cent) and Aurai (69.6 per cent). Table 4.23: Blockwise Sanitation Conditions in Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Name of Toilet Type of toilet Where to go Total block fafafacilitho households Yes No Flushed Traditional Open Public me Abholi 70 88.5 11.5 56.5 43.5 100.0 0.0 Aurai 125 69.6 30.4 90.9 9.1 54.2 45.8 Bhadohi 125 79.2 20.8 98.4 1.6 68.8 31.3 Digh 70 85.4 14.6 20.0 80.0 83.3 16.7 Gyanpur 80 77.3 22.7 35.3 64.7 100.0 0.0 Suriyawan 80 79.7 20.3 23.4 76.6 83.3 16.7 Total 550 78.3 21.7 61.8 38.2 71.2 28.8 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.24 shows sanitation conditions in houses of workers according to different categories of work in the district. As much as 97.40 per cent of non-making workers have own toilet facilities in their houses followed by pre-weaving workers (78.31 per cent), weavers (60.40 per cent) and finishing workers (34.88 per cent). b. Bathroom Condition in Houses

Table 4.25 and Fig 4.28 show bathroom conditions in houses of workers in the district. It is evident from table that 87.83 per cent of workers have bathrooms in their houses whereas, 12.17 per cent of workers do not. As much as 30.71 per cent of workers have roofed bathrooms whereas, 69.23 per cent of them have bathrooms without roof. Blockwise assessment shows that, in the block of Digh, almost all houses of workers have bathrooms. Bathrooms in other blocks are in order of Bhadohi (98.70 per cent), Suriyawan (88.14 per cent), Gyanpur (81.82 per cent), Abholi (80.77 per cent) and Aurai (74.68 per cent).

105 Table 4.24: Sanitation Conditions in Houses of Workers According to Categories of Work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Toilet facilities Type Where to go Total in houses of toilets Category of sampled Workers household Yes No flushed Traditional Open Public

Weavers 182 60.40 39.60 49.18 50.82 32.50 67.50 Pre-weaving 143 78.31 21.69 41.54 58.46 72.22 27.78 workers Finishing 80 34.88 65.12 60.00 40.00 60.71 39.29 workers No-making 145 97.40 2.60 78.67 21.33 0.00 100.00 workers Total 550 71.05 28.95 57.87 42.13 48.86 51.14 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Toilet Facilities in Houses of Workers 2015

21.70%

78.30%

Yes No

Fig.4.26

106 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Type of Toilets in Houses of Workers 2015

38.20% 61.80%

Flushed Traditional

Fig.4.27

Table 4.25: Blockwise Bathroom Conditions of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Bathroom Conditions of Name of sampled Facilities bathroom block workers Yes No Roofed Unroofed Abholi 70 80.77 19.23 76.19 23.81 Aurai 125 74.68 25.32 27.12 72.88 Bhadohi 125 98.70 1.30 48.68 51.32 Digh 70 100.00 0.00 14.63 85.37 Gyanpur 80 81.82 18.18 5.56 94.44 Suriyawan 80 88.14 11.86 11.54 88.46 Total 550 87.83 12.17 30.71 69.29 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.26 shows the bathroom conditions in houses of workers according to the category of work. It shows that the non-making workers have a highest percentage of bathrooms have in their houses, followed by the category of weavers (94.04 per cent), pre-weaving workers (85.54 per cent) and finishing workers (60.47 per cent).

107 Table 4.26: Bathroom Conditions According to Categories of Work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Conditions of Category of Bathroom facilities sampled bathroom workers workers Yes No Roofed Unroofed Weavers 182 94.06 5.94 13.68 86.32 Pre-weaving workers 143 85.54 14.46 18.31 81.69 Finishing workers 80 60.47 39.53 30.77 69.23 Non-making workers 145 97.40 2.60 64.00 36.00 Total 550 87.83 12.17 30.71 69.29 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Bathroom Conditions in Houses of Workers 2015

31%

69%

Roofed Unroofed

Fig.4.28 c. Availability of Drinking Water in Houses Table 4.27 shows blockwise availability of drinking water facilities in households of carpet industry workers in the district. It shows, that 59.54 per cent of workers have proper water supply in their houses and remaining of them 40.46 per cent do not have. Among all the blocks, the block of Gyanpur is highest percentage of workers have proper water supply in their premises which is followed by the blocks of Abholi (88.46 per cent), Suriyawan (72.88 per cent), Aurai (53.16 per cent), Bhadohi (49.35 per cent) and Digh (31.71 per cent).

108 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Bathroom Facilities in Houses of Workers 2015

12%

88%

Yes No

Fig. 4.29

Table 4.27: Blockwise Availability of Drinking Water in Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Name of Total sampled Water availability block households Within premises Outside Abholi 70 88.46 11.54 Aurai 125 53.16 46.84 Bhadohi 125 50.65 49.35 Digh 70 31.71 68.29 Gyanpur 80 95.45 4.55 Suriyawan 80 72.88 27.12 Total 550 59.54 40.46 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.28 shows blockwise drinking water facilities in houses of carpet workers in the district. There are 63.49 per cent of houses who get water from municipal tapes, 35.53 per cent of workers have hand pumps and a fraction of 0.99 per cent houses have submersibles to meet the water needs. Residents who do not have regulated source of drinking water depend upon to get water from outside. It is evident from the table that, 53.66 per cent depend upon their neighbourhood 43.09 per cent have to

109 collect water from a distance upto10-25 metres and 4.07 per cent have to collect water beyond10-25 metre. Table 4.28: Blockwise Sources of Drinking Water in Houses of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

If no, Source of how far away to go Total drinking water Name of (in meters) sampled block households Municipal Hand Subm- Neigh- Above 10-25 Tapes Pumps ersible bourhood 25 Abholi 70 61.54 30.77 7.69 66.67 33.33 0.00 Aurai 125 54.43 45.57 0.00 29.73 70.27 0.00 Bhadohi 125 74.03 25.97 0.00 78.95 23.68 0.00 Digh 70 41.46 58.54 0.00 53.57 35.71 10.71 Gyanpur 80 90.91 4.55 4.55 100.00 0.00 0.00 Suriyawan 80 67.80 32.20 0.00 43.75 43.75 12.50 Total 550 63.49 35.53 0.99 53.66 43.09 4.07 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Sources of Drinking Water in Houses of Workers 2015 100

40 Percentage 30

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Municipal Tab Hand Pump Submersible

Fig. 4.30

110 Table 4.29 and 4.30 shows the availability of drinking water in houses according to different categories of carpet workers in the district. It is evident from Table 4.29: Availability of Drinking Water According to Categories of Work in Houses of Carpet Industry Workers in SR Nagar 2015

Water Total Availability Category of sampled Within Municipal Workers households premise tapes Weavers 182 30.69 56.44 Pre-weaving workers 143 75.90 69.88 Finishing workers 80 62.79 81.40 Non-making workers 145 77.92 55.84 Total 550 59.54 63.49 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 4.30: Sources of Drinking Water in Houses of Workers According to Work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

If no, Source of how far away to go Total drinking water Category of (in meters) sampled workers households Hand Hand- Neigh- Above Tapes 10-25 Pump pumps bourhood 25 Weavers 182 41.58 56.44 41.58 56.44 41.58 7.14 Pre-weaving 143 28.92 69.88 28.92 69.88 28.92 0.00 workers Finishing 80 18.60 81.40 18.60 81.40 18.60 0.00 workers Non- making 145 44.16 55.84 44.16 55.84 44.16 0.00 workers Total 550 35.53 63.49 35.53 63.49 35.53 4.07 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015 the table that non-making workers were highest (77.92 per cent) who have an easy excess to drinking water as it is easily available within their premises followed by the workers belonging to the category of pre-weaving workers (75.90 per cent), finishing workers (62.79 per cent) and weavers (30.69 per cent).

111 References

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Ahmad, Z. (1962) Muslim caste in Uttar Pradesh, The Economic Weekly, Vol. 14, No.7, pp. 325-336.

Ansari, S. (2014) Socio-economic aspects of artisans in India in 20thcentury, International Journal of Humanities and Religion, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 20-24.

Collins, R. (1971) Functional and conflict theories of educational stratification. American Sociological Review, Vol. 36, No. 6, pp. 1002-1019.

Dirks, N. B. (2011) Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

Downey, D. B. (1995) When bigger is not better: Family size, parental resources, and children's educational performance, American Sociological Review, Vol.60, No. 5, pp. 746-761.

Haines, M. (1979) Fertility and Occupation: Population Patterns in Industrialization, Academic Press, Cambridge.

Hutchens, R. M. (1988) Do job opportunities decline with age?, ILR Review, Vol.42,No.1, pp. 89-99.

Liira, J., et al. (2000) Work ability of middle-aged Finnish construction workers: A follow-up study in 1991–1995. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, Vol.25, No.5, pp. 477-481. Rehberg, R. A., and Westby, D. L. (1967) Parental encouragement, occupation, education and family size: Artifactual or independent determinants of adolescent educational expectations?, Social Forces, Vol. 45, No.3, pp. 362-374. Singh, D. P. (2005) Women Workers in Unorganised Sector, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.

Singhal, S. (1995) Development of Education, Occupation, and Employment of Women in India. Mittal Publications, New Delhi.

112 Chapter 5

Working Conditions in Carpet Industry CHAPTER 5

WORKING CONDITIONS IN CARPET INDUSTRY

This chapter deals with the working conditions for workers engaged in carpet industry. The working condition is an outcome of worker’s relationship with his owner. The entire study on working conditions depends on a single term, known as labour relations.

The term labour relations is also known as ‘industrial relations’ and refers to a system in which employers, workers and their representatives directly or indirectly, interact to set ground rules for the governance of work relationships. It also describes a field of study dedicated to examining such relationships. A labour or industrial relation system reflects the interaction between the main actors in it: the state, the employer (employers or employers’ association), trade unions and employees (who may participate or not in unions and other bodies affording workers’ representation). Phrases like ‘labour relations’ and ‘industrial relations’ are also used in connection with various forms of workers’ participation, they can also encompass individual employment relationships between an employer and a worker under a written or implied contract of employment, although these are usually referred to as ‘employment relations’. There is a considerable variation with the use of terms, partly reflecting the evolving nature of field over time and place. There is general agreement, however, that the field embraces collective bargaining, various forms of workers’ participation (such as Works councils and Joint Health and Safety Committees) and mechanisms for resolving collective and individual disputes. Wide variety of labour relations systems throughout the world has meant that comparative studies and identification of types are accompanied by caveats about the limitations of overgeneralization and false analogies. Traditionally, four types of workplace governance have been described as: dictatorial, paternalistic, institutional and worker participative. This chapter has been divided to examine primarily the latter two types, private and public interests that are at stake in any labour relations system. The state is an actor in the system, although its role varies from active to passive in different countries. The nature of the relationships among organized labour, employers and the government with respect to health and safety are indicative of the overall status of industrial relations in industry. An underdeveloped labour relations system tends to be

113 authoritarian, with rules dictated by an employer without direct or indirect employee involvement, except at the point of accepting employment on the terms offered. A labour relation system incorporates both societal values (e.g., freedom of association, a sense of group solidarity and search for maximized profits) and techniques (e.g., methods of negotiation, work organization, consultation and dispute resolution). Traditionally, labour relations systems have been categorized along national lines, but the validity of this is waning in the face of increasingly varied practices within countries and the rise of a more global economy driven by international competition. Some countries have been characterized as having cooperative labour relations models (e.g., Belgium and Germany) whereas, others are known as being conflictuals (e.g., Bangladesh, Canada and United States). Different systems have also been distinguished on the basis of having centralized collective bargaining (e.g., those in Nordic countries, although there is a move away from this, as illustrated by Sweden), bargaining at the sectoral or industrial level (e.g., Germany), or bargaining at the enterprise or plant level (e.g., Japan, the United States). Countries of the world that have moved from planned to free market economies, labour relation systems are in transition. An increasing analytical work is being done on the typologies of individual employment relationships as indicators of types of labour relation systems. Even the more classic portrayals of labour relation systems are not by any means static characterizations, since any such system changes to meet new circumstances, whether economic or political.

The globalization of the market economy, the weakening of the state as an effective force and the ebbing of trade union powers in many industrialized countries pose serious challenges to traditional labour relation systems. Technological development has brought changes in the content and organization of work that also have a crucial impact on the extent to which collective labour relations can develop and the direction they take. Employees’ traditionally shared work schedule and common workplace have increasingly given way to more varied working hours and to the performance of work at varied locations, including home, with less direct employer supervision. What has been termed as a ‘atypical’ employment relationships are becoming less so, as the contingent workforce continues to expand. This in turn places pressure on established labour relation systems. Newer forms of employee representation and participation are adding an additional dimension to the labour

114 relations in a number of countries. A labour relation system sets the formal or informal ground rules for determining the nature of collective industrial relations as well as the framework for individual employment relationships between a worker and his or her employer. Complicating the scene at the management end are additional players such as temporary employment agencies, labour contractors and job contractors who may have responsibilities towards workers without having control over the physical environment in which the work is carried out or the opportunity to provide safety training (Randall, 1985). In addition, public sector and private sector employers are governed by separate legislation in most countries, with the rights and protections of employees in these two sectors often differing significantly. Moreover, the private sector is influenced by forces of international competition that, do not directly touch public sector labour relations (Eric Hopkins, 1982).

Working conditions are defined as the relationship between paid work and employment relationships. It covers a broad range of topic and issues from working time (hours of work, rest periods and work schedules) as well as the physical conditions and mental demands exists at work place (Glass, 1990). Working condition is a controlling factor of workers productivity and efficiency of work. The workers satisfaction to work place and working condition also regulate health. The safety and health of workers has a positive impact on productivity and economic and social development (Douglas, 1919). Good and satisfactory working condition and workplace enhance the well-being of the employee and society.

The constitution of India has provided detailed provisions to provide safety and healthy working environment. Government is committed to regulate economic activities for management of healthy and safe work place that measures the working condition for every working man and woman in the country. The safety of workers at the work place comes out from a combination of different factors such as safer production technologies, work place hygiene, medical facilities, insurance and job security ( Lebergott, 1939).

A. Nature of Work in Carpet Industry

There are broadly two types of workers who work in carpet industry, viz., permanent and seasonal. Carpet industry is basically depends on the demand of market and seasonal variations. The demand in the foreign market of carpet is

115 indirectly proportionate the labour force, if the demand of workers is high the workers demand is high. The workers who are engaged as daily wagers are very much affected by this fluctuation. Seasonal extremity is also impact negatively on the workforce participation. Finishing of carpets like washing, lattexing etc. needs a fair weather and sunshine. Prolong rain and winter both hampered the work participation in carpet industry. Workers remain unemployed for several months due to these aforesaid reasons. The permanent workers are those workers in carpet industry whose work in the company and get monthly income. They perform basically the work such as accounting, managerial or computer base skill. The workers who are directly associated with their base work, such as weaving and finishing are very prone to seasonal and market factors. They remain jobless during the low demand and inverse weather conditions. Thus, the workers of carpet industry can broadly be divided as: permanent and seasonal workers.

Table 5.1: Category of Worker According to Nature of Work in SR Nagar 2015

Total Category of Permanent Seasonal sampled Worker workers Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 83.17 16.83 Pre-weaving workers 143 59.49 40.51 Finishing worker 80 40.91 59.09 Non-making worker 145 93.75 6.25 Total 550 73.68 26.32 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Table 5.1 and Fig. 5.1 show that, 83.17 per cent weavers were permanent and only 16.83 per cent seasonal workers in carpet industry of the district of SR Nagar. Non- making workers were those who employed in companies and performed work on monthly payment basis and they were 93.75 per cent and considered as permanent workers whereas about 25 per cent of workers are seasonal in nature. Pre-weaving workers were those who perform the work by low skill and in majority of there were women who perform when they consider from their household duties. The pre-carpet making work is done by men and women during spare time hours along with other family members and they accounted for 40.91 per cent workers are permanent in the nature of work of this working category, whereas 59.9 per cent are seasonal in nature of work.

116 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Nature of Work in Carpet Industry 2015

26.32%

73.68%

Permanent Seasonal

Fig. 5.1

Table 5.2 shows blockwise distribution of workers according to nature of work. It shows that as many as 73.68 per cent of workers in carpet industry were permanent in nature, whereas 26.32 per cent were seasonal workers. The block of Suriyawan recorded the highest percentage to the tune of 89.83 of permanent workers whereas, 72.73 per cent, 72.73 per cent, 72.15 per cent, 63.41 per cent, 61.54 per cent were found in the blocks of Bhadohi, Gyanpur, Aurai, Digh, and Abholi respectively.

Table 5.2: Blockwise Workers According to Nature of Work in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Permanent Seasonal Name of sampled block Per cent Per cent workers Abholi 70 61.54 38.46 Aurai 125 72.15 27.85 Bhadohi 125 72.73 27.27 Digh 70 63.41 36.59 Gyanpur 80 72.73 27.27 Suriyawan 80 89.83 10.17 Total 550 73.68 26.32 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

117 Fig. 5.2

118 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Workers According to Nature of Work in Carpet Industry 2015 100

50 Percentage 40

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Permanent Seasonal

Fig. 5.3

The block of Suriyawan reported highest percentage of permanent workers because the workers are mainly indulged in big manufacturing units therefore that the little fluctuation in market demand does not hamper their labour force. The block of Suriyawan has a history of the origin of carpet weaving so the workers of this block have inherited the work in carpet industry whether they are engaged directly or indirectly. Small and very small units are dominant in the block of Abholi. These units are more prone to be effected by a little fluctuation in the demand of markets. So, the highest numbers of workers were seasonal in the nature in this block.

B. Joining of Workers in Carpet Industry

Joining year by workers in carpet industry is taken as indicator which shows since how much years the workers are doing their work in carpet industry. Joining years are also helpful to know the satisfactory level, the workers that indulge in industry. If the workers have experience of more than 6 years increases the satisfactory level. The

119 workers who are indulge since the childhood and not to go elsewhere and shows adherence and satisfaction in the industry. Table 5.3 and Fig. 5.4 show percentage of category of workers according to their joining of work in carpet industry.

Table 5.3: Category of Workers According to Year of Joining in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Less Above 5- 10 11- 15 16- 20 21-25 Total then 26 Category Years years years years sampled 5 years years of workers workers Per Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent cent Weavers 182 21.78 42.57 15.84 16.83 1.98 0.99 Pre-weaving 143 18.99 34.18 16.46 17.72 5.06 7.59 workers Finishing 80 2.27 47.73 0.00 43.18 2.27 4.55 worker Non-making 145 31.25 45.00 20.00 2.50 1.25 0.00 worker Total 550 20.72 41.78 14.80 17.11 2.63 2.96 Source: Data collected by field work, May, 2015

Carpet industry provides work more seasonal in nature than permanent. The workers get work in some months and in rest of months they remain jobless. Some workers who join the industry for peak month in jobless season they do another work. Thus the workers find it difficult to invite these workers again in peak season. Under this situation only good relationship is to compel the workers to join their work in industry. The workers who are working since more than 10 years in same industry are basically those workers who joined the big industry. A big company provides an opportunity of permanency of their workers. The workers who work in small units suffer greatly due to seasonal shortages of work. They are forced to join other work during close season and after closing season they prefer to join to another industry depending upon the availability of work.

There are many controlling factors which determine the numbers of years since then the workers are engaged in a particular industry. The relationship of employer with their employee, the facilities and environment that has given to their employee are determining factors. The healthy relationship of employer with their employee causes the long term engagement of a worker in a unit. Workers tend to work in the same unit for as many years irrespective of many other industries in their surroundings. The joining year of the industry of workers, helps to understand the

120 relationship between the employee and employer. The wage structure and environment of working place is also play a very significant role to determine since how long workers are working with industry.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Category of Workers According to Joining Years 2015

30 Percentage

0 Weavers Pre-weaving Workers Finishing Workers Non-making Workers

Less tha 5 years 5 -10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21-25 years 26-30 years

Fig. 5.4 C. Type of Workers in Carpet Industry

In carpet industry, weaving and designing are the most intricate and complicated work that need very experienced and skilled professionals. The carpet making requires an especial skill of art mainly in weaving, designing, and finishing etc because in this industry, weaving and designing are the most intricate and complicated work which need very experienced and skilled professionals.

121 Table 5.4: Blockwise Type of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Name Skilled Unskilled samples of block workers Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 73.08 26.92 Aurai 125 51.90 48.10 Bhadohi 125 72.73 27.27 Digh 70 92.68 7.32 Gyanpur 80 63.64 36.36 Suriyawan 80 98.31 1.69 Total 550 74.34 25.66 Sources: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Type of Workers in Carpet Industry 120 2015

100

60 Percentage

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Skilled Unskilled Fig. 5.5

Fig.5.5

122 Fig. 5.6

123 Table 5.4 and Fig. 5.5 show that, 74.34 per cent of workers were skilled whereas 25.66 per cent workers were unskilled. It shows that the block of Suriyawan reported highest percentage (98.31 per cent) of skilled workers which is followed by the blocks of Digh (92.68 per cent), Abholi (73.08 per cent), Bhadohi (72.73 per cent), Gyanpur (63.64 per cent) and Aurai (51.90 per cent).

Table 5.5 shows the category of workers according to work skill, most skilled workers were weavers. (97.03 percent), followed by pre-weaving workers (79.75 per cent), non making workers (56.25 per cent), and finishing workers (45.45 per cent). Weavers and designers were trained by their parents and siblings since the childhood. Carpet designing is performed mainly at the home of designers thus, their children have basic understanding. Weaving is another most skilled task in carpet industry and needs a skilled experience in weavers. Weavers also get training since the childhood by parents.

Table 5.5: Category of Workers According to Work Skill in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Category Skilled Unskilled sampled of worker workers Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 97.03 2.97 Pre-weaving workers 143 79.75 20.25 Finishing worker 80 45.45 54.55 Non-making worker 145 56.25 43.75 Total 550 74.34 25.66 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

D. Use of New Technology in Carpet Industry

Table 5.6 and Fig. 5.6 show the blockwise distribution of workers who use a special technique while doing work in industry. Carpet weaving is reported to perform mainly manually but to some extent technology is also used. Designing, colour matching and machine weaving are the tasks that are performed by the use of technology. The block of Bhadohi reported highest percentage (29.89 per cent) of use of new technology which is followed blocks of Digh (29.27 per cent), Abholi (26.92 per cent), Aurai (11.37 per cent), Suriyawan (3.39 per cent) and Gyanpur has shown no use of new technology in the process of carpet making. (Fig. 5.7)

124 Table 5.6: Workers Using New Technology in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Use of Without use Name of sampled technology of technology Block workers Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 26.92 73.08 Aurai 125 11.39 88.61 Bhadohi 125 29.87 70.13 Digh 70 29.27 70.73 Gyanpur 80 0.00 100.00 Suriyawan 80 3.39 96.61 Total 550 17.43 82.57 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Workers Using New Technology in Carpet Industry 2015

120

100

60 Percentage 40

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Use of technology Without use of technology

Fig. 5.7

125 Fig. 5.8

126 The block of Bhadohi records the highest percentage of technology in the industry, because most of the big units are in this block so, the big units were settled here and they have the capacity and capability to use new technology in their units. Big unit involve technological use in sectors of designing and marketing also.

E. Working Hours in Carpet Industry

Working hours is most important element in carpet industry that regulates the productivity. Carpet weaving demands long working hours for engagement in static work in tedious weaving profession (Spielholz, 2011). Table 5.7 and Fig. 5.9 show the blockwise percentage of workers according to working hours. In blocks of Abholi, 46.15 per cent of workers reported to work between 8-10 hours and 26. 92 per cent works in category of 14 and above hours, 23.08 per cent workers work during 11-13 hours on daily basis. Only 3.85 per cent of workers who perform work 5-7 hours in a day in this block. In the block of Aurai, highest percentage (29.11 per cent) of category of working hours 8-10 hours, followed by the category of 5-7 hours (26.58 per cent), 11-13 hours (26.58 per cent) and 14 and above hours (19.08 per cent).

Table 5.7: Blockwise Working Hours in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

5-7 8-10 11-13 14 & Total Name of Hours hours hours Above sampled block Per Per Per Per workers cent cent cent cent Abholi 70 3.85 46.15 23.08 26.92 Aurai 125 26.58 29.11 26.58 17.72 Bhadohi 125 1.30 45.45 45.45 7.79 Digh 70 14.63 31.71 31.71 21.95 Gyanpur 80 9.09 45.45 18.18 27.27 Suriyawan 80 1.69 47.46 23.73 27.12 Total 550 10.53 39.80 30.59 19.08 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Here 26.92 per cent of workers work more than 14 hours in a day. Main cause of long working hours in this block is that, this block possesses large number of medium and small industries and most of workers were basically the family members of the owner of the units. They do long stretch of work because of the family cause. Another reason is that most workers are seasonal therefore; they are forced to earn their livelihood from here.

127 Table 5.8 and Fig. 5.8 shows the category of workers on the basis of working hours and their respective percentages. Among the weavers, the highest working hour category of 11-13 hours accounted for 58.42 per cent of workers working in this category, which is followed by 8-10 hours (21.78 per cent), 14 and above hours (18.81 per cent) and 5-7 hours (0.99 per cent) respectively. The pre-weaving workers category reported the highest percentage of workers (56.98 per cent) who work in between 8-10 hours. Next to both these categories of working hours workers work of 5-7 hours (17.72 per cent) and 11-13 hours (17.72 per cent) and 14 and above hours (7.59 per cent). Working hours of worker under the category of non-making workers (40 per cent) work in between 14 and above hours daily. The reason behind is that they work in the companies and generally in office work to extent of more than 14 hours every day.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Working Hours in Carpet Industry 2015

10.53% 19.08%

39.80% 30.59%

5-7 hours 8-10 hours 11-13 hours 14 & above

Fig. 5.9

128 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Working Hours in Carpet Industry 2015

30 Percentage 25

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

5-7 hours 8-10 hours 11-13 hours 14 and above

Fig. 5.10

With the category of pre-weaving workers, 56.98 per cent of workers work for 8-10 hours in day. These workers were mostly daily wagers, and seasonal workers. The work like designing, wool binding, colouring etc. comes in this category. The most work in this category is performed by women, they do at homes. Categories of workers who perform finishing work were 54.55 per cent and work for 8-10 hours a day and 38.64 per cent of workers work for 5-7 hours in a day. This category of work is also represents by women and family members of weavers. Thus, the work period assigned to them remains less relatively in terms of hours and volumes of work to perform the work like washing, embossing etc. Non-making work is mostly performed by the company’s workers and these workers are also exploited much. The

129 Table 5.8: Category of Workers According to Working Hour in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

5-7 8-10 11-13 14 and Total Category hours hours hours above sampled of workers Per Per Per Per workers cent cent cent cent Weavers 182 0.99 21.78 58.42 18.81 Pre- weaving workers 143 17.72 56.96 17.72 7.59 Finishing workers 80 38.64 54.55 4.55 2.27 Non-making workers 145 0.00 37.50 22.50 40.00 Total 550 10.53 39.80 30.59 19.08 Source: Data collected thorough field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Working Hours According to Working Category in Carpet Industry 2015

30 Percentage

0 Weavers Pre-weaving Finishing workers Non-making workers workers

5-7 hours 8-10 hours 11-13 hours 14 & above

Fig. 5.11

130 workers who work such as care taker, packaging etc. and also exploited. They are paid less and work taken is more about 40 per cent of workers have to work for more than 14 hours daily. The workers to whom are in managerial and accounting works also have to work very hard, but there salary are more remunerative. As much as 58.42 per cent of workers work for 11-13 hours in a day. The work of weaving requires the more skill regular concentration therefore workers are forced to sit for long hours to weave the magical carpets. About 19 per cent of weavers were working upto 14 and above hours at a workplace. More than 70 per cent of weavers were reported who engage for more than 11 hours in a day.

F. Distance of Work Place from Home

Table 5.9 and Fig. 5.13 show the distance of travel by the workers to reach at working place. The carpet workers who have to cover the distance to reach the workplace can be divided into four categories. The table 5.9 shows that, a distance of 1-3 km is highest, which is 44.08 per cent of workers have cover. It is followed by a distance of 4-5 km (23.36 per cent), more than 5 km (25.33 per cent) of workers work on daily basis. In the block of Abholi 76.92 per cent of workers cover a distance of 1-3 km to reach their 2015workplace, 11.54 per cent workers have to cover 4-5 km.

Table 5.9: Blockwise Workers According to Distance of Workplace from Home in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

More than Total At home 1-3 km. 4-5km. Name 5 km. sampled of block Per Per Per Per workers cent cent cent cent Abholi 70 0.00 76.92 11.54 11.54 Aurai 125 25.32 48.10 20.25 6.33 Bhadohi 125 1.30 67.53 19.48 11.69 Digh 70 0.00 12.20 21.95 65.85 Gyanpur 80 4.55 63.64 0.00 31.82 Suriyawan 80 0.00 8.47 47.46 44.07 Total 550 7.24 44.08 23.36 25.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2012.

131 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Workers According to Ditance of Workplace from Home 2015

40 Percentage 30

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

at home 1-3 km 4-5km more than 5 km.

Fig. 5.12

Table 5.10: Category of Workers According to Distance of Workplace from Home in Carpet Industry SR Nagar 2015

Total At 1-3 4-5 More than Category of sampled Home km km 5 km. workers workers Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 39.60 19.80 23.76 16.83 Pre-weaving worker 143 8.86 46.84 22.78 21.52 Finishing worker 80 34.09 52.27 4.55 9.09 Non-making worker 145 0.00 31.25 46.25 22.50 Total 550 7.24 44.08 23.36 25.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

132 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Workers According to Distance from Workplace to Native Home 2015

30 Percentage 20

0 at home 1-3 km 4-5km More than 5 km.

Weavers Pre-weaving workers Finishing workers Non-making workers

Fig. 5.13

The block of Aurai shows that, 25.32 per cent workers work at their respective homes, 48.10 per cent of workers have to go 1-3 km and 6.33 per cent goes for work to more than 5 km.

Table 5.10 shows the distance covered by workers to go to their working place according to their working category. Among all the category of workers, 39.60 per cent weavers were working at their home and 23.76 per cent workers were goes to the distance of 4-5 km. Non-making workers were reported that no workers are working at their home because this work is highly done in the workshop and companies. The highest (46.25) per cent of workers in this category are goes to 4-5 km.

133 Fig. 5.14

134 G. Proper Ventilation at Work Place

Table 5.11 and Fig. 5.15 show blockwise ventilation facilities at work place for carpet industry workers.

Table 5.11: Blockwise Proper Ventilation at Work Place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Proper Improper Name of sampled Ventilation ventilation block workers Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 92.31 7.69 Aurai 125 100.00 0.00 Bhadohi 125 88.31 11.69 Digh 70 48.78 51.22 Gyanpur 80 86.36 13.64 Suriyawan 80 57.63 42.37 Total 550 80.26 19.74 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Proper Ventilation at Work Place 2015 120

100

80 .

60 Percentage 40

F 0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Proper Ventilation Improper Ventilation F Fig.5.15

135 Proper ventilation facilities at workplace are very important because of it directly or indirectly impact on the health of workers A health environment at work place includes: proper ventilation, appropriate lighting, noise free atmosphere and sufficient safety measures etc. (Chandrasekar, .2011). Table 5.11 shows that, about 80.26 per cent of workers have to work under proper ventilation, whereas, 19.74 per cent work under improper ventilation conditions at work place.

Table 5.12: Categories of Workers Working Under Proper Ventilation At Work Place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Proper Improper Category of sampled ventilation ventilation worker workers Per cent Per cent Weaver 182 66.34 33.66 Pre-making worker 143 70.89 29.11 Finishing worker 80 95.45 4.55 Non-making worker 145 98.75 1.25 Total 550 80.26 19.74 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Ventilaion Condition According to Category of Work at Work Place in carpet Industry 120 2015

100

60 Percentage 40

0 weaver pre - weaving Finishing worker Non-making worker worker

Proper Ventilation Improper Ventilation

Fig.5.16

136 Fig. 5.17

137 The block of Aurai recorded 100 per cent of proper ventilation at work place which is followed by the blocks of Abholi (92.31 per cent), Bhadohi (88.31 per cent), Gyanpur (86.36 per cent), Suriyawan (57.63 per cent) and Digh (48.78 per cent).

Table 5.12 shows category of workers work under ventilation facilities at workplace. As many as 98.75 per cent of non-making workers work with the proper ventilation, whereas 66.34 per cent weavers work with proper ventilation facilities. As many as, 95.45 per cent of finishing workers and 70.89 per cent of pre-weaving workers were working under proper ventilation facilities at work place. (Fig. 5.17)

H. Pollution Measures at Work Place

Carpet weaving and manufacturing unit are recognised as white industry, that they do not need any consent from pollution board. According to the Ministry Report Release in March, 2016 carpet manufacturing unit (without dying and bleaching) are considered as non-pollution emitting industry. A pollution measure is necessary because the dust and wool particles are suspended in air and through the breathing they enters in the respiratory system of workers and harm their health. Pollution measures in a small scale industry because they enhance the productivity and ensure better health to workers (Gautam, 2008)

Table 5.13: Blockwise Pollution Measures Adopted in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Pollution Name of sampled Measures block workers Yes No Per cent Per cent Abholi 70 11.54 88.46 Aurai 125 11.39 88.61 Bhadohi 125 18.18 81.82 Digh 70 29.27 70.73 Gyanpur 80 9.09 90.91 Suriyawan 80 1.69 98.31 Total 550 13.49 86.51 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Pollution control measures in carpet industry include, to maintain air quality and dust but unfortunately these both are absent from the carpet industry. Very few numbers of workers have reported some kinds of control measure at their working place. Table 5.13 shows block wise pollution control measures adopted at work place.

138 Fig. 5.18

139 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Blockwise Pollution Measures Adopted at Work Place by Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

120

100

60 Percentage 40

0 Abholi Aurai Bhadohi Digh Gyanpur Suriyawan

Yes No

Fig.5.19

Table 5.14: Category of Workers Adopted Pollution Measures at Work Place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Total Pollution measure at Category sampled working place of worker workers Yes No Per cent Per cent Weavers 182 0.99 99.01 Pre-weaving workers 143 1.27 98.73 Finishing workers 80 0.00 100.00 Non-making workers 145 48.75 51.25 Total 550 13.49 86.51 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

140 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Pollution Measures Adopted at Workplace According to Working Categories in Carpet Industry 2015

120

100

Percentage 40

0 Weavers Pre-weaving Finishing workers Non-making workers workers

Yes No

Fig. 5.20 Table 5.13 and Fig. 5.14 shows that, the highest percentage of pollution measures were found in block of Digh where 29.27 per cent of workers responded that they adopt some pollution measures at working place, followed by the block of Bhadohi (18.18 per cent), Abholi (11.54 per cent), Aurai (11.39 per cent), Gyanpur (9.09 per cent) and Suriyawan (1.69 per cent).

Table 5.14 and Fig. 5.18 show the pollution controlled measures adopted at working place according to category of workers. Table shows that, highest percentage of worker 48.75 having adopted pollution measures at their work place by non- making workers whereas, finishing workers without adopting any pollution measure.

I. Problems of Workers at Work Place

Many of the workers have reported that they suffer by a number of problems in work and at work place.

141 a. Problem of Power Cut

Infrastructural facilities include the problems of power cut, absence of drinking water, non-availability of drinking water, unventilated working place, no cleanliness of working place etc. A large number in carpet industry reported that a power cut is very pertinent problem in carpet industry of SR Nagar. Power cut creates great trouble as the electricity remains cut off during the working hours. Table 5.15 shows that, the block of Gyanpur recorded highest (68.18 per cent) problem of power cut followed by the block of Suriyawan (38.98 per cent), Digh (26.83 per cent), Abholi (23.08 per cent), Aurai (20.25 per cent) and Bhadohi (5.19 per cent)

Table 5.15: Blockwise Power Cut Problems at Work Place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Problems of Name of power cut Block Yes No Per cent Per cent Abholi 23.08 76.92 Aurai 20.25 79.75 Bhadohi 5.19 94.81 Digh 26.83 73.17 Gyanpur 68.18 31.82 Suriyawan 38.98 61.02 Total 24.67 75.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

The power cut problem at a work place adversely impact on weaving and production process of carpets. It put extra burden on workers during working period. The workers are compelled to finish work at a specific time, but due to frequent power cut they have to devote extra hours in work on the same payments. a. Problem of Misbehaviour with Workers by the Owners of the Units

Table 5.16 shows the blockwise problem of misbehaviour by the owners of the units with workers. Very often, workers were reported problem of misbehaviour very often. Problem was reported by workers found in all blocks of the district with different magnitudes. The workers of the block of Aurai among all (39.24 per cent) faced with this problem, followed by Bhadohi (31.17 per cent), Digh (29.27 per cent), Suriyawan (20.34 per cent), Gyanpur (9.09 per cent), and Abholi (7.69 per cent).

142 Fig. 5.21

143 Table 5.16: Blockwise Problem of Misbehaviour with Workers by the Owners of the Units in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Percentage of workers facing misbehaviour Name of at workplace Block Yes No Per cent Per cent Abholi 7.69 92.31 Aurai 39.24 60.76 Bhadohi 31.17 68.83 Digh 29.27 70.73 Gyanpur 9.09 90.91 Suriyawan 20.34 79.66 Total 27.30 72.70 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Problem of Misbehaviour with Workers by Owners at Work place in Carpet Industry 2015

27.30%

72.70%

Yes No Fig. 5.22

144 Fig. 5.23

145 b. The Problem of Retaining Workers at Work Place For Long Hours

Table 5.17 and Fig. 5.25 show the extent of engagements of workers for long hour in carpet industry.

Table 5.17: Blockwise Problem of Retaining Workers for Long Hours in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Workers engagement for long working Name of Hours block Yes No Per cent Per cent Abholi 7.69 92.31 Aurai 43.04 56.96 Bhadohi 42.86 57.14 Digh 26.83 73.17 Gyanpur 27.27 72.73 Suriyawan 28.81 71.19 Total 33.88 66.12 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Problem of Retaining Workers for Long Hours of Workers at Work Place 2015

33.88%

66.12%

Yes No

Fig. 5.24

146 Fig. 5.25

147 As many as 33.88 per cent of workers were facing with this problem, that they have to work for more than working hours allotted to them for work while working in the unit. Several workers belonging to the category of non-carpet making are forced to work more than 12 hours in a day without payments. The long working hours of work compel the weavers to sit long hours to complete the weaving task and work of a day. Long and continuous sitting cause great trouble to workers especially by affecting adversely their health. The problem of long working hour was seen in all the blocks of the district. Aurai Block was more prominent where 43. 04 per cent of workers reported long sitting. It is followed by the blocks of Bhadohi (42.86 per cent), Suriyawan (28.81 per cent), Gyanpur (27.27 per cent), Digh (26.83 per cent) and Abholi (7.69 per cent). c. Problem of Insecurity Among Workers at Work Place

Table 5.18 and Fig.5.27 show blockwise problem of insecurity among the workers while incidents take place at work place. Many of the respondents reported a sense of insecure at their work place, if any accident occurred. They reported that there were no provisions of first aid, medical insurances etc. The working place are generally congested, suffocated and incidents prone. Owners of the unit do not provide any financial or moral support if they get any injury or any incidents during the work at work place. There were 46.38 per cent of workers who reported themselves insecure.

Table 5.18: Blockwise Problem of Insecurity among Workers at Work place in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Sense of Insecurity Name of Yes No Block Per cent Per cent Abholi 30.77 69.23 Aurai 53.16 46.84 Bhadohi 55.84 44.16 Digh 46.34 53.66 Gyanpur 13.64 86.36 Suriyawan 44.07 55.93 Total 46.38 53.62 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

148 The problem were pertinent among workers of all the blocks but the highest percentage was in the block of Bhadohi (55.84 per cent) which is followed by the blocks of Aurai (53.16 per cent), Digh (46.34 per cent), Suriyawan (44.07 per cent), Abholi (30.77 per cent) and Gyanpur(13.64 per cent).

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Insecurity Problem Among Carpet Workers at Workplace in Carpet Industry 2015

46.38%

53.62%

Yes No

Fig. 5.26 d. The Problem of Low Wages for Workers at Work Place

Table 5.19 shows blockwise problems of low wages of workers who are working in carpet industry. Payment as wages to workers were reportedly very low that, are to get proper livelihood. The problem of low wage was dominant among the pre- weaving workers and finishing workers. The women workers were the largest sufferers in this regard. A low wage payment were visible to workers in almost the blocks of the district where the block of Suriyawan was found that the percentage of workers was largest where 91.53 per cent of workers acute sufferer of low wage payments which is followed by the blocks of Digh (78.05), Bhadohi (74.03 per cent), Gyanpur (72.73 per cent), Aurai (63.29 per cent) and Abholi (61.54 per cent).

149 Fig. 5.27

150 Table 5.19: Blockwise Problem of Low Wages of Workers in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Problem of Name of low wage block Yes No Per cent Per cent Abholi 61.54 38.46 Aurai 63.29 36.71 Bhadohi 74.03 25.97 Digh 78.05 21.95 Gyanpur 72.73 27.27 Suriyawan 91.53 8.47 Total 74.01 25.99 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Problems of Low Wages Among Workers at Working Place in Carpet Industry 2015

25.99

74.01

Yes No

Fig. 5.28

151 Fig. 5.29

152 e. The Problem of Irregular Nature of Work Availability

Table 5.20 and Fig. 5.31 show the blockwise problem of irregular nature of work availability in carpet industry workers. Carpet workers are highly sufferer with this problem, because they do not get work during the year. Workers who are associated with very small unit are more sufferers in comparison to those works in large units. Most small unit workers remain jobless and they also face difficulty to get jobs in other units. A blockwise assessment in the district shows that, there are 82.24 per cent of workers who suffer with this problem directly or indirectly.

Table 5.20: Blockwise Problem of Irregular Nature of Work Availability in Carpet Industry in SR Nagar 2015

Irregular nature of work Name of block Yes No Per cent Per cent Abholi 61.54 38.46 Aurai 86.08 13.92 Bhadohi 80.52 19.48 Digh 65.85 34.15 Gyanpur 95.45 4.55 Suriyawan 94.92 5.08 Total 82.24 17.76 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

This problem also pertinent in all of the blocks, but the block of Gyanpur reported the highest percentage of workers who suffered with this problem which is followed by the blocks of Suriyawan (94.92 per cent), Aurai (86.08 per cent), Bhadohi (80.52 per cent), Digh (65.85 per cent) and Abholi (61.54 per cent).

153 Fig. 5.30

154 References

Chandrasekar, K. (2011) Workplace environment and its impact on organisational performance in public sector organisations. International Journal of Enterprise Computing and Business Systems, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-19.

Douglas, P.H. (1919) The definition of conditions of labour, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 725-729

Glass, J. (1990) The Impact of Occupational Segregation on Working Conditions, Social ForcesVol. 68, No. 3, pp. 779-796.

Gautam, R., Baral, S., and Herat, S. (2008) Opportunities and challenges in implementing pollution prevention strategies to help revive the ailing carpet manufacturing sector of Nepal, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 52, No.6, pp. 920-930.

Hopkins, E. (1982) Working Hours and Conditions during the Industrial Revolution: A Re- Appraisal, The Economic History Review New Series, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 52-66.

Lebergott S. (1993) Wages and working condition, The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Vol. 32, No. 4

Spielholz, P., et al. (2001) Comparison of self-report, video observation and direct measurement methods for upper extremity musculoskeletal disorder physical risk factors, Ergonomics, Vol. 44, No.6, pp. 588-613.

Randall, W. E and Joe, A. S (1985) Wages, fringe benefits, and working conditions: an analysis of compensating differentials, Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 274-280.

155 Chapter 6

Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar District CHAPTER 6

CARPET INDUSTRY AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIO- ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF WORKERS

Work in which an individual is involved exerts impact greatly on socio-economic life. Work is recognised as one of the basic action in human life. Most adults spend near about one fourth or one third of their time in work and often it is perceived that, his or her work is a part of life that their self identity (Rogers, 1994).

A person enjoys his or her social status in the society because of ability, efficiency, knowledge and sincerity with his or her work. The standard of living of working class people depend primarily on their income. Human health, education, culture, etc., are as determinants of the standard of living of workers. Generally, lowincome level group of houses exhibit low standard of living. Thus, this is how work impacts greatly on socio-economic conditions of workers (Armendariz, B., and Morduch, J. 2010). It impacts the ranking of workers in a society, the live with their material belongings and cultural possessions along with a degree of respect, power and influence.

There are causal relationship between the worker’s socio-economic life and their involvement in carpet industry. Identification of this causal relationship between socio-economic variables and carpet industry is essential for statistical investigations. A causal relationship between two characteristics will exists only, when one of them is logically considered as the cause for the other. A factor which is supposed to be the cause is known as the independent variable and another supposed to be effected is known as the dependent variable. In case, if they exists a causal relationship, both the values of independent and dependent variables will vary together. This property of co- variation is also termed as ‘correlation’. Measurement of degree and direction of correlation helps particularly to the geographers in explaining variations in various spatial phenomena. In a bi-variant case, if an increase in the independent variable tends to be positive. If the worker’s income is high, socio-economic conditions of workers should also tend to be high. It is called as a positive correlation between income of workers and socio economic conditions. On the other hand if, an increase in the independent variable tends to cause a decrease in variable, the correlation is said to be ‘negative correlation’.

156 To represent correlation between two variables visually, values of the independent and dependent variable as X and Y coordinates of a two dimensional space are taken. An attempt has been made with the help of following variables for the present analysis. While conducting field work in different block of the district, respondents were asked to explain whether they feel improvements in socio-economic life or not.

A. Correlation Analysis

Correlation coefficient is a measure that determines the degree, to which movements of two variables is associated. The value of correlation coefficient varies from -1 to +1. Here, the value -1 indicates as perfect negative correlation, and +1 a perfect positive correlation.

Where,

r = co-efficient of correlation, x, y = two given variables n = number of observations.

Where,

Calculated value of ‘t’ in the test of significance, n = the number of observations r = the computed value of coefficient correlation.

157 Table 6.1: Variables Selected to Examine the Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers Engaged in Carpet Industry

Variables Explained X1 Percentage of family workers engaged below 50 per cent of the total family members X2 Percentage of family workers engaged more than 50 per cent of the total family members Y1 Percentage of workers in a family earning upto Rs. 10,000 per month Y2 Percentage of workers in a family earning above Rs. 10,000 per month Y3 Percentage of monthly expenditures on food out of the total income Y4 Percentage of monthly expenditures on education out of the total income Y5 Percentage of savings out of the total income Y6 Percentage of literates among all the family members Y7 Percentage of intermediate passed among all the family members Y8 Percentage of graduates among all the family members Y9 Percentage of workers living in own houses Y10 Percentage of workers living in pakka houses Y11 Percentage of workers having toilet facilities in own houses Y12 Percentage of workers having bathrooms covered with roof Y13 Percentage of workers possessing LPG cylinders Y14 Percentage of workers suffering from health problems Y15 Percentage of workers edict with alcohol and other drugs and gambling Y16 Percentage of workers having water facilities in houses Y17 Percentage of workers having two wheelers Y18 Percentage of workers having televisions Y19 Percentage of workers having mobiles Y20 Percentage of workers having access to newspapers

158 Table 6.2: Correlation Matrix of Selected Variables

X1 X2 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 X1 1 X2 .521* 1 Y1 .684* .989** 1 Y2 .419* .845** .562* 1 Y3 .562* .661* .692* .641* 1 Y4 .452* .651* .591* .657* .542* 1 Y5 .418* .521* .419* .502* 0.612* 0.684* 1 Y6 .613* .782* .851** .842** .841** .695* .652* 1 Y7 .652* .629* .628* .592* .532* .521* .531* .713** 1 Y8 .649* .618* .628* .451* .482* .563* .652* .783** .745** 1 Y9 .614* .821** .851** .843** .752** .452* .651* .714** .521* .564* 1 Y10 .421* .865** .741** .798** .754** .694* .653* 0.632* 0.687* 0.649* 0.532* Y11 .623** .752** .752** .751** .653** .694* .653* .752** .674* .684* .632* Y12 .463* .584* .521* .598* .621* .685* .645* .632* .658* .647* .695* Y13 .592* .761* .654* .754* .742** .732** .451* .641* .654* .695* .756** Y14 .784** .841** .654** .384* .651** .547* .651** -.523* .651** .541* .321* Y15 .651* .541* .563* .541* .539* .548* .547* .596* .487* .461* .563* Y16 .623* .625* .632* .651* .639* .649* .674* .532* .654* .623** .641** Y17 .845** .845** .841** .854** .861** .851** .864** .854** .861** .794** .856** Y18 .654* .751** .753** .741** .746** .742** .746** .659* .751** .753** .786** Y19 .954** .991** .913** .941** .851** .843** .82** .913** .804** .827** .962** Y20 .321* .532* .621* .784** .741** .694* .682* .689* .654* .621* .519* Notes: *=Significant at 5 per cent level, **=Significant at 1 per cent level. (cont...)

159 Table 6.2 (Contd…..) Y10 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 Y15 Y16 Y17 Y18 Y19 Y20 X1 X2 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Y10 1 Y11 .692* 1 Y12 .532* .369* 1 Y13 .753** .123 .674* 1 Y14 .632* .548* .567* .591* 1 Y15 .341* .487* .426* .485* .495* 1 Y16 .632* .657* .694* .628* .649* .649* 1 Y17 .761** .792** .743** .761** .651* .512* .584* 1 Y18 .752** .763** .769** .782** .716** .714** .751** .756** 1 Y19 .965** .821** .651* .843** .897** .852** .804** .834** .854** 1 Y20 .613* .697* .653* .682* .695* .653* .647* .652* .654* .621* 1 Notes: *=Significant at 5 per cent level, **=Significant at 1 per cent leve

160 Table 6.2 shows a relationship between involvement of workers in carpet industry and their socio-economic conditions. It is seen that, if there is involvement of more number of family members in carpet industry, there is good for socio economic conditions and vise-versa. An independent variable X1 (percentage of workers engaged below 50 per cent of family member involve in carpet industry) and X2 (per cent of workers engaged more than 50 per cent of family member involve in carpet industry) shows strong relationship with other socio economic variables. An inspection of matrix shows that, X1 is positively correlated (r= .684) with variable Y1 (percentage of workers in a family earning upto Rs. 10,000 per month) and X2 is also positively correlated (r= .989) with variable Y1. Again the variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.419) with Y2 (percentage of workers in a family earning above Rs. 10,000 per month) and variable X2 shows correlation (r=.845) with variable Y2. This correlation between the variables exhibits the fact that the involvements of family members in more earn more money from the industry. Thus, monthly income of the family goes high. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.562) with variable Y3 (percentage of monthly expenditures on food out of total income). The variable X2 also shows a positive correlation (r=.661) with variable Y3. The variable X1 again shows a positive correlation (r=.452) with variable Y4 (percentage of monthly expenditure on education out of total income). The variable X2 again shows a positive and more strong correlation (r= .651) with variable Y4. Expenditures on food and education are positively co-related with both variables X1 and X2 but it is stronger with variable X2. Thus, it infers that, if more number of family members get involved in carpet industry there will be more expenditure. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r= .418) with variable Y5 (percentage of savings out of the total income) and variable Y5 is also positively correlated (r=.521) with variable X2. The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r=.613) with variable Y6 (percentage of literates among all the family members) and variable Y6 is positively correlated (r=.780) with variable X2. A strong relationship of variable Y6 with variable X2 than variable X1 is infers that, if the family members involved in more numbers in carpet industry are more literate. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.652) with variable Y7 (percentage of intermediate class passed among all the family members) and variable Y7 is again positively correlated (r=.683) with variable X2. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.649) with variable Y8 (percentage of graduates among all the family members) and variable Y8 is again positively correlated (r=.518) with variable

161 X2. From the above correlation, it is inferred that, the relationship of number of graduates in a family is strong with the family members less than 50 per cent involved in carpet industry and the relationship goes weak when the family members are involved in carpet industry above 50 per cent. The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r= .614) with variable Y9 (percentage of workers living in their own houses) and variable Y9 is strongly positively correlated (r=.821) with variable X2. It infers that, the housing status of workers is better as more number of family are involved in carpet industry. The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r=.421) with variable Y10 (percentage of workers living in Pakka houses), and variable Y10 is strongly correlated (r=.865) with variable X2. The above correlation infers that, the housing conditions are better for workers whose family members in more numbers are involved, than the families whose members are less in carpet industry. The variable X1 is again correlated (r=.623) with variable Y11 (percentage of workers having toilet facilities in their own houses) and, variable Y11 is positively correlated (r=.752) with variable X2. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.463) with variable Y12 (percentage of workers having bathrooms covered with roofs) and variable Y12 is again positively correlated (r=.584) with variable X2. The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r=.592) with variable Y13 (percentage of workers possessing LPG cylinders) and variable Y13 is positively correlated (r=.761) with variable X2. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.784) with variable Y14 (percentage of workers suffering with health problems) and variable Y14 is positively correlated (r= .841) with variable X2. From the relationships, it can be inferred that, the health problems are pertinent with carpet workers. The variable X1 is also positively correlated (r=.651) with variable Y15 (percentage of workers edict with alcohol and other drugs and gambling), and variable Y15 is also positively correlated with variable X2. The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r=.623) with variable Y16 (percentage of workers having water facilities in their houses), and variable Y16 is positively correlated (r=.625) with variable X2. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.845) with variableY17 (percentage of workers having two wheelers), and variable Y17 is again positively correlated (r=.845) with variable X2. The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r=.654) with variable Y18 (percentage of workers having televisions), and variable Y18 is correlated (r=.751) with variable X2. The variable X1 is positively correlated (r=.954) with variable Y19 (percentage of workers having mobiles), and variable Y19 is positively correlated (r=.991) with X2.

162 The variable X1 is again positively correlated (r=.321) with variable Y20 (percentage of workers having access to newspapers) and variable Y20 is positively correlated (r=.532) but with a stronger relationship.

B. Impact Analysis: Based on Likert Scale

The Impact Analysis has done on the basis of point five Likert Scale. For this purpose, a separate questionnaire was filled while containing the same respondent. The questionnaire contained the questions pertaining with the some specific objectives by selecting 15 indicators mentioned Table 6.3. For the purpose of analysis questions were further tested by applying the Cronbach’s Alpha technique.

Table 6.3: Application of Likert Scale Technique to Analyze the Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers

Variables Explained X1 Increase in income (in Rs.) after joining the work in carpet industry X2 Increase/decrease in debt level (in Rs.) after joining the work in carpet industry X3 Increase in family educational level after joining the work in carpet industry X4 Improvement in housing status with the purchase of house after joining the carpet industry X5 Improvement in housing condition(on the basis of built up of house) after joining the carpet industry X6 Improvement in toilet facilities(out of premises to within premises) after joining the carpet industry X7 Improvement in toilets (traditional to flushed) after joining the work in carpet industry X8 Improvement in bathrooms (roofed to unroofed) after joining the work in carpe industry X9 Improvement in use of LPGs cylinders after joining the work in carpet industry X10 Incidence of an increase in health problems after joining the work in carpet industry X11 Incidence of increase in diseases after joining the work in carpet industry X12 Any convenience in getting drinking water(from outside to installing own taping device) after joining the work in carpet industry X13 Any increase in having more than one two-wheelers after joining the work in carpet industry X14 Increase in having mobiles at home after joining carpet industry X15 Increase in subscribing newspapers etc. at home after joining the work in carpet industry

163 For the assessment of impact the questions based on above indicators were framed on the basis of 5 point Likert Scale. The reliability of the scale was tested by applying the Cronbach’s Alpha.

C. Scale Reliability Test: Cronbach’s Alpha

Table 6.4: Case Processing Summary N % Valid 550 100 Excluded a 0 0 Total 550 100

Table 6.5: Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Cronbach's Alpha Based N. of items Alpha on standardized items 0.764 0.762 15

Here the Cronbach’s Alpha is .764, that is greater than 0.5, so the question for the study is statistically valid and appropriate for taking further analysis.

D. Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers a. Impact on Monthly Income of Workers

Income of a person is considered a very strong factor that is largely related to the occupation that a person chooses. Out of the total sampled workers, 26.64 per cent were highly agreed that, income level has increased after joining the carpet industry, 41.12 per cent agreed, 15.13 per cent fall within the category of neither agreed nor disagreed and 0.99 per cent highly disagreed (Fig. 6.1).

There are number of workers who reported that, their income was not increased after joining the carpet industry. These workers are those, who cannot engage themselves in work on regular basis during the entire month. There are large numbers of worker who go for work only for 13-14 days in a month, and in remaining days they have nothing to do. This is the reason that impact largely on their economic conditions. There is another reason that the finishing workers in the carpet industry

164 are very low paid workers. Among the workers if only one family member are involved in the industry are economically weak, except the managers and accountants whose salaries are much more, in comparison to ordinary workers.

Table 6.6: Blockwise Impact of Carpet Industry on Monthly Income of workers in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 30.77 57.69 0.00 11.54 0.00 Aurai 125 30.38 55.70 1.27 11.39 1.27 Bhadohi 125 21.05 40.79 14.47 22.37 1.32 Digh 70 29.27 29.27 24.39 17.07 0.00 Gyanpur 80 18.18 31.82 36.36 9.09 4.55 Suriyawan 80 28.33 26.67 26.67 18.33 0.00 Total 550 26.64 41.12 15.13 16.12 0.99 Source: Data collected through filed work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Carpet Industry on Income of Workers 2015

0.99% 16.12% 26.64%

15.13%

41.12%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig. 6.1

165 Fig. 6.2

166 In the block of Abholi 30.77 per cent workers were highly agreed, 57.67 per cent were agreed and 11.52 per cent disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 30.38 per cent were highly agreed in the increase of income level, 55.70 per cent agreed, 1.27 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 11.39 per cent disagreed and 1.27 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.6).

In the block of Bhadohi, 21.05 per cent were highly agreed, 40.79 per cent agreed, 14.47 were neither agreed nor disagreed, 22.37 per cent disagreed whereas 1.32 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Digh, 29.27 per cent highly were agreed, 29.27 agreed, 24.36 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, and 17.07 per cent disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 18.18 per cent were highly agreed 31.82 per cent agreed, 26.67 per cent workers neither agreed nor disagreed, 9.09 per cent disagreed and 5.55 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 28.33 per cent were highly agreed, 26.67 per cent agreed, 26.67 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 18.33 per cent disagreed (Table 6.6). b. Impact of Carpet Industry on debt level

As many as 27.96 per cent workers were highly agreed that, after joining the carpet industry their debt level has decreased, 45.07 per cent agreed, 8.22 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 17.76 per cent of workers disagreed and 0.99 per cent highly disagreed (Fig.6.3).

Table 6.7: Blockwise impact of Carpet Industry on Debt Levels of Workers in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 30.77 19.23 26.92 23.08 0.00 Aurai 125 30.38 27.85 22.78 17.72 1.27 Bhadohi 125 30.26 55.26 0.00 14.47 0.00 Digh 70 26.83 46.34 0.00 24.39 2.44 Gyanpur 80 18.18 68.18 0.00 9.09 4.55 Suriyawan 80 25.00 56.67 0.00 18.33 0.00 Total 550 27.96 45.07 8.22 17.76 0.99 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

167 In the block of Abholi 30.77 per cent were agree that, after joining the work in carpet industry their debt level has decreased, 19.23 per cent agreed, 26.92 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 23.08 per cent disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 30.38 per cent were highly agreed, 27.85 per cent agreed, 22.78 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 17.72 per cent disagreed and 1.27 per cent highly disagreed (Table. 6.7).

In the block of Bhadohi, 30.26 per cent were highly agreed, 55.26 per cent agreed and 14.47 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh, 26.83 per cent highly agreed, 46.34 per cent agreed, 24.39 per cent disagreed and 2.44 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.7).

In the block of Gyanpur 18.18 per cent highly agreed, 68.18 per cent agreed, 9.09 per cent disagreed and 2.44 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 25 per cent highly were agreed, 56.67 per cent agreed and18.33 per cent disagreed.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Carpet Industry on Debt Levels of Workers 2015

0.99%

17.76% 27.96%

8.22%

45.07%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig. 6.3

168 Fig. 6.4

169 c. Impact of Income of Workers on Education of the Family Members

Table 6.8 and Fig. 6.5 show that, 31.91 per cent workers were highly agreed that family education has increased, 21.71 per cent agreed, 37.83 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 4.28 per cent disagreed and 4.28 per cent highly agreed after joining work in carpet industry.

Table 6.8: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Education of the Family Members in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Name of Sampled Highly agreed Highly block Agreed Disagreed workers agreed nor disagreed disagreed Abholi 70 42.31 7.69 34.62 7.69 7.69 Aurai 125 48.10 34.18 11.39 3.80 2.53 Bhadohi 125 21.05 21.05 42.11 6.58 9.21 Digh 70 39.02 12.20 46.34 0.00 2.44 Gyanpur 80 18.18 9.09 72.73 0.00 0.00 Suriyawan 80 20.00 23.33 50.00 5.00 1.67 Total 550 31.91 21.71 37.83 4.28 4.28 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

In the block of Abholi, 42.31 per cent of workers were highly agreed that, after joining the industry the educational level in their family has increased, 7.69 per cent agreed, 34.62 per cent of them neither agreed nor disagreed, 7.69 per cent disagreed and 7.69 highly disagreed.

In the block of Aurai, 48.10 per cent were highly agreed, 34.18 per cent agreed, 11.39 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 3.80 per cent disagreed and 2.53 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Bhadohi, 21.05 per cent workers were highly agreed, 21.05 per cent agreed, 42.11 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 6.58 per cent disagreed and 9.21 per cent highly disagreed.

In the block of Digh 39.02 per cent workers were highly agreed, 12.20 per cent agreed, 46.34 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 2.44 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur 18.18 per cent were highly agreed, 9.09 per cent agreed, and 72.73 neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 20 per cent workers were highly agreed, 23.33 per cent agreed, 50 per cent of workers neither agreed nor disagreed, 5 per cent disagreed and 1.67 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.8).

170 Fig. 6.5

171 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Worrkers on Education of Family Members 2015

4.28% 4.28% 31.91%

37.83%

21.71%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig. 6.6

d. Impact of Income of Workers on housing status

Impact on housing status means that, whether their status of houses have changed or not. Simply, if they living in rented houses after joining carpet industry they became capable to have their own houses or not. Fig. 6.7 shows out of total workers, 27.96 per cent were highly agreed that their housing status has changed, 45.39 per cent workers agreed, 16.78 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 8.88 per cent disagreed and 0.99 per cent highly disagreed after joining work in carpet industry. In the block of Abholi 23.08 per cent were highly agreed, 50 per cent agreed, 19.23 per cent disagreed and 7.69 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.9).

172 Table 6.9: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Status in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 23.08 50.00 0.00 19.23 7.69 Aurai 125 26.58 54.43 0.00 18.99 0.00 Bhadohi 125 31.58 38.16 21.05 9.21 0.00 Digh 70 29.27 43.90 26.83 0.00 0.00 Gyanpur 80 22.73 36.36 36.36 0.00 4.55 Suriyawan 80 28.33 45.00 26.67 0.00 0.00 Total 550 27.96 45.39 16.78 8.88 0.99 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Status 2015

8.88% 0.99% 27.96% 16.78%

45.39%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig.6.7

173 Fig. 6.8

174 In the block of Aurai, 26.58 per cent were highly agreed, 54. 43 per cent agreed, and 18.99 per cent disagreed. In the block of Bhadohi, 31.58 per cent highly agreed, 38.16 per cent agreed, 21.05 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 9.21 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh 29.27 per cent were highly agreed, 43.90 per cent agreed, 36.83 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 22.73 per cent were highly agreed, 36.36 per cent agreed, 36.36 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 4.55 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.9).

e. Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Conditions

Impact on housing conditions means that, after joining carpet industry the conditions of houses changed or not. It means that, if they were living in kaccha houses and after joining the industry they capable to built pakka or semi pakka houses. As many as 28.62 per cent workers were highly agreed that, their housing conditions got changed after joining work in carpet industry, 37.17 per cent agreed, 28.95 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 4.93 per cent disagreed and 0.33 per cent highly agreed (Fig.6.9).

Table 6.10: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Conditions in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 26.92 46.15 23.08 3.85 0.00 Aurai 125 30.38 43.04 24.05 2.53 0.00 Bhadohi 125 28.95 43.42 11.84 15.79 0.00 Digh 70 29.27 29.27 41.46 0.00 0.00 Gyanpur 80 22.73 27.27 45.45 0.00 4.55 Suriyawan 80 28.33 26.67 45.00 0.00 0.00 Total 550 28.62 37.17 28.95 4.93 0.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015 In the block of Abholi, 26.92 per cent were highly agreed, 46.15 per cent agreed, 23.08 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 3.85 per cent disagreed. In the block of Aurai 30.38 per cent were highly agreed, 43.04 per cent agreed, 24.05 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 2.43 per cent disagreed (Table 6.10). In the block of Bhadohi, 28.95 per cent were highly agreed, 43.42 per cent agreed, 11.48 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 15.79 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh, 29.27 per cent were highly agreed, 29.27 per cent agreed and 41.46 per

175 cent were neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 22.73 per cent workers were highly agreed, 27.27 per cent agreed, 45.45 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 4.55 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 28.33 per cent were highly agreed, 26.67 per cent agreed and 45 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers on Housing Conditions 2015

4.93% 0.33%

28.62% 28.95%

37.17%

Highly Agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig. 6.9

f. Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Facilities

Toilet facility for its user is one of the most important factors of sanitation. The responses of the workers on the question that whether their toilet facilities increased after joining the work in industry of the order of that, 33.22 per cent were highly

176 Fig. 6.10

177 agreed, 23.68 per cent agreed, 9.87 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed, 32.89 per cent disagreed and 0.33 per cent highly disagreed ( Fig. 6.11).

Table 6.11: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Facilities in Houses in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 42.31 7.69 30.77 19.23 0.00 Aurai 125 39.24 15.19 27.85 17.72 0.00 Bhadohi 125 32.89 32.89 0.00 34.21 0.00 Digh 70 26.83 29.27 0.00 43.90 0.00 Gyanpur 80 27.27 22.73 0.00 45.45 4.55 Suriyawan 80 28.33 26.67 0.00 45.00 0.00 Total 550 33.22 23.68 9.87 32.89 0.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

In the block of Abholi 42.31 per cent were highly agreed, 7.69 per cent agreed, 30.77 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 19.23 per cent disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 39.24 per cent were highly agreed, 15.19 per cent agreed, 27.85 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 17.72 per cent disagreed (Table 6.11). In the block of Bhadohi 32.89 were highly agreed, 32.89 per cent agreed and 34.21 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh, 26.83 per cent were highly agreed, 29.27 per cent agreed and 43.90 per cent disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 27.27 per cent were highly, 22.73 per cent agreed, 45.45 per cent disagreed, and 4.55 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 28.33 per cent were highly agreed, 26.67 agreed, and 45 per cent were disagreed. g. Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Conditions

Fig. 6.13 shows that, carpet weaving workers were agreed that, after joining work in carpet industry toilet conditions were improved. As many as 50.99 per cent workers were highly agreed, 20.07 per cent agreed, 4.61 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 24.34 per cent disagreed. In the block of Abholi 26.92 per cent were highly agreed, 26.92 per cent were agreed, 3.85 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 42.31 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Abholi, 27.85 per cent were highly agreed, 30.38 per cent agreed and 41.77 per cent disagreed (Table 6.12).

178 Fig. 6.11

179 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Facilities 2015

0.33%

32.89% 33.22%

9.87% 23.68%

Highly agreed Agreed

Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Highly disagreed

Fig. 6.12

Table 6.12: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Conditions in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor workers disagreed Abholi 70 26.92 26.92 3.85 42.31 Aurai 125 27.85 30.38 0.00 41.77 Bhadohi 125 51.32 17.11 15.79 15.79 Digh 70 73.17 14.63 0.00 12.20 Gyanpur 80 59.09 13.64 4.55 22.73 Suriyawan 80 73.33 13.33 0.00 13.33 Total 550 50.99 20.07 4.61 24.34 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

180 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers on Toilet Conditions 2015

24.34%

4.61% 50.98%

20.07%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Fig. 6.13 In the block of Bhadohi, 51.32 per cent were highly agreed, 17.11 per cent agreed, 15.79 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 15.79 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh 73.17 per cent were highly agreed, 14.63 per cent agreed and 12.20 per cent disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur 59.09 per cent were highly agreed, 13.64 per cent agreed, 4.55 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 22.73 per cent were disagree. In the block of Suriyawan 73.33 were highly agree, 13.33 per cent agreed and 13.33 per cent disagreed (Fig.6.13). h. Impact of Income of Workers on Bathroom Conditions in Houses

Fig 6.13 shows bathroom conditions in houses of carpet weaving workers. As many as 30.59 per cent were highly agreed, 42.11 per cent agreed, 26.64 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 0.66 per cent disagreed.

181 Fig. 6.14

182 Table 6.13: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on Bathroom Conditions in Houses in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor workers disagreed Abholi 70 11.54 73.08 11.54 3.85 Aurai 125 15.19 69.62 13.92 1.27 Bhadohi 125 36.84 26.32 36.84 0.00 Digh 70 43.90 26.83 29.27 0.00 Gyanpur 80 31.82 31.82 36.36 0.00 Suriyawan 80 41.67 26.67 31.67 0.00 Total 550 30.59 42.11 26.64 0.66 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers on Bathroom Conditions in Houses 2015

0.66%

26.64% 30.59%

42.11%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Fig.6.15

183 Fig. 6.16

184 In the block of Abholi 11.54 per cent were highly agreed, 73.08 per cent agreed, 11.54 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 3.85 per cent disagreed that after joining work in carpet industry their bathroom conditions increased. In the block of Aurai, 15.19 per cent were highly agreed, 69.62 per cent agreed, 13.92 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 1.27 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.13). In the block of Bhadohi, 36.84 per cent highly agreed, 26.32 per cent agreed and 36.84 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Digh, 43.90 per cent were highly agreed, 26.83 per cent agreed and 29.27 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 31.82 per cent were highly agreed, 31.82 per cent agreed, 36.36 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan 41.67 per cent were highly agreed, 26.67 per cent agreed, 31.67 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed (Table 6.13). i. Impact of Income of Workers on Facilities of LPGs Cooking Fuel

Use of cooking fuel in domestic needs is important because it is one of the socio- economic indicators. A majority of workers responded positively when asked about increase use of LPGs with joining the work in carpet industry.

Table 6.14: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers on LPGs Cooking Fuel in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 42.31 26.92 26.92 0.00 3.85 Aurai 125 45.57 24.05 29.11 1.27 0.00 Bhadohi 125 13.16 52.63 14.47 19.74 0.00 Digh 70 0.00 0.00 29.27 70.73 0.00 Gyanpur 80 0.00 0.00 36.36 63.64 0.00 Suriyawan 80 0.00 0.00 31.67 68.33 0.00 Total 550 18.75 21.71 26.32 32.89 0.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Many of the workers informed that, before joining the industry their income levels were not enough to bear the cost of LPGs. Second cause for increased use of LPGs was as they used previously fuel collected from field i.e. dried leafs, dung cakes, wood and other fuels. The blockwise impact of carpet industry on use of cooking fuel (LPGs) was assessed on five point Likert Scale and respondents answered of the questions about the increased use of LPGs in cooking. As many as 18.75 per cent of

185 workers were highly agreed, 21.71 per cent agreed, 26.32 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed, 32.29 per cent disagreed and 0.33 per cent highly disagreed (Fig.6.17 and 6.18). In the block of Abholi 42.31per cent were highly agreed, 26.92 per cent agreed, 26.92 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 3.85 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 45.57 per cent were highly agreed, 24.05 per cent agreed, 29.11 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 1.27 per cent disagreed (Table 6.14). In the block of Bhadohi, 13.16 per cent were highly agreed, 52.63 per cent agreed, 14.47 neither agreed nor disagreed and 19.74 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh, 29.27 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 70.73 per cent disagreed (Table 6.14). In the block of Gyanpur, 36.36 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 63.64 per cent disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 31.67 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed and 68.33 per cent disagreed (Table 6.14).

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers on Facilities of LPGs Cooking Fuel 2015

0.33% 18.75% 32.89%

21.71%

26.32%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig.6.17 j. Impact of Carpet Industry on Health Conditions of Workers

Health condition is the only indicator among the selected indicators that have negative impact. The health conditions of workers are reportedly decreased while the time in industry increases.

186 Fig. 6.18

187 Table 6.15: Blockwise Impact of Carpet Industry on Deterioration of Health of Workers in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor disagreed workers disagreed Abholi 70 0.00 0.00 26.92 61.54 11.54 Aurai 125 0.00 0.00 31.65 67.09 1.27 Bhadohi 125 35.53 23.68 21.05 2.63 17.11 Digh 70 29.27 56.10 0.00 0.00 14.63 Gyanpur 80 22.73 59.09 4.55 0.00 13.64 Suriyawan 80 23.33 55.00 1.67 0.00 20.00 Total 550 19.08 28.62 16.45 23.36 12.50 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

Increased frequency of diseases is due to exposure with the wool extracts, particles of wool are carry dust that is harmful for respiratory system of the body of workers. A continuous sitting at stretch long hours is another cause of disease occurrence. An assessment of the impact on health conditions of carpet industry workers was done on five point Likert Scale. Many question were asked with the workers that, if they have felt an increase in disease with joining of carpet industry. Among respondents 19.08 per cent were found highly agreed, 28.62 per cent agreed, 16.45 per cent neither agreed nor agreed, 23.36 per cent disagreed and 12.50 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Abholi, there are 26.92 per cent workers who neither agreed nor disagreed, 61.54 per cent disagreed and 11.54 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 31.65 per cent were neither agreed nor disagreed, 67.09 per cent disagreed and 1.27 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Bhadohi, 35.53 per cent were highly agreed and responded that, after joining the industry they are suffering more with health problems, 23.68 per cent were agreed, 21.05 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed 2.63 per cent disagreed and 17.11 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Digh 29.27 per cent highly agreed, 56.10 per cent agreed and 14.63 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 22.73 per cent were highly agreed, 59.09 per cent agreed, 4.55 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 13.64 per cent highly disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan 23.33 per cent were highly agreed, 55 per cent agreed, 1.67 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 20 per cent highly disagreed (Fig.6.19)

188 Fig.6.19

189 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Deterioration of Health of Workers in Carpet Industry 2015

12.50% 19.08%

23.36%

28.62%

16.45%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig. 6.20 k. Impact of Carpet Work on Frequency of Disease Occurrence

Frequency of disease occurrence among carpet workers was reported by many of them, after joining the work in industry. Table 6.16: Blockwise Impact of Carpet Industry on Frequency of Disease Occurrence in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor workers disagreed Abholi 70 30.77 57.69 11.54 0.00 Aurai 125 30.38 56.96 11.39 1.27 Bhadohi 125 25.00 71.05 3.95 0.00 Digh 70 0.00 87.80 12.20 0.00 Gyanpur 80 0.00 81.82 18.18 0.00 Suriyawan 80 0.00 86.67 13.33 0.00 Total 550 16.78 72.37 10.53 0.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

190 Many workers responded variedly when asked whether they feel any increases in occurrence of frequency of diseases. As many as 16.78 per cent were highly agreed, 72.37 per cent agreed, 10.53 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 0.33 per cent disagreed (Fg.6.21). In the block of Abholi 30.77 per cent were highly agreed, 57.69 per cent agreed, 11.54 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 30.38 per cent were highly agreed, 56.96 per cent agreed, 11.39 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 1.27 per cent highly disagreed (Table 6.16). In the block of Bhadohi 25 per cent were highly agreed, 71.05 per cent agreed and 3.95 per cent neither agreed nor disagree. In the block of Digh, 87.80 per cent were agreed and 12.20 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur 81.82 per cent were agreed and 18.18 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan 86.67 per cent were agreed and 13.33 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed (Table 6.16).

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact Carpet Industry on Frequency of Disease Occurrence 2015

0.33% 10.53% 16.78%

72.36%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Fig. 6.21

191 l. Impact of Income of Workers on Drinking Water Facilities in Houses

Drinking water facility is very important factor of life. Workers were found satisfied with the facility of drinking water as it has improved very much after joining work in the industry. They have become capable to get connections with municipality tapes, subersibles or moter pumps. Workers responded variedly when asked about the improvement in water supply facilities in houses. As many 12.83 per cent were highly agreed that facilities of drinking water have got improved, 59.87 per cent agreed, 12.17 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 15.13 per cent disagreed (Fig. 6.22). In the block of Bhadohi, 88.46 per cent were agreed and 11.54 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 86.08 per cent were agreed, 11.39 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 2.53 per cent highly disagreed.

Table 6.17: Blockwise Impact of Income Workers in Availing Drinking Water Facilities in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor workers disagreed Abholi 70 0.00 88.46 11.54 0.00 Aurai 125 0.00 86.08 11.39 2.53 Bhadohi 125 28.95 52.63 10.53 7.89 Digh 70 14.63 43.90 12.20 29.27 Gyanpur 80 9.09 40.91 18.18 31.82 Suriyawan 80 15.00 40.00 13.33 31.67 Total 550 12.83 59.87 12.17 15.13 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

In the block of Digh, 14.63 per cent were highly agreed, 43.90 per cent agreed, 12.20 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 29.27 per cent disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 9.09 per cent were highly agreed, 40.91 per cent agreed, 18.18 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 31.82 per cent disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan 15 per cent were highly agreed, 40 per cent agreed 13.33 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 31.67 per cent disagreed. m. Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Two-Wheelers

Table 6.18 and Fig. 6.23 show the two wheeler owned by the workers in carpet industry. As many as 18.42 per cent worker in carpet industry were highly agree that,

192 Fig.6.22

193 after joining the they became capable to poses as two wheelers, 46.71 per cent were agreed, 25.33 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 9.54 per cent disagreed.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers in Availing Drinking Water Facilities 2015

15.13% 12.83%

12.17%

59.87%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Fig. 6.23

Table 6.18: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Two-Wheelers in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor workers disagreed Abholi 70 15.38 46.15 11.54 26.92 Aurai 125 15.19 45.57 11.39 27.85 Bhadohi 125 7.89 73.68 18.42 0.00 Digh 70 29.27 31.71 39.02 0.00 Gyanpur 80 22.73 27.27 50.00 0.00 Suriyawan 80 28.33 31.67 40.00 0.00 Total 550 18.42 46.71 25.33 9.54 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

194 In the block of Abholi, 15.38 per cent were highly agreed, 46.15 per cent agreed, 11.54 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 26.92 per cent disagreed. In the block of Aurai 15.19 per cent were highly agreed, 45.57 per cent agreed, 11.39 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 27.85 per cent disagreed. In the block of Bhadohi, 7.89 per cent were highly agreed, 73.68 per cent agreed and 18.42 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Digh, 29.27 were highly agreed, 31.71 per cent agreed, 39.02 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Gyanpur, 22.73 per cent highly agreed, 27.27 per cent agreed, and 50 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 28.33 per cent were highly agreed, 31.67 per cent agreed and 40 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed.

SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Two-Wheelers 2015

9.54% 18.42%

25.33%

46.71%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Fig.6.24

195 Fig. 6.25

196 n. Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Mobiles Table 6.19 and Fig. 6.29 show impact of carpet industry on owning the mobiles by the workers. As much as 66.78 per cent were highly agreed, 19.74 per cent agreed, 19.74 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 6.58 per cent disagreed about the increase in income to become capable for owning mobiles.

Table 6.19: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Mobiles in SR Nagar 2015

Neither Total Name of Highly agreed sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed nor workers disagreed Abholi 70 84.62 0.00 0.00 15.38 Aurai 125 83.54 0.00 0.00 15.19 Bhadohi 125 78.95 11.84 11.84 5.26 Digh 70 43.90 43.90 43.90 0.00 Gyanpur 80 45.45 36.36 36.36 0.00 Suriyawan 80 45.00 41.67 41.67 0.00 Total 550 66.78 19.74 19.74 6.58 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

In the block of Abholi, 84.62 per cent were agreed and 15.38 per cent disagreed. In the block of Aurai, 83.54 per cent were highly agreed and 15.19 per cent disagreed (Table 6.19). In the block of Bhadohi, 78.95 per cent were highly agreed, 11.84 per cent agreed, 11.84 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed and 5.26 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh 43.90 per cent were highly agreed, 43.90 per cent agreed and 43.90 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed (Table 6.19). In the block of Gyanpur, 45.54 per cent were highly agreed, 36.36 per cent agreed, 36.36 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan 45 per cent were highly agreed, 41.67 per cent agreed, 41.67 per cent neither agreed nor disagreed (Table 6.19). o. Impact of Income of Workers in Subscribing News Papers

Table 6.20 and Fig. 6.27 show the procurement of newspaper at houses by the workers. As many as 42.76 per cent were highly agreed that, after getting work in industry they capable to procure newspapers regularly. About 45.72 per cent were agreed, 11.18 per cent disagreed and 0.33 per cent highly disagreed.

197 Fig.6.26

198 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers in Owning of Mobiles 2015

5.83% 17.49%

59.18% 17.49%

Highly agreed Agreed Neither agreed nor disagreed Disagreed

Fig. 6.27 In the block of Abholi 42.31 per cent were highly agreed, 42.31 per cent agreed, 11.54 per cent disagreed and 3.85 per cent highly disagreed. In the Aurai 45.57 per cent highly agreed, 41.31 per cent agreed, 11.54 per cent disagreed and 3.85 highly disagreed (Table 6.20). In the block of Bhadohi, 48.68 per cent were highly agreed, 44.74 per cent agreed and 6.58 per cent disagreed. In the block of Digh 36.59 per cent were highly agreed, 48.78 per cent agreed and 14.63 per cent disagreed (Table 6.20).

Table 6.20: Blockwise Impact of Income of Workers in Subscribing News Paper in SR Nagar 2015 Total Name of Highly Highly sampled Agreed Disagreed block agreed disagreed Workers Abholi 70 42.31 42.31 11.54 3.85 Aurai 125 45.57 41.77 12.66 0.00 Bhadohi 125 48.68 44.74 6.58 0.00 Digh 70 36.59 48.78 14.63 0.00 Gyanpur 80 40.91 50.00 9.09 0.00 Suriyawan 80 36.67 50.00 13.33 0.00 Total 550 42.76 45.72 11.18 0.33 Source: Data collected through field work, May, 2015

199 Fig. 6.28

200 SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR DISTRICT Impact of Income of Workers in Subscribing News Papers 2015

0.33% 11.18%

42.76%

45.72%

Highly agreed Agreed Disagreed Highly disagreed

Fig.6.29

In the block of Gyanpur, 40.91 per cent were highly agreed, 50 per cent agreed and 9.09 per cent disagreed. In the block of Suriyawan, 36.67 per cent were highly agreed, 50 per cent agreed and 13.33 per cent disagreed.

All selected variables were analysed to examine the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions of workers. The workers responded that they were highly agreed that after joining in industry their income levels have increased. The increased income levels impact positively on socio-economic conditions. So, it infers that due to involvement in carpet industry increased income level which positively affected the socio-economic conditions of workers.

The analysis also revealed that the health conditions deteriorated as they were highly agreed that after joining in carpet industry they fell more health problems. So, instead of other positive impact, the health problem is major concern of workers in the carpet industry.

201 References

Rogers, B. (1994) Roles of the Occupational Health Nurse: Occupational Health Nursing Concepts and Practice, Saunders Publications, Calcutta, pp.48-64.

Armendáriz, B. and Morduch, J. (2010). The Economics of Microfinance, MIT Press, London.

202 Conclusion and Suggestions CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Carpet industry occupies an important place in the economy of the Sant Ravidas Nagar district. This industry as an economic activity has shown a glorious period during 1980s, and followed a slow down afterwards. The phase of globalization has adversely affected the demand of carpets and the growth of business, but the industry has survived due to its uniqueness and quality of carpets.

An intricate manner of carpet making engulfs a large population by generating employment to them. Carpet industry is very dynamic in character as it requires workers at different levels of work and at different stages of work in carpet making. It involves workers literates and illiterates, men and women, and youngsters and old age persons in carpet making, the work starts from designing work to final packaging of carpets. By generating many opportunities of work in carpet industry helps in raising family income and reduces dependency ratio. Earnings of workers in industry greatly influence the socio-economic conditions. Therefore, the present work is an attempt to take an in-depth study of socio- economic conditions of workers engaged in carpet making in SR Nagar district.

Present study is based mainly on primary source of data, collected through exhaustive field surveys in the district by asking direct questions with the workers. Field surveys were carried out during the month of May, 2015. Carpet workers responded number of enquiries pertaining to socio-economic conditions. The survey work was carried out in some selected carpet making units of six blocks of SR Nagar district. A total of 100 units were selected on the basis of stratified random sampling and a total of 550 workers were contacted to get information pertaining to their work and socio-economic conditions.

The chapter 1 entitled ‘The Sant Ravidas Nagar District: In Geographical and Socio-Economic Perspectives’ reveals that, the district has enrooted with a long history and possessed a significant position in view of historical and geographical perspectives. It has dealt with all aspects of socio-economic conditions in six blocks of the district, it shows a great disparity in socio-economic characteristics.

The chapter 2 entitled ‘Art and Designing of Carpet Weaving: An Overview of Growth and Development’ describes the art of carpet weaving. Carpet industry

203 contributes much in the economic growth and development in the country due to its export oriented nature and employment generation capacity. It further reveals that, carpet industry has experienced enormous ups and downs in growth and development since its evolution in the country as an economic activity.

The chapter 3 entitled ‘Carpet Industry and Workers: Literature Review’ reveals that, the carpet industry has been well discussed in literature with varied perspectives in the context of India and other countries of the world. The impact of carpet industry has been seen in aspects related to economic development, health and hygiene, child labour, women employment, etc. but there has been no attempt to show the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions of workers in the SR Nagar district.

The chapter 4 entitled ‘A Socio-Economic Profile of Carpet Industry Workers in the Sant Ravidas Nagar District, U.P.’ has discussed the socio-economic conditions of workers. Workers engaged in carpet industry were grouped into four categories on the basis of work they perform in carpet industry. These categories are (i) weavers (33.2 per cent), (ii) pre-weaving workers (26 per cent), (iii) finishing workers (14.5 per cent) and (iv) non-making workers (26.3 per cent). Data were further analyzed for aspects of such as: age group of workers, sex composition, religion and caste composition, educational levels of workers, monthly family income of workers, monthly expenditures of workers, housing conditions and sanitation conditions.

With respect to demographic characteristics, workers were categorized on the basis of age group. Most workers belonged to 31-40 years, with highest percentage of (34 per cent). Workers with an age group of below 18 years constituted 5 per cent, and within age group of above 60 years (1 per cent), were also involved actively in carpet industry. Sex composition of workers show males dominates consisting of 79 per cent, and females are 21 per cent in the district. A majority of females constituting 82 per cent were mostly engaged in finishing work.

Further, the religious composition of worker shows that both Muslims and Hindus are involved in this industry but Muslims are in majority consisting 83 per cent. The caste composition of workers has revealed that, the other backward classes (OBC) of workers were dominant (77.63 per cent) among all workers. As many as 79.61 per cent of workers were literates. Educational levels of workers were also considered, and it was found that a majority of workers (43.39 per cent) are educated upto middle

204 high schools and in very low percentage of workers (2.07 per cent) were post- graduates. An assessment of monthly income of workers revealed that Rs. 11,376 was an average monthly income of workers. Among workers, 55.26 per cent out of the total earned Rs.1001-5000. In contrast to it, study revealed that, the monthly family income of workers was relatively high. As much as 61.18 per cent of workers belonged to income group of below Rs. 10,000. Further, the expenditures of workers revealed that 47.77 per cent of income was spent on purchase of food items, 10.92 per cent on education, 8.36 per cent on health and 5.40 per cent on cloth. With regards to health conditions 78.62 per cent of workers reported health issues problems, most common ailment has been the joint pain (42.43 per cent). The study further dealt with the family size of workers, it was found that, a majority of workers (47.37) per cent have a family size consisting 6-8 members.

With respect to housing conditions of workers, 77.96 per cent live in their own houses whereas, 22.04 per cent live in rented houses and as much as 26.97 per cent live in kaccha houses, 29.61 per cent in pakka houses whereas 43.42 per cent live in semi pakka houses. Study further revealed that 78.30 per cent of workers have toilet facilities in houses. As much as 87.83 per cent have bathrooms in houses. Among them 30.71 per cent have roofed bathrooms whereas, 69.23 per cent were without roof. Availability of drinking water shows that, 59.54 per cent fetch drinking water from within the premises of houses, 63.49 per cent have installed municipal taps, 35.35 per cent have hand pumps, and 0.99 per cent have submersibles.

The chapter 5 entitled ‘Working Conditions of Workers’ deals with the working conditions for workers, such as the nature of work, joining the industry from the years, type of work, use of technology, working hours, distance of work place from a native house, pollution measures adopted at work place, and any other problem faced by workers at work place. The study shows that, 73.78 per cent were permanent in the units and 26.32 per cent seasonal workers. On the basis of joining of carpet industry, a majority of workers (41.78 per cent) joined the work 5-10 years ago. Further, it was also revealed that, 74.34 per cent of workers were skilled, and 25.66 per cent unskilled. Among the skilled workers, weavers were reported to be highest on percentage basis (97.03 per cent) in all categories of workers. With regard to working hours at work place, the highest percentage of 39.80 per cent of workers was who work for 8-10 hours. With respect to distance of work place from house of residences,

205 it is evident, that a majority of (44.08 per cent) workers have to cover a distance of 1- 3 km. from their homes to reach at the work place. The pollution measures adopted at workplace were also reported by workers. It was revealed that, 29.27 per cent of workers were working with units having pollution measures. Workers reported other problems in units such as: power cut, misbehavior by owners, low wages, long working hours, insecurity, and irregularity in work availability.

The chapter 6 entitled ‘Impact of Carpet Industry on Socio-Economic Conditions of Workers’ attempts to analyze the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions of its workers. This chapter has two parts, in first part it dealt correlation among selected variables. Correlation shows a strong association between X and Y variables. Variable X1(percentage of workers who are less than 50 per cent of family members involved in carpet industry) shows a positive and strong correlation with all (Y) dependent variables, but variable X2 (per cent of workers who upto 50 per cent of family members involved in carpet industry) shows a more strong correlation with all dependent (Y) variables. It shows that if there is an increase in percentage of family members involving in carpet industry, there will be positive increase in socio- economic conditions. The second part deals with the impact of carpet industry on socio-economic conditions by applying ‘Five Point Likert Scale’ and variables were tested on ‘Chronbach’s Alpha’. The analysis was based on 15 questions and the answers were recorded on five scales that are with reference to (i) agreed, (ii) highly agreed, (iii) neither agreed nor disagreed, (iv) disagreed and (v) highly disagreed. The analysis of variables shows that, the workers responded to all questions in between the scales of highly agreed and agreed. Responses of workers were that after joining the industry, the income levels have increased and thus, the impact is positive on socio- economic conditions of life. In a nutshell, they were having an opinion that, after involvement in carpet industry their socio-economic conditions have improved.

Problems and Suggestions

On the basis of analysis of data and interpretation of results, following critical points if taken into account as suggestions may help in improving socio-economic conditions of carpet industry workers.

1. Most workers complained about the inequality in wage structure from one unit to another for the same type of work. If a person working as a weaver in the block

206 of Bhadohi gets more remuneration than a weaver working in the block of Suriyawan. This disparity in payment of wages need due consideration and necessary corrections.

2. The workers of carpet industry also suffer from low wages problems. Low wage payment by the owner of the unit is a very common problem. So, the wage structure of workers should be fixed.

3. The workers of carpet industry in the district always face insecurity in jobs. As the business of carpets goes slow, the workers are forced to quit the unit, after go in search of another work. Therefore, most workers remain jobless for long months due to shortage of work in the units. So, a job security should be provided to them.

4. Carpet industry is an unorganized in nature that makes workers more sufferers. As their existence in the industry is not kept on records. Therefore, there should be a provision for unorganized workers to record their names in the unit, where they have worked. In this way they can get benefits from government schemes.

5. Technological advancements have been well taken in all industries, but carpet industry is still deprived. Though hand-knotted carpets prepared at Bhadohi in SR Nagar district are marvelous in weaved quality and design but, incapable to compete with the carpets weaved with the use of technology. Use of new technology in making carpets, finishing equipments for designing should be introduced.

6. Formation and effective functioning of Self Help Group (SHG) workers in carpet industry will certainly benefit them, particularly at a time of uncertainty in work participation.

7. Formation of workers’ union should be allowed and supported by the owners that will certainly help them to forward their grievances and problems to the local authorities and government.

8. Ignorance and reluctance among the workers were seen during interaction with them. Most of them are unaware about the labour rights, labour beneficiary

207 schemes launched by the state and central governments. All of these should be addressed to them.

9. Health care and accessibility to health care should be provided to workers. Many poor workers complained that, they cannot get advance payments for emergency needs (during their illness). Workers want to get help from owners, if they become ill during working period.

10. Many respondent women complained about the biased payment for the same work. They get less payment as compared with men for the same kind of work. Gender discrimination in wage payments should be avoided.

11. Women workers also desire to participate in work like weaving, washing, clipping etc. so, that a separate working space should be arranged for women.

208 Glossary GLOSSARY

Appliquéd : Decorate (a garment or larger piece of fabric) with pieces of fabric to form pictures or patterns

Axminster Carpets : A kind of machine-woven patterned carpet with a cut pile.

Chindi : Recycled Carpet

Dastur : Practice

Julaha : A caste that knows for weaving.

Kannauj : The city's name is a modern form of the classical name Kanyambuj

Khaddar : Khaddar soil are fine soil, light in colour, new alluvium and highly fertile.

Kaccha : Unmetalled

Naksha : Design

Namadha : Namda is the craft of making carpets by felting. This craft is said to have traveled to Kashmir from Iran.

Nyay Panchayats : A system of dispute resolution at village level in India.

Panchayats : A village council in India.

Pargana : Former administrative unit of the Indian subcontinent, used primarily, but not exclusively, by the Muslim kingdoms. pasyryk : The Pazyryk rug is one of the oldest carpets in the world, around 5th Century BC. The Pazyryk rug was found in 1949 in the grave of a Scythian nobleman in the Pazyryk Valley of the Altai Mountains in Siberia.

Pakka : Mettled

Pile : Pile is the raised surface or nap of a fabric, consisting of upright loops or strands of yarn

Panja : A comb like object used for hitting the knot yarns in order to other weave.

Safavid : The Safavid dynasty was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history.

209 Seljukes : The Seljuk Empire was a medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks.

Sanad : Sanad an official term used in Mughal administration expressing the authority, original or delegated, to confer a privilege, make a grant, give diploma and issue a charter or a patent. It is also a state recognised document granting on an individual or institution titles, offices, privileges, etc.

Sarkar : A man who is in a position of authority.

Shene : The asymmetric knot is tied by wrapping the yarn around only one warp, then the thread is passed behind the adjacent warp so that it divides the two ends of the yarn.

Taleem : A set of codes which craftsmen read while weaving carpets.

Zameendari : A landowner, especially one who leases his land to farmers.

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220 Appendix APPENDIX 1

QUESTIONNAIRE

IMPACT OF CARPET INDUSTRY ON SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITION OF ITS WORKERS: A CASE STUDY OF SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR (BHADOHI) DISTRICT, U.P.

(PART A)

1. Tahsil………………..Block…………………..Village/Town…………….

2. Ward no……………. Mohalla………….. House hold no……………….

General Information

3. Name of respondent………………age……………Male/Female

4. Religion……………caste………….category/BC/OBC/ST

5. Migratory Status: Migrant/Non migrant

6. Cause of migration (a)…………………………… (b)………………………..(c)……………………….

7. Place of birth: town/village……………. District…………….State………………

8. M/UM/W/WR/S………age at marriage………………………..

9. Literate/Illiterate , Level of education……………………

10. Cause of illiteracy (a)……………….. (b)……………….(c)………………

Working Condition

11. Profession…………………

12. Since how many years have you been working in this industry…………..

13. Nature of work: permanent/seasonal/daily wages………….Type of worker:Skilled/Unskilled

14. Trained/untrained, Training source………………………

15. Working in own shed: Yes/N…………………………No of family members working with you …………

221 16. Supply of finished products: Contractor/Company…………

17. If outside, where……………………………………..

18. Use of new technology while doing in this industry: Yes/No………..

19. What type of New technology ….………………….

20. No.of Working hours/day………………………….

21. No.of working days/month………………………..

22. Wage cut problem: Yes/No

23. What are the problems you face at your work: (a)…………..b)…………..c)………

24. Any aid provided by owner: Yes/No……….If, yes : (a)………..(b)………..(c)……..

Working Environment

25. Working place: open/roofed…………….proper ventilation: Yes /No

26. Use of Mask during work: Yes/No

27. Disposal of industry residual: municipal dustbin/open field/drainage/treated plant

28. Lighting facility at work place: satisfactory/unsatisfactor

Economic-Condition

29. Monthly Income………………..

30. Type of payment: Monthly/weekly/daily…………..

31. Mode of payment: Cash/Others……………..

32. Scale rate of payment: per piece/per hour/per knot/per day

33. Expenditure on: Food……….Clothing…………..Education………….Health…………… others…………

34. Other source of income……………..

35. Durable goods in your house: Fan/Cooler/Air Conditioner/T.V/Fridge/Mobile/Vehicle-Cycle, motorcycle, car etc.

36. Do you have you any debt: Yes/No…………

222 37. source of debt: Owner/bank/neighbor/relative/others

38. Having Ration card: Yes/No………BPL/APL

39. Do you have benefited with PDS system: Yes/No/regular/irregular

40. Do you fee food anxiety: Frequently/Seldom/Never

Housing -Condition

41. Living in own house/Rented/gov./others

42. Having proper ventilation in your rooms: Yes/No

43. Type of house: Kaccha/Pacca/Semi Pacca

44. Number of dwelling rooms………………

45. Having separate kitchen: Yes/No

46. Fuel for cooking: Wood/Coal/Kerosene/Heater/LPG/Goober gas

Health and sanitation condition

47. Latrine facility in house: Yes/No…………Type of latrine: public/private/open field/sewage/drainage

48. Having bathroom: Yes/No…….Enclosure with roof/enclosure without roof

49. Water supply: within premises/near premises/away…………..

50. Source of water supply: Tap water from treated source/Tap water from untreated source/Covered well/uncovered well/Hand pump/Tube well/Other

51. Nature of drainage: Open/closed/semi closed

52. Disposal of house hold waste: Municipality dustbin/open field/drainage

53. Bad habbits. if any…………………………………………….

54. Disease: General………………..Inflectional…………Chronicle……………Child disease

223 55. Family Table:

S.N Relation Age Sex Marital Educational Occupation Income Working Working status status /Month hours days/month /day

224 (PART B)

Questions to analyze the impact Neither of carpet industry on socio Highly Highly Agree agree nor Disagree economic condition of carpet agree disagree disagree workers 1 Increase in income (in Rs.) after joining the work in carpet industry. 2 Increase in debt level (in Rs.) after joining the work in carpet industry. 3 Increase in family educational level after joining the work in carpet industry. 4 Improvements in housing status with the purchase of house after joining the carpet industry. 5 Improvement in housing conditions (on the basis of built up of house) after joining the carpet industry. 6 Improvements in toilet facilities ( out/within premises) after joining the carpet industry. 7 Improvements in toilets( traditional/flushed) after joining the work in carpet industry. 8 Improvements in bathrooms ( roofed/unroofed) after joining the work in carpe industry. 9 Improvements in use of LPGs cylinders after joining the work in carpet industry 10 Incidence of an increase of health problems after joining the work in carpet industry 11 Incidence of occurring an increase of disease after joining the work in carpet industry 12 Any convenience of getting drinking water(from outside/or entitling own taping under water device) after joining the work in carpet industry 13 Any increase in getting more than one two wheelers after joining the work in carpet industry 14 Increase of the mobile facility at home after joining industry 15 Increase in access to newspapers etc. at home after joining the work in carpet industry

225 Plates Plate 1. Involvements of Women for unbinding and binding of raw wool before weaving of carpets.

226 Plate 2. Dying of raw wool and kept for drying in open space.

227 Plate 3. Involvment of male worker in weaving of hand-knotted carpet.

228 Plate 4. Involvement of male workers in weaving of tufted carpets.

229 Plate 5. After taking off carpets from the loom need be spread on ground to minimize the shrinking.

230 Plate 6. Washing of carpets needed after weaving in order to keep it shining.

231 Plate 7. More finishing work is needed even after washing of carpets.

232 Plate 8. Extra finishing work is needed in a repeated form in a weaved carpets.

233 Plate 9. Packing of carpets with plastic sheets for marketing

234 Plate 10. A scene of trade fare of carpets

235