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Altruistic Self

The Altruistic Self Nathan Dougherty Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences Abilene Christian University

Altruism as a purely naturalistic phenomenon self-defeats the term altogether; however, theology also makes unsubstantiated claims that some behaviors are purely selfless. I will first define various conceptual forms of and then offer explanations of the term from neurological, evolutionary and psychological investigations. Despite the position that altruism can be reduced to a fantastical impossibility bearing neither the arms of science nor theology, it is also a fallacy to separate it from a religiously derived supernatural altruism that carries no implications for the realm of morality.

Veined within the confused conflict for rudimentary manifestations of the term between science and , morality can be discussed via neurological, attempts to edify itself as cause to evolutionary and psychological disestablish evolutionary insights that tend investigations; whereas the case for literal to reduce humanity to products of chance altruism is reduced to a fantastical and fitness. Deeply associated with human impossibility bearing neither the arms of morality is the ambiguous concept of science nor theology, it is a fallacy separate altruism; there are arguments that attempt to from a religiously derived supernatural split its role between being a liberator of altruism and carries no implications for the evolutionary beliefs and a defender of realm of morality. religious infallibility. While science claims that altruism is a self-profiting, genetically Defining Altruism derived behavioral trait that has survived The term altruism must initially be environmental pressures, theology tends to divided based on varying intensities of effect view it as evidence of Godly influence that on the individual participating in behaviors denies humanity from being classified or actions. The first is that altruism is within phylogenetic clades. Considering unselfish concern or behavior promoting the these modifications to the concept of of another person/organism with altruism as an armament, it is necessary to absolutely no personal profit. This definition establish a clear understanding of what provokes discourse within philosophical and altruism is; its obscurity is that of a singular psychological categories, often inviting dialectal utterance that represents varying religious moralists to advocate for evidence ideas with immensely differing implications of its manifestation in radically selfless for ideological debates. The typical usage of actions such as in the case of fatal self- the concept of altruism within the scientific sacrifice. The second is that altruism is realm consequently self-defeats the term concern or behavior that promotes the altogether, while proponents of theological welfare of another individual/organism at beliefs make unsubstantiated claims that some personal cost. This more unrestricted certain actions or behaviors are purely view of the idea does permit some personal selfless. After clearly distinguishing the benefit for the participant, whether initially conceptual forms of altruism, explanations or with delayed return. A subset of this

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Altruistic Self definition is biological altruism, which idea is also synonymous with Hamilton’s specifies that the cost to the individual is a inclusive fitness theory in which fitness is reduction in reproductive capability. based on numbers of offspring individually produced and the behaviors that lead to Evolution of Altruism others of the same species producing With the tenants of survival of the offspring.3 This, however, does not explain fittest being ones of selfish competitive the existence of prosocial behaviors towards behaviors, the notion of biological altruism other individuals that are not relatives, or are ascends as a seemingly unacquainted trait. If different species altogether. Interspecies genes for altruistic behavior were selected altruism disestablishes the notion of similar via environmental pressures, it appears genetic material being the only motivation counterintuitive for altruism to be for altruistic behaviors, and introduces the propagating in a system built on self- idea of environmentally induced, mutually sustainability. At the core of natural beneficial, cross-species interactions that selection, genes are the immortal component could select for altruistic genes. of a biological lineage; selfish genes must The second theory is reciprocal altruism benefit generational inheritance whereas which may be explained more as a altruistic ones must hinder it.1 Dawkins sociobiological construct in which delayed proposes an explanation of altruistic cooperation exists to encourage altruistic behavior, however, as related to the idea of behaviors. With this insight, an individual selfish genes; by his theory, each individual enacts a behavior characterized by personal gene is a selfish component of an risk and associates it with a return of organismal vector. These vectors exist as personal profit from the other organism that survival machines and constitute a it interacted with. This makes altruistic genetically designed environment that is interactions increasingly more likely if assembled via cooperation within a gene delayed returns are consistent and have pool. Additionally, a gene is not a singular greater reward than the initial input. Thirdly, entity, but exists as copies of itself contained group selection theory establishes that the within these organismal vectors. The early days of hominids were ones of presence of altruistic genes (ones promoting competition over limited resources, and prosocial altruistic behavior toward other tribal affiliations arose with association to individuals) amidst selfish genes has the individuals requiring grouping to be more potential to self-profit all genes of the successful than other individuals, or to species if cooperation is occurring at the compete with other groups. Prosocial organismal level. behaviors within the groups would be Several evolutionary theories attempt altruistic while between-group interactions to explain the presence of altruistic genes in would be selfish and competitive. humans as products of successful fitness Individuals lacking genes that would dependent on cooperation.2 Firstly, the promote cooperative behaviors would not theory of kin selection coincides with produce offspring and consequently the Dawkins’ selfish gene theory in that these lineage would terminate. altruistic genes could have arisen via While these theories all suggest that cooperation between individuals with an ultimate selfish benefit surpasses any similar gene pools, such as relatives. This altruistic behaviors (regarding evolutionary

1 Dawkins, 1989. 3 Marshall, 2016. 2 Numan, 2015.

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Altruistic Self fitness), it is sometimes difficult to reconcile reduce the potential biomass in the certain behaviors within these explanations. ecosystem that the lioness could feed on; Steyn, a published travel journalist, captured that single infant will later become interactions between a lioness and a family reproductively capable and provide of baboons that seem to deviate from the exponentially more feeding opportunities. benefit-over-cost Hamiltonian formula. The From this aspect, it is possible that altruistic lioness killed a mother baboon that was prey-mercy toward infants is not a confusion carrying a single male infant baboon. While of instincts, but an evolutionary advantage beginning to devour her meal, the lioness over predators that would otherwise easily noticed the escaping infant. Instead of completely reduce their prey population a swift death, however, the lioness nurtured through non-selective killing and feeding. the baboon and acted as if pained by the The justification provided by circumstances.4 Her fitness was drastically population dynamics loses some stability reduced in this situation for numerous when a helper individual sacrifices personal reasons: 1) She ignored the mother baboon fitness to improve the fitness of a (meal); 2) she ignored the infant baboon (as competitor. An adult elephant has been a meal); 3) she violently rejected mating observed attempting to rescue an infant advances of two male lions (she possibly rhinoceros from a mire while being charged may have been defending the infant by the violent mother rhino.6 While baboon). Dawkins suggests that “unconscious From a sociobiology standpoint, the calculations” via an “unspecified protective actions of the lioness could be mechanism” manifest as compassion such as marked as confused maternal instincts by seen here, others suggest that “altruistic which the infant baboon in distress elicited a emotions of compassion, empathy and mistaken sympathetic response from her. generosity” may be the missing link, “even The failure of this hypothesis is that it if they serve ‘selfish genes’.”7 Emotion assumes that in this instance, the lioness has exists as a concept related to feeling that is a propensity toward being biologically unfit, often associated with the motivations of a which is unlikely considering that the mind; it is an element superseding genetic lineage of lions stretches back to the middle influences and residing rather in the Pleistocene (.8-1.0 Ma), and modern maned organismal attribute of consciousness. lions evolved from a single lineage 320–190 Masson and McCarthy discuss the tendency Ka ago.5 While the success of the lion rose for scientists to discourage the through cooperative group hunting in prey- anthropomorphizing of animals which reigns rich ecosystems (Serengeti), the resilience of from a denial of the influences of higher the species is notable within prey-scarce systems; these deserve as much attention ecosystems (Kalahari). The edicts of within the altruism debate as rudimentary, population dynamics provide that organisms selfish genes do. approach a carrying capacity based on the sustainability of their environment. In this Neurology of Altruism case, a population of predator lions is only Within human social systems, as successful in proliferating viable individuals often attribute literal altruism to offspring as its prey are numerous or acts of kindness; a prime example is helping available. Killing an infant baboon would a homeless person. Not only does this

4 Steyn, 2014. 6 Masson and McCarthy, 1995. 5 Yamaguchi et al., 2004.pp. 330, 338. 7 Ibid. p. 165.

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Altruistic Self assume that no genetic fitness is gained by altruistic, the psychosocial realm is the altruistically acting individual, but implicated in providing a selfish absolutely no personal benefit is received. reinforcement of this behavior. Advances in understanding of neurological systems can confidently map out empathic Psychology of Altruism responses within the brain that lead to Familiar within the psychoanalytical prosocial behaviors, such as this one. discussions are the manifestations of Studies have found that the anterior insula subdivisions of the mind: a tripartite of id, (AI) of the insular cortex is the epicenter for ego, and superego.11 Freud’s coined altruistic decision making.8 The AI has been terminology presents the mind as a selfishly- theorized to be a “sensory-related region” driven entity by which altruistic actions fit which “mediates emotional and empathic as similarly as they do into theories of experiences” whereas the anterior cingulate reciprocal altruism. The id is primal desire, cortex (ACC) is active with the AI and often for food or sex, with no regard for provides the for “motivated other individuals or for itself. The behaviors.”9 Finally projections onto the superego is considered the moral ventral pallidum (VP) from the nucleus component, but some advocate that it is accumbens and amygdala permit altruistic more in essence founded upon actions to occur via motor neuron output environmental factors; it is the subconscious from the VP. proponent of societally influenced norms or The complex theoretical circuitry expected behaviors, whether immoral or provides a feedback system that activates moral.12 The ego is the moderator between reward centers of the brain in association the two, which are often opposing entities of with plans or actions that are empathically the subconscious mind. derived from the AI; physiologically, a Considering a physiologically unbenefited reward of pleasure is self-produced from this individual acting altruistically (no process. This in turn denies that empathic neurological sensations of pleasure), actions actions derived from conscious motivation taken would still be influenced by this are truly altruistic if they provide a underlying psychological system. Avoiding neurological benefit to the individual. helping the individual amidst societal norms Evidence of the role of AI in empathic that promote altruistic behaviors as expected response appears in a study in which would make offense against the superego. individuals with lesions to this region had Carveth explains that the “role of difficulty identifying if people in pictures persecutory guilt (superego)” exists “as a (such as one with their toe being smashed defence against depressive guilt under a desk) were suffering or not.10 (conscience).”13 In this aspect, conscious Failure to empathize leads to a decrease in guilt would arise if no altruistic action was likelihood to act altruistically on feelings of taken. On the contrary proceeding with the motivation (considering they are not there at altruistic action deviates from a negative all or are limited). Despite this, if an psychosocial consequence, and fuels the individual with no empathic motivation (no desire of the superego; this in turn generates pleasurable neurological reward for altruistic permissibility of the ego to substantiate the behaviors) acts in a way that is perceived as selfish desires of the id. Thus, unconscious

8 Op. cit. ref. 2. 11 Heffner, 2016. 9 Ibid. p. 277. 12 Carveth, 2015. 10 Op. cit. ref. 2. 13 Ibid. p. 210.

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Altruistic Self aspects of an individual disestablish the advantageous state of reincarnation (a higher presence of literal altruism within the caste or a more affluent organism). actions of someone lacking a conscious Eventually, however, individuals reach a desire to act in a certain sacrificial or selfless prescribed level of Karmic advancement that way. allows them a meditative transcendence to obtain omniscient knowledge. In this, they Death and Altruism become like God and reabsorb into the Neurological and psychological Primal One (God) ceasing to exist theories establish that literal altruism is altogether, but also simultaneously merge obstructed by an inevitable profit to self; this into an all-encompassing, but transformed draws into question the nature of humanity existence. The dilemma that restricts literal which various philosophers have attempted altruism as being factualized here is that to delineate within the periphery of morality. from another aspect of this situation, the Thomas Hobbes proposed that the inherent transcending Hindu is simply selfishly selfishness of humanity was so evident that avoiding a cyclic rebirth that is characterized restrictive systems of government were by personal suffering by acting altruistically; necessary to avoid societal chaos. He this transcendence then falls more closely personally dealt with the scenario of a within the confines of reciprocal altruism by homeless man asking for alms in 17th which a supernatural component is the century London, which despite his views on reciprocating benefactor. This situation is the inherent selfish of mankind, he still identical to the individual lacking an anterior aided the man. When asked if he would still insula, who still acts selfishly at the root of have assisted him if governmental and prosocial behaviors as a mode of guilt societal restrictions were absent, he replied avoidance. that he would because giving alms “doth also ease me.”14 Hobbes provided insight Altruism in Christianity into the neurological interactions associated In response to Dawkins’ selfish gene with prosocial behavior centuries prior to theory, Hill notes the “tendency of discovery. He also proposed that the only sociobiologists to utilize reductionist escape for mankind’s “perpetual and restless thinking and not acknowledge the whole desire of power after power” was death. human person.”15 Dawkins’ reductionism Considering prosocial altruistic acts prevents the permissible existence of higher that lead to a fatal personal cost, the concept order systems differing from their of literal altruism is observed in a new light. constituent parts (selfish genes); this If the self dissipates from existence via ontological reductionism also leaves gaps actions that are altruistic, then selfish desire filled with suprascientific reasoning.16 One must also be absent from the action. Within such reasoning involves his proposal for the Hindu system, adherents face a delegating the teaching of behaviors that are personal reality that they are trapped with a unnaturally altruistic so as to improve the cyclic reincarnation characterized by quality of a world that is relentlessly selfish personal suffering. Here terminology of and brutal. This lack of logical reasoning good karma translates as positive instigates an unnecessary attack on accumulating consequences of altruistic theological beliefs, forcing both behavior which will lead to a more evolutionary and theology thinkers to

14 Quoted in Goleman, 2006.p. 59. 16 Hill, 2016. 15 Hill, 2016. 77.

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Altruistic Self definitively choose one incomplete and invites the belief in predestination since unsubstantiated over another. gene-influences, rather than free-will, are Similarly, it would be unacceptable for causation for all human behavior, including theological entities to impose a God-of-the- altruism, morality, and ethics. Despite this, gaps argument on evolutionists who are Calvinist thought on the image of God in considering theological beliefs. While humanity still incites a belief in purpose, as Dawkins’ insight into the selfish associated with these suprascientific components of genetic systems is concepts of right and wrong, that would not methodologically sound, his expansion of logically interlock with the restrictive reason onto higher-level systems lacks selfish-gene theory. perspective and logic that could permit It is upon these suprascientific Christian theologians to accept these gene notions that a more complex view of qualities as exclusively admissible within altruism is formed. John Polkinghorne evolutionary thought. explains that while “kin altruism and Imagining that Christians could reciprocal altruism are enlightening,” the accept an all-encompassing, genetic human ability to act altruistically in response selfishness as cause for all human behavior, to situations considered wrong “are facts including altruism, several biblical about the ethical reality within which we compromises of interpretation would be function as morally responsible persons.”19 made. In the realm of misinterpretation of Explanations for a potential supranormal scripture, however, it is devisable to believe altruism (outside biological constructs) are in part that reciprocal altruism and inclusive present within a “Trinitarian framework” fitness are the only needed explanations for that is dependent on a diety that is selfless behavior. If the selfish-gene is the “beneficent”.20 This view also relies on a sole motivator behind all prosocial behavior, third interpretation of imago Dei which it is impossible to accept the idea of divinely attributes altruistic behavior as the provided free-will. It would require a manifestation of God’s prosocial, Trinitarian reconstruction of interpretation of imago Dei identity within humanity;21 this is an which Augustine characterizes as amplification of Augustine’s interpretation humanity’s possession of “reason, or mind, rather than a conflicting view that derives or understanding” that grants a superior the motivation of altruistic behaviors from distinction from the rest of created life.17 an inherent purpose of community. While Since these characteristics are ones of Christianity identifies the singularity of the higher-order systems acting independently divine creator, the Triune of God, , and of selfish-gene influences, this interpretation the Holy Spirit fill different roles to of the image of God in humanity does not facilitate divine altruism as a behavioral coincide with selfish gene theory. influence in humanity. Calvinistic interpretation classifies the While God persists in this view as image of God under humanity’s benevolent and altruistic, Jesus exists as the conformation to “function” and “order” as to incarnation of God’s intended altruism fulfill the image of God, rather than the toward humanity. Dawkins’ invitation to “possession of powers of reason.”18 actively instruct rebellion against genetic Consequently accepting this position also selfishness is ironically exemplified by the

17 Quoted in Mahoney, 2011, p. 19. 20 Barrett, 2015. p. 30. 18 Mahoney, 2011, p. 20. 21 Mahoney, 2011. 19 Op. cit. ref. 17, p. 41.

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Altruistic Self incarnate divine altruism of Jesus; God’s glory.” Suffering indicates an altruistic image was embodied within a vessel with sacrifice as exemplified by Jesus, while both the permissibility of selfish genes, and glory is a reciprocal benefit in response to the divinity of supranormal altruism. Jesus the action. Delineations of right and wrong provided the exemplification of God’s within prosocial behaviors ascribe that desired purpose for humanity which was a altruism, with awareness of benefit, does not “major evolutionary step in the moral implicate immorality, but altruism with advancement of the human species.”22 The intent for benefit does. role of the Holy Spirit within Trinitarian altruism is to promote “inspiration of the Conclusion heart” or “moral inspiration” by which With altruism being a primary altruistic actions can be divinely conduit for Christian apologetics, it is influenced.23 Romans 8:5 implicates the important to correct indiscriminate presence of an alternating and conflicting applications of this concept by clearly of desires: ones “according to the flesh” and defining the roles of the self within altruistic ones “in accordance with the Spirit.” This behaviors. To promote that a morally message indicates a conscious abolition of derived form of altruism is one of complete desires originating from selfish genes in turn and literal sacrifice of self is to promote a for a supranormal altruism that is distinct contradiction against the existence of the from even psychosocial or environmental self; it also reduces morally derived self- influences altogether. sacrifice to an impossibility. If the proper The debate over the plausibility of acknowledgement of a realistic reciprocal literal altruism is not excused by altruism is accepted, then divine altruism relinquishing of personal desire in exchange emerges within theological systems as a for a supernatural one. An individual still means for prosocial interactions that do not must consciously pursue a selfish desire of eliminate morality via the presence of transcending inherent selfishness; reciprocal benefit. Similarly, while selflessness is limited by the existence of the Dawkins’ selfish gene theory self and logically, to be purely selfless, one methodologically advances understanding of would have to have never existed initially. some altruistic behavioral influences, it This debate aside, individuals confuse the ontologically reduces the complexity of association of selflessness (as a radically altruism to these small genomic elements. pure concept) with the status of morality. The consequence of this is a naturalistic From a Christian standpoint, “one does not fallacy that eliminates both the existence of have to be exclusively giving or refrain from more complex systems (brain, social any reciprocity to found in the divine order environment, psychology) and the potential of love.”24 This is evident as the apostle Paul for positive integration of religion and describes in Romans 8:16-`7 (NIV) that as science. “co-heirs with Christ… we share in his suffering so that we may also share in his

Literature Cited Barrett, P. (2015). The emergence of imagination and altruism in human evolution: Key elements in a new-style natural theology. Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 15329-45.

22 Ibid. p. 42. 24 Op. cit. ref. 16, p. 101. 23 Quoted in Barrett, 2015.p. 38.

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Carveth, D. L. (2015). The immoral superego: Conscience as the fourth element in the structural theory of the mind. Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis, 23(1), 206-223. Dawkins, Richard. (1989). The selfish gene. New York: Oxford University Press. Goleman, D. (2006). Social Intelligence: The revolutionary new science of human relationships. New York: Bantam Dell. Heffner, C. (2016). Freud’s structural and topographical model. Retrieved from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/ego/ Hill, Matthew N. (2016). Evolution and holiness: Sociobiology, altruism, and the quest for Wesleyan Perfection. Downer’s Grove: InterVarsity Press. Mahoney, J. (2011). Christianity in evolution. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press Marshall, J.A. (2016). What is inclusive fitness theory, and what is it for? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 12, 103-108. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.09.2015 Masson, J. M., & McCarthy S. (1995). When elephants weep: The emotional lives of animals. New York: Dell Publishing. Numan, M. (2015). Neurobiology of social behavior. San Diego: Academic Press. Steyn, P. (2014, Apr 3). Cat Watch. Retrieved from http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/04/03/baby-baboons-dramatic-encounter- with-lions-ends-with-a-heroic-twist/ Yamaguchi, N., Cooper, A., Werdelin, L., & Macdonald, D. W. (n.d). Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (Panthera leo): A review. Journal of Zoology (London), 263 (Part 4), 329-342.

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