Religious Identity and Political Modernity

LONG -DISTANCE NATIONALISM: PERSUASIVE INVOCATIONS OF MILITANT HINDUISM IN NORTH AMERICA DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Subhasree Chakravarty, B.A., M.A. The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Wendy Hesford, Adviser Professor Jim Fredal _______________________ Professor Hugh Urban Adviser English Graduate Program Copyright by Subhasree Chakravarty 2006 ABSTRACT My dissertation project seeks to address two distinct disciplinary lacunae. The first of these concerns the canon of “rhetorical studies” within the North American academy that has largely confined itself to Euro-American discourses. The second is the relative lack of rhetorical analysis within certain areas of South Asian studies, especially those concerning the development of immigrant subcultures and the rise of religious nationalism that have become such integral components of globalization, and have invited a spate of sociological, historical and political readings. “Long-distance Nationalism” will offer a sustained reading of persuasive strategies used by the diverse agents of religious nationalism within diasporic Hindu communities in North America. This project aims to bring a rhetorical perspective to the study of religion and religious politics, South Asian area studies, and to reorient the field of rhetorical studies to address transnational issues. My objective in this project is to illustrate how the Hindu Swayamsevak Sangha creates narratives of cultural identity to persuade its diasporic audience in ii foregrounding national sentiments that endorse exclusivist religious ideology. Specifically, this project raises questions concerning a) the invocation of a transnational Hindu identity b) the nature and representation of this identity in diasporic discourse and c) how such identities are employed in inciting religious nationalist responses. My study also attempts to provide a useful comparative dimension to an analysis of the nature of minority religious discourses in the US, simultaneously revealing patterns in the political rhetoric of religious revivalist movements across the globe. Although the definition of ‘rhetoric’ includes uses of language, written or spoken to inform or persuade an audience, the discipline conventionally has been preoccupied with a prescriptive approach, intending to teach through guidelines, a practical art of communication. The goal of classical rhetoricians was therefore to prepare one to speak in conformity within established rhetorical conventions. In my dissertation I challenge this prescriptive approach as its narrow definitions of ‘rhetoric’ results in the exclusion of ‘other’ rhetorical practices. Like arguments put forth by feminist rhetoricians for the insertion of women’s and marginalized voices into an otherwise monolithic and Eurocentric canon – I turn to rhetoric as both a discipline and a mode of inquiry to explore strategies that might be considered persuasive in India and among diasporic Indians, that would broaden the scope of the discipline. I argue that the rise of Hindu fundamentalist religious ideologies within the socio- political context of the modern, secular and socialist democracy of India is contingent upon strategic manipulation of cultural tropes like ‘myth’, ‘history’ and ‘time,’ which are already available within the archives of the national past. The manner in which these tropes are then transplanted and appropriated for the consolidation of religious iii nationalism within post-industrial, 21st century North American Hindu communities thus becomes an interesting rhetorical challenge, especially when the audience is mostly comprised of second-generation Hindu immigrants who are geographically removed from the nation in question. For instance, Balagokulam, a day-care center founded by the HSS is devoted to raise Hindu children in the image of Krishna by reconstructing the mythical abodes of Hindu gods. This ensures, the HSS state, a safe haven for young Indian- Americans who unfortunately, will never realize the sanctity of Hindu culture. Consequently, performative practices such as songs, yoga, meditation and indigenous martial arts, cultivated within the regulated atmosphere of the day-care center and other training camps organized for young adults, accommodate and adapt such narratives of ‘myth,’ forming powerful agents for the consolidation of communal identities. In these training sessions, the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are typically interpreted in terms of the monumental and decisive battles fought by Ram and Krishna in defense of their nation. Articulating the latent martial potential in every Hindu, the HSS instructors thus summon up feelings of militant nationalism so as to inspire their audience to perform such roles whenever their country and religion needs them. My study interrogates and adapts theories and methodologies from the disciplines of Rhetorical, Religious and Postcolonial Studies. While Rhetorical Studies asks how persuasion works to impact the audience (e.g., to establish authority, or inform) at any given historical and cultural moment, Religious Studies offers insights into the ways in which religion, politics and culture interact. Furthermore, contemporary readings on the rise of South Asian diasporic nationalism by postcolonial theorists investigate the psychological, cultural, political, and social effects of colonial rule both in the country of iv origin, and among its global diaspora. Such readings discuss the rise of Hindu nationalism in India and its influence in creating diasporic version of such nationalisms within the South Asian Hindu communities in the US. Drawing on the methods of the abovementioned theories I ask the following questions: a) How do the persuasive techniques implemented by the Hindu Swayamsevak Sangha expand common definitions of ‘rhetorical practices’, b) How do the mutually distinguishable tropes of cultural identity and religious belonging overlap in contemporary political discourse?, c) In what ways does religion invest specific human preferences as ‘transcendental’ and make it a necessary motif of identity for its followers? d) What ‘imperatives’ drive diasporic individuals to conduct trans-national religious movements, and to what extent are these ‘imperatives’ rhetorically constructed? Written in response to a ‘lack’ of representation of non-western rhetorical practices within the discipline of Rhetorical Studies, my dissertation introduces marginalized ‘voices’ to broaden the scope of the discipline. At the same time, it raises concerns about the possibilities of secular democratic pluralism in a multi-ethnic, multi- religious postcolonial nation like India, that have recently witnessed a significant rise in exclusivist religious movements. Revealing that such movements are contained neither economically nor territorially within the confines of a single nation, this project explores the future of secularism in the face of recent trends of religious principles informing the nature of political systems and governance. v Dedicated To the victims of religious riots in the Indian states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradhesh and Bihar (1990 – 2002). vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Deciding to join a Ph.D program in English was significant for me, but to remain loyal to that decision for four years emerged as a more daunting task. This process from admission to graduation was an eventful, enriching, spiritual and material quest. It was fraught with good and bad times, transnational movements, marriage and settlement into a diasporic life. In this journey, I was blessed with the companionship of wonderful friends, colleagues, committee members and family. It is now time to take a few moments and look back at those contributions without which this dissertation would have never been written. First and foremost, I wish to thank my adviser, Dr. Wendy Hesford for her support and enthusiasm in me and my project. Her interest in my project that started even before I decided to join OSU never fluctuated and she will forever remain as a guide who made me see Rhetorical Studies in a novel way. I am also grateful to my other committee members Dr. James Fredal and Dr. Hugh Urban for their involvement; Jim for showing me the deep parallels between classical texts of diverse cultures and Hugh for opening up new vistas in South Asian religious scholarship that I would have scant chance of being associated with otherwise. I would also like to thank Dr. Nan Johnson for teaching me how to be a rhetorical critic and I admit she is the best rhetorician I have ever seen. The vii courses I took at OSU helped me in more than one way to shape my thoughts on this project, as such I am indebted to the scholarships of Dr. Margaret Mills, Dr. Nina Berman and Dr. Beverly Moss. A special thanks to Kathleen Gagel Griffin, who has assisted me wholeheartedly during this incredible job of application to graduate and dissertation submission across national borders for the past one year. I cannot thank her enough for being so patient and understanding. Without my friends, all the zeal of this accomplishment would seem meaningless. Nothing would have been as it is without Biswajit, Nandhu, Sandeep, Amy, Nancy, Ivonne, Mike, Somali, Deba, Daniel, Wendy, Don, Susan, Grace, Phanuel, Andrew, Karen, Arju, Manjit and Paramjit. It is their encouragement and faith in me that had kept my project alive. Finally, I am indebted

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