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Empire, Race and War: Black Participation in British Military Efforts During the Twentieth Century Loyola University Chicago Loyola eCommons Dissertations Theses and Dissertations 1998 Empire, Race and War: Black Participation in British Military Efforts During the Twentieth Century Michael Scott Healy Loyola University Chicago Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Healy, Michael Scott, "Empire, Race and War: Black Participation in British Military Efforts During the Twentieth Century" (1998). Dissertations. 3738. https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/3738 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Loyola eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Loyola eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. Copyright © 1998 Michael Scott Healy LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHICAGO EMPIRE, RACE AND WAR: BLACK PARTICIPATION IN BRITISH MILITARY EFFORTS DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY MICHAEL SCOTT HEALY CHICAGO, ILLINOIS MAY 1998 To Joanne .: .. Copyright by Michael Scott Healy, 1998 All rights reserved. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I . INTRO DUCT I ON ..................................... 1 II. RACIAL SUPREMACY AND MILITARY POLICY ............ 25 III. THE PERCEIVED UTILITY OF BLACK COLONIAL TROOPS .......................................... 63 IV. THE CARIBBEAN REGIMENT IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR: A CASE STUDY OF RACISM AND BRITISH MILITARY POLICY ......................................... 114 V. BLACKS IN THE BRITISH FORCES, 1689 TO 1914 ..... 161 VI. BLACKS IN THE BRITISH FORCES, 1914 TO 1939 ..... 191 VII. BLACKS IN THE BRITISH FORCES DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR ...................................... 219 VIII. OLD PATTERNS AND NEW REALITIES IN THE BRITISH FORCES ......................................... 255 CONCLUSION .............................................. 282 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 286 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This dissertation is a study of how racial prejudices and stereotypes influenced Britain's utilization of Black military personnel from 1660 to 1997, with an emphasis on the twentieth century. In addition to the economic, strategic, and local causes of British imperialism, the idea of European, or "White," racial supremacy and Black inferiority helped to justify the empire to the government that ruled it, the bureaucrats who administered it, and the subjects, Black and White, who financed its exploration, military conquest, and economic exploitation. Throughout the empire, British authorities utilized Black colonial forces to augment the crown's military power and, logically, the same stereotypes and prejudices against Black peoples in general informed Britain's policies regarding Black military personnel in particular. I. The Role of Black Colonial Troops In India, Africa and the West Indies, British authorities found that "native" troops proved cost effective because they could better survive their own climate than 2 foreign-born and generally higher paid White troops. In 1920, the War Office listed the three purposes for which colonial forces existed: (i) For the protection of the area administered by local Government maintaining the Force, or certain vital portions of it, from external aggression. (ii) For the support of the Civil Power in the maintenance of law and order, including, in many cases, the protection of the White population from possible violence at the hands of the natives. (iii) Assistance in the defence of the Empire as a whole in time of war by providing units, either existing or produced by expansion.1 In addition to assisting Britain to control many lands and peoples, Black colonial troops significantly augmented British military strength in the major conflicts of the twentieth century. In the First World War, the empire raised the following numbers of troops (Table 1): 1 P.R.O. C.O. 537/621. "Local Defence Forces: Military Considerations regarding their Composition and Organization," 6 November 1920. 3 Table 1. Manpower Contributions to the Imperial War Effort. Dead White Empire United Kingdom 5,704,416 662,083 Dominions 1,306,512 137,639 White Totals 7,010,928 759,722 Black Empire India 1,440,437 47,746 Colonies 134,837 3,649 Black Totals 1,575,274 51,395 Imperial Totals 8,586,202 811,117 Source: Figures from Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914-1920 (London: His Majesty's Stationary Office, 1922), 756. In the Second World War, the United Kingdom's armed forces grew to 4.6 million soldiers, sailors, and airmen and those of the Dominions 1.5 million. Meanwhile, India raised 2.5 million soldiers, probably the largest volunteer army in history. 2 The "Colonial Empire" proper, which included the African and West Indian colonies, contributed another half million soldiers (Table 2): 2 F.W. Perry, The Commonwealth armies: Manpower and orginisation in two world wars (New York: Manchester University Press, 1988), 117. 4 Table 2. Colonial Forces in the Second World War. Strengths as of : 1 September 1 May 1939 1945 East Africa 11,119 227,864 West Africa 8,412 145,862 Mediterranean 1,441 17,732 Middle East 1,742 27,052 Far East 15,227 26,228 Fiji and Western Pacific 681 11,912 Caribbean and Bermuda 4,162 9,921 Mauritius and Seychelles 263 4,943 St. Helena 0 266 Falklands Islands 255 194 ---·····-·----· ............ __________________ _ Colonial Empire Totals 43,302 471,974 Source: P[ublic] R[ecord] O[ffice] CAB. 21/1689. E.E. Sabben-Clare, "The Colonial Military Forces in the Second World War," 1947. A glance at the preceding figures reveals the numerical extent of Black involvement in Britain's military efforts, but the nature of that service reflected prevailing British attitudes concerning race. To summarize, in the Great War, Britain's Indian troops fought in Egypt and Mesopotamia against the Turks, in Salonika against the Bulgarians, but only briefly in France against the Germans. African colonial troops fought in the Cameroons and Tanganyika against German colonial troops, but not in Europe. In the Second World War, several Indian infantry divisions, with large British components, fought throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean theaters as well as in Burma against the 5 Japanese. Meanwhile, African combat troops fought in Ethiopia against the Italians and in Burma against the Japanese but were excluded from the European theater. In both world wars, a majority of the Indian, African and other colonial soldiers deployed outside their home colonies served as military laborers, or pioneers, behind the battle lines in the Middle East and South East Asia. In addition to serving in separate colonial military forces, individual Blacks have formed a small and usually unwelcome proportion of the British Army, Royal Navy, and Royal Air Force. It is contended here that the British Empire's non-European manpower served in secondary or limited roles primarily as a consequence of British sentiment concerning race. II. Terms The term "race" has varied in its meaning, from a single ethnic group, e.g., "the Irish race," to the peoples inhabiting an entire continent, that is, "the African race." The complex evolution of British scientific thought on race will not be retraced in detail here; "race" will refer to skin color and its cultural attributes within the context of common British perceptions. In British eyes, the many peoples of Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean certainly differed physically and culturally from each other, but they shared one crucial link: they were not "White," and, thus, 6 lacked the primary qualification needed for political autonomy. The all-encompassing term "Black" will identify non-White British citizens, subjects, and protected persons of Asian, African and Afro-Caribbean descent. This usage follows a trend among scholars and British community groups to denote a social category within the British historical 3 experience , and largely supplants the negative and cumbersome device, "Non-European," as well as the tedious and repetitive listing of the various ethnic groups comprising the population of the British Empire. "European" and "White" will be used interchangeably because, in colonial settings, the recognition of variation in European nationalities gave way to the dichotomy between White and Black. "European" and "White" were used more often than "British" or "Briton" by British military and civilian officials to identify a person from the United Kingdom. The term "colonial troops" will refer to those military forces raised in Britain's overseas possessions and 3 See, for example, Laura Tabili "We Ask for British Justice: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Imperial Britain (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994) and David Killingray, "All the King's men?" Blacks in the British Army in the First World War, 1914-1918," in Ranier Lotz and Ian Pegg, eds., Under the Imperial Carpet: Essays in Black History (Crawley: Rabbit Press, 1986); See also, Wellingborough District Racial Equality Council, "National Curriculum History: Possible Black History Themes," a recent pamphlet prepared for school teachers. 7 administered by local colonial authorities, including India. 4 "Regular," "imperial," and "the forces" will denote the permanent full-time armed forces (the British army, Royal
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